BLOOD & MUD: THE NAVAL HOSPITAL AND UNDERWATER ARTIFACTS, ENGLISH HARBOUR, ANTIGUA

Desmond V. Nicholson

ABSTRACT

This paper is intended to encourage developers of historic areas to carry out archaeological master plans to evaluate the potential of sites before development commences. As is well known to archaeologists, but not to many developers, buried remains can greatly enhance the interpretation of a site or park. Individual artifacts salvaged from developments at Antigua's unique Georgian Naval Dock­ yard of the late British Empire at English Harbour are discussed and interpreted. These artifacts are specifically from the c.1790 Naval Hospital and others were dredged from the mud of the har­ bour. It is hoped the paper will be of value to Caribbean archaeologists in reporting types of artifact found at a British 18th century naval yard and naval hospital.

RESUMEN

Esta ponencia tiene el propósito de estimular entre los desarrolladores de zonas históricas el interés de realizar planes maestros que incluyan la evaluación del potencial arqueológico de los sitios antes de comenzar la construcción. Es bien conocido para los arquólogos, pero no para los desarrolladores, la importancia que tienen los restos enterrados en la interpretación de un sitio o un parque. Se discuten e interpretan artefactos individuales rescatados de los desarrolladores en el Astille­ ro Naval Georgiano del Imperio Británico localizado en English Harbour, Antigua. Estos artefac­ tos provienen del Hospital Naval circa 1790, y otros fueron dragados del cieno de la bahía. Espera­ mos que la ponencia sea de valor para los arqueólogos caribeños en el informe de los tipos de artefactos que se encuentran en un astillero y un hospital naval inglés del siglo 18.

RÉSUMÉ

Ce mémoire est destiné à encourager les promoteurs immobiliers de lieux historiques à mettre sur pied un plan d'ensemble archéologique en vue d'évaluer la richesse des sites à l'encontre des

45 46 DESMOND V. NICHOLSON archeologistes, peu de promoteurs reconnaissent l'importance des vestiges enfouis et leur apport à la connaisance des lieux. Un certain nombre d'objects retrouvés durant le development du 18eme siècle "Naval Dockyard of English Harbour, Antigua" sont ici etudes et interprétés. Ces objects proviennent des excavations de l'hôpital naval essentiellement circa 1790 et du dragage du port. J espère que cette etude, en décrivant les différents types d'objects retrouvés dans un arsenal anglais actif entre 1725 et 1889 et sur Remplacement d'un ancien hôpital naval du 18eme siècle, soit de quelque intérêt pour les archeologistes des Antilles.

KEYWORDS: Historical archaelogy, Historic sites, Naval History, Antigua. ARCHAEOLOGICAL MASTER PLANS

Developers usually ignore the fact that buried archaeological remains can greatly enhance a development site through better historical interpretation. Few of the smaller islands of the Eastern Caribbean realize the value of their heritage sites, and have not drawn up master plans to protect their archaeological heritage. According to I. Noël Hume of Colonial Williamsburg:

"One needs a master plan which first evaluates sites and then determines what one would like to do with them. Thereafter, one arrives at a more sober determination of what one can afford to accomplish and how doing so will benefit the nation ... If one has a master plan, then it is possible to see how other unrelated developments can be fitted into it or around it"... [Through not having a master plan] "I have seen the mutilation of potentially valuable tourist attractions and invariably, the belated cry has been: we wish we had not permitted this to happen; but at the time the economic advantages to be gained by giving licenses and contracts to private developers seemed more desirable than preserving old ruins [and archaeological sites]". (Personal Commu­ nication).

This paper show that even artifacts salvaged during excavation for construction can be of some heritage value, but had there been an archaeological master plan and proper excavation, so much more information could have been obtained for better historical interpretation of the area.

SALVAGE EXCAVATIONS AT ENGLISH HARBOUR

(a) The Naval Hospital

The naval hospital midden was discovered when a bulldozer was preparing a private house site overlooking English Harbour, under the brow of Hospital Hill. To clear the bush, a layer of approximately 20 cms of soil was removed exposing a few artifacts and faunal remains. Unfor­ tunately there are no antiquity laws in Antigua, so the site was destroyed next day, without proper scientific investigation.

