t (o o) o) ':ao H}:1 ttJ Western Samoa

Noti onal Environment ond Deve loPment Management Strotegies USP Ubrary Cataloguing-in-.h$lication dara:

Western $arroa: National F-nvtroqq.renJ :and D,evelop.ment Managrement Strategies NEMS / the Nauonal ltnvironmental Management straegics Tasklbaim"-,,4.p1a lWesrern Sailoal, Spnp-l rsgs.

:nd, 100p, : Zgertr

Bibhogaphy: ISBN9Eg-0.F0009€

I' Environulental policy-Western Sarfloa esternc,i*o. ^2.lnvironngntalprotcctioft-lfi l. ,9onscvation of na.urrall reourc€a-I,V$teru gaariia I Natiorial Enviro-nrneru and Deneln-pment Slmteg{es ThskTeaar II, ,South pasific negoni envlronraeul hogqaome

HCTg.E$t\l$7 3S5.716109614

Preparedfor publication by the South pacific R"gi"ld Erivironrrent pro'gramme, Agiia, Western Sauloa @ $ou& Facific Regionat Environmenr prcgirarnme, Iggl Th9 Sourh Pacific Regional Emdronrnent programme autbonses the reproducqoq of texhral metefi, whole orpart i,n anyforrr, provided acknowledgement is given. "ppr"priri. CIbordiraring.editor Sua*nneGranO Editor Barbara Flensoa

Prcject agd pditodal assisant Ju[a'Ha6ka Dotgu andprodue-rioo Feter Errarrs

Artwork for symbols etherinre Appletou rnd Morloe von ltciche Gover design by Pcter Evafigliased, on aa origind desip by Catherlne Appleton Cano_graplrtc mranerial for this docuineut alrd ib corirparrio:l volqme Watcrn Satw Stal(' of tlu Enoirwnqf nsbort prepared by.[acaranda Wiley LBd, Brisbdne, Arstralia [pelet in New Backcrvilte and Gill $aiu fd+lrq on lI0 m Ttrdor R P. (100% recycled) by ABC Frinting-, Brisbane, Australia Illurtratirae,narerial cannot be raprodueed without perrnission'of the photographer Or ardrc

Prodrced wilb the fiineooia! as;nrrmee of, fte Unitcd nhdoos,Dercilopnsar nogmme ( DtDp)

(Mr phatagraphu'F&" at Ao.ho ulltap, SawA (p:tuw PatuI2 Rym, rErodu;edcouiuy of.IWFAT) VVestern Samoa No tionol Envi ro nm ent, ond Devel opment Monagement Strotegies

Prepored by the Western Somoo NEMS Tosk Team in osso ciotion with the South Pacific Region ol Environment Programme (SPREP) 1993

Produced with financisl aseistance from the United Notions Development Progromme (UNDP)

--"-$ A1

A o

'fll' o .O. F' H6- -il- -RF#8 F - € 3 llE d ;ll 4 I l!n I _= lr v -| - IA :_ o

rrDv{E -t" r) -' N-'3.' 1' -F O o u"u fur#; Fr- .)' ?Q 1! I o )..14 t/, m o E vr9 -/ ^4' = z o F=3-o rtg d

q^- =5e^.,sif----..g ,i q'i ; F\. '0 o c

,.-&EnnF"'-ac BPP F:$3 F.[ Yi6 O=. I. '6.F f il l-la Fff-j $oo- i -: ;D :f 3. oo :j-''' '!. r ' 3 te E t? + EI rtf 6'o igE b-n f,. i-*3- l\- _ *a v i0Q o !.= - fu- .l-. ) O 3 9D v q_" -k pF =f o N q^=3vP<, J..-t-r \ '-n €' o .D ,: *P \l -- p o absEg .o ? 5 "s 0q 'ct ' Fltf (D - e3 ir /FN 'li. J.T H$g 19 ,t-/s' f z allls; .D g i{ H o"llp o :'gE t 5 € 5E o 3 Foreword

Western Samoa faces a challenging decade. It has this reason Cabinet recommended that the mem- become increasingly apparent that our natural bership of the NEMS Task Team include key gov- resources are deteriorating due to the pr',essures we ernment and non-governmental agencies. The are placing upon them. As the resources dererior- Chairmanship andexecutive task were the respon- ate, other problems arise. For example, our forests sibility of the newly formed Division of Environ- are being cleared at a rapid rate for agricultural use ment and Conservation, Department of Lands, and for their timber; among the consequences are Survevs and Environment. The document prG los of water quality and supply, and loss of bio- duced as the result of the Thsk Team's deliberations diversigv. was reviewed by a public meeting. We iilso know that there is no miracle solution. This documentisjust a beginning, aframework Like many Pacific Island nations, we have no min- for the preparation of detailed policies and educa- eral or oil deposits that will provide the ready cash rional effors that will guide the government and to repair enr"ironmental damage, or provide for the Samoan people towards a more sustainable increasing aspirations. 'Ihe natural resources that future. are under threat are the same resources that we will The National Environment and Development need to provide for our future health, welfare and Management Strategies could not have been com- econornic development. pletedwithout the financial assistance extended by The move towards sustainable development the United Nations Development Programme and will require a commitment from all of us: as indi- the collaborative assistance of the South Pacific l'iduals, as members of communities, and as mem- Regional Environmental Programme (SPREP). bers of government and non-govenrmental The Government gratefrrlly acknowledges the as. agencies. It will require a fundamental change in sistance of those organisadons. our attitude to our environment a realisatiotr In embracing the concept of sustainable devel- that there are limits ro rhe seemingly- abundanr opment, the Government is only too aware of the resources of our islands. difficulties inherent in its implementation. It would There are many things that need to be done. therefore welcome the continuing support of its Th e Governrnen t of Weste r:n Samoa recogn ises that development partners in the international com- it has the responsibility ro lead the wayby reviewing munity as it pursues sustainable development its policies and legislation, and ensuring that its through the implementation of the National environmental efforts are soundly based and well Environment and Development Management coordinated. For this reason the Government sup Strategies. ported the establishment of a National Environ- mental Management Strategies Thsk Team, and Cabinet was pleased ro approve the National Environment and Development Management Strategies (NEMS), as set our in Part 2 of this publication, in February 1993. Environmenal problems often have complex Honourable Tofilau Eti Alesana causes and require interdisciplinary solutions. For fuime Ministn of Westem Sanwa Contents

Map $We*ern Sarnoo iv Forcword v Adtnowfedgemems ix

/Llecsoge frrom UNDP rt /Vlessoge ftom SPREP xii Acranryms xiii Erecr.nlre rr.rmmaty xlv Pan t lhe Vfestern Sornoqn 3cttiag I I The settlng 3 1.1 Location and size 3 lg Qiqrate 5 1.3 Land resoirrces 5 t.8,I Creology,gemoqphotoryaridlalrlduse s 1.3,2 '!ryater 6 tr.3.$ Flora 6 1.3.4 I'iurna 7 1.3,5 Consenation strategies g 1.4 Macirrc r€sources I l.a.I ltfangroves 10 il.*.2 Coral sands I0 1..4.$ Subnistence futrilrg IA [.44 Oonrmercial fishing IA 1.4.5 Tiutles l0 1.5 People lt 1.6 Culnrre, hiorory,and govefirrnent I I 1.7 Urbal,l and rural ,lssues l'z I.Z.l Wasrc man4gFrnent Iz 1.7.? 'Clirnate change Ij 1.8 The ecsnqrnr 13 1.9 Csndusions fJ

vi Contents

Port 2 Notionol Environment and Development Monogement Strotegies 15

2 Introduction 17 2.1 Local environmental progress 17 2.2 The need for NEMS in Westem Samoa T8 2.3 Principles for NEMS 18 2.4 Regional National Environmental Management Strategies (NEMS) Project 20

Framework for NEMS 22 3.1 Approach 22 3.2 Goals 22 3.3 Scope 24 3.4 Stmcture of the report 25 The process of chonge 25 4.1 General 25 4.2 Public awareness 26 4.3 Agenda setting 27 4-4 Community action 28 Current stotus of the local environment 29 5.1 Population issues 29 5.2 Water supply J0 5.3 Fisheries 31 5.4 Waste management 32 5.5 Forestry 33 5.6 Land use 34 5.7 Biodiversity 35 5.8 Atmosphere 35 5.9 Climate change and greenhouse effect 36 5.10 Samoan culture 38 5.11 Human resolrrces 38 5.12 Economic growth 39 Strotegies Notionol policy objectives ond octivities 40 6.1 General 40 6.2 ManaEJement of population dynamics and trends 41 6.3 Protection of the quality and supply of fresh water 42 6.4 Protection of the sea and marine resources 43 6.5 Management of waste 45 6.6 Combating deforestation 48 6.7 Development of appropriate land use practices 49 6.8 Conservation of biodiversity 50

vlt 6ontents

6.9 Protection of the atmosphere 5I 6.10 Planning for climate change 52 6.11 Preservation of traditional arts, culture and history 53 6.12 Development of human resources 54 6.13 Promoring sustainable economic growth i5 7 Implementotion rtructur€s 57 7.7 Policy formularion 57 7.2 Policy presentarion 59 7.3 Policy implementation 60 7.4 Evaluation 60 7.5 Overall coordinarion 61

Part 3 Progromme prcfiles 53 References 98

Tobles 5.1 Population structure, 197L1986 29 5.2 Population vital statistics for the intercensal period, 1982-1986 i0 5.3 Local funding for water supply 31 5.4 Land ownership 34 c.5 [,and use capabiliry J5 9.O Education Department budger, l98l-lg8g 39 7.7 NEMS Policy Committees 58 7.2 NEMSlmplementingAgencies 60

Figures 1.1 Land ownership 4 t.2 Important conservation areas 8 3.1 Environmental awareness poster 2J 5.1 Population growth projections 30 5.2 Remaining foresr areas 33 5.3 Estimate of land use, 1991 34 5.4 Iky lowland sites identified by Park et al. J7 6.1 Educational material 45 6.2 Detail, educational posrer 45

Notes The units of currency of Western Samoa are the 'tala' (dollar) and the 'sene' (cent). All currency amounts in Parts I and. 2 are in Western Samoan 'tala'unless orherwise specified. Currency zrmounts in Part 3 (Programme profiles) are in United States dollars ($US). A financial )rear spans the period I July to 3gJune. viii Acknowledgements

No document of this size and complexity can be I Fualau Misiolo Sofe (Department of Trade, completed without the assistance of many individ- Industry and Commerce) uals. I Florence Saaga (Western Samoa Visitors In particular I wish to thank the Prime Minister Bureau) of Western Samoa, the Honourable Tofilau Eti t Dr Namulauula Kamuta Seuseu (Health Alesana who strengthened the NEMS process and Department) the NEMS Task Tbam through the high visibiliry he 0 Dr Lemalu Toso (Family Health Association) accorded NEMS at the Earth Summil as well as I Lonise Thnielu (Education Department) providing his unswerving support to environ- I Arasi Tiotio (Tieasury Department) mental concerns. NevaWendt (SPREP) Without the financial assistance of the United I Nations Development Programme (UNDP) t Roger Comforth (Department of [.ands, throueh the South Pacific Regional Environment Surveys and Environment) Programme (SPREP), this Project would nor have I Sailimalo Pati Liu (Department of Lands, been possible. The continued support of SPREP's Surveys and Environment). Director. DrVili Fuavao, and in particular, SPREP's I also note with gratitude the support of all NEII{S Team Leader, Neva Wendt, is therefore de partments whose rep re3en tatives were membe rs gratefully acknowledged. of the NEMS Task Team, and of the heads of these Throughout the NEMS Project, Samuelu departments who made available time and other Sesega, Principal Environmental Officer of the Di- resources of their respective departments for vision of Environment and Conservation, was Ex- NEMS meetings as well as for the compilation of ecutive Officer to the Thsk Team. His guidance and departmental and sector reports. I would also like leadenhip is particularly acknowledged. to record my thanks to the UNESCO ofiice in Apia Over the two-year period from inception to for providing their meeting f;acilities free of charge completion of this document, many individuals to the Task Team. served as members of the NEMS Task Team. Core Tuuu Ieti Taulealo replaced Muliagatele lose- memben were: fatu Reti as the NEMS Consultant. He undertook 0 Tanielu Aiafi (Education Deparrmenr) the m4ior task of developing the framework for 0 Malu Faalogo (Ministry of Transport) NEMS and preparing this document with the valu- able input of the Thsk Team. The document is 0 Malaki Iakopo (Department of Agriculture, testimony to his energy and skills, and to the com- Forests and Fisheries) mitment by him and the Thsk Team to the need for t Vaasili MoelagiJackson (Faasao Savaii change to a more sustainable form of development. Society) Tiruu Ieti Taulealo was ably assisted initially by 0 Dr Le Mamea Matatumua (Health Jennie Cary, and later by her replacement, Julia Department) Haska. t Mary Petaia (Ministry of Women Affairs) In November 1992 a public meetingwas held to 0 Clark Peteru (O le Siosiomaga Sociery) discuss the first draft of this document. Over forty 0 Sharon Potoi (Ministry of Foreign Affairs) people from government and nongovernmental

tx Acknatrledgementr

agencies attended and contributed to the disctusions. Finally, many past and presenr staffof the Divi- Particular thanks go to the people of the discussion sion of Environment and Conservation assisted panel: with the organisational and administrative needs of I Peter Groves (Westem Samoa Water Authority) the Project: Steve Brown, Tepa Suaesi, Bronwyn t Francois Martel (Department of Agriculture, Leupolu, Easter Chu Shing, Netty Keresoma and Forests and Fisheries) Niu Malaki. 0 Muliagatele Iosefatu Reti I Henrietta Winterstein (Department of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries) t Dr Semisi Toa (Department of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries). I would also like to thank the current and former directors of the Department of Lands, Sur- leys and Environment, respectively Faamausili Tuimalealiifano and Fiu Mataese Elisara-Laulu. for Faasootauloa Pati their support for this Project. Ministn of Lands, Survqs and Enaironmmt

