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NAVAL and MILITARY NURSING in the BRITISH EMPIRE C. 1763-1830 a Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral St

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NAVAL and MILITARY NURSING in the BRITISH EMPIRE C. 1763-1830 a Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral St NAVAL AND MILITARY NURSING IN THE BRITISH EMPIRE C. 1763-1830 A Thesis Submitted to the College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies In Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements For the Degree of PhD In the Department of History University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon By ERIN ELIZABETH SPINNEY © Copyright Erin Elizabeth Spinney, April, 2018. All rights reserved. PERMISSION TO USE In presenting this dissertation in partial fulfilment of the requirements for a Postgraduate degree from the University of Saskatchewan, I agree that the Libraries of this University may make it freely available for inspection. I further agree that permission for copying of this dissertation in any manner, in whole or in part, for scholarly purposes may be granted by the professor or professors who supervised my dissertation work or, in their absence, by the Head of the Department or the Dean of the College in which my thesis work was done. It is understood that any copying or publication or use of this thesis/dissertation or parts thereof for financial gain shall not be allowed without my written permission. It is also understood that due recognition shall be given to me and to the University of Saskatchewan in any scholarly use which may be made of any material in my dissertation. Requests for permission to copy or make other uses of materials in this dissertation in whole or part should be addressed to: Head of the Department of History Arts Building, 9 Campus Dr University of Saskatchewan Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5A5 Canada OR Dean College of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies University of Saskatchewan 116 Thorvaldson Building, 110 Science Place Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 5C9 Canada i ABSTRACT This dissertation analyses the work of female nurses in military and naval hospitals from the mid eighteenth century until the aftermath of the Napoleonic Wars in the early nineteenth century. Nursing history has primarily forgotten these women, or when they do enter into historical narratives, it is often as a foil when compared to the medical practitioner. Pre-Nightingale nurses are often framed by nursing historians as ineffective, ignorant drunkards, the embodiment of the Dickensian Sairey Gamp stereotype. By examining why medical practitioners and naval and military administrators decided to hire female nurses, it is possible to explore two frameworks of investigation in this dissertation. First, the importance of nurses to eighteenth-and early nineteenth-century military and naval clinical hospitals, was shown in official correspondence, regulations, and medical treatises. Examining the crucial role of nurses in maintaining a healthy healing environment through cleanliness and ventilation reintegrates nurses into a previously male medical practitioner dominated narrative. In Britain, both patient care and domestic duties were viewed, societally, in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries as distinctly female skills. At West Indian stations, the ideal nurses were also female. Yet, the additional layer of race and accompanying theories of racialized immunity to tropical diseases, combined with the stratified labour market of the islands, meant that Black women were considered by medical practitioners to be the best nurses. These considerations resulted in the employment of enslaved women at the Bermuda Naval Hospital. Second, I counter historiographical preconceptions about pre-Nightingale nursing through a detailed prosopographical analysis of the nursing workforce at Plymouth Naval Hospitals, in conjunction with the nursing regulations for military and naval medical systems of care. As the experiences of nurses of Plymouth Naval Hospital show, the physical stability of naval hospitals allowed for nurses to develop healing and care ii skills over a period of longstanding employment. These nurses were not, as the historiographical prejudice contends, primarily thieves and drunkards. Furthermore, a comparison of military and naval regulations demonstrates that the regulatory structure of naval hospitals, and the position of nurses in them, cannot be explained merely by the permanence of their institutions. Nursing and nurses were part of a broader professionalization of healing practices in the second half of the eighteenth century. As complex institutions, naval hospitals only functioned when everyone’s role in the hospital was clear. In the army, by contrast, the role of nurses was less explicit and not carefully delineated. When recollecting the pre-Nightingale period of nursing, it is often the military nurses who are recalled by nursing historians – women