(b) The Tank Bay Shoreline

HEAPS OF MUD At about the same time, a minor dredging operation was being carried out approximately 100 m. along the shore of an inner arm of English Harbour known as Tank Bay, so named because of a 1732 water cistern at its head. A pier was being built for a new

47 48 DESMOND V. NICHOLSON police station and dredging with a grab crane was in progress. In the mounds of mud deposited ashore many interesting artifacts were recovered and together with those found at the hospital, help enhance the historical sources concerning the history of English Harbour.

BACKGROUND HISTORY

(a) The Naval Yard (Fig. 1)

English Harbour was used as a safe harbour for careening and carrying out general mainte­ nance work on warships of the British Navy from the last quarter of the 17th century. However, the first buildings were not erected until about 1725, when the harbour became a Royal Dock­ yard. About 1745, the Naval Yard was expanded to the west side of the harbour and other ancilliary facilities were built, (Fig. 1). The Yard's growth and importance climaxed about 1775 and lasted until around 1810, the height of the Napoleonic Wars. From 1815, the Yard was gradually cut down in size, and the Navy finally left in 1889.

(b) The Naval Hospital

The hospital was built about 1745, when the Yard was being greatly expanded, (Fig. 2). The earliest reference to the hospital was in 1745, when 17 injured men from the warship COMET, were taken to the St. John's Hospital, because the Lascelles Hospital at English Harbour was too far (Crewe 1978). OPERATED BY CONTRACT The following quote shows that the hospital was operated under civilian contract as this order was made to an Agent-Victualler: "When Rear-Admiral Rodney, then naval Commander-in-Chief of the Leeward Islands Naval Station (1761-1763), visited English Harbour in 1762, all his sympathies were aroused by the sick seamen whom he saw tottering and sometimes crawling up the hill to the hospital in the hot sun, the Agent- Victualler was ordered to keep a carriage with a cover in constant readiness for their convey­ ance" (Spinney 1969:27). The first person to hold the Agent-Victualler contract was a Mr. Lascelles, as can be seen from the previous 1745 mention of men being moved to the Lascelles Hospital at English Har­ bour. During the War of American Independence, English Harbour was not much used because the fleet was active elsewhere. A very poor opinion was held of it's hospital at this period; it was known as a "grave of Englishmen". "[English Harbour] was little better than Port Royal, Jamai­ ca, because there was no shade, too much drink and too many women: these temporary wives not only debilitated and diseased the men, but too often procured them rum in exchange for their provisions, bedding and clothes" (Lloyd & Coulter 1960:135). Orders for permanent hospital buildings at Antigua and Barbados were issued in 1780, as the original ones had been demolished in a hurricane of 1772. Not much progress seems to have occurred until 1789, when plans were drawn for the hospital (Admiralty Records [ADM] 140-1220/8), and estimates made. The midden disturbed by recent bulldozing appears to have commenced about the time of the new hospital, according to calculations using the formula developed by Stanley South (South 1972:71, South 1977:201 ), (see Fig. 3) and tested by the author for Caribbean sites (Journ. of the V.I. Arch.Soc. 1979 #7:32-74). Fig. 3. 1,046 sherds were collected from 27 types, (see Table 1). THE PATIENTS - During the War of American Independence the hospital took in 6,099 patients of which 914 died, about 1 in 6, an average ratio compared with New York 1 in 9 and Barbados 1 in 4, (Lloyd & Coulter 1960:136). ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 49