**.:.

The preparation of the National Environment and Mr Iosefa Maiava, Mr Tuuu leti Taulealo, the staff Development Managemenr Srraregies (NEMS) for of the Division of Environment and Conservation, Westerr Samoa is part of an ongoing process of Departrnent of Lands, Surveys and Environment, community awareness raising, policy making and especially Mr Samuelu Sesega, the Executive Officer planning for environmental protection which is a to the Task Team and, for her valuable and con- necessary component of the country's future ece tinuing input, MsJulia Haska. nomic development activities. The process of devel- oping NEMS has been an important one involving review of existing administrative, institutional and legislative mechanisms together with determination of detailed programmes for implementation of the tasks identified under each of the Strategies. Valuable financial assistance which has enabled this process to continue smoothly has been provided by the United Neva Wendt Nations Development Programme ([INDP). For Tbam Leadsr their technical expertise in preparation of this im- National Environmental portant information we would like to thank Mr Clark Management Strategies (NEMS) Peteru, Mr Kosimiki Latu, Ms Elizabeth Harding, South Pacific Regional Environment Programme Messoge from UNDP

LINDP's Environmental Strategy and Action plan Economic development strategies in any focuses on supporting governments in integrating country must be compatible with environmental enlironmental considerations into their develop goals: the challenge is knowing how to do this. ment plans.,fu part of its effon to aid governments However, making choices and decisions that will in theirpursuit of sustainable development, UNDp even tually p romo te environmentally sound devel- provides environmental management guidelines opment requires understanding how the environ- that can be applied to all programmes and project ment functions; identiffing what needs to be done clcles. to protect, conserl/e, enhance and preserve it on a In this regard, UNDP is proud to be associated long-term basis; and linking national objectives with the preparation of National Environmental with environmental management activities. Manasement Strategies (NEMS) in seven Paci-fic The National Environmental Management Island countries. This was carried out through an Strategies facilitate the making of such choices and i nsdtuti onal-b uil din g proj ect design ed to en han ce decisions through a participatory process which the capacity of the South Pacilic Regional Environ- brings together government departments, non- ment Programme (SPREP) to service its mandate governmental organisations, and communities in a from member goverrrments of the South Pacific spirit of inclusiveness and social integration. Commission for environmental assessment and UNDP therefore applauds the timely publica- management. Under this project, UNDP provided tion of the National Environment and Develop SPREP with legal and financial consultants to work- ment Management Straregies for Western Samoa. irrg groups charged with guiding SPREP to insdru- This document will undoubtedly provide a further tional independence, a strategy consultant to stimulus to the integration of environmental con- fbrmulate its long-term corporare plan, and an siderations into the national process to ensure the environmental management specialist to oversee planning and management of development in a the development of NEMS in seven countries. sustainable manner. UNDP further supported the UNCED process by providing funds not only for Pacific regional work- shops, but also for airf,ares and subsistence allow- ances to enable participation by Pacific Island sovernments and NGOs in the UNCED prepara- tory Committee meetings. UNDP is also currenrly planning a follow-up prosramme which will focus on building capacity in fifteen countries of the Pacific region for the Anthony R. Pauen

implementation and mainstreaming of the NEMS Re s i den t R$re s ent atiu e process in national development efforts. United Nations Development Programme

XI t- Messoge from SPREP

We Pacific Islanders share a common aspiration for required to address them. The emphasis has been economic development and improved living stand- on ownership of NEMS by the government and the ards for our people. However, we zrre aware that this people of Western Samoa. The process which has development cannot be at the cost of the environ- resulted in the preparation of NEMS has involved ment. We have lived in close harmony with our many participants and has been directed by a island environment for thousands of years and we National Task Team, comprising relevant govern- are well aware of its importance to our way of life. ment and non€overnmental organisations in We face the complex challenge, in common with Western Samoa. many other countries of the world, of achieving The NEMS process has proved a most useful economic development in a way which will not vehicle for raising awareness of environmental significantly affect our environment. This m4ior issues. However, the success of *re NEMS exercise challenge must be addressed if our Pacific way of will ultimately bejudged by its implementation. If life is to survive. the NEMS document. sits on a shelf and gathers The preparation of National Environmental dust, then the exercise has failed. Management Strategies (NEMS) in several Pacific SPREP looks forward to working with Western Island countries has been a major tool in address- Samoa and with other regional and international ing these issues. This undertaking was made organisarions in the implementation of NEMS. possible through the generous financial assistance of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). This assistance is ogratefully ' acknowl- edged. t The Western Samoa National Environmen, fu:"-" andDevelopmentManagementStrategies(NEMS) \t is a practical document which aims to identiff the Vili A. Fuavao major envirronmental issues inWestern Samoa and Di,rector the priority environmental programmes which are South Pacific Regional Environment Programme

xll Acronyms

AIDAB Australian International Development Assistance Bureau AMA Apia Municipal Authority CBS Central Bank of Samoa DAIT Department of Agriculnrre, Forests and Fisheries DEC Division of Environment and Conservation DLSE Department of Lands, Surveys and Environment DOS Department of Statistics DP7 Western Samoa's Seventh Development Plan 1992-1994 DTCI Departrnent of Tiade, Commerce and Industry EEZ Exclusive Economic Zone EtA Environmental Impact Assessment EIS Environmental Impact Statement EPC Electric Power Corporation FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations GDP Gross Domestic Product GWS Government of Western Samoa MFAT Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade (New Zealand), Wellington, New Zedand NEMS National Environment and Development Management Strategies NUS National University of Samoa NGO non-governmental organisation PSC Public Service Commission PWD Public Works Department SPAFH South Pacific Alliance of Family Health, Pon Moresby, Papua New Guinea SPREP South Pacific Regional Environment Programme, Apia, Western Samoa SOE State of the Environment Report SOPAC South Pacific Applied Geoscience Commission, Suva, Fiji TEC Target Environmental Component UNCED United Nations Conference on Environment and Development UNDP United Nations Development Programme UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund USP Univenity of the South Pacific WSVB Western SamoaVisiton Bureau WS\,!A Western SamoaWaterAuthority

xill Executive summarY

are adapted from ttrose declared at the United Na- The need NEMS in for tions Conference on Environment and Development Western Somoo (LJNCED) at Rio deJaneiro, Ll4June 1992 (known the as the Rio Declaration). These principles place There is a growing cortcern inwestern Samoa over of people first and foremost' At the same environmental issues, and a growing under- well-being *re principles also recognise that people and sunding of the need for economic development to time, are interrelated and inseparable: a be properly planned in order to take environ- the environment clean and balanced phpical environment is essendal mental constraints into account' Such an integra- if societies are to achieve a condition of well-being tion of environment and development is generally that is acceptable and dignffied for all cidzens' As referred to as ststainable develoPment' It is a new Western Samoa has already signed the Rio Declara- thrust in the pursuit of an acceptable and dignified don, the principles of NEMS already have *te en- level of social well-being, and the primary focus of dorsement of its government' global develoPment efforts todaY' The concern about protecting the environ- and conserving the use of natural resources ment Frameworkfor NEMS is evident at all levels of Samoan society: individual; tal and gove rnmen t o rgani- village ; no n-govem men This docrrment focuses on the critical environ- commitment in this area sation alike. Government mental issues, or Target Environmental Compo- notably in the establishment of the is shown most nents (TECs), facing Western Samoa rather than Consewation (DEC) ' Division of Environmentand focusing on the issues facing different government degradation has complex Environmental sectors. The approach aims to reduce sectoral in- adverse effects and conse- causes and long-term terests and increase cooperation between agencies' example is the increasing de- quences. One major ln this way it recognises the complex and interac- resources by a rapidly mand on limited natural tive nature of environmental issues and problems' in the world' the growing population- As elsewhere The nvelve TECs identified for priority con- depletion' There are irrevitable result is resource sideration are the following' climate change and also the projected effecs of (1) Management of population dynamics and islands' is sea-level rise which, as in other Pacific rends adverse implications for likely to have serious (2) Protection of the quality and supply of fresh economic enlironments' Samoa's physical and water Samoa's attempt to provide a NEMS isWestern (3) Protection of the sea and marine resollrces and syxtematic approach to the integra- planned (4) Management of waste tion of development and environmental concerns' (5) Combating deforestation The implementation of NEMS will promote the use (6) Development of appropriate land use of a consistent and sound set of principles and practices guidelines that will guide and assist the develop (7) Conservation of biological diversity ment process along a sustainable pathway' (8) of the atmosPhere The main principles upon which NEMS is based Protection

xiv Execuare summory

(9) Planning for climate change Current stotus of the local (10) Preservation of traditional arts, culture and environrnent history (ll) Development of humzrn resources A summary of the state of the environment found (12) Promoting sustainable economic growrh in Chapter 5 shows an increased demand for resources, resulting their rapid depletion NEMSlong-term goals are the improvementof in and/or degradation. The population is now four the welfare of all Samoan citizens and the realisa- times that at the turn of the century. tion of community expectations through sustain- The impact of population growth on resources able development by means of: is most clearly manifested in the problem of defor- I stabilising popr.rlation; estation. The Thsk Team identified this problem as I boosting efficiency; the major concem which in turn causes other I restraining consumption; and environmental problems such as fresh water deple' 0 building a framework for change. tion and pollution, marine environment degrada- Much is expected from all citizens if these goals tion, loss of biodiversity and soil erosion. are to be realised. It is important that the necessary Other environmental issues also need atten- political commitment is provided through policies tion. There is a need to be better prepared for the which create a proper climate for sustainable devel- adverse consequences of projected climate change opment. and sealevel rise. Traditional arts and crafts need This document recommends that the develop to be preserved through the development of appro- ment of NEMS be carried our in three phases: priate cultural facilities. While attempts have been I Phase I establishes the framework and made to promote the sustainable development of recommends guidelines for national policies. human resources and economic growth, further (This is the current documenr.) effort is still required to ensure that these are well I Phase 2 deals with the preparation and integrated into national environment and develop formulation of national policies. ment planning. I Phase 3 involves the implemenration of the A supplementary document, Wutern Samoa: policies through their approved Action Plans. State of thc Enaironment Rtport, has.also been pre- pared (Taulealo 1993).

The proce,ss of chonge Notionof environmental poficies The most difficult task related to the achievement policies identified Target of NEMS goals is undoubtedly the mobilising of a Without clear for the (TECs), process of change. Many of those changes will Environmental Components it is prema- ultrmately require commirment at the individual ture to recommend specific activities to address the TECs. policies represent Govem- level. so the process will need full communiry sup National the ment's position, and are its statements or plans to port and participation if it is to succeed. It requires: scope actions the (l) the public to be aware of environmental show the direction and of for issues: TEC6. Government endorsement for the frame- work for NEMS is therefore a prerequisite for the (2) political leaders to provide sound policy policy development of Phase 2. guidelines for environment and development activities; and (3) the community ro promote the necessary actions to achieve sustainable development. NEMS implementotion These are the three fu of Change: Work on NEMS Phase I started in November l99l Awareness + Agenda + Action i Change with the first meeting of the Task Team. However, due to *re effects of Cyclone Val in December the Chapte r 4 of this document discusses in detail szrme yeat work was delayed untilJuly 1992. The some of the ways in which these key issues might be proposed time frame for NEMS implementation is addressed. as follows.

XV - Notional Environment ond Development Manogement Strotegies

of Environment and Conservation be re- I Phase 1 (Framework) (This document marks Division of policy implemen- the end of Phase l.) sponsible for the coordination tation. However, in the long term, a seParate t Phase 2 (PolicY) organisation is recommended for environment t Phase 3 (Activities) andplanning. Such an organisation will be respon- sible for the coordination of all national environ- that a committee undertake the It is proposed ment and development planning, and for the of draft policies for ea:lllc' This preparation management of other environmental services' document recommends that the TEC Policy Com- mittees comprise the organisations and individuals or have interests in the respective which deal with Specifc TEC,s. The agencies most involved with or having Prcgromme Profites authority for a TEC will become the Implementa- As stated above, the primary function of this NEMS tion Agencies and must assume the lead role in document is to establish a framework for the NEI\{S policy iormr:tation. Chapter 7 provides further de- process in Western Samoa (Phase 1)' Phase 2 will tails of their stmcture. see the preparation of national policies which will When policies are aPproved, TEC Advisory include the formulation of specific objectives, activ- Committees are formed to prepare Action Plans ities and progfirmmes. and to oversee poticy implementation' One of the It is important, however, that this document most important asPects of the implementadon pro provides an indication of which progmmmes are cess is regular evaluation to assess the extent to the Government of Western Samoa as hav- which *regoals have been met, and to recommend seen by priority for funding at this stage of the necessary changes. ing highest These are the programme profrles Finally, it is recommended that a NEMS Advi- WE,USpto"ess. this document. sory Committee which will be set uP within the in Part 3 of

