University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa PhD Dissertation Dynamics of Language Contact in China: Ethnolinguistic Diversity and Variation in Yunnan Katie B. Gao 2017 A dissertation submitted to the UHM Graduate Division in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Linguistics Dissertation committee: Katie Drager, Chairperson Andrea Berez-Kroeker David Bradley Lyle Campbell Everett Wingert 献给纾含和她的家人 For Shuhan and her family Acknowledgments This dissertation is by no means a product of just one person but was made possible by generous funding agencies, patient mentors and research partners, and encouraging friends and family. I am grateful to the following groups who fnancially supported the research that led to this dissertation: the National Science Foundation, for feld research to supplement the Catalogue of Endangered Languages; the Bilinski Educational Foundation, for feld research and proposal development; the UH Mānoa College of Arts and Sciences for feld research; the UH Mānoa College of Languages, Linguistics and Literature, for dissertation development; the UH Mānoa Graduate Student Organization, for conference funding; and the Department of Linguistics for making my graduate student career fnancially feasible. I would like to thank my chair and mentor, Katie Drager, for her practical guidance on papers, professional development, and life in general. I am a better thinker and writer because of your whys and so whats over the years. To the rest of my wonderful committee: Andrea, thank you for being a steady support with your always-sound advice throughout my time at UH ; Lyle, thank you for your willingness to help at any time with any question or issue from theory to funding; David, thank you for being a source of information and encouragement from the beginning of my interest to pursue research in Yunnan; and Ev, thank you for sharing your love of cartographic design through your teaching and stories, you’re a main reason why there are maps in my dissertation. I would also like to acknowledge my undergraduate linguistics professors Tim Thornes and Lynn Burley for introducing me to the study of language as a subject of scientifc inquiry, adventure, and lifelong pursuit. I’m honored to have studied under all of you. Because this dissertation is based on research from several trips to China—which is not my home country, nor Chinese my native language—the individuals acknowledged here were crucial in the successful implementation of my projects. To my feldwork partner and guide extraordinaire, Li Jing, who taught me so much about working in Yunnan I would not have otherwise learned. To Xuan Guan, for sticking with me for two summers, bringing my survey ideas to life, as well as helping me sort through language data in the fnal stages of writing this dissertation. To Dr. Suhua Hu at Minzu University of China, for her initial introductions and support that allowed me to join the academic scene in China. To the Luo Hu family of Wuding—my family away from family—thank you for helping me pursue my research interests from 2012 through today; Bai Wei and Xiaoxia, thank you for your friendship and letting me be a part of Shuhan’s life. Finally, a more general, but just as grateful, thank you to all the participants who willingly shared bits of their language and culture with me. ii I would like to thank the friends who have stood by my side throughout these seven years. Alycia Jeong, thank you for being a source wisdom and encouragement through whatever comes in life. Nala Lee, thank you for your unwavering friendship through the bumps and milestones. Sunju Kim, thank you for your selfess heart and long-distance encouragement. Nozomi Tanaka and Victoria Chen, thank you for keeping me on my toes with your unrelenting curiosity and conversation about language and other nerdy things. Nozomi, your Cat Story illustrations are a crowd pleaser (salamat!); and Victoria, thanks for helping me navigate the Chinese literature. And thank you to the many other people who have been valuable writing/accountability partners and friends: Joelle Kirtly, Eve Okura, Amber Camp, Melody Ross, and Raina Heaton. Thank you also to my ‘ohana at Pawa‘a Community Church who help keep me focused and held accountable for the things that matter in life. I am the person I am today because of my parents John and Julie Butler. Dad, thank you for modeling life through your hard work and knowing when to negotiate/compromise—life lessons that made this dissertation possible. Mom, I am in constant admiration of your incredible strength and joyful spirit; thank you for being my biggest supporter from day one, literally. To my sisters, Kristin and Karrie, thank you for being my frst students in our play classroom and always knowing how to make me laugh—I’ve enjoyed watching you pursue your own interests. Finally, to Matt, one of the most patient and caring human beings I’ve ever met. Your