Brock Education

A Journal of Educational Research and Practice

Volume 18 (2) Fall 2009 Faculty of Education Brock University

Editorial:

Continuity and Change: Inquiry into Teacher Education Practices

Julian Kitchen and Darlene Ciuffetelli Parker Editors Brock University

As new co-editors of Brock Education, we welcome you. We believe that this issue on teacher education practices, and our tenure as editors, represents both continuity and change. We are pleased to continue in the footsteps of founding editor Anthony Mollica, who developed Brock Education as a “Journal of General Inquiry” in 1991. He and the fine editors who nurtured the journal in subsequent years were committed to providing a forum for interesting and eclectic scholarship. Over the years, the journal narrowed its focus to become “A Journal of Educational Research and Practice”. The articles in this issue cover a wide range of topics from effective teaching practices to institutional program reform to teacher induction. While we continue to attract Canadian contributors, the journal also attracts a mix of international scholars. At the same time, we have shifted from a journal designed to seek a broad cross- section of education articles to one that focuses primarily on site-based and practitioner inquiry: research that delves deeply into the experiences of learners and educators in schools, universities and other educational settings. As academics interested in narrative inquiry, self-study of teacher education practices, and other forms of practitioner inquiry, we have observed that there are too few journals committed to supporting such work. As a result, much fine work in these areas, although presented at conferences, does not appear in peer-reviewed journals. We have noted that there is a particular lack of such publication opportunities in Canada. To that end, we placed a special call for manuscripts that focused on teacher education practices because we identified both an increasing richness in teacher education discourse and a need for greater sharing among teacher educators. We were delighted to receive many responses to our call. In reviewing the articles, we ultimately decided to spread the best of these articles over this spring issue and our next issue. We continue to be receptive to the work of new scholars and committed to enhancing the scholarship of all authors. For this issue, we were fortunate to find an excellent group of scholars for the double-blind review process. These individuals made considerable efforts to constructively critique manuscripts. We are also fortunate to have Catherine Longboat as our editorial assistant. Longboat, a doctoral student at Brock University, went beyond careful line-editing to sensitively offer suggestions for Kitchen and Ciuffetelli Parker Editorial

improving the flow of words and ideas. The appreciation expressed by authors for the support we were able to offer was in no small measure due to her efforts. Moving forward involves change. The last issue under Tony DiPetta’s leadership was Brock Ed’s first online issue using Open Access. This innovation, and the transfer to Open Access of previous issues, makes the journal accessible to a much wider audience in Canada and around the world. This issue was the first for which articles were submitted using Open Access. In the future, we hope to conduct and track all our communication through Open Access. We also hope to widen our readership in Canada and around the world, thanks to these leaps in technology. In this issue, we offer a range of articles broadly related to teacher education practices. The first few articles focus on educational practices and self-studies by teacher educators. These are followed with articles by practitioners who extend their work outside the teacher education classroom. In the first article, Carmen Shields and Vicky Reid-Patton respectively recover stories of kindness from past experiences with teachers. Then, they reconstruct their narratives and use these story reconstructions in their own professional lives to show that the notion of kindness is the first step, and perhaps key factor, for entering into an emerging learning space. Mary Rice then highlights the importance of teacher educators’ studying both their identities and their practice. By exploring her personal practical knowledge through three “emblematic narratives”, one from each role, Rice highlights possibilities for understanding ourselves and our students more deeply. In the next article, Cindy Lassonde and her co-authors present a self-study on how they examine and assess teacher candidates’ writing in a teacher education program. They lead their reader through questions and reflective processes that they themselves used throughout this programmatic self-study. This article encourages teacher educators to be self-reflective of their own assessment expectations for teacher candidates. The activities we use in our teacher education courses can be powerful tools for self-discovery and social change. When Brown, Wiggins and Secord employed photo- elicitation as a tool for helping teacher candidates uncover their preconceived notions, they were simultaneously surprised at what both they and their students did not notice. This article introduces teacher educators to an effective teaching strategy and important insights into how we might heighten awareness of social issues among teacher candidates. Similarly, in Lynn Lemisko and Margaret Epp’s article, we view first-hand how teacher candidates and students formed “intergenerational literature circles” that captured deeper insights into how children read, learn concepts and respond to text. This article offers insight into how adult learners can work alongside young people in order to form a richer understanding of what it means to be a teacher. It is one thing to develop new teacher education practices or to critically examine a philosophy of education, but an even greater challenge is to conceptualize and implement large-scale teacher education reform. Hirshkorn and his team provide an account of the process of establishing a new teacher education program at University of New Brunswick. As teacher educators advocating for reforms in our own institution, we were very interested in the rich descriptions of the process from the perspective of the

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Kitchen and Ciuffetelli Parker Editorial

teacher educators engaged in implementing the program. In the future, we look forward to subsequent articles that will provide more analysis of the new program’s impact. Educational partnerships are important in developing teacher education practices that prepare teacher candidates for the complexities of classroom practice. The article by Darlene Ciuffetelli Parker and her co-authors from the Ontario College of Teachers on the use of case studies in teacher education is an interesting account of effective collaboration and a rich description of a professional development process used with a team of teacher educators. In the final article, Christine Cho and her co-authors make it clear that teacher education does not end once teacher candidates become classroom teachers. This inquiry highlights the importance of partnerships while also challenging stakeholders to move beyond simply perpetuating the status quo. As these articles illustrate, inquiry into teacher education practices involves continuity—understanding ourselves, our practices and the contexts in which we work— and the willingness to change these practices to better serve our students and schools.

Brock Education, Volume 18, No. 2, Spring 2009, 1-3. 3

A Curriculum of Kindness: (Re) Creating and Nurturing Heart and Mind through Teaching and Learning

Carmen Shields Nipissing University

Vicki Reid-Patton Top of the World Treatment Centre

Abstract

In this paper, we share stories of experience that focus on our belief that offering kindness as a key ingredient in teaching and learning provides a solid foundation for personal connection and sustained meaning-making. We highlight our past experience with teachers who provided us with caring and kindness and using a narrative process of recovering and reconstructing meaning, we move forward in time to describe how we now enact kindness in our own relationship and our work with students and clients in our present day practice as professor and counselor.

Keywords: narrative, curriculum, personal experience, teacher education, higher education.

Dr. Carmen Shields, Ed.D., is currently Associate Professor, Graduate Studies, in the Faculty of Education at Nipissing University, North Bay, Ontario. She teaches courses in Curriculum Leadership, Narrative Inquiry and Qualitative Research. Dr. Shield’s approach to teaching and research is based in narrative inquiry and her research interests are in the areas of self-study, narratives of experience, women’s perspectives, marginalization and belonging in institutional settings. Email: [email protected]

Dr. Vicki Reid-Patton, Ph.D., is currently a clinical therapist at Top of the World Treatment Centre in Fort Steele, British Columbia. Her counseling and research interests are in the areas of addictions, narratives of experience, self-study and women and health.

Brock Education, Volume 18, No. 2, Spring 2009, 4-15.