xvl PAP- I The Wbstern Somoon setting

I I L I I I I La Chopter I

The setting

A National Environmental Management Strategy calculated as at least $600m but the full impact of (NEMS) must be formulated in the conrext of the the cyclones on the natural environmentwill never overall natural, socioeconomic, cultural and politi- be known. A general survey after Cyclone Val re cal environment. In Western Samoa the oppor- ported severe devastation of critical lowland sites, tunity to prepare such a strategy coincided wi*r an tree crops and foresLs, with profound impact on increase in concern for environmental issues. West- natural ecosystems and biological diversity (Park et em Samoa's natural resources have already been al.1992). degraded and the pressure on them continues to mount. Compared with many Pacific Island nations, | .l Locotion and size W-estern Samoa has a range of environmental legir lation and an extensive government infrastructure. Westem Samoa lies in the south-west Pacific be' ln 1992 the Government incorporated environ- nveen latitudes 13" 25'S and 14" 05'S, and longi- mental concerns into its long-term development tudes l7l" 23'Wand 172" 48'W.It comprises rwo planning tool, the Seventh National Development main islands, seven smaller islands (rwo of which Plan, or DP7 (GWS 1992). The National Environ- are inhabited), and islets and rocks. Upolu extends mental Management Strategy, renamed the about 72 kmfrom east towestandup to 24 km from National Environment and Development Manage north to south. Savaii is also about 72 km across, ment Strategies (NEMS) in Wesr,ern Samoa, is a but about 35 km wide. The total land area is ap further stage in integrating development and proximately 2,820 sq km, with the two main islands environmental issues. of Upolu and Savaii comprising 1,115 and 1,700 sq This chapter provides a brief overview of West- km respectively. The capital, Apia, is on Upolu and em Samoa in terrns of its location and size, climate, lies about 130 km from Pago, American Samoa, land, sea and people. It is not the intention to 3,000 km from Auckland, New Zealand and 4,500 reproduce here the informadon contained in West- km from Sydney, Australia. em Sarna: State of the Enaironmcnt Report (SOE) Western Samoa is an oceanic volcanic archi- (Taulealo 1993), but merely to provide a back- pelago formed in a westerly direction. The islands ground. The reader is referred to the Report itself are still volcanically active, the last emptions being for further details. on Savaii in 1760, 1902 and 1905-ll, and earth No survey of the status of the environment tremors are frequent. The islands are still under- would be complete without menrion of the impact going isostatic sinking to compensate for the large of two recent cyclones. While tropical cyclones are volume of volcanic material ejected onto tfre crust. a natural event,'Western Samoa experienced two of With the exception of areas of recentlavaflows, the worst cyclones in recorded history in 1990 and both islands are mostly surrounded by shallow la- in 1991. Cyclone Ofa caused an esrimared $300m goons and a fringing reef. Both islands have coastal in damages, and the fiv+day fury of Cyclone Val plains four to five km wide, then rise to central lurther devastated h omes, infrasnructure, agricul- mountains. Savaii has a central core of volcanic tural and forestry enterprises, and natural areas. peaks surrounded by a ring oflava-based plateaux, fhe cost of Cyclone Val to the economv has been then lower hills and coastal plains. Upolu has a v

€661 s Agralv:elrnos

l\Ll\\ --'r t.\

salur 0l s 0 puBI ptorlaa.rd ffi t* **urqAosl :ffi uDlol == s 0 puq rersi4:I ppq &auerno I--l 000'009: | "pts $

I i* )

dlquauno puol 1'1 atnt17

sadaroas TuawatouoyY

Tuaw{r11atog PUD luawuotyru1 louo0oN The settrng

cliain of volcanic peaks running from one end of and rain-shadow areas in w-estern Upolu and east- the island to the other, with hills and coastal plains ern, northern and western Savaii. on eitherside. Savaii's mountains rise to over 1.500 Storm patterns affecting Samoa originate from m (Mount Silisili, the highest is 1,858 m), Upolu's three main sources: tropical easterlies cause winds mountains to 1,158 m. from the south-easu cold fronts from Australian Of the ftvo main islands, Upolu, the smaller, is systems cause cold air flows and rain; and storms the more populous. More than half of the total area from the south-west Pacific generate cyclones. ofWestern Samoa is suitable for cultivation, and the mqority of the population live on the coastal plain. \\hile the pre-European landscape was primarily t.3 Lond resources rainforest, Iarge areas of rainforest are now to be iound only in the centnl mounLrins. ,.3., Geology, geomorPhologY Eighry-one per cent of land is owned byfamilies and land use ol is under customary ownership (Figure l.l), a The Samoan islands are composed almost wholly svstem which guarantees access to land for subsist- of basic volcanic rocks, namely, olivine basalt, pi- ence purposes, and is an integral part of the crite basalt, olivine dolerite of the alkaline basalt Samoan way of life (ANZDEC 1990). However, suite (Kear & Wood 1959). Most of the soils are there is an increasing trend towards individual formed from basaltic volcanic flows and are gen- orvnership of customary land. erally clay in texture, free draining and relatively shallow from in- 1.2 Climote The predominant land use, apart digenorx forests, is agricultural. Flat, fertile land is The climate is tropical, tempered by the ocean now scarce in most parts of the country. This is enrironment, and marked by a distinctive wet sea- already evident from the increased clearance of son (November-April) and a dry season (May- land on steeper sloPes and higher altitudes that are October). Temperatures range from l7'C to 34"C. of only marginal benefit for agriculture. The small The average annual temperature is 26.5"C in proportion of holdings under fallow and bush is coasnl areas, and the average relative humidity is further indication of the Pressure for land. 83 per cent in Apia. Rainfall raries from 2,500 mm There is no mineral production in Western in the north-westerly pars of the main islands, to Samoa, except for quarrying for roads and limited over 6,000 mm in the highlands of Savaii. The landfill. An Australian exploration programme in predominant surface winds are south{asterly 1990 found no useful mineral deposits except tita- trades during both dry and wet seasons. These niumwhich, despite its high concentrations, is not pattems result in high rainfall in eastern Upolu, extractable at a commercially viable cost.

Sovoii\ centrol core of volconic peok is surrounded by o ring of lwo$osd ploteoux.View fmm the northwesl (photo: LC. Robinson, reproduced courtesy ofDS[E)

Lt t Nationol Fnvironment and Development Monogement Strotegies

1.3,2 Woter

Although the average rainfall of Western Samoa is relatively high, there are areas of rain+hadow, and the high porosity of the soil creates problems for supply and storage of water. About 70 per cent of the population have ac- cess to water drawn from surface resources; 90-95 per cent of the population have access to a piped water supply, River flows provide the main source of supply and most catchments have been exten- sively developed. Water catchment is also a major source of hydroelectric power. With the recent commissioning of the Afulilo hydroelecric power scheme, 50 per cent of electricity production comes from hydroelectricity. Savaii and Upolu have many coastal spr-ings which are used as a source of water where there is Iimited piped water. There is some collection of rainwater in tanks. Groundwater supplies are close to sea level and sit on a layer of salt water; as a consequence, wells are not common. The Samoan islands are small, and despite high rainfall some of the water resources dry up for 3-6 months of the year. At this time only three major rivers run and these have been almost fully de- veloped for water catchment. In some areas water supplies are now insufficient to meet local demand, Uturol forcst neor cffi foresg coostol stnp neor lsfago, Upolu. The irregular (due to a number of factors), and occa- notive ongosperm floro (flowwing plonts) of Westem Somoo is dre most diverse in trcpicol Polyneio, with the exception of Howoii. sionally polluted. The construction of the Afulilo (photo:Paddy Ryon,reproducd courtesy of MFN) Dam destroyed one mixed swamp forest and poten- tially threatens the only remaining example of this ecosystem (of which only nvo occurred in the Melanesia, are filtered out from island to island by world). In Apia there is a high level of usage and the expanse of ocean. Subsequent evolution in the waste, and the volume and quality of the water isolation of Samoa has led to a relatively high de- supply are declining'due to forest clearance and gree of endemism. cyclone damage in the water catchment areas. The native angiosperm flora (flowering plants) Overall, the major threats to an adequate water of Western Samoa is the most diverse flora in tropi- supply are the continuing clearance in water catch- cal Polynesia, except for Hawaii, and is relatively ment areas for plantations. and gclone damage to well documented, ahhough information on clrr- the water catchments. Ib minimise damage, water- rent status is lacking fbr many species. shed management has been introduced to the Vaisi. Pre-settlement, the vegetation of the Samoan gano River Catchment near Apia, and the project is islands was predominantly tropical rainforest, but now expanding to other areas. The Western Samoa the natural environment of Western Samoa has WaterAuthoritywas established in late 1993. been .greatly modified. There are nearly 500 species of native flowering 1.3.3 Fiora plants and about 200 species of ferns in Westem In common with other islands formed by volcanic Samoa. About 25 per cent of the plants are endemic activiry Western Sarnoa's vegetation is derived from to Western Samoa (Whisder I992b). Hundreds of seeds and spores which have drifted to the islands. plans have been introduced to the islands since the Seeds and spores of potential dispersers, the vast first Samoans brought the coconut, taro and other maj ority of which ori gi nated in Sou th-East Asi a an d species for cr:Itivation about 3,000 years ago. Today,

6 L ar0 ,o"A uad, '($Eq lTn{ Jo) sexoJ Eur{u oMl :eAqEu eW qrgvl la^e.noH 'soruBs uJalsa { uI mf,Jo suztq aJe '$Eq II" 'earfl ,{1uo esaqt;o pu€ €orrus rrJJlsalA -rqduru oN 'punoJ aq ot ,(1a41un eJE satrads nau ur sl?urruzrrr 1elnsarral go sanads gI eJ" eJaqJ puu 'urr,t,ou1 IIJ r q Eorrres uralsa \Jo sapda-r puu qo|Jl.aDw spJrq 'spulrrEur pu"l aAnEu aqr Jo ,{ruouoxn aq1 DunDt ?'t'l 'srear( a,rg raqrmJ E roJ 1l pepuarxa 966I pue aqr 6uu'ro11og Suqunq uo uuq al€l ul sauopb 'sea:e eFrul peperur e paf,npof,rur ruarutuaaoE 'sauo1:,(r ruaJar o/ru "a{J alur{ sanads qruf,s pup aaJl palnpoJlur raqlo aqiJo $f,aga aqt {q pasea:rur {puzrgru8rs uaeq seq ^aou puz (orltuoazw otuo1tyg ) atnulu-"-alltu'suotltpuor au/1eap ar8 pue 'tatqeq uoBtrrutsop aln ot anp Jo qtrns 01 pardepz aq ol palfadxa aq tqSrur uon ,(peurud 'paurl)ep e^Eq sJaqrunu uoaErtr 'sruo1 -qa8a,,' pldol alTl{/vuruar rad tB petgunsa sEM {nf, puu uoqrperl u€orues uI aloJ luulrodur ue 06 uonElloJap seare aErel re^o 'pellal sE/vr NaloJ eql Jo ,(z1d puz afJnos pooJ leuonrpeJl u JJp suoa8t6 luar rad 69 ot dn eJaq/'r ssarz papnpm tnq 'paue{ '(ggOt lqeq) *pa-ra8uupua Jo rJer,, se patql ]saroJ le.mluu et$ ot a8zurzq 'lrudur Suunselap aJu ?[ su sarrads raqto Luuur Jo mlrls tuaxnf, agl p"q osls 166I pue 066I ul sauop^l o.41l rt{J euluualep ol papaeu sI lJo/vt JaI[Jnd lruqxa ,(1qz " nlodn uo ssal {lqeraprsuor st qord sr ' (snt{no( saTm.tpnato1) IreJ poor* ueorrres Jo lr agq,rn 8ul3to1 o1 anp $ IIu^ES uo Surrzap;o luar ,aeund, aql 'sar:ads elneu auo 'paJnporur uaaq rad gp rnq 'n1odn puu rrelus uo relltuls JJe uon a,req saDads JnoJ ellq/i{ '1a,ra1 sarcadsqnsJo sareads -aldapgo sat"r aqJ 'l4uno: aqt Sutrey anssr leluau aqt le f,rruapua eJ" spJrq puel eqt Jo ual 'BorrrEs -uoJr^ue snorJss aql paJaplsuol Jq plnor uJalsatv\ roJ papJolar uaaq e^€q sprrq aroqs lsou u 'uJef,uof, :oleur JoJ esneJ E put Jtp uI sater pue Eas Ia pue spJrq pu€I ;o sarcads arrg-lr:rq1 'plJo/"i af,uerealf, rsaq8lq aI$ auo $ tza,(.rad Bq sFr!g Jo 000't lnoqz 'uoFaldap lsaJoJ Jo alel rualJn) aql .>1sg r" ,{gzrgnads arz $seroJ puelt*o1 ,(1a,ru 'o8qadrq:ry ueorrres eql 01 f,rruapue sr (nnnouns -radsa: nlodn pue rru uS uo sEaJE pu€l 1nol aql orou7 {uDIs uuotu€S eW) auo {1uo puu tuepunqu luaf, :ad gg pue saslrdtuor rsaro3 Euturuura: ,(lqzuosear readde spJuzrl aqt Jo lsotr4tr 'EoluES Jo L, inlodn prrz rru^es uae/vqeq lslxJ safuaraJJtp JIq?Ja uralsa {tnpeprof,al uaaq aApq (zuotq4ozopuvJ eoq snouaSrput rnrlu pareloJ sr lr3:rled aqr) aleus auo prre sopa8 eng's4ur4s rq8rg -prsuof, lnq 'qsaroJ llns luar rad gg Eoures urelse {Jo EaJE puel eqlJO sal;1{ay .uoll