TYPE*CERAMIC TYPE RANGE MED.DATE COUNT

6 Mocha c.1796-1890 1843 2 11 Transfer Printed Pearlware c.1795-1840 1818 173 10 Willow Pattern Transfer Pearlware c.1796-1840 1818 16 9 Embossed feathers, fish scales c. 1800-1830 1810 6 8 Finger-painted Pearlware c. 1790-1820 1805 5 12 Underglaze Polychrome Pearlware c.1797-1815 1805 38 19 Blue & Green Shell-edge Pearlware c.1780-1830 1805 47 20 Undecorated Pearlware c.1780-1830 1805 42 17 Underglazed Blue Hand-painted Pearlware c.1780-1820 1800 38 14 Annular Wares, Cream & Pearlware c.1780-1815 1798 39 15 Lighter Yellow Creamware c.1775-1820 1798' 202 18 Overglaze Enamelled Creamware c.1765-1819 1788 1 21 Defaced Rouen Faience c.1775-1800 1788 2 27 Black Basalt Stoneware c.1750-1820 1785 1 32 Pedestal Footed Plain Delft Ointment Pot c.1730-1830 1780 4 24 Debased Scratched Blue White Saltglazed c.1765-1795 1780 44 25 Deeper Yellow Creamware c.1762-1780 1771 16 40 White Saltglazed Stoneware c. 1720-1805 1763 33 43 White Saltglazed Stoneware Plates c.1740-1775 1758 3 49 Decorated delft c.1700-1800 1750 2 47 Buckley ware c.1720-1775 1748 13 56 Lead glazed Slipware c.1670-1795 1733 2 26 Overglazed Enamelled Chinese Porcelain c. 1660-1800 1730 2 41 Underglazed Blue Chinese Porcelain c. 1660-1800 1730 1

TYPES OF UNKNOWN DATE Brown Stoneware of several types 183 Red-bodied lead glazed (Ginger brown) coarse earthenware 125 Miscellaneous 6 GRAND TOTAL 1,046 •Denotes Stanley South type number (South 1977). Tabla 1. The types and counts with ranges and median dates of the ceramics collected from the hospital midden.

When a patient contracted an infectious disease or died, clothes and uniforms were boiled or burned. One of the more important finds in the midden, where uniforms were undoubtedly destroyed, was an 8th West India Regimental shaker (large cap) badge, (Fig. 4), indicating the presence of African-Caribbean patients at the hospital. Another artifact was a brass jug that had caused a dry area underneath. This had enabled some clothing material to be preserved as it had adhered to the verdigris formed on the jug. Many buttons were found in the hospital midden, giving information on who used the hos­ pital. Among these were buttons used by Captains, Lieutenants and Midshipmen (1812-1820) and buttons variously bearing fouled anchors and plain anchors, typical of buttons used by officers of the lower deck. A British army button of the 11th Regiment, of a type used from 1797-1812, was collected. This Regiment was stationed at Fort George, Monk's Hill in 1805 (Jane 1981). Several French buttons were found (Fig. 5), indicating that wounded prisoners were brought to the hospital. The French 66th Regiment was defeated at the Iles des Saintes, Guadeloupe, in April 1809, and about 750 prisoners were taken. It seems some found their way to the English Harbour Hospital. In January 1791, a problem was reported: alcoholic beverages were entering the hospital. 50 DESMOND V. NICHOLSON