4 C. Shields and V. Reid-Patton Curriculum of Kindness

Introduction

The teacher is a mediator between the knower and the known, between the student and the subject to be learned. A teacher, not some theory, is the living link in the epistemological chain. The way a teacher plays the mediator role conveys both an epistemology and an ethic to the student, both an approach to knowing and an approach to living. (Palmer, 1993, p. 29)

We came to the writing of this paper as part of an ongoing process of inquiring into and naming seminal traits that underlie our present practice as professor and counselor. Since we first met more than ten years ago, our relationship has changed, and evolved from professor/graduate student to doctoral student and research participant to friend and colleague. Through these years, our personal and professional inquiries of thinking and practice have been the driving force that has connected us across time and distance. Although we did not engage in graduate study at the same time, we did have the shared experience of being at the same institution under the direction of professors whose teaching and research were based in narrative inquiry. We both completed our doctoral dissertations using narrative methodology. As individuals who use narrative inquiry to frame experience for ourselves and for graduate students and clients, sharing stories of experience has become second nature. Like many of our own stories, those we hold within ourselves that others have shared as part of their learning processes are emotional - tales of loss and sorrow, as well as tales of wonder, and new insight. We have often spoken about what central traits are imperative for providing a milieu where such life experience can be shared. As we shared stories of teachers who hold a special place in our lives today, we realized that: while techniques such as slowing down, offering respectful silence, modeling caring and sharing in the rich dialogue of inquiry are critical elements of our teaching and therapeutic practice, the notion of kindness to others is the first step, the key factor for entering into an emergent learning space. How does one come to understand kindness as a grounding force in teaching and learning? What comprises the concept of kindness? An old thesaurus, The Merriam-Webster (1978) notes that kindness is “showing or having a gentle, considerate nature” and that being kindhearted is “showing or expressing affectionate interest in another” (p. 327). Freedman (1993) refers to kindness for others as “…a window of hope, one with the potential to illuminate many future paths (p. xxviii). Miller (2000) shares that in his university classroom he begins class by offering students a “lovingkindness meditation… [which] focuses on the development of compassion for all beings. It begins by sensing a basic warmth in our hearts, and then, gradually sharing this warmth and compassion with others” (p. 131). For us, the concept of kindness as a basis for understanding curriculum has grown from our experiences with teacher/mentors who offered us compassion, respect and caring as we journeyed to voice our own learning. As we continued to work together over the years, we utilized the lessons learned from these teachers in our own continuing curriculum development. As narrative inquirers, sharing stories that speak to how we have come to construe kindness as a cornerstone for our practice as teacher and counselor, we were provided with the opportunity to engage in the two part narrative process described by Connelly & Clandinin (1988). We remembered experience (recovery of meaning), and then reconstructing that experience to seek new meanings embedded in our work and in our present and imagined future life (reconstruction of meaning).

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Discerning our Sense of Curriculum

An important aspect of making public one’s personal and professional curriculum theory is that a connection can be offered to others through sharing one’s beliefs about teaching and learning in action or practice. Students or clients then have a way of understanding potentially abstract concepts, such as kindness, as part and parcel of the learning process. They can become beneficiaries of ideas, concepts and words that have the potential to connect them to their own curriculum theorizing and practice. For us, the kind attention and caring relationship of teacher/mentors who built their curricular practice with students in the milieu of their classrooms and lives, set the stage for our understanding of curriculum as it developed beyond the narrow confines of the institutional definitions that many teachers know and stand by. Connelly and Clandinin (1988, 2000), for example, write that curriculum is all of life’s experience, but it was the gift of seeing this definition lived and modeled in Michael Connelly’s classroom that made it a practical example to be experienced and passed on to others in our own subsequent teaching and learning. Schwab’s (1962) notion of the commonplaces of curriculum where student, teacher, milieu and subject matter comprise curriculum, reminds us that these four aspects of curriculum intertwine in a learning space, and that often, it is the teacher and the atmosphere created that we remember across time rather than the subject matter. Understanding this insight from our own experience, we know that as teacher and counselor, we set the milieu that students or clients dwell in with us; that, in Palmer’s (2000) words, as facilitators of the experience of others, we are the ones who shine a light, or cast a shadow over the learning of others by the very atmosphere we create. Knowing this is so, we have considered the writing of Pinar (1994), Palmer (1993, 2000) and others, who say that for a meaningful connection to be made in others’ learning, we cannot stand apart from those we teach and counsel if we are to genuinely connect our theorizing with our practice and model that for others. It is up to us to set the stage for student and teacher or counselor to unravel new subject matter together in an atmosphere that is open to sharing from a personal perspective. We use the work of Dewey (1938) as we consider the quality of the learning experience we try to build for ourselves and others in the classroom dialogue and interaction that forms the basis of our teaching and counseling practice. As Dewey writes, it is the quality of the experience upon which future learning depends. We feel that welcoming others into a space where kindness is modeled and lived is a critical ingredient for real engagement in the difficult process of personal meaning making, which is the heart learning. Further, we feel that the kindness felt helps infuse the dialogue and interaction with meaning, which connects students or clients to one another as well as to the subject matter, in a way that cannot be experienced otherwise. Noddings (1984) writes that when we care for others we “have regard for what [they] think, feel and desire” (p. 9). For us, caring, like kindness, offers the window of hope to illuminate the future paths that Freedman (1993) described in his definition of kindness noted above. As professor and counselor, we want to be present and receptive for others, “to receive what is there as nearly as possible without evaluation or assessment” (p. 34). Carl Rogers (1961) termed this “unconditional positive regard” for the other. In such a setting, the one cared-for “grows stronger and feels not so much that he has been given something, as that something has been added to him” (Noddings, 1984, p. 20). In extending care and kindness, we try to open what Nouwen (1972) terms a free and fearless space for the other in which they feel welcomed and nurtured, and they can be authentic.

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Learning From Stories of Past Experience

Dewey (1938), describing the continuity of experience, wrote that: “every experience both takes up something from those which have gone before and modifies in some way the quality of those which come after” (p. 35). We put this notion to work in the stories that follow in the next section as we recover meaning from our past experience and reconstruct that meaning in the present for ourselves. Using this two step narrative inquiry process, we share stories of kindness that we have experienced with others in the past, and we reconstruct the meaning held there for us in the present. Since this narrative inquiry process is not static but ongoing across time, we can use it to help us understand that we know about the importance of kindness in our present practice, and also maintain an open door for new interpretations and additions of concepts on kindness.

Stories of Kind Mentors

Vicki’s Story: Much of the teaching I have done over the past fifteen years has taken place in provincial and federal correctional settings, where I have worked as a counselor-educator. In the field of counseling, education takes the form of what is termed cognitive re-structuring, and my supervisor and mentor as I embarked on this journey was Dr. Charles Taylor, who was a pioneer in prison work in Canada and a faculty member of Acadia University. Charlie (as he was affectionately known to students and friends) received the Order of Canada in May of 2004, just weeks before his death at the age of 86. I have much to be grateful for as I look back over a friendship that developed over nearly 30 years. It was Charlie who was fond of saying that “only love heals” (Taylor, 1994, p. 11) and Charlie who taught me the truth of Samuel Johnson’s words: “Kindness is in our power, even when fondness is not” (source unknown). In the classroom and in the prison, Charlie modeled a way of being in the world that involved more than a mastery of technique. He taught by example the value of authentic listening and the place of respect in facilitating change. His words, “We are more alike than different,” continue to resonate in my counseling practice. It was through him that I first learned to look beyond the outward behavior and demeanor of the client and his/her sometimes lengthy and disturbing criminal record to see the person within, and through Charlie that I came to understand that our own most painful personal experiences can become the fertile ground from which compassion and kindness spring. Considering this story now, I think of Palmer’s (1998) notion of working with integrity, which I conceive of as a companion attribute to care and kindness. Palmer writes that until we have “sounded our own depths” we cannot sound the depths of our students’ lives (p. 31). I know from my experience with Charlie that if I do not know “the self who teaches [or counsels]” in any meaningful way, if I have not gotten my own bearings, I cannot work with integrity with my clients or students. It is in recalling “my own long and continuing journey toward selfhood… and the slow pace of my own self-emergence” that my clients and students are spared from my imposing “excessive and unreal expectations” upon them (Palmer, 1998, p. 24). I think also of Van Manen (1991) who writes that students (and clients) do not come to us as “empty vessels [waiting] to be filled” (p. 7) but come to us from somewhere. They come to us with a history and it is this history which shapes the learning which does or does not take place. I believe that the

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extension of kindness effectively challenges negative predispositions and perceptions of self and the world, opening up new possibilities.