'€o1u"s -rla8en paqrnlsr(I pue qruf,s )Iuurlo6'tsaro;uttX puepefi\'uonBa8arr prourl :sarro8 ualsa/v\ or paf,npoilur uJaq a^Eq qsg r3l?fiqso{Jo 'uoBsla8arr -eluf, p"oJq aag uI saprunuruol tuuld otul uon sapads JnoJ 'eunql qsg asruds,{lannqar E palou osp 6I -aa8a,r arn papFlp sEq (2A66I) rapslllv|parlr?i\p? e oqe ol pauaJeJ realord olTIqJV Jr.fl roJ sarprus aqJ sl 'eroggo dpnts eql ueql tua)er arolu q8noqly 'qsg Jarui!\r{se.g aanuu ar$ Jo Iprus papnep E uaeq IIea tou seq eJaqJ lalp af,ualsrsqns oqr u acuslrodun 'eorues rrralsa {Jo uonqaSar\ alpJo i(pnts aq1 'pa:a8uzpua ro paua e(uos Jo sr qrlq,rt pr1 wnrymt4anoyg) duruqs -ra1e,u -tearql sraprsuor eq sanads gg1.yo -r{sa:; Jo sanads Juo seq Eoru€S unlse4ye3f,sJsrLrf {pnuarod IEW uouruor,ka.r auos l{lr { ?unsJ tf,asu asreds {1artue1a.r 1sr1 e sasodord (qaOOt ) raFsII{ i\ epq.u sanads tuvld a pelou (fOOt 'tc ra q8nu1,1't86I 'lE 1a srapurrryl) rraf para8uupua ro arer aI SISII (ggOt) IqE( 'EouBS pa:r5 -oJd remod rgrealaorpr(g ol$uv aw Jo tuerussasry uJatse \ ur satrads tueld paualuann -ro rrzdury lstuauruoJllug alnJo rred su palrnpuo: s,(an -rrupue ,paleu8rsap, ou aJE alaql apllli :IaqJuJ -Jns Jaug'salerqeuaAur JalEtlr{se-g aql lnoqB rr/rotl)l ueAo Jo s0g6l er{l af,urs pelf,allof, uaaq lou J^Eq sr eFln 'sFEus plrEl JrIt q llslep aruos ur palprus uaaq 'sura;,{1:e1n:ruzd 'sapads 1ue1d;o Jaqutnu V seqt€qt dno-r8 aterqauaAur puelrer{ro aq1 'Suoupdn 'Suuzaddeslp sr a8pap*rorr4 sIIp lnq'am puntp spsauaou {Jolvl er8Jo qlnI.II lnq 'u orrrEsJo sDasur 3qt -aur Fuoplpen Surrzq ff papJoJal uaaq antq nuuld uo lno paluur se,vrdpnls f,iluouoxul prft uog3allof,Jo gqt Ja O 'uouzraua8ar lemlsu Sulraprry 'tsa-ro.; lunoup a8rq z s6661 {pea pue s008I etEI ar.fi uI a^qBu paqrnf slp 3pe^q' (tqlunnzut muoVrw ) alnutu '3urr1re1 sr sarcads esaql Jo dueur yo -e-ellu auvr Sururall aqt a{I 'sratTlo lamtszd ur puu [€^r Jns ''ral-Euol aqt Suunsua or 1zll e8pa1,lrou1 spuel [EJrulnlr8s uo $sad aJ€ esaql Jo etuos :)ooxa lzrrFolora pollstap ar.1t 'sarpnls /ral E Jo uondacxa are l-rtunor eql q nueld ;o sapads aql JIeq ra^o

Furaas ar/l p

Nationol Enironment ond Development illo na ge m ent Strotegies

Figure 1.2 lmportont conselvotion oreos

Fuluasou Catchment Vaisigano Catchment Falefa 'f\ Catchment

Faleaseela Catchment r- il?j:-.f. ff .:'x-\^ -]-- t O Le Pupu-Pue Nationaf Park

Falealupo , Rainforest Preserve Maliolio Catchment

Faleata Catchment

Tafua Vaiola Catchment Rainforest Preserve

Source: After GWS 1993 Ihe secing

Samoan flying fox (Ptropus samoeruis) and 'pea fai taulasa', the Tongan flying fox (P tonganus); and 'tagiti'. the sheath-tailed bat (Emballonura semicau- rlaki. The flying foxes, Iike the pigeons, are a tradi- tional food source and are also important for the long-term sunil'al of the forest as they pollinate the flolvers o[ many species and disperse seeds of eaten fnrit. Populations suffered a substantial decline irom 1981 to 1988 due to an exporr industry ro Gnam. Govemment regulation stopped this indus- tn'in 1989. Flving fox populations declined further after Cvclone Val and traditional hunting was then temporarilv banned. In late 1993 the government ertended this ban for a further five years. Of the introduced species, the early Polynesian vovagers brought'imoa', the Polynesian rat (Rattus exulans), pius and dogs to the islands. Cattle, horses, goas, cats, h.vo more species of rats (Rattus nor- uagrr:ru and R rattus) and the house mouse (Mru muscuhts) have arrived with the Europeans.

,.3.5 Conseryotion strotegies

Recent effrrrts to consen'e the biodiversity of West- em Samoa have included the establishment of national parks and reserves by the government. Reefs ond logoo ns are on importont source of locol foods. However, \festern Samoa was one the Pacific of first nations both inshore ond offshore catches hove der:lined. (phon:Jennie Cory, to establish a national park (O Le Pupu-Pue, in reproduced court*y of DISE) 1978) and amarine reserve (Palolo Deep, in 1979). Both are on Upolu. Private conservation covenants the fishery is small in comparison with other Pacific have also been developed for the Falealupo Rain- countries. While its Exclusive Economic Zone forest Preserve and the Tafua Rainforest Preserve (EEZ) of 95,800 sq km is small, there has been on Saraii, and recently at Aopo, Savaii. limited exploitation of offshore resources. How- Recent surveys and reviews have identified ever, fish and reefand lagoon invertebrates are an numerous sites requiring consenation (Figure 1.2) important source of food. In 1989, 59 per cent if \\'estern Samoa is to retain a representa.til'e selec- of all families eng"aged in {ishing and over 65 per tion of is biodiversity (Park et al. 1992; Pearsall & the catch was for local consumption \thistler 1991;Draft Forest Policy, GWS 1993). cent of (DOS/DAFF 1990). Both inshore and offshore catches have de' 1.4 Morine resources clined, consumption of local fish is declining, and the consumption of imported, canned fish is on the The coastal lasoons and reefs ofWestern Samoa are increase. While it is not possible to make any lalid a dtal local resource. The latest listing of all known estimates of the maximum sustainable yield for inshore and pelagic surface fish species lists 991 Western Samoa's varied and complex fishery species, about 40 of which are found only in Samoa stocks, it is evident from the reports of fishermen, (lthss 1984). There is an unknown number of available catch/effort data from different areas, marine invertebrates. and declines in market landings, that the maxi- \4'estern Samoa is not well endowed with coral mum sustainable yield has been exceeded iu most reefls. ]he coastline is characterised by a narrow parts of Upolu (Zann l99la) .Zann has concluded iringing reel'and a shallow lagoon, and the size of that Western Samoa's reefs and lagoons are among lI Notonol Enwronment ond Development Monogement Strotegies

the most degraded in the Pacific (Zann 1991a, demand have chronic erosion problems resulting 1991b). from overmining. While data are needed on the Zann (l99lc) gives the possible reasons for rate of supply of the coral sands, Iicences for sand inshore stock declines as: mining are now being issued, stipulating condi- (1) over-fishing due to increased demand; tioris which will reduce coastal erosion. (2) use of effective and modern, but non-selective, fi shing techniques; 1.4.3 Subsistence fshing such as poisons (3) use of destructive techniques As mentioned earlier, 59 per cent of agriculturally and dynamite;and active households engage in fishing and reef glean- (4) los of fish habitat through reclamation, ing, and 67 per cent of households use all their coral sand mining and drainage. catch for home consumption. Many marine inver- Coastal lagoons are now also being subjected tebrates are local food sources: crab6, octopuses, to industrial and domestic pollution. Deforestation sea slugs, clams and trochus shells. However, many has increased pollution of lagoons by both siltation species such as the giant clam are now rare in their and oversupply of nutrients. It is evident from the natural habitat or, like the clam Hippoprts hippasus, literature that ttris form of pollution is damaging thought to be extinct due to over-exPloitarion. the Western Samoan reef qystem, and contributing There are crrrent aquaculture pr-ojects involving fisheries (Taylor to the collapse of the inshore trochus shells, seaweeds and clams, but trochus and 1991). Due to the shallowness of the lagoons, there clam projects were severely affected by the ocean exchange, and conse- is relatively little cyclones. quently a minimum capacity to dilute waste. The Department of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries 1.4.4 Commercial estimates that 90 per cent of coral reef around Apia fishing is dead. About 1977 a new development took place in com- mercial fishingwith the introduction of larger'alia' ,,4.1 Mangroves (nvin-hulled aluminium craft with outboard mo tors) under a FAO assistance programme. Fish ag- While mangrove scrub and forests occur on Upolu gregating devices were also installed. The catch and Savaii, tl-ey are not a widespread community. from the 'alia' is primarily used in Western Samoa. Almost all sites have been disturbed to some extent Two species of tuna, 'atu' (skipjack Katsuttaruu by human impact. Where mangroves remain less pelam.is) and 'asiasi' (yellowfin Thunnus albannes), disturbed, they provide local communities with are harvested from their migrating populations. food, house and boat construction material, and firewood. The mangrove swamp in Vaiusu Bay is the lar- 1.4.5 Turtles gest. in eastern Polynesia. These mangroves and Two species of sea turtle occur in Western Samoan wetlands are the main fish feeding and nursery waters, the green turtle (Chel'oni.a mrydas) and the habitats for Western Samoa. Until recently it was hawksbill (Eretomoche\s imbricata). The latter is the site of the town mbbish dump and areas are still known to breed on the Aleipata islands and else- being reclaimed. The old dump is curtently being where. The eggs and the adulu are both traditional rehabilitated. food sources, although the numbers of both species have declined. Turtles now rarely appearin 1.4.2 Corol sdnds local markets. Most of Western Samoa's sand reserves for con- In conjunction with an educational campaign struction purposes are coral sands, mined either to conserve turtles, a turde hatchery was estab direcdy from the beach or from offshore resources. Iished in 1971, but abandoned in f 983. A revised Sand mining in Vaiusu Bay, the largest lagoon area prognrmme of turtle management funded by the in Samoa, is the main source of supplies for Apia' South Pacific Biodivenity Conservation Pro- However, local communities throughout Samoa gramme administered by SPREP (South Pacific collect sand and coral mbble for road and house Regional Environment Programme) is currently maintenance. Certain beaches close to the largest under way.

l0

I

I I I 7he seting

f .5 People

The preliminary results of rhe 1991 census accord- ing to the Department of Statistics show a total population of 161,298 people of whom 34,000 live in Apia, with the remainder in over 320 villages mainly around the coast. The overall population density is 56 persons per sq km, but as the central highlands of both islands are sparsely populated, coastal population densities in Apia reach 75 per- sons persq hm. Only 28 per cent of the population lives on Savaii. \Ahile the total population grew by 4l per cent during the I 961-t 99 I period, growth declin ed dur- ing each successive intercensal period except the last. This decline is due mainly to a fall in fertility rate and the high rate of overseas migration. The high emigration rate in recent years has been a safety valve for the increasing pressure on resources, but threatens to be an unpredictable element in population planning. As well, many workers whose skills are needed in Samoa are among the emigrants. There are strong indications that che number of emigrants may reduce, with the economic re- cesion severely affecting the traditional destina- tion countries for Samoans, namelyAustralia, New The tmditionol ort of omury is still o mojor atlwml rctivity.(photo: AC. Robinson, rep roducd cou nesy of D ISE) Zealand and the United States.

the many legends and the practice of citing an ,.6 Culture, history ancestry through tens of generations. ond government The Samoan way of life ('faa-Samoa') is based on its social institutions (family, village council, The indigenous population is Polynesian. They women's committee, church) which provide direc- comprise the mqjority of the Wesr.ern Samoan tion for individual or group behaviour and respon- population, and speak one language which has sibilities as well as overall village organisation. The similarities to the language of the Tokelau Group 'aiga', an extended family group, remains the and Tonga. single most significant social and economic unit Often called "the cradle of Polynesia",'Western The head of the 'aiga', the 'matai', is responsible Samoa is among the most traditional of all Polyne- for the care of the family and its lands, although sian societies. Its ancestors are believed to have these traditional ways are changing. moved into the Pacific from the South-East Asian Significant contact with the Western world did region. The earliest known site (about 1100 BC) is not occur until the 1830s. Then began a series of at Mulifanua on Upolu, a site associated with the encounters with Britain, Germany and the United Lapita people who made a distinctive pouery. States which culminated in the imposition of colo While traditional arts such as weaving, 'siapo' nial rule by Germany in 1899. At the outbreak of making (cloth made from hibiscus bark), wood- World War I, Western Samoa wErs annexed by a carving, dancing and singing are commonly prac- force of New Zealanders. The New Zealand military tised, it is in the tradition of oratory rhat the occupation continued until 1920 when New Zea- Western Samoan arts reach their highest ex- land ruled Western Samoa under a League of Na- pression. This strong oral tradition is manifest in tions Mandate. AfterWorld War II, Westem Samoa

tl Notional Enironment ond Development Monogement Stroteges

3,000 t of waste were disposed of annually at the became a tnrstee of the United Nations, adminir rubbish disposal site in Vaiusu Bay' Lea- tered by New Zealand' and preparations began for former from the dump remains a potential threat to self-government. On 1 January 1962 Western chate environment and to the health of con- Samoa became the first of the Pacific nations to the marine seafood from the adjoining bay and become indePendent. sumers of site was opened in early The Western Samoan form of parliamentary lagoon areas. Anewlandfrll it is yet to be managed for effective government combines Samoan and Western Prac- ldg3. Howeuer, established to cater Ices. While univetsal suffrage was apProved in recycling, although it has been progressive methods of 1990, only 'matai' are eligible to be elected' The for this and other more Legislative Assembly is comprised of 49 members waste management. and ius associated inc'iucling the Speaker. Forty-seven are elected by Increasirrg industrial activity is cause for con- adrrlt universal suffrage; two rePresentatives are nutrient-loaded liquid effluent which are likely elected by people of non-Sarnoan ancestry' At the cern, as are disused facilities The local level each 'matai' has a place in a village sources of unmonitored chemical pollution' hospital council or 'fono', the governing authority in each disposal of hospital waste at the national 'nulr' (parish). The village council has wider and dirttict hospitals is of particular concern' A been the powers than the Western-style local government' recent positive development in Apia has The 'fono' elects a government rePresentative' the emergence of private sector interest in recycling 'pulenuu'. and waste management. In the rural area the quantities of waste pro duced are small but nonetheless significant' While non- t.7 Urban and rural issues organic waste is not generally a problem' the biodegradable producs of the Western consumer dis- Western Samoa is beginning to experience prob society are increasingly prevalent' Traditional real- lems related to the clisposal of wastes and the need posal practices have not a{usted to the new for urban planning. No planning legislation cur- ities, with burning of rubbish less common than rently exists (although legislation is being pre- simple disposal to heaps, often inappropriately pared). Apia exhibits overcrowding' Poor sited. con- segregatiott of industries and dwellings, tralfic The disposal of sewage is also a growing prob lack of plan- g.itiott, and other symPtoms of this lem. With no public sewerage system in Western ning. Samoa, private homes are served by on-site systems varying irom sepric tanks with soakage facilities to 1.7.1 Woste mdnogement primitive toiles on drains or over the sea' [t is of Apia that ground- problem' lt is LuiA.r,, in the lowJying areas Solicl waste disposal is now a growing of water is being polluted by effluent from many estimated that approximately 17,000 cubic m or