To counteract this, the Naval Officer was ordered to plant a prickly pear cactus fence around the premises "to prevent spirits and liquor being conveyed to the patients", (Antigua Navy Yard Correspondence [ANYC] 1.4.1791). This problem can certainly be proved archaeologically, for a large assemblage of wine and other bottle necks were collected, many with seals attached. There were 58 bottle necks, 32 with seals, 21 seals alone, 61 bottoms and 34 other fragments making a total of 206 pieces, (Fig. 6). Case bottles are square sectioned, designed to fit snugly packed in a case, often known as Gin Bottles.,Collected were 3 mouths, 10 bases and 4 fragments, (Fig. 7). The "GR" on a bottle seal stands for "Georgius Rex", King George III, and the arrows denote government, but in this case, military ownership. Known by the working class as the "devil's claw", as a person found with any item thus marked in his personal possession could be con­ victed (Fig. 8). The seal marked "W.W." belongs either to William Whitehead, the Agent-Victualler, or to William Wilkinson, his associate. Two nearly whole brown ceramic bottles were found and were marked "W W R' Nv' Hosp" (Fig. 9). The "W.W." marks connect with the following story. When Capt. Horatio Nelson served in Antigua in 1787, William Whitehead, merchant in St. John's town, was Agent-Victualler to the Royal Naval Hospital in partnership with two other merchants. The partners hoping for a 15% commission, exposed vast frauds perpetrated by Whitehead against the Antiguan Customs. These frauds were reported to the Senior Naval Of­ ficer, Capt. Nelson. With his characteristic energy and enthusiasm, Nelson set to work reporting Whitehead's fraudulent activities. However the results were disappointing as no conviction was made. The peculators were too influential and powerful, and succeeded in impeding an enquiry and even having Wilkinson lodged in jail. No proceedings were ever taken against Whitehead, the Agent for the Hospital, yet one can imagine what would have happened to an ordinary man found with an item marked with the "devil's claw" in his possession. ARCHAEOLOGY AND LEISURE TIME By 1804, during the height of the war, Dr. Cole reported there were too many invalids at the hospital and requested they should be sent home. Archaeology has told us of the invalids' pastimes. A flattened iron ring of the same dimensions (10 cms O.D.) as the ancient game of quoits has been found; a game similar to the American game of throwing horse-shoes. Another pastime was the playing of music with Jew's harps, for remnants of these were found, as were counters fashioned from broken china, for playing draughts. Another occupation was the making of bone disks as forms for cloth buttons. Many of these single-holed disks have been found, as well as exhausted bone blanks from which the button disks were drilled. The hole centred a cutting tool similar to the carpenter's bit and brace (Fig. 10). Twenty-six pipe bowls for smoking tobacco were found and were recently identified by Mr. David Anderson, an expert from London, England, (Figs. 11 & 12). REMEDIES AND DIET- Early in the Napoleonic wars, hospitals in the Caribbean had a poor reputation, particularly the ones at English Harbour and Jamaica's Port Royal. To im­ prove matters, additional supplies were recommended - of antiscorbutics (lime juice), malt and cream of tartar, and also of bark, calomel, opium, mercury, rhubarb, camphor, magnesia and ipecacuanha. For daily diet, a gruel with wine or cocoa was given for breakfast; 1/2 oz. pickled cabbage, 1/2 lb potatoes, and 3/4 pint of wine in addition to the regular salt provisions for dinner; cocoa with sugar was served for supper, (Lloyd & Coulter 1960:172). REMARKABLE SURGEON A unique operation which involved the total removal of the arm, shoulder blade and collar-bone, was performed at the English Harbour Hospital by Sur­ geon Ralph Cuming in 1808 under extremely difficult conditions - the absence of anesthetic, tropical heat and no antiseptic measures. A twenty-one year old seaman had been hit in the shoulder by a cannon ball. Speedily, in order to minimize pain and shock, Cuming, having no forceps to hand, removed the crushed bone and seized the arteries between finger and thumb while his assistant tied silk ligatures around them. He then held the edges of the wound togeth- ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 51