seen even at the time as replaceable, untrained, and unnecessary. Reconfiguring our view to include the naval nurse – valued, crucial to hospital operation, and with a defined role – complicates the long-standing progressivist account of nursing after Nightingale to illustrate continuity between the two periods. iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This work would not have been possible without the assistance and guidance of many individuals. Thank you to my supervisors Dr. Lisa Smith and Dr. Matthew Neufeld for their guidance, feedback, and encouragement; to my committee, Dr. Erika Dyck, Dr. Lesley Biggs, and Dr. Kathleen James-Caven, for their advice and expertise. A heartfelt thank you to my external examiner Dr. James Alsop for his thought-provoking questions and insights into financial record keeping practices. Without the advice and trouble-shooting of Jon Bath at the Digital Humanities Research Centre I would not have been able to build my nursing database or retrieve data. I thank the scholars I’ve met at conferences and colloquiums for their feedback and advice, especially Rima Apple, Brigid and Rusty Lusk, Claire Chatterton, Keiron Spires, Carol Helmstadter, John R. McNeill, and the late Jean Whalen. I am grateful for the financial support of the American Association for the History of Nursing through the H-31 grant, Girl Guides of Canada-Guides du Canada through the National Graduate Scholarship, and research travel funding through the Interdisciplinary Centre for Culture and Creativity, and the Department of History at the University of Saskatchewan. On a personal note thank you to the staff at City Perks for hundreds of excellent cups of coffee, pleasant conversation, and allowing me to take up a whole table with my papers and books. Frances Reilly for helping me navigate the ups and downs of the doctoral programme and being the best office mate possible. Thank you to Glenn Iceton and Michelle Desveaux for their copy editing and suggestions. To my cats, Boris and Wilber, for keeping my books, my lap, and occasionally my head warm while I write, as well as hours of entertainment. iv DEDICATION To my family by blood and by marriage and Horatio a great and well-loved cat v TABLE OF CONTENTS Page PERMISSION TO USE …………………………………………………………………….. i ABSTRACT ………………………………………………………………………………… ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ………………………………………………………………… iv DEADICATION ……………………………………………………………………………. v TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………………………………………………… vi LIST OF FIGURES …………………………………………………………………………. vii NOTE ON SPELLING, GRAMMAR, AND THE CALENDAR YEAR …………………… ix INTRODUCTION …………………………………………………………………………… 1 CHAPTER ONE: Care and Cleanliness: Female Nurses in Naval and Military Hospitals …. 30 CHAPTER TWO: “To be kept open so as at Night gently to move the Flame of a Candle:” Ventilation and the Role of Nurses in Creating a Built Healing Environment ……. 79 CHAPTER THREE: “Neither females nor negroes of either sex were liable to it:” Military and Naval Nursing in the British West Indies ……………………………………………….. 118 CHAPTER FOUR: Hospital and Household Plymouth Naval Hospital 1775-1815 …………160 CHAPTER FIVE: Regulating Care: Nurses and Perceptions of Nursing the Royal Navy and the British Army ………………………………………………………………………….203 CONCLUSION ……………………………………………………………………………… 247 BIBLIOGRAPHY …………………………………………………………………………….254 vi LIST OF FIGURES Figure Number Page 1.1 British Naval Hospitals 1750-1820 ………………………………………………………. 9 2-1. Plan of the proposed hospital at Haslar, Portsmouth Dockyard, coloured, unsigned, undated c. 18th century …………………………………………………………………..... 87 2-2. Detail of General Plans of Plymouth Naval Hospital 1796 ……………………………… 88 2-3. Plan for a hospital proposed at Gibraltar, drawn by James Montresor, engineer, three designs ……………………………………………………………………………………. 91 2-4. Detail of plan for a hospital proposed at Gibraltar, drawn by James Montresor, engineer, three designs …………………………………………………………………… 92 4-1. Naval hospitals at Plymouth and Haslar Point, near Portsmouth: facades and plans …… 166 4-2. Number of nurses at Plymouth July 1777-October 1778 ………………………………... 183 4-3. Number of nurses at Plymouth November 1778-December 1799 ………………………. 184 4-4. Career of nurse Dorothy Craggs ………………………………………………………… 188 4-5. Career of nurse Mary Morring …………………………………………………………... 188 4-6. Nurse Mary Yeo’s Career at Plymouth Naval Hospital …………………………………. 190 4-7. Career of nurse Rachel Arnott at Plymouth Naval Hospital …………………………….. 192 5-1. Abstract of Money's due to assistant Surgeons, Dispensers, Extra Clerks & Servants employed at the Royal Hospital Plymouth between the 1st, and 28th of February 1782 .. 221 5-2. Abstract of Money's due to the Assistant Surgeons, Dispensers, Extra Clerks & Servants employed at the Royal Hospital Plymouth between the 1st and 31st of March 1782 ……………………………………………………………………………………… 222 5-3. Abstract of Money's due to the Assistant Surgeons, Dispensers, Extra Clerks, & Servants employed at the Royal Hospital Plymouth
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