Monono lslond. Although not common, oveHneseo toi,er ore still used in iorne locotlons' (photo:A'C' Robinson, reproduced courtesy of DLSE)

t2 \I The setting

the sewage disposal facilities (G\,VS 1992e). And in activities account for 50 per cent of the Gross Do denselv populated areas, polluted groundwater; ae mestic Product (GDP),60 per centof theworkforce sisted by high percolation rates, is a likely contami- and about 80 per cent of export earnings (World nant of near-shore water. A study exploring options Bank l99l). for a sewerage system for the Apia urban area was Infrastructure development, including roads, completed in late 1993. airports, seaports and communications facilities, There is also growing concern about the use has been extensive. However, despite huge invest- and disposal of chemicals and agricultural pes ments in agricultwe, fisheries and forestry, there ticides. The high rate of suicides using weed killen has been a continuing decline in the export of shows the needforimproved policies on the overall primary products. The percentage of exports to management of toxic chemicals. This issue is cur- imports fell from 36 per cent in 1984 to l0 per cent rcntly bcing addrcsscd by the Pesticides Commir- in 1990 (GWS 1992a). According to the Central tee. Bank of Samoa (CBS), the current account deficit during the first half of 1992 was more than double 1.7,2 Climate chonge the level for the same period in 1991 (CBS 1992). Potential changes to the region's climate due to Tourism is of increasing importance, and the global warming are of concern to many Pacific Government of Western Samoa has in recent years countries including Western Samoa where the promoted the development of light manufacturing ereat majoriry of the population live within a kilo- industries. The economy is also dominated by ex- metre of the coast. A research programme measur- ternal aid and remittances from Samoans working ing sealevel change and other meteorological overseas. parameters is currently under way offApia. t.9 Conclusions ,.8 The economy The state of the Western Samoan environment is Like manv of the small South Pacific Island nations, cause for concern. The overall trend is one of Westem Samoa has endeavoured since inde- progressive decline of a way of life that is sustain- pendence to develop a modern economy from able and based on indigenous natural resources. traditional village agriculture and primary pro- The wastes of modern throw-away lifestyles are ducts. Agr icultural and related primary sector acti- everywhere evident, and become additional to vities still support around 75 per cent of the traditional waste. Accumulation of plastics, metals population, including almost the entire rrral popu- and special waste are a threat ro the natural Iation (Fairbairn 1993). The significance of the environment and to public health. primarv sector is indicated by the fact that related The local environmental issues mirror global

Ihe wostes of modern thrwrcwoy lifestyles ore becoming more p revalent (photo: Poddy Ryon, reproduced courtesy of MFAT)

t3 |' I Notionol Enironment ond Development Monogement Strotegies

is not generally practised, due to strong trends, as a growing population with increased l9?1, it still beliefs and the percepdon that a large expectations and demand for economic growth religious a socioeconomic advantage' competes for limited available resources' With family is However, in recent years and even during the timited funding for social services, the increase in period that the National Environment and Devel- population has affected the quality of education opment Management Strategies document was and health services. Many rural families seeking a being prepared, significant and positive activities to better life have moved to the capital, Apia, fhrther address such issues were undertaken by govern- stretching the limited urban facilities and employ- ment, private and community agencies' As well, there have been indi- ment opPortunities. The challenge of the NEMS process is to re- in recent years that many Samoans affected cations spond appropriately to the environmental issues economic recession overseas are returning by the raised, dlcide on a national direction, and develop placing more strain on local home, thereby strategies to achieve it. resources. It also seems that while family planning has been official policy in Western Samoa since

t4 PART 2 Notional Environment ond Development Monogement Strotegies Chapter 2

lntroduction

2.1 Locol environmentdl progress in effect, been consuming our natural capital. This will stop (GWS 1992a). T)re Government ofWestern Samoa in recentyean Other recent local environmental measures has been committed to the protection of the local include: environment. There also seerrs to be greaterpublic t establishment of prirate environmental awareness of environmental issues generally. groups such as O le Siosiomaga Society and In 1989, the Division ofEnvironment and Con- Faasao Savaii Society; servation (DEC) was established, and combined t formulation of draft legislation for EIA; rrith the former Department of Lands and Surveys t promotion of waste management strategies, to form the new Depanment of Lands, Surveys and including the development of a new landfill Enrironment (DLSE). E".ly in 1992, the SPREP site fbr solid waste disposal to replace the office was relocated from Noumea, New Caledonia former coastal site: to Apia, Western Samoa, thus placing Western t establishment of the Western Samoa Water Samoa at the centre of regional environmental Authoriry (WSWA) to manage national water activities. resources: A delegation from Western Samoa led by the a establishment of a separate Ministry for Prime Minister attended the United Nations Con- Women Affairs; ference on Environment and Development t private agreements on rainforest (UNCED) at Rio deJaneiro, &-l4June 1992. In his conservation with the villages of Aopo, address to the conference, the Prime Minister Falealupo and Thfua, Faazla and Salelologa; stated, "For the purpose of addressing environ- 0 preparation of draft national policies on nrental issues comprehensively, my Government is forestry and population. in the process of formulating a National Environ- The improvement of the urban environment is ment Managemenr Srraregy" (Tofilau 1992). also a m{or concern. The Government ofWestern In March 1992, Western Samoa's Seventh De- Samoa has proposed the establishment of the Apia velopment Plan 1992-1994 (DP7) was completed. In Municipal Authority (AMA) to manage future de- it, much is made of environmental protection and velopment of the capital Apia, and plans are being srutainable development. One of DP7's objectives is considered for acquiring more land for Salelologa to achieve a Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth in Savaii. Specific development concepts for cen- rate exceeding ttre population growth rate, and ro tral Apia are proposed in the Western Samoa Tour- achieve it through sustainable development. The ist Development Plan f992-2001 (GWS 1992c); need to carry out Environmental lmpactAssessment and as directed by the Prime Minister at the fELt) is recommended for all m4jor projecs. In his Ground Breaking Ceremony for the new govern- Foreword remarks, the Prime Minister states: ment office building, the Governmentwill develop Underlying all our policies is the concept of sustain- "plans to ensure that public services in Apia are able derelopment. It has become elident in recent vears that much apparent development, especially upgraded, and amenity improved accordingly to in agriculture, has been achieved at the expense of enhance our urban phpical environment' (Tofilau the long-term health of the environnrent. We have, 1991).

l7 National Enwronment ond Development Monogement Strotegies

the Division of Environment The need NEMS in for their fieldwork by 2.2 for many may choose environ- Western Somoo and Conservation, mental topics. With increased local concern for the environment, it is important to provide a common national ap proach to environment and development issues' 2.3 PrinciPles for NEMS Therefore, NEMS is expected to pror"ide the mech- As a comprehensive national approach Lo sustain- anism for an integrated approach to environ- able development, NEMS aims through com- mental management. It is expected that with better munity participation to natural capital coordination, NEMS will promote a more consist- Preserve (air, water, Iand and other ecological 'goods') ' This ent application of environmental education and reqtrires balancing human activities with nature's delivery of information. In the DP7' there is an ability to renew itself. It also recognises that educa- attempt for the first time to iutegrate environ- tion and economic growth are necessary to elimi- mental and economic issues to Promote sustain- ignorance and poverty, which lead to the waste able clevelopment. For the DP7 to succeed, nate and degradation of resources. however, it is important to develop consistent The underlying pr-inciples for NEMS have beeu guiclelines for project assessment and implementa- adapted from the Rio Declaradon of UNCED don. There is also a need to provide better costing (UNCED 1992). These principles' which covered for projecs to reflect all the private and social both local and intemational issues on sustainable inputs. This should lead to better distribution and clevelopment, were drafted, then deliberated upon use of available development capial. by representatives of many nations of the world' At present, national policies on environmental The Government of Westem Samoa has given its issues are notwell defined,which can lead to public ftrll support to the Rio Declaration' confusion and uncertainty. NEMS will establish the NEMS principles for Western Samoa are as Government's position on susainable develop follows: ment, and promote clear policies to guide develop (1) The Western Samoan citizens ar€ at the ment programures. NEMS will also facilitate centre of concerns for sustainable sectoral cooperation, providing a mot'e balanced development. They are entitled to a healthy approach to common emironmental issues' and productive life in harmony with uature' There is a need ro coordinate research and data The Govemment of Western Samoa has the collection on local environmental issues, to ensure (2) sovereign right to exploit its own resources' a systematic approach to the undersnnding and pursuant to its environmental and dissemination of informatiotr. For example, every policies. year, a number of local students undertake re- developmental right to development must be fulfilled searcl'l for university programmes; if given suPPort (3) The

Vittage children neor Solani, Upolu. Watern Sornoon citizens ore the centre of government concerns for sustoinoble developmentThey ore entitled to o hebltty and productve life in harmony with noure. (photn: Paddy Ryan, rep roducd courtesy of MFAT)

t8 Introduction

so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations. (4) In order to achieve sustainable development, enf ironmental protection shall constitute an integral parr of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it. (5) The Government of Western Samoa and all citizens (with support from other governments as deemed necessary) shall cooperate in the essential task of eradicating povefty as an indispensable requirement for sustainable development, in order to provide equitable standards of living and better meet community needs and aspirations. (6) To achieve sustainable development and a manogement and de,dofr higher quality of life for all citizens, the Women hove o vitol role in environmentnl ment. Ihe moking of \iopo', o toditionol art, is olso o sustoinob,e in' Government of Western Samoa should dustry. (phota: hC. Robinso4 reproducd courtay of DI-SE) inten'ene to reduce and eliminate unsrutainable patterns of production and used as a reason for postponing consumption, and promote appropriate cost-effective measures to demographic policies. Prevent environmental degradation. (7) Environmental issues are best handled with (11) The of Western Samoa should the participation of all concerned citizens, Government promote the internalisation at the relevant levels. The Government of endeavour to \A/esterl Samoa shall provide easy access to of environmental costs and the use of publiclv held information on the economic instruments, taking into account environment and development; encourage the approach that the polluter should, in community participation in principle, bear the cost of pollution, with decision-making processes; and promote due regard to the public interest and public awareness and participation by without distorting international trade and makin g information widely available. investment. (8) The Government of Western Samoa shall (12) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), as enact effective environmental legislation, a national planning instnment, shall be nith environmental standards, management undertaken for development proPosals, objectires and priorities which reflect the with due regard for the public interest and appropriate local contexr to which rhey without distorting international trade and apply. investment. (9) The Government of Western Samoa shall (13) Women have a vital role in environmental develop national law regarding liabiliry and management and development, and their compensation for the victims of pollution full participation is essential to achieve and other environmental damage caused by sustainable development. activities within its jurisdiction or conrrol. (14) ideals, other attributes of (10) In order to protect the environmenr, rhe The creativity, and achieve precautionary approach shall be widely youth should be mobilised to used by the Government of Western Samoa srutainable development and ensure a according to its capabilities. Where there better fufure for all. are threats of serious irreversible damage, (15) Traditional arts and cultural practices lack of full scientific certainw shall not be should be recognised and supPorted as an

l9 Notionol Environment ond Development Monagement Strotegies

integral part of the sustainable j and from other countries, of anY activities and substances that cause severe development Process. are found (16) Peace, development and environmental environmental degradation, or protection are interdependent and to be harmful to human health; indivisible. t Provide urgent notification and (1?) Wrere any environment or development information to potentially affec ted activities affect or involve other countries, countries in the event of any natural the Government of Western Samoa shall do disasters or other emergencies that are all in ia power to: likely to produce harmful effects on the I Ensure that these activities do not cause enl'ironment of those countries; and damage to areas beyond the limits of its I Resolve its environmental disputes with jurisdiction, in accordance with the other countries peacefully, and by Charter of the United Nations and the appropriate means in accordance with principles of international law; the Charter of the United Nations. ) Communicate its special needs in the field of environment and development, and those of similar regional nations, at 2,4 Regionof Nationof intemational forums; and do whatever is Envi ro n mento I Md n oge m ent possible to address the interests and Strotegies (NE/I4S) Proiect needs of other countries; ) Cooperate in a spirit of global In early 1991, SPREP secured financial suPPort partnership to conserve, Protect and from the United Nations Development Pro restore the health and integrity of the gramm€ (UNDP) to provide an assistance Pro- earth's ecosystems; and to take gramme to Pacifc Island countries aimed at responsibility for any pressures placed on strengthenin g in

70 htuudrmioll

recomrr,endiqg- any nececsary instittltiorral Ttre uaining coqPoqent inrmlves: sitrexgtheningi short+our'se ua,ining firctr"sing on ElAand identified by the (4) developmeut o-f; environmsnal Ynatragemenl other trai:ning reErirements stratqgiee whieh addre$-s the ptiority TaskTeam; and enviro4$ental p.roblelns and is*rcs; and on-the-job uaining aimed at governrn€nt NCOs- (5') recsrnmeudatioos on environmeutirl sffieids and nrerrbe.rs of P,rEgra,mmes to $rpport tlle Natioual Environmental lVlanagenent Sitrategles.