er by means of adhesive straps and applied a poultice dressing which was held in place by adhesive plaster. The patient made a complete recovery and on his return home was shown to medical students at Bath (Lloyd & Coulter 1960:366). Although many amputations were performed at the hospital, no human bones or bones with amputation marks were found in the midden. It is assumed that an area in the cemetery was kept to bury such bones. The only human remains excavated was a human tooth, in good condition with no caries. HOSPITAL ARTIFACTS - Probably one of the most interesting artifacts found was a small brown ceramic pot like a saucepan, with a hollow handle (Fig. 13). This artifact was especially interesting because a white solid residue was found within. This was analyzed at Fairleigh Dickinson University with a scanning electron microscope using a microprobe. Results showed the material to be a fairly pure lead salt, (Baylouny 1980). Pharmaceutical experts call this "sugar of lead" or lead acetate. It was used as a antiseptic or preservative until its poisonous nature was discovered, (it has been postulated that its use ended the Roman Empire, Guyther 1981). Traces of a red-orange powdered material were also found in a small white ceramic mortar. On analysis it was found to contain iron, calcium and silicon compounds. The expert thought this could have been ferric arsenate, a brownish yellow powder once used to treat anemia. The presence of calcium and silicon remain a mystery unless the chemist was grinding in additional material to enhance its action, (Guyther, 1981). Among many other 18th century medical items recovered from the hospital midden were scissors, non-ferrous pins, glass medicine vials marked with the omnipresent arrow or "devil's claw", an eye-wash cup fragment, a measuring-glass sherd (Fig. 14), glass bottle stoppers, stir­ ring rod lengths, a pestle and small mortar parts (Fig. 15) and tin-glazed ointment pots, which were also made in creamware and in salt-glazed stoneware with the "anchor & arrow" mark. Chamber pot fragments were found in great numbers. Most sherds recovered were of a glazed redware, believed to have been made in Barbados. It would have been logical to import locally, especially since ships communicated almost weekly with the Admiral's HQ there. Many debased scratch-blue white salt-glazed stoneware sherds (c. 1765-1795) were found. These are interesting because this ceramic type was the Staffordshire potter's answer to the economically detrimental import of Westerwald chamber pots (c. 1700-1775) from Germany. The Germans held a monopoly in making strong barrack room and tavern ware in the 18th century. These, together with their famous beer mugs, were flooding the British market (note they catered for both ends of the alimentary canal!). The Germans had popularized these ves­ sels by adding a medallion depicting an image or initials of the British monarch. At plantation sites, many Westerwald fragments are found, but the military services strictly used the British made product, as was the case at the English Harbour Naval Hospital. The Staffordshire potters imitated the Germans by adding medallions of the king's initials and this continued into Victorian times (Fig. 16). Other chamber pot types were a few sherds of Buckley ware (c. 1720-1775 from North Wales) and two pieces of creamware, c. 1762-1828). Eleven stems and two fragments of stemmed glassware were found in the hospital midden (Fig. 17). THE YARD IS REDUCED AND THE C-in-C LEAVES - The last hospital record in the sourc­ es states that Tom Spanker, a King's Negro sailmaker, died at the hospital in 1822 (ANYCIV: 17 Oct 22). According to a report on "Slaves in the Possession of Government" dated August 23, 1823, the hospital had already closed. Thus the hospital must have closed down in early 1823. The dockyard was reduced in 1816 after the conclusion of the Napoleonic Wars, and in 1821 the yard's importance was much diminished when the Commander-in-Chief was transferred to Halifax, Nova Scotia, and the Leeward Islands Station was unified with the Jamaica Station. From historic ceramic sherds found in its midden, it will be seen that the Antigua hospital's period of occupation ended about 1820, only a short time different from 1823 as mentioned above. Of the hospital building itself, no walls or footings stand but refuse may still remain over the brow of the hill on the road that led to the hospital compound in the 18th century. 52 DESMOND V. NICHOLSON

UNDERWATER ARTIFACTS FROM TANK BAY

Dredging along an arm of the harbour took place as the hospital midden was being bull­ dozed. Many artifacts were recovered from the piles of mud deposited ashore by the grab crane dredger. LIGNUM VITAE SHEAVES The indigenous tree, lignum vitae (Guaiacum officinale L.), known as "the wood of life" because of its medicinal properties, is extremely hard and heavy, with a specific gravity of 1.25. It was therefore eminently suitable for the manufacture of the sheaves (or pulley wheels) of the blocks that were used, amongst many other things, for hoist­ ing sail. Archaeology tells us that when warships were in port, blocks were overhauled and inspected for pin wear, as 17 wooden pins (2 double) exhibiting wear were found. These obvi­ ously had been thrown away and replaced. Also found were the sheaves themselves, and the complete collection traces the evolution of naval blockmaking techniques (Nicholson 1980), (Fig. 18). ROPE - A 15 fathom length of a 1" dia. four strand cable-laid coir rope was recovered from the dredged mud. It was estimated by an English rope manufacturer to be over 200 years old (Stickland 1982). Coir rope was made from the fibrous husks of the coconut (Cocos nucífera L.), and has the advantage of being sufficiently buoyant to float when not soaked. It does not rot in salt-water and it was useful for floating down tow lines from one vessel to another. Cable-laid denotes that the four plain laid, three stranded ropes were twisted together in the opposite direction to the twists in the several ropes (Kerchove 1961). This gives good stretch useful as anchor warps and for towing. GUN FURNITURE - The following gun furniture from Tank Bay was identified by an arms specialist (Fred Davis): Trigger Guard of a Civilian Flintlock, " German Military Flintlock. Unknown type of trigger guard, possibly civilian. Side Plate of an early flintlock pistol. Military pistol butt cap, British (2 of). Front barrel band, possibly a pistol of French style. Belt Frog for hitching to a sword. Pipe for a wooden ramrod. Musket butt plate (British). Cartridge dating from the end of the 19th century. Cartridge of a modern 0.303 bullet. Shell of shot gun, late 19th century. Musket muzzle cap c. 1850 (not of a flintlock). Various flints of Dutch, French & British manufacture. SHIP CHANDLERY Two trucks of 7 cms & 12 cms diameter were found. A truck is defined as a wooden disk or cap at the summit of a flagstaff or masthead, having two holes drilled for receiving flag or signal halliards (Fig. 19). The smaller is of lignum vitae and bears the broad arrow. The larger was split when the second hole was drilled and so thrown overboard. Pieces of broken window glass bearing use marks on one end, denoting they had been used as scrapers and had probably fallen overboard by mistake while in use. They each show the broad arrow, one etched and the other scratched. Finds also included a fid handle for sailmaking, a large bronze oarlock, offset denoting naval design (Aggett), English naval bronze rigging screw c. 150 years old (Aggett), small sur­ veyor's sounding leads 7.5 ht. x 3 cms diam., copper caulking iron for a powder magazine coo­ per, a copper "R Y" stencil, wooden toggle, 7" copper spike, copper round head nail, other nails and tacks some with the broad arrow, even under the head of the tacks, rimlock drop handle with baluster, drawer pull, one decorative bent bronze female figure, possibly a door handle with spacers (Aggett). ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 53