Carmen’s Story: In 1997, in a chapter of my doctoral thesis, I wrote about several teachers who had mentored me. Although I was writing about inclusion in special education then, through reflection on the actions of these teachers, I came to understand that the concept of inclusion was universal in nature-that it was something we could each do for one another in our lives. Over the years since then, I have considered the gifts inherent in being included by these individuals and have worked to name the gifts I received so that I could use them in my own teaching life. Among words and terms like ‘openness,’ ‘hospitality,’ and ‘caring,’ the word ‘kindness’ has taken a primary place. It seems to me that without kindness, the effort to include falls short. As the two stories told here demonstrate, approaching another with kindness allows for the other attributes, noted above, to unfold.

Story Clip 1: The year before my eldest daughter was born, I was a mature student on a small, conservative, university campus. I was living with my companion on a small income, studying under the supervision of a professor who was a well known scholar and administrator. I remember I sat spellbound as he lectured, experiencing the depths of real and connected learning for the first time in my life. Our relationship grew from our conversations about my need for part time work along with my studies, and continued in his care for me when my mother was diagnosed with breast cancer and I had to be absent for a number of weeks to be with her. He saw to it that I became a teaching assistant and one day, knowing that money was tight, he asked me to stop by his house on my way home. Dreading the extra work that I assumed I was picking up to fulfill my duties, I was surprised when he met me at the door with two large plastic bags in his hands. Reminding me that it was important for me to be eating well, he handed me the bags which contained steak and hamburger and vegetables frozen from his garden. In the years that followed, such kindnesses continued in various forms as I completed my degree and went on to become a teacher.

Story Clip 2: During my Masters in Education years, my supervising professor was a wonderful teacher of special education. He was a believer in learning by doing, and I would find myself traveling with him to conduct assessments in the schools or participate in seminars at other universities. Along the way he would regale me with stories from his own life and teaching days, treating me as a friend and colleague. Over time, this teacher became a family friend, even insisting that we take the key to his cottage for a summer while he was away in Europe, scoffing at the idea of any payment. He opened the world of special education to me as a teacher, and taught me by his own example that including another was a kindness we could all offer one another. I have never forgotten. Vanier (1998) writes of role models: “A model is someone who demonstrates new ways of living…, someone who remains loving and humble…, someone who does not judge or condemn. Through their lives, these people show us the bigger picture” (p. 131). That is what I feel these mentors did for me and now, using their example, it is what I try to offer others in my own classroom. I know from experience that offering students kindness is part of the invitation to learn from the depths of their being – a place that can connect heart and mind in an atmosphere of care and compassion.

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Stories of Kindness for One Another: Different Roles Across Time

A University Classroom

Vicki’s Story: Our relationship began as a professor-student one and over time, has evolved into a reciprocal and collaborative one where mutual learning and teaching form the basis of our personal and professional friendship. It all began with the fostering of an attitude of kindness extended in the classroom where as professor, Carmen created a milieu in which space was made for multiple voices to join in class discussion and inquiry, and critical reflection was welcomed and encouraged. When Carmen and I met in 1997, she was teaching a graduate level course in Qualitative Research Methods at the university where I was enrolled. I was completing the course work for my Master’s degree in Education, and trying to decide whether or not to write a thesis. As I weighed my options I knew that, if I chose to write one, it would have to be on a topic for which I could sustain a high degree of energy. I was interested in researching issues associated with childhood abuse and particularly the re-experiencing of trauma in nightmare form. Working all day with traumatized clients as a supervised student counselor in the prison system, left little emotional energy for also writing about the same issues outside office hours. I needed to find another topic. From experience I also knew that in my department, it was scientific inquiries that held merit. A thesis needed to be comprised of data that could be quantified, measured, verified and replicated. Recovery from trauma was not a topic that lent itself well to quantification. I had almost decided to forego the thesis option when I found myself in Carmen’s office one day after class. Sharing her doctoral thesis with me, and binders full of readings on narrative research from her recent doctoral courses at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, University of Toronto, she challenged my perceptions regarding what constituted valid research. In this first encounter, Carmen opened what I have come to regard as one of the first hospitable spaces I had ever known academically. In giving me permission to explore my own life experience narratively, I experienced firsthand what it meant to be validated as a person, and I also acquired a new appreciation for the deeper and more difficult stories which my clients had to tell and the courage which brought them to my door.

Carmen’s Story: Part of graduate student supervision for me is building a strong, personal relationship with students so that I understand their research as it connects to their lives. In 1998, in the midst of Vicki’s masters thesis writing, I resigned from my university position and moved to another province. I arranged to complete my thesis supervision anyway, as relationships had been built with my students and narrative research was not common in that faculty at that time. Vicki and I found ourselves fifteen hundred kilometers apart. We developed the habit of talking on the phone in the early mornings before our days began to talk about chapter edits and ideas that Vicki was thinking about as she continued her research. Much like my experience with my former mentor, Vicki visited me in my new home. She and another graduate student accompanied me to an annual American research conference where I was giving a paper and where many narrative papers were presented. For me, the physical distance between us resulted in my understanding that the milieu I created was of particular importance as I wanted Vicki to feel that she was well supported; that she was never abandoned in spite of

Brock Education, 18(2) 9 C. Shields and V. Reid-Patton Curriculum of Kindness my not being on site as other supervisors were. Our friendship grew from this experience, and as I sat at her defense where she excelled and was nominated for a governor-general’s prize for her work, I felt that her trust in me as a supervisor and person was a gift that had grown from respect and care earned between us over the distance. Our attitude of kindness toward one another was secured in that work, and has continued on to the present day.

A Thesis Proposal Takes Shape

Vicki’s Story: With Carmen’s encouragement, I began to explore the possibility of pursuing doctoral studies at OISE/UT after graduation, and enrolled there in the fall of 2000. During the course of my first semester, I was called upon to review a textbook chapter on duography and to present this to a class in Teacher Development. In their book, The Postmodern Educator, the authors, Patrick Diamond and Carole Mullen (1999), defined duography as “a retrospective written account that two people provide of a shared experience” (p. 317), a “turn-taking in writing” in which each responds to the other’s stories. I thought that rather than simply talking, I might ask Carmen to join me, sharing our experience together as thesis supervisor and student. We did not write or follow a script as such for this presentation, but allowed the words to flow in much the same way as a duography would - building upon the other’s stories, using the metaphor the authors provided of climbing the mountains of higher learning, “roped together” (Diamond and Mullen, p. 315). Reflecting back on the seamless and effortless way in which this came about, I believe now that the spark of an idea presented itself to me then. What if my doctoral thesis explored the mentoring/co-mentoring relationship and the evolution of identities from our two perspectives? What if Carmen became my thesis participant? The recurring image of the old farmhouse where I grew up had been a powerful one in my Master’s thesis, and one which had resonated for Carmen as she reflected on her own childhood home. What if we both wrote about the houses we had lived in as Jungian representations of the psyche or the self? Over coffee at the kitchen table the metaphor evolved, and the thesis began to take shape. We would begin to write letters back and forth, and these would become the field texts of my research.