2l Chopter 3

Framework for NEMS

(6) Development of appropriate land use 3. Approoch I pracdces At the first meeting of the TaskTeam in November (7) Consewation of biological diversity 1991, it was agreed that NEMS for Western Samoa (8) Protection of the atmosPhere should cover the "total environment". That is, the (9) Planning for climate change strategies should address all the issues related to (10) Preservation of tradirional arts, culture and the natural, physical, social and economic environ- history ments. There was general consensus that as (11) Development of human resources environmental issues are interrelated, NEMS must (12) Promoting sustainable economic growth deal with all environmental aspects if itis to provide a comprehensive, national approach to environ- mental management. ?.2 Gools During the third meeting of the Task Team in September 1992, the NEMS approach adoptedwas NEMS long-term goals are the improvement of the one based on key environmental issues, rather than welfare of all Samoan citizens and the realisation a sectoral approach. The latter tends to Pursue of community expectations through sustainable sectoral interests and to treat their impacts on development by means of: other sectors as side

22 AXlmxe GAFAi-n lA ravUlMA" [h$A [A SAA(rffiN@A ["6 MAUA E 6ASdOA UMA,N60 $SALS Ltlr{ANdU,Se oUASA €6fguu Ma ua @uArsA e fxf,su owa faTou_ Fahaoroa so ffioqr 60060@UA0A NtA AuAd l$a u6 W,

Otu@@4d.btryd&tub.Fobsry @ox,&{kr@otu rSulrod tu@ . @ @!r@[email protected] M d L Ar!.'hk@

23 ;

Naionol Enironment and Development Monogement Strotegies

visible gains to them as individuals' Often' Sustainable development allows progress and mediate makers seem to lack the political will to growth without risking constraints from overpopu- decision goals which may not provide L,iorr, resource depletion and ecological break- promote long-term electoral advantages' But for NEMS to down. It is defined as a process in which: immediate have any chance of success, it is important to articu- . . . the exploitation of resources, the direction of late the mechanisms of a framework for change' invesment, the orientation of technological and implementation ofNEMS development and institutional change, are all in and for the planning a harmony and enhance both current and future to operate within that framework' Details of potential to meet human needs and aspirations NEMS framework for change are discussed in on Environment and lWorld Commission Chapter 4. Development 1987). Alternatively, it means: ft9 . . . using, conserving, and enhancittg 3.3 ScoPe .om*nnity's resources so that ecological processes on which life depends, are maintained' The requirements for SPREP's regional project' as qualitv of life now and in the funrre and *re total discussed in Section 2.4, need to be considered in can be increased (Commonwealth Government of the local context. Because of Western Samoa's par- Ausualia 1900). ticular stage of environmental development' it is The demand for natural resources' and their most important to provide a stepby-step frame subsequent depletion and/or degradation' is di- workso tharthe required'ground mles' ale setand rectly related to the number of people competing approved from the very start' This will require for those resources' Therefore, continued popula- suUsuntd public awareness and understanding of tion growth will place ffemendous pressures on the issues involved, and clear commitment by deci- resources, an d ul timately j eopard- limi tecl available sion makers to any proposed environmenEl ise the livelihood of all citizens. Stabilising popula- policies and / or activities' tion involves the improvement of community For instance, on the question of the adequacy primary health care, standards of living, and the of existing legislation, there is a need first to define rttt* of women. It also means making family plan- the issues to be legislated on, especially the end ning and counselling services widely available to that are expected to be achieved from such help lower birth rates and achieve sustainable results laws. This will involve a consideration of control' population growth. incentive, and rade-off options, seeking political Boosting efficiency involves the adoption of approval, setdng standards for compliance' and practices and measures that will reduce the the costs involved to monitor compliance' ,..orrr.", used, or polludon generated' These in- "rt"ttittgLikewisi on the question of environmental clude less destructive agriculture; waste recJcling; management strategies, many different sectors more efficient wood-burning cookers; renewable must te consulted, each with different require- energy; and more efficient vehicles' for national strategies' In the absence of any Restraining consumption involves developing ments integrated national policies on environmental Iifestyles drat lower the burden ou the cnviron- the above problems will be difiicult' if not ment, and creating more realistic community ex- issues, through pubtic education and impossible, to address on a case-by-case basis' pectations develop con- Therefore, to provicle for an orderly awareness Programmes. It also scrutinises of Western Samoa's NEMS, it is proposed that surner goods more carefully, promotes 'green con- ment carried out in three sumerism', and encourages self-reliance' it be Phases' Building a framework for change is the main Phose I component of the sustainable development prG This sets out the framework for NEMS' It provides cess. In less developed countries like Western the philosophy and future direction on environ- Samoa, it is often very difiicult to change en- ment and development' as well as guidelines fbr trenched attitudes and old habits' The majority of policy formulation and implementation' The pro the population who live in rural areas seem more visions of Phase 1 should be approved by the gov- involved with survilal from one day to the next than before Phase 2 can start' with long-term schemes which will provide no im- ernment

24 Fromewo* for NBV1S

Phose 2 (6) Conclusions This phase involves the formulation of national (7) References policies for each of the TECs given in Section 3.1. (8) Attachments In the absence of specific environmental 'ground nrles', it is paramount that related policies setting Phose 3 out national priorities and sectoral responsibilities This deals with poliry implementation. With policy are approved for each TEC. It is expected that for approval, Phase 3 will draw up action plans; imple- each TEC, the sectors involved orwith interest in it ment activities to achieve objectives; monitor prog- uill set up a Policy Committee to facilitate policy ress; and review performance. This is dre preparation. For example, those to involved in be continuing phase of NEMS, which is subject to a policy orl water resorlrce.s should inclrrde repre' regrrlar evaluation and review, and should be flex- sentadves from the Western Samoa Water Author- ible to accommodate new information and experi- itv (WSWA), Health Department, Depanment of ence. The other important aspect of Phase 3 is the Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries (DAIF), Educa- of ongoing community education and tion Department, and the Department of Lands, promotion improved public awareness. Survevs and Environment. the creation of As the national policies will guide future devel- opment on the TECs, it is most important to en- courage and solicit wide public participation 3.4 Structure of the report dunng policy formulation. As these policies will guide future public activities, the community must The rest of this report looks at the other require- be part of this consultative process. The politicians ments for Phase I . Chapter 4 develops the concepts should also be involved and well briefed in order of change and suggests a framework in which it can to gain their support and endorsement. develop. Chapter 5 discusses the current status of The general format for the national policies is the various TECc, based on available information discussed in detail in Chapter 7, and is as follows: and local studies. Chapter 6 recommends for each (l) Introduction TEC the main policy objectives, with activities to (2) Policy goals achieve those objectives. Chapter 7 looks at the (3) Objectives and activities implementation framework for NEMS, not only for (4) Implementation each policy, butalso for NEMS overall coordination (5) Evaluation and administration.

25 ; Chapter 4

The process of change

4., General the environmental agendas for the country. Good agendas will remain good intentions only unless As discussed in Section 3.2, the process of change *rey are translated and put into practice through is the key component for srutainable development. communigv action and participation. It is also the most difficult to address as it involves the attitudes, perceptions and personal prejudices of individuals, all of which are driven by their 4.2 Public oworeness educational and life experiences. The under- For the m{ority of the general public, awareness standingof change can be as diverse as the number environmental issues cannot be taken for of people in any society. It is also a political concept of granted. Itwill have to be created through ongoing as it will influence decision making and promote programmes, using both formal and informal the development of new power strucnlres, on avenues. For many of the people in the rural areas which the future of the nation depends. with limited educational background, it is a mam- For NEMS to succeed, the community must moth task to help them appreciate sustainable de- change from the wasteful practices now in common l'elopment issues, especially if there is a cost to them use, and adopt more efficient alternatives. For in the short term. example, clearing forests on steeper slopes can lead Public awareness is a key element in all TEC to soil erosion and the loss of other environmental national policies. While standard means of com- 'treasures'. But how can rural families necessarily municating ideas are encouraged through the manage when there is limited good land available? press, radio and public meetings, public awareness when shifting agriculture is the only Or change in the long term may be best achieved through know, and afford to method of cultivation they can formal environmental education. This will use the obviously involve a use? The process of change will normal education and health sFtems by incorpor- and ac- change in social and economic attitudes ating environmental prograrnmes in school cur- tions. It will require a change in people's lifestyles. ricula and adult education, and by promoring The whole philosophy that grrides their lives mu.st sustainable development issues throtrgh primary therefore cl'range. health care activities. Thus, the process of change must involve the Information should be presented in ways that whole community, and the three components of this are relevant to people's lives, with plenry of vizual process (the three As of Change) are Public Aware- demonstrations aud displays. For instance, family ness, Agenda Setting and CommunityAction. planning, while still a sensitive local issue, should of the number of people to Awareness + Agenda + Action') Change be dealt with in terms feed and clothe, school fees to pay, and land re- Public awareness and education, as mentioned quired for agriculture and buildings. Water pollu- earlier, are important functions in policy formula- tion should be interpreted in terms of lack of tion and implementation. As will be seen in Chap hygien e, sickness from drinkin g dirty wateq and the ter 6, each policy sets objectives and activities shortage of supplies. Dynamiting fish should be which, if approved by the government, will become presented not only as foolish, but as a serious

26 Ihe process dchonge

Envkonmentol educotjon rs neede d to chonge ottrtudes. School chitdren in Apio corry o World Envimnment Doy bonner during Independence Doy celebrotions. (photo: Poddy Ryon, reproduced court*y of MFAT)

criminal act. Dynamiting kills all nearbymarine life public awareness, improve knowledge and under- and damages community fishing grounds. Public standing, set standards for resource u ilisation, and education should also be presented in such a way provide support for related activities to ensure their as to promote dialogue and discussion, rather than success. a lecture-like approach. Local conflics regarding the impact of environmental policies already exist in Western Samoa. A good example is the question of land use. 4.3 Agendo setting While the Department of Lands, Survep and Environment and the Department of Agriculture, Agenda setting in this context is a direct function Forests and Fisheries are advocating less destructive of political leadership. It is impossible to underes- agricultural practices, farmers believe that they timate the importance of quality leadership ro prG should develop their own land in anyway that suis vide better plans, muster sound arguments, and them or they can afford. There is no government esublish agendas for better policies and equitable over land use or forest clearance. community service. New programmes should be control must intervene based on sound and convincing arguments, and ln such cases, the government increased public input be sought during the formu- to provide overall guidelines. This is the philosophy lation and planning of national development pro- on which the whole principle of land use planning grummes. Any significant community change will and environmental control is based. If each indi- require quality leadership as its very foundation. viduat pursues his or her own interests only, the In NEMS, it is hoped that the narure and direc- interests of other memben of the public will be tion of government su pport for environmen tal pro affected, since all will suffer the effecu of water lection will be reflected in the proposed national contamination, soil erosion and the pollution of policies. This will involve a commitment to create lagoons.

77 7

Development Notionol Enironment.ond Monogement Suoteges t'tfflllTJ; g b'1' d' d,T^fl:: --1 ridicurridicu-le e ?ooand beinucrrr5 "'. *of 'doing unto the Christt;principle 4.4 CommunitY oction based:il*ilffi on H;'t'+::,'::::"K"J::;rnrrnrovou,. Com- dernocraq,':il"l:"f;"TJ;Tl:::ilj'i:li : :l rn any ffil;txffiffi ';;:i;::::"*I?*'fi; ""?".*"J public expectationt ty liljroles l:ffiilTtor LrurLrv*' ffio- -ah :::::,::' since tn- "o" ::J::;-^ T;. communr whir- oaouides security, i'*-".' n * ::,erm ine another elerutrrlelement "'^'iy - .u^ir .^lesroles and ftrnc'func- l-:i,'il ;T;::';*","' exact it their must ."ke th*q":tj;;'"nlr, made to dividuals know ^, tutty rn""tdbe approPriate acdon' uoods, are dons are. which :'::jri,ll,*i. there are t:']^:;;.itvisunablemany instan..** l" *"1 com- At present' r ":'T^i".linil*tt :-Lr another the communlty """i*J #: for one reason or H:ffi *:lg;;:T:::j-i':r****';H:,; . ,*';; - :r:.*TJ::ffi3fiil:,*il: ing theirlives' ForexamPrc:i:;;" .uih firh, u, ;,'$'; :::'gni'lion' who ts using explottl* ,'ffi il: ;:':'fi'# :*'1Lfor p::" projects' one knows ::j:ti to and is likely "tt'utfd-"aing most re- *o * NEMS' in "'e,.". l"T:::i:Xi$"'Tt:::ilffi';nerl 'llr,**"e ln 'o**""itY 1frtt-T]t,|:phase (Phase 3)' ment. However' '] sosome com- the i*pr.mlntudon culPrits' Likewise' flected in There ugti"" the clearing proltto * achieve ouj:::]tt il; tt landowners the design action than munities are well "f to tmla t"uironmental "#" is nobetterway uadi- i*a, pr^,,.i"q *"0#.0;j:: ,il.':1:; rotur to*l'l'"iry ' through ""*"t*t-andalready exist ment areas above ffi donat impl"rn"**tlo"- For t"-aZ1J"nrtttrrt' to"-l.g^*t""d' #; ;; which can be a"""'i"ta ."- T:"ffi"[r'?IH1',".oii'""; y:: io'*""itY wate r suP .**pr. ":ii*,run: dlT'."fi: :iffi::::l'?'"Jff,* ply source' iw neecls to be empowe*t: ;,:iii:ikiiu'*m:Tffi"l;: The commun destrucnve * their pri- I stand against such H'f r""-'rv' streak up -"x" everyone' The ffi il: ilXil'a of-community ""a will "[:ff ir'ti' sense ..tiot' that ''rl*^t"fy"'ftct held respon- mary arena or i"tJ""' where lt to"fto'lted and in those offenders should not be allowed seems to t*t'gt"p"'im^'ily to'utt* them and *.t shofd sible for .t of their group i"nolntnrt"l^o'J*"t^geous "i, ".rlit * t"dt""ment to take public - must feel their familieli* b1 based on the ";;; rni colllrnity wiil irresponsiblt "toltul* j*t for a few ^ttio" that rt i-t]'.tltr samoan'"'"' ?li"ii* T1q:":fi:SXH: strongly "'itttntt common heriage' "r village food dtstnt to at'uoy their be illustrated in risk individuals can tr"t go"dt evenlv or the disuibu'"';;"':;;?t