PERSONAL ITEMS - Figure 20 shows stemmed glassware, including one tear-drop stem of c.1740 (7 cm diam. base). There were 7 wine glass bases, one of which was marked "69". An interesting leather shoe heel fastened with lignum vitae nails or brads came out of the mud together with shoe buckles (Fig. 21 far right), one large and ornate. There were also baldric & strap buckles, a uniform collar fastener, cap-badge and buttons with anchor, a coat or hat hook, a pewter mug, a bone cutlery handle and one for a penknife, a bone brush handle, delft or tin- glazed ceramics, also slipware, white saltglazed stoneware, creamware and pearlware china sherds, a pedestal-footed ointment pot, and two spoons, one a scalloped serving spoon. Many sherds of the local African-Antiguan folk pottery were found. One sherd bears a crude incised design (Fig. 22). Decorated sherds are very rare (Nicholson 1985:433-437). Other artifacts recovered were: A George III penny and half-penny, a William IV penny of 1834, an Antigua farthing 1836 (Fig. 25), slate pencil fragments, brass tobacco box, 8.5 x 4.75 x 2 cm, tobacco pipe bowls, fishing sinker, brass umbrella links, and a British stoneware ink-pot. Forty-three whole bottles were taken from the mud, of which 6 were 18th century. Their construction, included free blown, three piece molded, turn molded, hinge molded mineral, turned ceramic, case (of square section), blob mouthed beer and a 5 inch blacking bottle. A grey stoneware bottle top marked "R G=S WEESP" was also discovered. A 25 cm mineral water bottle of c. 1880-1910 has a rounded bottom, so that it could not stand up. If it stood up, the cork would have dried, shrunk and come out (Fig. 24). Two black basalt teapot lid finíais are worth a special mention. This hard dry bodied ceram­ ic type (1750-1820) was made famous by Wedgwood from about 1750. Being black, the ware was often used in times of mourning, so modelled widows were often used as finíais. The finials represent the biblical widow Zarephath (see story in Kings I, Chap. 17, v. 8) and is complete with the barrel of meal and the cruse of oil mentioned in the story (Fig. 23). In contrast, a C.1912 motor car horn was also found.