Carmen’s Story: During Vicki’s thesis process while we were writing letters back and forth as a method of inquiring into our past experience, we took an opportunity to co-write a paper about our use of the metaphor of the house as a tool for reinterpreting our life experience. As we wrote that paper together, still with the distance of two provinces between us, I began to see that a shift was occurring in our relationship. I saw that Vicki was teaching me, using her expertise as counselor, to enlarge my view of my own life. I saw that we really had become co-teachers in the process of being co-researchers. ‘Co-researchers’ is a term Vicki used in her thesis to describe our work together. I can’t say that I understood what that meant at the beginning, but now I know from my own experience that it refers to the careful intermingling of thoughts and perspectives spoken and heard, a shared respect built on knowledge constructed in the kindness given and taken over the years as we have gotten to know each other. Thinking about these events and situations now, it seems that we were living out the notion of continuity of experience that Dewey (1938) describes as we adopted new roles in our relationship, remaining grounded in the ethic of kindness that we had constructed together in prior years. Dewey reminds us that “the principle of regard for …decency and kindliness of human relations comes back in the end to the conviction that these things are tributary to a

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higher quality of experience…” (p. 34), which is what I feel, occurred for us during those years together.

Living Examples of Our Curriculum Legacy in Teacher/Counselor Practice

As well as looking back at the formative roots and personal application of our beliefs about curriculum, we want to extend the circle of learning described in this paper by sharing how our version of curriculum plays out as we teach and counsel others. As Friere (1998) describes, theorizing comes to life in action or practice: our beliefs about learning must be solid as we make them visible to others in our daily interactions. Too often, we see that the pretenses of power connected with a teaching and counseling life are used to remove voice from clients and students. In our practice we actively work against that stance, believing that the building of relationships among and between individuals provides a better model for those who have come together to learn. Foundational to this belief about practice is the notion that each student or client we teach is on their own learning journey, as are we, and that it is often the kind invitation to join forces to further that end that supports learning for everyone. In our work, modeling aspects of kindness such as respect and consideration for individuals lays the groundwork for caring to be perceived by students and colleagues as the critically important element for learning. Central to our practice is the building of a milieu that assures a sense of trust, so that the sharing of experience, in the form of a rich and personal dialogical exchange, can be taken seriously. To engage in this process, we present new curriculum theorizing as a platform to share personal perspectives and build on understandings so that the group can support learning for one another. We seat people so that we can see one another, which helps sustain the careful and respectful listening that is so critical for a real exchange of ideas. We begin by sharing our own stories of experience, believing that we should take the first step in a process we are asking others to participate in. We monitor the pace of the class so that time is given for digesting ideas that may be new, or may be being experienced with new insights.

A Kind Approach When Counseling Another

Vicki’s Story: A few years ago, I was working with a young woman struggling with a serious drug addiction. She had not been using for some time, when during one of our sessions, she asked to be excused to go to the washroom. I found out later that in that interval, she had gone into a colleague’s office, had found a purse left unattended, and had removed the woman’s wallet and pocketed it. The remainder of our session had gone without incident and my client had left the building before news of what she had done filtered down through the staff. It was left to me to handle it, when I met with the client again. As our next counseling session began, she was unaware that this incident had been brought to my attention in the interim. She came in smiling in her usual jovial way. I sat across from her smiling too in silence for a moment, and then broached the subject by asking gently, “Do you want to tell me about the wallet?” She looked shocked for a moment, but then made no effort to deny her actions. Her eyes filled with tears as did mine, as she spoke, and she apologized for what she had done. She went on to disclose a lifelong history of taking things, a compulsion which she had never confessed or discussed with anyone else. The shame she felt was obvious, and she felt that she no longer deserved the counseling which had been offered her.

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She was “hopeless” and “good for nothing”. After some time, I hugged her, and told her that was not how I saw her. I was not giving up on her. “We have work to do. That’s all.” I suggested we bring in the woman whose wallet she had taken, so she could apologize to her as well. My colleague’s approach with the client was also gentle, and the epitome of kindness. She listened respectfully to the confession and apology, then went on to explain how embarrassing it had been for her to find herself at the supermarket check-out without funds to cover her purchases, the feeling of panic and betrayal, the effort of canceling and now replacing credit cards and identification papers. Throughout this quiet conversation, my client wept softly, apologizing again and again. At the end of this time, the two women hugged, and arrangements were made whereby my colleague would be reimbursed the cash which had been taken, as well as have her wallet and its contents, which my client still possessed, returned. This exercise of confrontation and mediation was the beginning of some of the most productive work I have ever done with a client, and led into work on deeper issues and eventually prolonged recovery for the client. Although we have since lost touch, I remember there was a distinct difference in the way she carried herself. She was eventually empowered to remove herself from an abusive spousal relationship believing she deserved better, and she landed a decent job that would support her and her daughter.

Kindness in a Graduate Classroom: Compassionate Listening From the Heart

Carmen’s Story: There is always an invitation to share written assignments in my classes. In a recent term, about half way through our course, I asked students to write about one item they have kept and what the significant lessons might be attached to that object in their lives today. One young teacher who had been relatively quiet in the course offered to share her story. She read to us about losing an eye to cancer and about the gifts she felt were held for her in her glass eye. She described the professional work of painting a glass eye so that it appears to be real and a perfect match for an individual’s real eye. She had kept her first glass eye from earlier years and passed it around the circle so that we could see the quality of the workmanship and feel her gratitude. She read in a strong and powerful voice in a silent room where we sat listening and feeling the depths of the story being shared. She spoke of her increased understanding of her own students’ lives because of her experience, of the importance of care received from family and strangers alike, and of her own renewed capacity to learn. Through her sharing, she allowed us to see her in a new and personal light, and as I gently responded to her story, students around the table reacted with kindness and compassion, speaking from the depths of their own personal experiences as well. Reflecting on these stories now, we are reminded of the gift of openness to new perspectives that we see given and received as students and clients make new meaning for themselves through sharing in the lived experience of one another. We also are beneficiaries of gifts in the form of new learning and friendships with others intent on learning through the process of shared experience.

Conclusions

As noted in the stories told in this paper, kindness has the power to restore dignity and extend grace even when it seems undeserved. Kindness can bring with it healing and restoration. It seems to call forth the best in the other. Kindness is a response to the perceived value of the

Brock Education, 18(2) 12 C. Shields and V. Reid-Patton Curriculum of Kindness other, an acknowledgement of the sanctity of life and the dignity of all humanity. In embracing kindness as the cornerstone for teaching and learning, we see that we can create situations that offer others the respect and consideration that is so essential for learning to occur. We believe that the quality of learning experiences is enhanced when we place student and teacher at the forefront of our teaching and counseling practice. Subject matter is made more meaningful because it is embodied and shared within the context of the events, situations and experiences of those who have come together to learn. Our shared stories can bind our hearts and minds together so that we are able to make meaning that becomes part of our being. Like Ferrucci (2006), we believe that “kindness and the goodwill of many is a resource, an energy…it would be immensely useful to pay more attention to it, find ways of evoking it…” (p. 272). That is what we try to do in our teaching and counseling practice. Like Palmer (1993), we are mindful that we teach “a way of being in the world” (p. 30) to others as a process in our curricular practice. We want kindness to be a gift given and received in that process.

Brock Education, 18(2) 13 C. Shields and V. Reid-Patton Curriculum of Kindness

References

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1988). Teachers as curriculum planners. New York: Teacher’s College Press.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books.

Diamond, C. T. P., & Mullen, C. (1999). The post-modern educator: Arts-based inquiries and teacher development. New York: Peter Lang.

Ferrucci, P. (2006). The power of kindness: The unexpected benefits of leading a compassionate life. New York: Penguin Group.

Freedman, M. (1993). The kindness of strangers: Adult mentors, urban youth, and the new voluntarism. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Friere, P. (1998). Pedagogy of freedom: ethics, democracy, and civic courage. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield.