28 Chopter 5

Current stotus of the locol environment

5., Populotion issues of emigrants may be declining, with the economic recession badly affecting the raditional oversezrs As mentioned earlier, the population of Western destination countries for Samoans, namely Aus Samoa from the preliminary results of the 1991 tralia, New Zealand and the United States. Figure Census of Population and Housing is 161,298 5.1 shows population projections for three differ- (DOS 1992). The most significant feanrre of the ent annual growth rates. The first scenario is the population structure as shown in previous census annual growth rate of 0.6 per cent given by DOS; results is the high proportion of those under 15 the second is the estimated growth rate of 1'06 per years. In 1971 this was as high as 50 per cent (DOS cent published by the South Pacific Alliance of 1981). However, as shown in Table 5.1, during itfell Family Health (SPAFH 1991); and the third is the 1976-1986 from 48 to 4l per cent, due to a decline current estimated naural growth rate of approxi- in fertility and high overseas migration. mately 2.0 per cent. According to the latter, if the Between 1906 and 1986, the population safety valve of emigration is tightened, the 1986 increased more than fourfold from 37,320 to population will double by the year 2021. 157,408, representing an average annual popula- There are three main issues of concern toWest- tion growth rate of 4.0 per cent (DOS 1986). Bttt, ern Samoa if the national population is allowed to as shown in Table 5.2, for the intercensal period grow at the current rates. These are identified in 1982-1986, the net out-migration rate increased the Draft Population PolicY as: from 16.7 per 1000 to 28.0. Therefore, despite the (l) limited land resources; stable high birth rates and declining death rates, resources; and the high emigration rates resulted in a net decline (2) depletion of other nailrral in population growth rate during the same period. (3) strain on existing economic and social There are strong indications that the number infrastructure (GWS 1992b).

Table 5.1 Populotion structurc, 197o.,1986

t976 | 981 | 986 Age Total % Pop. Total %Pop. Totaf %PoP.

0.4 24,U6 16.2 22,866 14.6 21,859 t3.9 5-9 24,973 t6.4 22,U8 t4.6 2 t,023 t3.4 l0-t4 23,627 t5.6 23,525 r5.0 21,7 t3 t3.8 t5-t9 t8,552 t2.9 20,896 13.4 2 t, t35 t3.5 2H.4 39,08 | 25.7 43,700 28.0 48,271 30.7 4#4 t5,607 10.2 16,880 t0.8 17,761 | 1.3 65+ 4,497 3.0 5,676 3.6 5,396 3.4

Total t50.983 t00.0 t56,341 t00.0 r57,r58 t00.0

Source: DOS 1986

29 7

ond Development Notionof Environment Manogement Stroteges

or social development^otr nomic, environroeutal for the j r ssor Populotionvitol stotistics ; iAU Toble 5.2 1982-t.986 ffi -u;11f int"""n'oi ieriod' i..*t that dne samt L:"fi::il]:[: Annual ;;"r*":,:'*..:*J_';lril:"#H,::.':ll ot Net out' population the integradon * t attarn- grourth rate t planning' t1111L miqration (n national developmen growh rate that Lte* ment of a national p'"p"r",i." can sustarn' available resources t982 3 | .0 t983 3 t .0 1984 30.5 suPPfY 1985 30'0 5.2 Woter of the water 1986 29.5 the developmen[ Curent sffategies for tol '* per 1,000 PoPulation sector inclrrde measures management; Source:DOS 1986 il";;**" watershed (2) harvest rainwater; master PIan; Inordertomaintainahighsmndardofliving iri i*tto anadonal it is esdmated cost recovery; all the amenitit' of tt"ifil"tion' proviat effective with land and i+; authoriry; and total uu"'Obt" agricultural (5) develop the new water (based on for f992d)' tt'ut Jt awareness (GWS human neecls) "ftily.-f-opulation (6) create public have p.opt" (y^T11t 1950) ' the population now Samoa i, raqooo About wo-thirds of western migration and fto* resources' the The effects of re- access to water Ao*' '*i^tt '"atttti-iniJ*u'io"aunemployed Samoans on borewatll or'rainwater' the likelihood of some other third relying ihe local demand for God's gtft therefore mrning home *iU t*ttt'Uute Samoans regard Jtt;; "* limited resources' ;;ti: Fourth Five Year Development "i'." ano.l:',::#;Jll: :f J:-,':-'J; The country's though e:*Ploitation requu' .emerrt fot tr'-ut i"*ily planning' examPle' the normal Plan recog"i'"a with ece ;iil *t ,"'tn 19?1' was not integrated "*r..U Proiections Figure 5'l Popubrtongrowth

Population ('000) 350

300

250

200

t50

r00

50

r-2% (Birth-death) l99l t.}6%(SPAFH) 1986 -r-0.6% (DoS) + Year

Source: GWS 1992b

30 Currentstoars of rhe local emircnment

Table 5.3 Locol fundingfor wter supty ($'ooo) Item 1988 1989 1990 Expenditure Recurent 1,294 1,025 l'780 | Development 3,489 A++ '266 lictaf 4,783 1,869 3,046 Revenue 2l | 189 305

Source: PWD l99l

ate policies for effective cost recovery Boreholes are expensive to develop, costing about $1,000 per metre to drill, and 2040'sene'per cubic metre to operate, depending on the bore depth. However, water is supplied virtually free to local consumers at about one 'sene' Per person per cubic metre, compared to 83 (US) cents per Person in Hawaii, plus an initial fee of $US 7,000 for every new con- nection. While considerable fixrding has been allocated under European Community economic assistance (Lomd M for water supply development, this is subject to the completion of a national master plan. Such a plan will guide future development of *re Sopoogo Falls,Uplu. Despite o high minfall in ports of Somoo,only o water sector, especially the effecdve management nojor riverc run all yeor round. Continuing lond dqrance is o few available resources and including the impacts of malot thrcot to the ability of the catchmant oreos to hold water. of (photo:A.C. Roh'nson,eproduceJ couney of DLSE) hydroelectricity generation. Through the new water authority, the main issues for water resources are the protection of supplies and the sustainable provision water is 250 litres per person per day. In the Apia of clean water to all consumers. area, current use is 600 litres per person per day. Lxcept for a few m{or rivers that run all year round, all surface water sources dry up for three to 5.3 Fisheries six months. This is due largely to the high per- meability of younger rock formations (Kear et al. While it is not possible to make any valid estimates 1979). However, cydone damage and the continu- of the maximum sustainable yield for Western ing land clearing for agriculture are now the major Samoa's varied and complex fishery stocks, it is threats to the ability of catchment areas to hold evident from the reports of people who fish, avail- rvater. Despite government efforts to protect catch- able catch,/effort data from different areas, and ment areas, large parts of most catchments have declines in market landings that the maximum alrrady been cleared for plantations. To minimise sustainable yield has been exceeded in most Parts damage to catchment areas, watershed manage- of Upolu (Zann 1991a). A decline in fish stocks is ment has been introduced to the Vaisigano River probably responsible for the decline in inshore Catchment, and the government has agreed to take landings in Upolu. over all river catchment areas. Zann (l99fc) gives the possible reasons for Thble 5.3 shows the funding allocations for inshore stock declines as: water supplies. Only about 10 per cent of local (l) overfishing due to increased demand; expenditure is recovered annually from con- (2) use of effective and modern, but sumers, which highlights the absence of appropri- non-selective, fi shing techniques;

3l ond Development NoUonol Environment Monagement Strotegtes

Londrectomoti,o"'*:1{T;"#':Ti,fl "-il::T of logoons ond mongrou-es rcsources oI^f ili"".ipi*,1.""i.' to thi fisheries Z",y,irPri*"a counesy of DLSE)

5'4 WOSte monOgement techniques such as poisons (3) use of destructive " . , y"yli..:;;:frffiH:fi:J'lt::"':::H:: ^,.,ddynamite;a'dhabitat through reclamauoi" ,', genera"llll^'::T," (4) ; oinrn being rural areas' and .t'"the and drainage' in the il.i;;;, ""a corat sand mining . -..^- ,r-,a ltff;;il:l]r".,1orlis no Pu*-.r., part of the urban dlpletion was the Apia only. covers A good .*u*pt."oin^"r, at collecuu^'r-.rtirnut.a 17'000 of the mangrove.swamp t: th.t npt'ioximately use, until recentry, it tt:i of annually at the ;6sal site. tt'i' upoo rwere airpot.a Bay as ,t. ,oJr, *".* cubtc n' '", mendoned Vaiusu l" w.r1"rrr,su*oa, and ", Vaitrsu Bay which, as largest area of ,"g""" ;;. area west of the u"a*tttands areain *"' rt"tta in the mangrove contains,r," tu'g"""i""'ig'o* ::lffi ::ft*Ti:"::: ;.ingsubjec,ed,o t:::, ;," ll; J"",*,:i:i.:l*,:::'iTi"-:::jl;directly into the *a ao*tLii i"T ^ot"l-;;;;;t*""1;;;;t""tta still discharges industrial "u""'"otfJ'"'t^tio"and nutriens 'it out' l"utilute or the increased the o" *;:;; lrt^"tserilus has '""dJ;';isoilii.* .u" result in eutrc u*p.*a ol there are being washed," .n.'.r;. -there' oi,.lu"""*H-f; even KII urs rLL! \!'-- heattn:t,::']::':;.-o ments may "T-1",il:':H';1il:t*T,il;l*5:=:rux"nmm:i!"'1*;,,"* landfill site has now 1992)' sediment -':::1;;' disposal' -* +r^a litF't*re that t"tH:T$"lT:"y "'r'^t waste Itiseviclentfromtheliteraturethatsedimentl"y:."dlagoonareas.Ani'Jiryg:: It;;:;*'o u grot'ing- prob and nutrien, o"r.ir",^ioir"goo,,. tt;r* Western and conributing to sewerage system in Samoan ,""i *yr,."], ,^*t-* no public Wesrern (Tavlor lgel ) ' bv .n-site svstems the cotrapse t u,. t.*rl".irtt.ri.* J,';;;;.";;;:t it:-serued :?"",H#ffi* *[T:ll"il*'m:':; I'i "eo' i:'u'-r'u' ::".:.:I:;X}:X{T*T o: og.iJii,* d*ute waste. rn"'b.p..,-"': :119,":#i*":*fi:'Hiii!i:i;of APia estimates J-'at 90 per T"?". in the low-lying areas Foresrs and Fisnerle' tO^effl ;;""ih""t ::it"tt*jj:,[x*ui?'* (1),,re il:T'"11;i:ffi: ffii,'.,",":fii{l:ff::j'17 T'j::,'jil'11$il'm;,,polluted.ground- il".ff ,'il1i,*m*;:ffi'trjjjili*ffiro'."i'*o':t deveropmen, or lio't1"'r'"'i"' * T*f;11fl;{}-':J"fitl'"':"'":'::::lt*t'ttt';;;;;r *" 19?1 g.o*i'gpubli1.""t"T:b::t nrrtrehatcheror.j*.Jurn.111ry.ipatain to lro Fi't't'it' Dl'"ij]:" of DAFF was an attempt';'* oryoungll*tles (Zann leerb)' increase,,,.uiuo,,nip in 1983' ;il*iifiil'n::;liruU:it',1lx[l::3' The hatchery was closed

32 Currerft stotus of the locol environment

nearly 60 per cent of families reported using agri- by remaining forest (36 per cent indigenous, I per cultural chemicals (DOS/DAFF 1990). The high cent plantation). Figure 5.2 shows the breakdown rate of suicides using weed killers shows the need of forest areas between Upolu and Salaii. The re- for improved policies on the overall management maining forest comprises 47 and 23 per cent of the of toxic chemicals. Hospital waste disposal was of total land areas on Saraii and Upolu respectively. concern. The hospital sewage treatment plant was DAIT (1992) estimates that of the remaining in- replaced in 1992 by a new and effective facility, digenous forest, only 5 per cent is merchantable although effluent qualiry has suffered from main- while 3l per cent is non-merchantable. rcnal'Ice and management dimculties. The Deparcment of Agriculrure, Forests and Future options for waste management include Fisheries also estimates that the current rate of (3,000 (l) to reduce, recycle and recover resources from fbrest dcplction is about 7,500 acres ha) per solid waste; and (2) to prolide proper treatment year. The rates of depletion are similar on both clearing on and disposal facilities for solid waste. In 1991, the Savaii and Upolu but 40 per cent of to logging wltile there is less logging govertlment approved a new 4O-hectare site for a Savaii is due Overall, 20 per cent of forest clearing is sanitary landfill. The Department oflands, Surveys on Upolu. logging with the remaining 80 per and Environment is currently developing the new attributed to cent resulting from agriculture and other activities site. Plans are also being considered for the reha- (DAFF reez). bilitation of the former site, particularly to improve The most important functions of forest are: the mangrove swamp areas, and to discourage any and conserve the environment further degradation by nearby residents. Feasibility (l) to protect (including soil, water and biodiversity studies for a sewerage scheme for Apia have been undertaken, but funding for its construction ap resources); (2) wood and other forest products; Dears remote. to produce and (3) to provide recreation and tourism 5.5 Forestry opportunities (GWS 1991b). Paid employment in the forestry sector currently The total land area of Western Samoa is 698,941 supports l0 per cent of the labour force. acres or 282,852 ha. Of this, 37 per cent is covered With deforestation having wide ramifications