CONCLUSIONS

Although much knowledge was gained from these two salvage operations, much was lost as well. For instance from which area in the harbour had the gun parts come? Had they come from a wide area indicating ship refuse or had they come from a limited area next to the shore­ line indicating the location of an armourer's shop? In the hospital midden two prehistoric Am­ erindian conch shell celts were found among the historic artifacts of the naval hospital, but because of bulldozing, their proveniences were not recorded. Thus, it will never be known whether there had been a prehistoric component, possibly archaic, on Hospital Hill or not. From the nature of the finds in these two developments, it is hoped laymen can see how the science of archaeology can contribute to the social and cultural history of a historic area. Even in this British colonial historic area, elements of African-Caribbean history, the folk pottery and the West India Regiment cap badge for example, can add to the cultural history of today's Caribbean peoples, who were left with few written records and about whom documentary sources are often silent, contradictory or biased. We must therefore conserve our historic and archaeo­ logical sites as they hold so much evidence of the past and are of great benefit to development.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank the following persons for their help in this research: The late Anthony A. Garton for discovering the hospital midden and artifact recovery; Billy Russell, contractor of the house being built over the midden, for his patience; C.T. Parsons of the Haslar Royal Naval Hospital Library, and to Lt. Mike Rose of HMS Achilles for introduction to the Haslar Library. Thanks are also due to Ivor Noel Hume of Williamsburg for advice on archaeology and develop­ ment, and to Dr. J.R.Guyther of Maryland as well as the Professor of Pharmacology at the 54 DESMOND V. NICHOLSON

University of Maryland and Dr. Raymond A. Baylouny of Fairleigh Dickenson University for medical and chemical analysis. For the Tank Bay recovery I would like to thank Oliver James for dedicated work in locating artifacts from the muddy dredgings, and Roger Aggett, Marine Surveyor & Consultant of Day- tona Beach FL. for artifact information. Finally thanks to Dr. James Petersen of the University of Maine for encouraging me and giving advice in preparing this paper - D.V. Nicholson.

REFERENCES CITED

Baylouny, Dr. R.A. 1980. Pers.Comm. Professor of Chemistry, Fairleigh Dickinson University, Hackensack, NJ. With David M. Scaturo FDU Student Assistant. Letter of 3 Dec. Crewe 1978. Copy of typescript "British Administration in the West Indies, 1739-1748". Navy Records Society. Davis, Fred 1993. Antique gun specialist, visiting in Yacht "Curlew". Guyther, Dr. J. Roy 1981. Pers. Comm. Doctor of the Year (1981), Mechanicsville, MD, 20659. Letter of 21 Feb 1981. Aggett, Roger 1981. Pers. Comm. Marine Surveyor & Consultant, 1317 Peachtree Road, Daytona Beach, FL 32019. Jane, Charles 1981. British Army Regiments in Antigua. Unpub. typescript, 29 pp. Kerchove, Rene de 1961. International Marine Dictionary. Lloyd & Coulter 1960. Medicine and the Navy, 1200-1900. Nicholson, D.V. 1980. Naval Sheaves from Under English Harbour. Historical Sites & Conservation Com­ mission. Folder, 4 pp. 1990. Afro-Antiguan Folk Pottery and Emancipation in Antigua. 11th Int. Congress for Caribbean Archaeology, Puerto Rico, 1985, pp.433-437. Noel Hume, Ivor 1980. Pers.Comm. Archaeologist of Colonial Williamsburg. Letter 11 Jan 1980 South, Stanley 1977. Method and Theory in Historical Archaeology, Academic Press, NY. Spinney, David 1969. Rodney. Allen & Unwin, London Stickland, John 1982. Pers. Comm. Director of Marlow Ropes, Hailsham, Sussex. ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 55

fffii'/J tl //f '.*lé *../.. A„,/.S,/tl/J *n /A< Xffnttj .. ' ., , , ' [A. istjbf***** Á*M't .ntty

f'r*mn L,:.v /«„, ,,n h,f,**b /"*/"" '**' •+*•/"'-'•

jpíg. i. /7<59 Aíap of English Harbour with the Naval Yard, showing the hospital site and the Tank Bay shoreline. THE NAVAL HOSPITAL REBUILT 1793

BURIAL GROUND S rabí» l Cc oc h DEAD HOUSE Hout* by U33

E3 MATROf> Jh

WASH HOUSE

PRIVIES w I .„...„ KITCHEN HOSTAL (2 stories) Ejgg OFFICER'S APARTMENT & ASMáÁi STORE M.