Miller, J. (2000). Education and the soul: Toward a spiritual curriculum. Albany: State University of New York Press.

Noddings, N. (1984). Caring: A feminine approach to ethics and moral education. Berkley: University of California Press.

Nouwen, H. (1972). The wounded healer. New York: Image/ Doubleday.

Palmer, P. (1993). To know as we are known: Education as a spiritual journey. New York: HarperCollins.

Palmer, P. (1998). The courage to teach: Exploring the inner landscape of a teacher’s life. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Palmer, P. (2000). Let your life speak. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Pinar, W.F. (1994). Autobiography, politics & sexuality: Essays in curriculum theory, 1972- 1992. New York: Peter Lang.

Rogers, C.L. (1961). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Schwab, J. (1962). The teaching of science as enquiry. In J.J. Schwab & P. Brandwein (Eds.). The teaching of science. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Brock Education, 18(2) 14 C. Shields and V. Reid-Patton Curriculum of Kindness

Taylor, C. (1994). Counseling prisoners addicted to crime. Hantsport, N.S.: Lancelot Press.

The Merriam-Webster Thesaurus (1978). New York: Pocket Books.

Vanier, J. (1998). Becoming human. Don Mills, Ont.: House of Anansi Press.

Van Manen, M. (1991). The tact of teaching: The meaning of pedagogical thoughtfulness. London, Ont.: Althouse Press.

Brock Education, 18(2) 15

A Narrative Self-Study of Advocacy by an Educational Practitioner with Multiple Roles

Mary Rice Brigham Young University

Abstract

This self-study follows my work on three professional knowledge landscapes (Clandinin & Connelly, 1996). It was an effort at revealing both my knowledge-in-practice and knowledge-of- practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2004) in order to uncover understandings about my own use advocacy as a classroom teacher, a new teacher mentor, and a teacher educator on a university campus. Through the course of the study, my attention turned toward my own use of advocacy as a classroom teacher, a new teacher mentor, and a teacher educator on a university campus—the places where tensions occurred. Advocacy experiences in all three of these roles tended to be dependent on maintaining a delicate balance of positioning between myself, the student, the new teacher, or mentee, and another school official. I was also able to see the ways my personal practical knowledge was lived in and out in the various situations.

Keywords: Terms: teacher, teacher educator, new teacher mentor, advocacy, speech acts, social capital

Mary Rice teaches at Springville Junior High School and Brigham Young University. Her research interests are advocacy, teaching English language learners, and adolescent literacy. Email: [email protected]

Brock Education, Volume 18, No. 2, Spring 2009, 16-28

16

M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles

A Narrative Self-Study of Advocacy by an Educational Practitioner with Multiple Roles

This narrative self-study follows my work in three professional knowledge landscapes (Clandinin & Connelly, 1996). It was an effort at revealing both my knowledge-in-practice and knowledge-of-practice (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2004) in order to uncover understandings about the ways in which I negotiate these landscapes.

Current professional context

The professional roles that served as subjects for this self-study were: 1. Classroom teacher—I teach language arts at a suburban junior high school. I also teach the English Learners in the school and monitor them in a joint effort. 2. New teacher mentor—I am in charge of up to five new teachers per year who are in their first three years of teaching. My responsibilities are to help them become accustomed to our school, develop a teacher identity, and qualify for a tenured license at the end of their three probationary years. 3. University instructor—I teach up to two sections of any of the six courses in the teaching English as a second language endorsement program. I found myself in three-dimensional narrative inquiry space, experiencing the tensions involved in trying to stand simultaneously in the professional knowledge landscapes (Clandinin & Connelly, 1996) of a classroom teacher, as well as the space belonging to teacher educator. As a classroom teacher, my commitment to improving the learning experiences of children can be examined in relatively concrete terms. We are together every day and I own the practices that I enact in my quest to educate them. Although I do not believe that the relationship between teaching and learning is necessarily causal, I do think that the fact that I interface directly with these children positions me to provide direct opportunities for students to have experiences that result in learning. As a teacher educator, my ontological commitment to helping children have good learning experiences shifts as I am trying to help prospective teachers consider ways to be agents who can facilitate [learning] opportunities for students they will have in their classes. For the teacher educator, the children usually exist only in theory; but for the prospective teacher, those children will eventually exist in practice. Therefore, my ability to judge whether I am meeting my goal of helping children to learn is much more difficult to assess as a teacher educator, but I worry about this goal nonetheless because I have children in my classroom who need competent teachers. Teacher educators not currently teaching K-12 students may derive their commitment from the students they had in the past. The tensions between these landscapes emerged when I was asked to mentor new teachers at my school. In this role, my concrete commitment to children was present and comes from the fact that I have some of the same students as the colleagues I was mentoring in my class or will potentially have them in the future. In addition, both my mentees and I teach in the same physical space. Simultaneous to this responsibility, I need to be committed to my mentees’ students in the present and those in the future.

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M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles

Review of literature in the context of my development as a teacher

I reviewed the literature concerning advocacy in the narrative voice using an organizational timeline of how I developed as a teacher, teacher educator, teacher mentor, and recently teacher researcher in terms of advocacy.

Living History

During my first year teaching in the endorsement program, I came to read Living History, the autobiography of Hillary Clinton (2004). The autobiography is a defense of some of Clinton’s public actions based on a definition of “politician” versus “advocate.” A politician, Clinton argued, has to make compromises based on a hierarchy stemming from the greater good. Advocates, on the other hand, even if you gave them everything they asked for, they would never be satisfied. According to Clinton, the difficulty is balancing when to be a politician and when to be an advocate. Beginning in my early days as a new teacher, not remembering receiving any training on being an advocate other than the admonishment to be so, I used Clinton’s (2004) definition as a frame. I decided that I wanted to direct most of my efforts at advocacy. To me, advocacy carried a higher moral imperative than politicking did, but I was rarely able to walk away from experiences where I employed the advocate frame, as Clinton defined it, with any feeling of accomplishment when every conversation I entered into was one where I could never be satisfied. Not surprisingly, I have abandoned this orientation as a tool.

Social Capital

When I became involved in preparing teachers to work in classrooms, it was an imperative for me to find a way to discuss advocacy so that the prospective teachers I was working with would not run into the same uncertainty I experienced. I was especially motivated to consider issues of advocacy in my work with English Learners—a population I believe is in need of advocates in schools. In the midst of this pursuit, I studied the work of Putnam (2001), who proposed that communities strengthen in the presence of social capital. According to Putnam, successful social systems emerge from human relationships predicated on the notion of generalized reciprocity. In other words, I should do things for other people first with the trust that they would assist me if I needed it, but there cannot be any ultimate and specific expectation involved. In exploring the concept of social capital, I came to realize that I could strengthen the efficacy I have on all of my professional knowledge landscapes and actualize my goals in all of my roles. Social capital building carries a satisfactory moral alignment that I was not finding in politicking alone, and does not require permanent dissatisfaction like the definition of advocacy promoted by Clinton (2004). I wanted to share some of these ideas with my prospective teachers, but it does not allow me to be specific in describing the nature of my experiences.