Figure 5.2 Remoining forcst oreos (ho) )avarl Upolu

789 (3.07.) 594 e3n

24,522 (94.7y")

62,874 (78.e%\

Merchantable |-l Established m Non-merchantable indigenous l-J plantation l-J indigenous

Source: DAFF 1992

33 7

National Environment ond Development Manogemerfi Strotegies

5.6 Lond use

The m{ority of land is owned byfamilies or is under cusbmary ownership, as shorrrn in Thble 5'4' This qrstem guanmtees access to land for subsistence Pur- poses, and is an integral part of the Samoan way of life. However, cusbmary ownership of land can be a corstraint for certain types of economic activity, and is seen by some as an impediment to development (Hardin &Associates 1989). For example, for exten- sive agriculnr.rat or forestry development with heavy investment in fixed assets, long-term security of ten- ure is necessary. However, Fairbairn (1985) con- cludes that the economic future of Western Samoa depends essentially on Progress in the subsistence sector. Apart from indigenots forests, the other most important land use in Western Samoa is cropping,

Figure 5.3 Estimote of land use, I99l (000 ho)

t04 Indigenous forest (36.87")

Plantation Other forest (lava flows, towns, etc.) purpos*' areas Alrnost eigfity per cent of forest c lwrdnce is for ogrial/rwrol 28. I Here,toi is' fuir6 gmwn omongst felled logs' (phon:Poddy Ryan,re- t0.7 (r0.0%) produced courtesY of MFr'fr) (3.8%)

for most other aspects of the environment, sustain- able forest management is seen as one of the most pressing issues in environmental protection' Two options are Proposed (GWS 1991b) for future de- velopment of indigenous forest. One is for a perPet- ual log cut of 1,000 cubic m Peryear' and the other 139.2 Land for agricultural crops and pastures an annual cut of 10,000 cubic m per year until (e.4n plantation forests become available in approxi- GWS 1993 matelv the year 2010. Source:

Toble 5.4 Land ownershiP Total TyPe Upolu Savaii ha % ha % ha % 229,656 8l Customary 76,t66 27 rs3,490 54 30,384 tl Government 19,758 7 t0,626 4 13,975 5 WSTEC 9,499 3 4,476 7 8,837 3 Freehold 7,800 3 1,037 G) 60 282,852 t00 Total r t3,223 40 169,629

(a) Insignificant Source:GWS l99la

34 C.urrentsrars ofthe locol erwironment

as shown in Figure 5.3. The most important crop is 5.7 Biodiversity coconuts followed by taro and cocoa. In livestock, cattle are most important with 14 per cent of In 1948 Gratton reported Samoa as "avery fine field families keeping them (DOS/DAIF 1990). for the botanist and entomologist"; Samoan biodiver- The appropriate utilisation of land resources sity in 189L1895 was evidenced by "567 botanical according to their capabilities holds the key to generaand l,244species, and among these l42were future land use management (Table 5.5). At pres- new". Of the 52 kinds of birds, 34were land birds, and ent, most cropping and livestock development of the latter, 16 were found nowhere else in the world takes place in areas suitable for agriculture, but it (Gratton 1948).Jordan and Seale (1906) described is estimated that over 30 per cent of total agricul- the fish fauna of Samoa as the richest on the globe, tural and fbrest activities takes place in areas with and obtained specimens of 475 species, of which 92 severe limitations. With plantation access roads were considered at the time to be newto science. The opening up many inland areas, over 42 per cent of fauna is nowknown to contain 991 species, about40 the indigenous forests in sensitive areas have been of which are found only in Samoa (Was.s 1984). cleared for agriculture and forestry (ANZDEC More recently, Whistler (1992a) estimated that 1990). Wbstern Samoa supports about 500 vascular plant a,nd? lfern species, of which 30 per centarefound nowhere else. Dahl (1986) identified 2I butterfly Toble 5.5 Lond use capability species of which one is found nowhere else. Gill (1993) identified 14 reptile species (eight skinls, five Capability type Proportion geckos and a snake), and three of the skinks are (Y.) species restricted to Western Samoa and a few nearby istands. Pratt et al. (1987) recorded 37 resident land l-and with fuw limitations 14 to agriculture birds, ten ofwhich arefoundnowhere else. However, Land with moderate limitations 43 increased demand for local resources is aggravating to agriculture and few limitations pressure on nanrral ecosystems, and threatening the to forestry survival of existing biodiversity. Land with seYere limitations to 2l A number of plant species, particularly ferns, agriculture and moderate have not been collected since the 1930s or ev€n to severe limiations to forestry earlier. Whistler (1992b) has prepared a list of Land unsuitable for agrlculture 22 plants which or forestry potentially endangered or threatened includes 137 species. With the destruction of much of the naturd envtronment, manysPecies of plants Source;AfteTANZDEC 1990 and animals must be at the brink of extinction.

Vdtpu mixed swamp foresi Upolu, orc of onty two such ecoslatems in the world.One wos destroyed for dre construcaon of he Afulilo hydroelrtridty dam, ond this oreo is under tlrreot despite its high biodiversiE values.. (photo: Poddy Ryan, rqroduced courtesy of MFAI)

35 T I Notional Environment ond Derrelopment Monogement strotegres

The main option forfunrre acdon is to encour- (3) Highlands of Savaii. age and support community efforts for long-term (4) Central Upolu uplands. conservalion of those remaining areas supporting (5) Eastern Upolu uplands. unique biodiversity. The linkages between various (6) Mt Fao rainforesrs, Upolu. ecosystems and the requirements of different species should also be firmly established and undersrood so that the firll potential of existing biodiversity can be protected and realised. To safe- 5.8 Atmosphere guard the basic range of natural ecological diver- Although Wesrern Samoa is a parw to international sity, Park er al. (1992) idenffied fourteen key sites conventions to protect the atmosphere, there has throughout the coastal lowlands (Figure b.4) as the very minimum to protect: been limited local response to this issue to date. The area of most concern is the emission ofcarbon (1) Uafato-Tiavea coasral forest, Upolu. dioxide and other ozone depleting gases from ve- (2) Sataoa-Saanapu coastal wetland (mangrove hicles and industrial plans. Furure actions should foresr), Upolu. include: (l ) improved standards forvehicle testing; (3) Nuutele, Nuulua, Fanuatapu (Aleipata (2) appropriate pricing for petroleum products; islands), Upolu. and (3) incentives to encourage the use of renew- ( 4) Aope-Letui-sasina coastal forest, Savaii. able forms of energy. (5) Vaoto lowland forest, Savaii. (6) Apolimafou coasral wetland. ( 7) Saleapaga-Lalomanu coastal foresr, Upolu. 5.9 Climate change and (B) Vaiee-Thfitoala peninsula, Upolu. gneenhouse effect (9) Vaipu swamp forest, Upolu. There has also been limired ( I 0) Thga-Lata-Salailua lowland forest, Saraii. local response to the issues ofclimate change and the greenhouse ( I 1) Siuvao Point forest, Savaii. effect. The main local risks from greenhouse warming ( I 2 Mulinuu-Tirfirtafoe ) coasral werland, Savaii. include: (13) Mauga-Samalaeulu lava flow succession and (l) coastal inundation: forest islands, Savaii. (2) shoreline retreat; (14) Maliolio River foresL Savaii. (3) more severe and frequent storm and wave Pearsall and Whistler (l9gl) also identified conditions; key highland areas for conservation including: (4) enhanced coastal sedimentation; and (1 Lona-Punaraemoo forests, ) Upolu. (5) threats to infrastructure and services (Bryant (l) Fusiluaga forest, Upolu. 199r).

Cocwl communitie ore portiattorly wlneroble n the prediaed ,mpocts of seolevel rise (photo: A.C. Robr'nsoa reproduced courtesy of DLSE)

36

\, Current stours of the locol ewironment

Figure 5.4 The founeen key lowlond conservction sites identifted by Porl< et al.

Uafato-Tiavea coastal

Sataoa-Saanapu \ coastal wetlahd ) Vaiee-Tafitoala peninsula

I f.y f"rrUnA conservatlon X Scale l:500.000 areas |oemmeo Dr 0 5 l0km Parketal 1992 |--EIET !:-E--r '- Road - 0 5 l0 miles O Village Aopo-Letui- Mausa-Samalaeulu Sasina coastal forest lava Ilow succession and forest islands

I Mulinuu- Tufutafoe coastal wedand / Point

Taea-Lata-Salailua lofrland forest Vaoto lowland forest

Source: After Park et al. I 992

37 Nationol Enironment and Development Monogement Strotegres

The'avo'bowl,port of troditonal ceremony ond mode from &e 'ifelele'tree (rww increosingly rore) is o sought ofter onefoa of Somoa.(photo:A.C. Robinson, reproducd court*y of DLSE)

5.10 Somoon cutture ism development were discussed (Fiame 1992)' as well as the need to Preserve traditional culture for Cultural identity gives people dignity (Brandt Com- the appreciation of future generarions (Leleisiuao mission 1980). The creative aspects of cultures are 1992). important because (l) they create a sense of ident- The cultural priorities are (1) to establish a (2) establish the ity, (2) they give pleasure and personal enrichment, policy on Samoan culture, and to and (3) they give meaning to life and the world cultural centre and museum facilities as the focus culture. (Taursie 1980). Preserving history maintains conti- of effors to preserve and develop Samoan nuity of human identity and is essential for the evaluation of change (Young 1991). Heritage con- servation contributes to the heighteningof percep 5., , Humon resources of our environment and the strengthening of tions Education plays a important role in human our knowledge and understanding of history and resource development. Govemment emphasis in helps confirrn our identity as people (Proudfoot the Seventh Development Plan (DP7) is to prepare 1991). people for the economic opportunities which are the late 1970s, Western Samoa has tried Since available to them, through the upgrading of edu- of national facilities for to promote the provision cation resources. The government has also ap arts and culture. Tho reports were Prepared for the proved compulsory free education for primary (1978) basic re- governmenu Specht provides the schools. However, as shown in Table 5.6, the educa- quirements for the development of a national tion budget has been virrually fixed at about l0 per cultural centre, while Neich (1987) documents a cent of the national budget since 1981, and about feasibility study for the development of a national 95 per cent of the total goes to fund recurrent museun artd cultural centre. ln fhct, a national expenditure. museum was set up in the early 1980s at Mulinuu, A human resources plan for the public sector but failed through lack of funds and public sup has been prepared by the Public Service Com- port. mission (PSC), and submitted to government for Recently, the government has supported the approval. The specific objectives of the plan in- classification of old German records that are still in clude (l) better matching of skills with positions; Apia. A group of local people has formed an arts (2) stronger incentives to acquire and upgrade society, O Mea Sina Samoa, to promote local arts skills; (3) more professional management;and (4) and culture. In early 1992, a workshop was con- improved retention of qualified staff (PSC 1992). ducted to revive the idea of a national museum and Miles et al. (f992) predict that unless strategies are cultural centre. At this workshop, the wide func- put in place to promote a cash-oriented economy, tions of these facilities including thein role in tour- Westem Samoa with reduced out-migration will

38 Current stot/s oFthe locol environment

Picnic oreo devdopment ot Sopoago Folls,Upolu. Tourrsm is increosingly importont for employment ond as o foreign exchange eorner.(photo AC. Robinson, reproduced courtesy af DLSE)

lace the corilnon problems related to urban drift per cent larger in 1991 compared to 1987 in terms of and high unemployment. GDP at crrrent prices, it actually declined in real terms (taking inflation into account) during this Toble 5.6 Educatlon Deportment budget, period. (Cyclone Ofa in 1990 reduced GDPbyabout r98r-t989 ($'0001 5 per cent.) This is a disappointing performance since there was anaverage GDP growth of about 3 per Year Education National % Education/ budget budget Nationd cent per annum from 1982 to 1987 (GWS 1992a). Like many of the small South Pacific Island t98 t 4,630 55,500 9.3 nations, Western Samoa has endeavoured since 1982 8.2 4,760 57,900 independence to develop a modern economyfrom 1983 6,700 70,500 9.5 traditional village agriculture and primary pre 1984 7,420 103,200 7.2 ducts. The country has no knolrnn minerals, and an 1985 8,400 t0 t,700 8.3 1986 t0,5t0 t04,600 10.0 Exclusive Economic Zone which is among the t987 10,780 t2 t,000 8.9 smallest in the region. The main exports are agri- 1988 il,550 t25.200 9.2 culture based producu which are subject to reSe | 3,150 t32,500 9.e nrunerous natural and external f,actors beyond the country's control. With declining export earnings Source:Taulealo 1990 and dwindling foreign reseryes, the government will continue for some time to rely on foreign The options for the future include ( I ) a human assistance and overseas remittances to fund is de- resource development plan based on a clear policy velopment programmes (Fairbairn 1985). on economic development and direction: (2) de- Future options to achieve sustainable eco velopment of school and vocational programmes nomic growth include: in response to required workforce needs; and (3) (1) creation of skilled and resourcebased assessment of national investment in human capi- employment; tal (Schultz 196l). (2) development of export-oriented and import$ubstitution activities; 5.12 Economic growth (3) identification of sources of growth; (4) improvement of land utilisation; The currentstate of theWestern Samoan economyis (5) achievement of economic efficiency;and well documented in DP7. While the economywas 23 (6) promotion of local economic development.

39