GUARD HOUSE AGENT'S OFFICE QUARTERS i i. •.; ! | if. I t '. ' ' ',' J!' V " " I a I » ï?''hf', GattlijioimJJl W7- Mini PLACE FOR tarn rf.. SOLITARY CONFINEMENl"

Sra/« 5 SO

FROM A MAP OF 1822 f

TWO GUNS (1811) ing the theoretical beginning and ending dates for the hospital midden from the 1,04 fig. 2. Bar graph of ceramic ranges on a time base giving ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 57

INTERPRETING THE DATE OF THE MIDDEN

The theoretical median date was calculated as 1800, which produced a beginning and ending date of 1780 and 1820 respectively.

Ceramic Type 1785 1820 6 Mocha

11 & 10 Transfer-printed and Willow P/ware

9 Embossed Edged Pearlware

8 Finger painted Pearlware

12 Underglaze Polychrome

19 & 20 Blue & Green edged Pearlware

17 Hand-painted Blue Pearlware

14 Annular Wares

15 Light Creamware

18 Overglazed Enamelled Creamware.

17 Black Basalt Stoneware

24 Debased Scratch Blue

25 Deeper Yellow Creamware

40 White Saltglazed Stoneware

43 White saltglazed Plates

49 Decorated delft

47 Buckleyware

56 Lead Glazed Slipware

26&41«£_ Over & Und./glazed Ch. Porcelain

1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 Í820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870

YEARS

Fig. 3. Plan of the Hospital buildings (PRO MPH 30 of 1822). DESMOND V. NICHOLSON 58

Fig. 5. French buttons of the 58th and 66th Reg­ iments.

Fig. 4. Shaker badge of the 8th W.l. Regiment, 13 x 9 cms. Fig. 6. Case bottle lip sections.

Fig. 7. Four nearly whole bottles, three with missing lips.

Fig. 8. Five different bottle seal designs. ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 59

Fig. 9. Inscription from a ceramic mineral wa­ ter bottle.

Fig. 10. Bone discs and the blank from which they were cut.

Fig. 11. Pipe-bowls showing scenes of Indians, people smoking and large flowers and birds. Produced by Bristol makers for the colonial market from c. 1790.

Fig. 12. Unknown design, c. 1810-1840 (left) & lion & Unicorn design of English origin, probably an export type. 60 DESMOND V. NICHOLSON

Fig. 13. Ceramic pot, traces of a salt of lead found within.

Fig. 14. Measuring glass sherd.

Fig. 15. Small mortar, 6x5 cms.

Fig. 16. Two chamber-pot fragments with "GR" medallions and a third with ""VR", (Victoria Regina), found in another site nearby. ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 61

Fig. 17. Stemmed glassware types from the hospital.

(2) C.1770 c.1803. A sheave im­ proved by Walter Taylor and son. A threelobed brass bushing or "coak" (1) A simple pre-1770 sheave was added and used with a ferrous with a hole drilled for the pin. Taylor sheaves bear the initials wooden pin, shown with a "WT", the date of manufacture, and worn pin. the broad arrow.

(3) By 1803, Marc Isambard (4) During the 19th century, trian­ Brunei had invented labour gular coaks were produced as well saving block-making machin­ as round ones. In a 1949 marine cat­ ery at Portsmouth. A shaping alogue triangular and round coaks machine cut the recess for the were still advertised. Lignum vitae coak, the sheave being turned sheaves were still available by order, 90 for each cut, thus producing as galvanised steel sheaves were a four-lobed coak. stocked by then.

Fig. 18. The evolution of sheave bushings or coaks. 62 DESMOND V. NICHOLSON

Fig. 19. Flagstaff truck and a drawer pull.

Fig. 20. Stemmed glassware from the mud.

Fig. 21. Smoking pipe, two naval buttons, a shoe buckle and an umbrella link. ACTAS DEL XV CONGRESO INTERNACIONAL DE ARQUEOLOGÍA DEL CARIBE 63

' :^ n» "TI^ij""*M Jj-^ V/^y •''••a

• e M Fíg. 22. African Antiguan folk pottery (recon­ struction) and an incised sherd. Height 4.0 cm Height 2.75 cm Fig. 23. Black basalt tea-pot lid finíais.

Fig. 24. A mineral water bottle, 25 cms length. Fig. 25. Antiguan farthing token & a William IV penny.