Finding Ways to Name Stories in a School Landscape

I also discovered a language for discussing events in schools in the work of Clandinin and Connelly (2000). These authors suggested that borrowing language from literary analysis, such as plotline, is potentially helpful in depicting events in schools. They also suggested discussion-

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M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles promoting language such as “conflicting story” to describe plotlines that result in negativity or mistrust in schools and “competing story” to describe plotlines that are still in tension, but can coexist. I have found Clandinin and Connelly’s (2000) language helpful in discussing space, place, and time using the metaphor of a professional knowledge landscape that centers on school. Experiences in schools can be conceived as plotlines that are influenced by many factors and are related to one another in complex and shifting ways from both moral and intellectual standpoints. Plotlines are built around significant experiences that come to define beliefs about an event or phenomena. These plotlines are central to the discourse around positioning as well as narrative inquiry

Positioning Theory

According to Searle’s work in speech acts (1970), when we say something, we really do something. There are direct speech acts as well as indirect speech acts, but both types accomplish a task. When I was a new teacher, I was constantly worried that I was not able to improve the experiences of children in the ways that I wanted. Additional stress came from not knowing why I was failing. By employing positioning theory (Harré & Van Langenhove, 1999), I was able to analyze what was happening in the conversation at a sociolinguistic level. The process of speaking to other people is rich in both obligations and responsibilities for all parties involved. The way in which we assume and delegate those rights is called “positioning.” A position is derived from, while at the same time interacts with, two sources: the plotlines we have about ourselves or the subject matter of the conversation and the social or illocutionary force derived from our demeanor or some other legitimate source. The interplay between these three forces (position, plotline, and illocutionary force) interfaces with the other speakers. When a conversation takes place, these forces may diminish, amplify, or remain essentially constant for all parties involved. According to Harré and Van Langenhove (1999), most speech communication is relational and in order for one person to be positioned as powerful, the other has to be positioned as powerless or not as powerful. In my experimentation with speech acts, however, I learned that I have more power as an advocate when I position students and colleagues in the more powerful position. Inserting students more directly in the conversation encourages me as well as others to reopen plotlines about why a tension exists and then to decide if the tension results from a competing story or a conflicting one.

Method

This narrative self-study inquiry is partially grounded in the five characteristics of self-study as outlined by LaBoskey (2004). According to LaBoskey, self-studies should be self-initiated, interactive, aim for improvement, qualitative, and exemplar-based. My study was self-initiated: it was rooted in my local, situated, and contextual circumstances, but rather than being a study of the researcher only, it is a study of the teacher researcher’s practice, and includes others, specifically my colleague, the teacher educator, and the positioning and narrative frameworks, which informed my analysis, which also makes the study interactive. The interaction is couched in an aim for improvement, which concern typically animates self-study. My own confidence to analyze my actions with others has greatly increased. In addition, public knowledge of improvement provides opportunities for others to improve as well. Discussing my experiences

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M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles with a colleague helped me understand my practice and my impact on the climate in these spaces. My previous training in qualitative ethnographic research, particularly in regards to the folklore field also contributed to data collection as well as interpretation. According to cultural anthropologists, ethnography requires that holistic measures be used to interpret experiences because constituent parts are not adequate to convey experiences. The research reported here derives exemplar-based validity from exploring narratives that are emblematic of the narratives from my field notes. The selected exemplars are considered by the researcher in concert in order to frame conclusions and surmise implications for making my own practice problematic and “thus stand in a different relationship to knowledge and action” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 2004, p. 614). I became interested in capturing and making sense of my experiences as a teacher, a teacher educator and a teacher mentor. The methods that I employed emerge from both the narrative inquiry methodology, as well as self-study methodology. Across seven months, I created field notes, recorded my experiences, collected artifacts, and determined where my plotlines from each of my three professional knowledge landscapes were intersecting with one another. Other techniques from the self-study methodology include autobiographical methods in the form of journaling and correspondence. Bullough and Pinnegar (2001) provided guidelines for quality in self-study in using these forms. Specifically, they asserted that, in order to help establish the trustworthiness of the study, journaling and correspondence should provide the reader with insight into what the author of the self-study is thinking and feeling, in addition to interrogating relationships, and revealing complications or tensions (pp. 19-20). Considering these guidelines, I began collecting and then analyzing all of my conversations and correspondences related to advocacy in the three roles I decided to focus on. I also made field texts of my realizations and the development of my thinking as I engaged in the collection process. Adding to these field texts, I also included the documentation of relating sharing and dissecting those experiences with a colleague who is a teacher researcher and who comes to my classroom at the junior high regularly. This practice of collaborating with a colleague is in the tradition of Loughran and Northfield (1996), where Northfield shared his data with Loughran, for review and critique. While I was trying to establish which narratives were emblematic, I found myself also inclined to recapture experiences that I had as a new teacher. It occurred to me that these experiences shaped the ways in which I framed advocacy within the roles of teacher educator and teacher mentor. By capturing my own experiences, I was now able to reveal to myself what my plotline really was, versus what I believed it was prior to engaging in the study. I selected my narratives, captured relevant autobiography, and then used those two together to determine my plotline for myself as a teacher educator and a teacher mentor. I applied positioning theory to my emblematic narratives from those two roles first, and then to my experience I had selected from my role as a classroom teacher, even though they are presented in reverse order here. The process of analysis, interpretation, selection, and revision of my experiences is based on narrative inquiry methodology as defined my Clandinin and Connelly (2000, 1997, 1996, 1992). The process of developing initial understandings came about by retelling my stories, which made it necessary for me to reconsider their experiential components. In order to reconsider in a manner faithful to narrative inquiry, I had to relive the experience as well and record my inner responses. After exploring the narratives in this manner, I built a review of literature in advocacy that focused on sociolinguistics, and I chose positioning theory (Harré & Van Langenhove, 1999) as a way to talk about advocacy when it enabled me to re-imagine

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M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles plotlines as a part of advocating. I extracted a theme from my experiences and considered narratives to serve as exemplars. Eventually I chose a narrative from each role that fit both my plotline in that role and represented the dominant plotline of those experiences. Employing methods from both the self-study and narrative inquiry methodologies enabled me to describe my experiences in ways that are more substantial. The thickness that resulted interacted with my research question, causing it to become more refined, which caused my purpose to become more refined as well. It also became clearer that techniques from both methodologies would be most useful in guiding my research and helping me develop assertions for understanding and action. In this sense, purpose illuminated method and method illuminated purpose.

Emblematic Narratives

What follows are the three emblematic narratives—one from each role—with my accompanying analysis, using the tools from my literature review. My descriptions and discussions of the tools vary in weight according to my own understandings of the tools and my present ability to reflect on them.

Role 1: Classroom Teacher

As a classroom teacher, I believe I have a duty to ensure that my students are having positive and fair interactions with administrative officials and other teachers, particularly in terms of discipline. When students are disciplined unethically it shows up in my classroom: student dispositions change. When students have to miss class to be disciplined, there is the potential that academic progress will be impeded. Additionally, my students believe that I have legitimate power, which is a critical component of positive classroom management. One product of this management style is that students will intentionally position me as a person of power in the school. Their asking me to inquire on their behalf confirms my social dominance over them as an adult and as a professional. It also puts me in a social position where I have to prove that I have power. The hidden plotline is that if I cannot help them, I have no social standing. If students believe that about me, it has the potential to change their orientation towards me in the classroom and affects the way their story about me will be recalled and retold after they leave my classroom. Justin entered my language arts class as an eighth grader towards the end of the year while I attended a conference. He has a twin sister who was assigned to a colleague of mine for language arts. Justin knew that he was supposed to be in a different class than his sister, but he also thought those classrooms would be close to each other, which was incorrect. My classroom is farther down the hall. Justin went to the wrong language arts class and was not aware of it. When I returned from the conference, I saw his name on my roll and realized he had not been coming to class. I went to look for him and found that he had been attending the wrong class. Later that day, I restored him to my class. The next fall, Justin had been assigned to my grade nine classroom. During the last period of the day at my school, detention slips are handed out. One day while passing out these slips, I realized Justin had been issued detention for not reporting to one of his classes. I questioned him about this because not attending class seemed out of character for him. He explained to me that he accidentally went to the wrong lunch and