unwavering support has truly made this a reality. Thank you for being my partner in life and agreeing to go on this journey with me. iii Abstract The study of language contact epitomizes the dynamics of language as a system of human commu- nication. The competing linguistic forces at work when speakers of diferent language varieties come into contact can be narrowed down to two basic concepts––convergence and divergence. Looking at linguistic areas using a macro approach, languages in contact tend to show conver- gence across all structural levels through difusion and borrowing, but nevertheless, linguistic diversity persists in regions of high interethnic language contact. Ethnicity often plays a signif- cant role in constructing identity, therefore a speaker’s linguistic choices can refect ethnic identity and intergroup relations. Because these processes occur in and as a result of complex societies, “studies of interethnic language contact must begin by understanding the context in which speak- ers in a community construct their own ethnicity, as well as the ideologies that afect how they view other groups” (Fought 2013: 395). Southwest China is a particularly interesting region for language contact research because high levels of ethnolinguistic diversity in remote areas perpet- uates traditional interethnic contact relations while these same groups are also currently under social and economic pressure to assimilate to mainstream Chinese society. This dissertation describes the social context of language contact in Yunnan Province’s Wuding County, an under-researched mountainous county with more than half of the population classifed as non-Han ethnic minorities. Speakers of at least eight Ngwi varieties (Lolo-Burmese, Tibeto- Burman), two Hmong varieties, and one Tai variety are represented in villages across the county, although speaker numbers are diminishing due to widespread shift to Mandarin Chinese. This dissertation presents original ethnolinguistic maps of the distribution of ethnic minority villages in the county followed by two localized studies of interethnic contact scenarios in a Yi village area. A demographic survey of reported language profciency in Miqie and Geipo households illustrates the role of access and geographic location in the rate of language shift to Mandarin; while the second study discusses the role of ethnic identity in persisting Miqie and Geipo language variation in intermarried households in the same village area. These studies highlight the dynamic social context in which language is used and changes for constructing identity and improving social mobility for speakers of languages facing endangerment in a rapidly changing society. iv Table of Contents Acknowledgments ......................................... ii Abstract ............................................... iv List of tables .............................................viii List of fgures ............................................ ix 1 Language and ethnicity in China ............................... 1 1.1 Introduction . 1 1.2 China’s Ethnolinguistic Diversity . 2 1.2.1 Classifcation of ethnic groups . 4 1.2.2 Ethnic minority languages in China . 6 1.3 Dynamics of language contact in Southwest China . 7 1.3.1 Mainland Southeast Asia as a linguistic area . 8 1.3.2 Contact scenarios and language shift . 9 1.4 Language and ethnic identity . 10 1.5 About this dissertation . 11 1.5.1 Motivations and goals . 11 1.5.2 Chapter overview . 12 2 Mapping ethnolinguistic diversity in Wuding ....................... 14 2.1 Introduction . 14 2.2 Wuding background . 14 2.2.1 Geography . 14 2.2.2 History . 17 2.2.3 Economy . 18 2.3 Wuding survey methods . 20 2.3.1 Data collection . 20 2.3.2 Maps creation . 22 2.4 Ethnolinguistic diversity in Wuding . 24 2.4.1 Han and Hui (Mandarin) . 24 2.4.2 Ngwi languages in Wuding (Yi, Lisu, and Hani) . 27 2.4.3 Hmong/Miao languages (Ahmao and Hmong) . 34 2.4.4 Tai Hongjin (Dai) . 36 2.5 Contact relationships and language shift . 36 2.5.1 The wordlists . 37 3 Geographic location as a factor of language shift ..................... 41 v 3.1 Introduction . 41 3.2 Factors of Language Shift . 41 3.3 Geography and language shift . 42 3.4 Assessing language vitality and shift . 43 3.5 Gubai Village Administration . 44 3.6 Research questions . 47 3.7 Methods . 48 3.7.1 Survey design and implementation . 48 3.7.2 Data analysis . 51 3.8 Results and implications . 52 3.8.1 Language profciency questionnaire results . 53 3.8.2 Access and language shift . 55 3.8.3 Implications for future research . 57 4 Language variation and ethnic identity in Miqie-Geipo marriages ........... 59 4.1 Introduction . 59 4.2 Accommodation and loyalty in dialect contact . 59 4.2.1 Dialects in contact . 60 4.2.2 Language loyalty . 62 4.2.3 Studies on crosslinguistic marriages . 63 4.3 Miqie and Geipo . 67 4.3.1 Historical and current contact situation . 67 4.3.2 Miqie and Geipo language varieties .