1 All students and colleagues have been assigned pseudonyms. Brock Education, 18(2) 21

M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles was barred from going to the right class by another teacher. Apparently, this teacher, who was doing his job in monitoring the students, also had a plotline that students who want to use the hall usually have mischievous reasons for doing so. Justin’s explanation of these events to me was not merely to position himself as a victim and me as a caretaker. Initially, I believe all he wanted to do was position himself as a truth teller to himself and have me confirm his veracity. He had served the detention for this act. Several days later, however, he got a notice to serve more detention and only then, did he make an actual appeal to me. I had to reposition myself with the detention supervisor in order to get a resolution, which was that he would only be committed to time served since she had made an error in assigning him only 30 minutes for the cutting class offense, which normally was assessed a 60 minute detention penalty. Below is a series of personal emails between the detention supervisor and myself where I try to reposition Justin as a truth teller and get the detention supervisor to interact directly with him. After each email I elaborate on the context and explain my reasoning. Thu, 25 Oct 2007 #1 Justin got a sluff 2and so he got a green slip to serve for 30 minutes. He swears that he served the detention already but he continues to receive slips. Can you talk to him if you think he still needs to serve or let me know that it is fixed? Mary Rice I performed this negotiation without telling her that the charge that Justin intentionally missed class may not have been whole truth in the first place in order to maintain my position of collegial equality with her. When she emailed me back, she confirmed that there would be only 30 more minutes to serve. Her brevity may be an attempt to position herself as an authority (i.e., a decision had already been made and is irrevocable). Thu, 25 Oct 2007 #2 He only served for 30 minutes. He has 30 more minutes to go. Thanks, Mona In my reply to her I revealed more details about how he received a paper that said he had only 30 minutes and asked for one more confirmation that the 30 minutes was all that was left. I re- iterated my plotline, which also served as a competing story that Justin was not trying to get out of detention, but he was concerned. Thu, 25 Oct 2007 #3 That makes some sense, but the original paper he received said that he only had 30 minutes, so that is why he thought he was done. So 30 more minutes and that is it? Mary This time the detention supervisor was willing to speak with Justin, whereas her first email where I suggested she speak with him received no reference. Her apparent commitment to speak with Justin was accompanied by a willingness to address his original detention notice. Thu, 25 Oct 2007 #4 Have him come and talk to me on Monday. I cannot get into the SIS program from home and I don't have the papers with me. Better yet, just tell him he is done and I'll clear it out where he thought he was finished. Thanks, Mona In the email to me where she clears Justin’s detention, her plotline matches the teacher that refused to let Justin go to class when he discovered he had gone to the wrong lunch—that is

2 A “sluff” is the term used in the region where I live to describe the intentional missing of school. Brock Education, 18(2) 22

M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles that Justin’s first instinct is to lie. The stories of these two professionals work in concert to support a dominant narrative about junior high students in general—that they do want to follow directives about when to go to class. In contrast, my plotline about Justin is that he is a shy teen who desires to tell the truth. He was even willing to serve the fraudulent detention until he was assigned more minutes and he could not foresee where that would end. I arrived at my narrative about Justin based on my experience with him, which was also influenced by my own narrative about the nature of junior high students. I think young people at this age generally would like to do what adults ask. When students are non-compliant, they were not given sufficient instructions, lacked the supplies they needed, or their biology would not let them comply. In this case, I believed Justin’s development caused him to be distracted and so he did not end up where he needed to be. Most adolescents are easily sidetracked, but some are more so than others are. In my classroom experiences with Justin, this happened often. Therefore, when I found out he had gone to the wrong lunch, I was convinced it was just a manifestation of his personality. In a way, it also confirmed that I was correct in my assessment of him, and he was not just easily distracted in my class. Fri, 26 Oct 2007 #5 Let him know that if he sluffs again, that I will add the time of 30 minutes back on. That should help him to not sluff again???? Anyway, we hope right? Thanks, Mona Leaving out the fact that the detention may not have been justified in the first place helped me to concentrate on the situation where Justin received notice to serve 30 minutes, served the time, and then was assigned 30 more without an explanation. Instead of drawing attention to the difference in our plotlines, thus creating a conflicting story, I concentrated on her gesture of solidarity, extending from her use of “we” in the final sentence. In response, I extended to her the power in this situation by calling attention to her goodwill. In this instance, I both drew on, and then built social capital with her. Thu, 25 Oct 2007 #6 Alright, I will tell him that he is done. I am sure he will be excited to hear that. You are very generous. Mary

Role 2: New Teacher Mentor

One of my duties as new teacher mentor is to listen to the concerns of the new teachers as they come up. Most new teachers, however, are uncomfortable telling stories about themselves that are not positive while they are still forming their teacher identities. According to Clandinin and Connelly (2000), teachers often learn to censor their stories for political reasons, which results in cover stories. However, I think that it is important for new teachers to be able to interpret, not just the story, but the cover stories as well. Therefore, it is important to establish a professional rapport with them through social capital building. One interesting thing I have noticed in my mentoring is that I am quick to find growth in their stories to me that they consider negative, but when I have similar experiences, I interpret them as failures. Working with new teachers, therefore, has brought to my consciousness the experiencing of noticing and reinterpreting my own experiences the way that I would for a mentee. Another web of stories that affects my work as a mentor is my own experiences as a new teacher. Particularly during my first year, I was often frustrated. I endured the constant dilemma

Brock Education, 18(2) 23

M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles of not knowing what to do, and I did not perceive the advice as being helpful. In the end, the most important support was my husband (who is also an educator), and my mother-in-law (who is not involved in education, but has been married to my father-in-law, who is, for almost 40 years). These people were willing to listen to me. I could talk about the same experience repeatedly and they continued to listen to stories from my teaching and allowed me to re- interpret them. Instead of advice, their comments were more directed towards giving me opportunities for reliving and retelling, which caused introspection and reflection. The most empowering thought I have developed over the years, which is probably based on these interactions, is that I am responsible for what happens in my classroom. If I can accept responsibility, then, I have tremendous power for authoring a new story. If I own the narrative, I can re-write it. It was in this context that I oriented myself towards mentoring. To this end, my mentoring partner and I invited all of the new teachers to a barbecue at the beginning of the year. I also started eating lunch in the faculty room and encouraged my first year teacher, Caleb, to attend. During this time, I made a point to relate my own ironic and anti-hero stories to position us as collegial equals. After one of our mandatory new teacher meetings, Caleb lingered to talk and related a story to me. In his seventh grade art class, Caleb had shown his students Les Dammes d’Avingnon by Pablo Picasso. This abstract painting is also called, “Five Naked Ladies.” In explaining the piece to the students, Caleb used the English nickname, instead of its original French one and a parent called the principal to complain about his child having been exposed to pornography. The principal defended Caleb to the parent, stating that the painting was abstract and Five Naked Ladies was not its real name, among other things. He then told Caleb not to show that picture anymore, even though there was nothing wrong with it. Naturally, Caleb was confused. While listening, I attempted to maintain my position as a sympathetic mentor, but I also needed to provide an opportunity for him to grow so that he did not encounter the same circumstances again. I have a moral obligation as well as a professional one to help him become a reflective practitioner. While I was making the decision about what to say to Caleb, the tension of helping him avoid professional jeopardy competed with my own experience as a new teacher who was not interested in advice when I got into trouble, however much I wanted the trouble to go away. When Caleb finished his story, I asked him what he planned to do now, so that this did not happen again. He was stunned shortly, but then he began to brainstorm things he could do— besides merely deleting the painting with the objectionable name from his curriculum. As Caleb brainstormed, he began to increase in his enthusiasm for his newfound power and my own confidence in Caleb’s ability to overcome glitches in his teaching through reflection grew as well. I found myself admiring the swiftness with which he was able to recover and wondering whether I would have been so resilient in a similar situation. In the following months, Caleb and I used reliving and retelling to improve his classroom management and grading system. My attempts to position Caleb as competent by opening a plotline where he had responsibility, and therefore power, was not merely an attempt to help Caleb grow. On some level, I was seeking to redeem myself from my perceived faults as a new teacher. This realization served as a signal that I was going to have to think more deeply about my motivation for being a mentor and for my actions while mentoring. Although I am no longer Caleb’s mentor he still comes to sit with me at lunch to exchange stories about teaching. He also asks me about administrative directives that he does not understand. I felt gratified that even though I no longer have an official professional

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M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles responsibility for him, that Caleb still allows me to care about him and support him in growth as teacher. One interpretation of Caleb’s continued contact with me is that Caleb is not yet an independent teacher and continues to seek my support. Another interpretation is that I supported him in his pre-existing disposition to relive and retell; I positioned him to open up a plotline where lived experience was valuable. To me, the effort that Caleb has made to seek me out to share stories suggests professional interdependence and a sustainable milieu for growth throughout his career. It also shows that Caleb and I have built some social capital together—our story sharing represents generalized non-reciprocity. We do not consider we owe one another for assistance in reliving and retelling.

Role 3: University Instructor

In December of last year I heard from a former student from the university. She felt that she was being forced to suppress her previous self-positioning as a competent teacher when her district imposed a restrictive, one-size-fits-all educational program for the ELs she was working with at her school. Her contacting me put me in a deliberate position—she was asking me directly what she should do with the implication that I could either solve the problem for her personally or even solve it permanently at her school. My initial reaction was concern for my former student. I wanted her to have a good teaching experience so that she would stay in the profession and so that her psychological well-being could be preserved. My second point of concern was for her students. Her communication to me revealed that her angst was not based on her own comfort, but in the fact that she did not feel at liberty to enact her training and that the program she was forced to deliver was detrimental to the students’ academic success. Her contact with me seemed to reveal that her teacher training might have prepared her in terms of theory and practice, but not policy. I wondered what her troublesome situation revealed about my teaching of her. While she was my student for only one class during one semester, her experience still made me question what I could be doing to prepare teachers for the various political climates where they will teach. It also made me wonder about whether the current conversations that I have with students about social capital will be sufficient, since this student was in my class before I had developed any strategies. I also discovered that I was also lacking confidence in helping a student to handle policy myself. If I could not figure out how to navigate this situation, how could I ever help students to do so? The layering of the experience I was having was complicated. Essentially, I was engaging in advocacy for helping someone else learn to advocate and I knew that just telling her to advocate would not be enough. In the middle of this dilemma, I was also aware that I had no authority whatsoever in her district and therefore, my options were limited. I elected to contact some of the personnel in that district that I had met previously to voice the concerns that they were in jeopardy of losing an outstanding new teacher. I tried to suggest that we have responsibilities to help new teachers adjust, regardless of whether we can make sweeping policy changes based on their comfort. I also exerted some social capital by emailing the person I knew from the university where I worked who gave me the name of another person directly in charge of English language instruction. I sent an email to both these officials and received no reply from either. While waiting for the responses that never came, my thoughts turned on several occasions to a story from my personal plotline that was similar to my former university student’s plotline. At that time, I was working as educational support personnel with ELs in a different school district while I was still pursuing my teaching degree. I encountered tension in the way

Brock Education, 18(2) 25

M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles that I was being taught at the university and the enacted curriculum in the school where I was working. Although I was not yet a teacher, I made the decision to quit this position. Soon after, I found work in a school with ELs and no program. In this school context, I could construct a program for ELs with a dominant narrative about second language acquisition that more closely matched my own. Remembering my own satisfaction in my new situation coupled with the feeling that I betrayed students at the old school by leaving, I proceeded to try to empower my former university student with the knowledge that she could quit, or she could endure with the assurance that either way I would listen and support her. My attempts to position myself and utilize my social capital on her behalf appeared to have failed completely. However, I continued to worry about this student as well as the students she was teaching. It was not for several months that I decided that while I had no apparent social capital with the school officials in that other district, I did with my former student, which is why she emailed me. I decided that I should have emailed her and tried to comfort her in her bereaved position. In an attempt to ameliorate this oversight, I sent the following email where I revealed my plotline for myself as a teacher and for my students, hoping that she would in turn be empowered herself. I engaged in deliberate intentional positioning as someone who had been through similar discordance in my early teaching experience. In the future, my alignment has become to assert social capital where I have it, instead of attempting to assert an illocutionary force that I already know that I do not have. Wed, 30 Jan 2008 I feel very sorry for you in this unfortunate situation where you feel you are forced to teach in a way that is incongruent with your training. When this situation happened in my life I had to make a very tough decision about whether to continue in my current post or to seek employment in another place where I would be able to live out the story I wrote for myself about what kind of a teacher I wanted to be. I felt bad leaving and I worried about my students. Therefore, what I am saying is you have a grueling decision to make, and no matter what you decide, I have so much faith in you and your ability to touch lives that you will be a powerful person in the lives of young people no matter what your curriculum is. I have colleagues come into my class all the time trying to figure out what it is that I am doing with my curriculum that makes students enjoy my class so much (I have a waiting list to get in it.) They miss the fact that my curriculum is not particularly special (even though it is sociocultural). What is different about my class is the abiding unabashed individualized love that I have for each and every kid. And that carries me through the times that I feel the bureaucratic weight of educational oppression looming over me. I know you love your kids. You are taking many risks to try and advocate for them. I would really like to keep hearing from you, no matter what you decide. You are such a good person and gifted teacher. I am so lucky that I have the opportunity to work with you. Please keep in touch and let me know if you need anything like a letter of recommendation or continuing emotional support. I will assist you to whatever level my power and person can bear. Mary Rice This experience was rife with learning opportunities for me. From my previous experience as a teacher educator, I was aware of the tension in teacher education between meeting the needs of the learners and meeting the needs of the teacher candidates. My experience in schools also brought me into the awareness of the tension involved in telling supervisors that

Brock Education, 18(2) 26

M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles their students have needs they do not think are being met. What I was not prepared for, however, was the tension embedded in my belief that I can stand simultaneously in multiple professional roles when others do not believe that I can. The lack of response to my emails could have come from this tension. When I am advocating as a teacher-educator, it is possible that I am only seen as a teacher. When I am advocating as a teacher, it is possible that I am only seen as a distant someone from a university. While it seems that the role of teacher and teacher mentor have not seemed to cause particular conflict, the roles of teacher and teacher educator are disconnected and may be understood as competing stories, stories that may be sustained, but with some tension. However, since this teacher is already teaching, maybe it was in fact the roles of teacher mentor and teacher educator that were not recognized by the district personnel. Either of these positions provides a potential rationale for why I was ignored. Of course it is always possible that my emails were never read or that the supervisor was distracted and forgot to answer. When this student emailed me back, she had notified the Office of Civil Rights about the illegalities of the situation she had been working in, and was planning to leave teaching to go to law school to use the legal system to improve instruction for ELs. I agreed to meet with her at the university and together we looked for programs that might be suitable for her and identified contacts for several programs. In the course of our conversation, she solicited emotional support in addition to vocational advice. When we parted, she was positive about her new direction. I was still concerned about her as a teacher who was planning to leave education, having had a poor experience, but who still wanted to impact student lives. I wondered what the possibility of her being able to accomplish her goals for improving the education of ELs from outside the classroom and even the school context.

Pushing Positioning Boundaries

This narrative self-study inquiry highlighted possibilities in my roles of teacher, teacher mentor, and teacher educator for retelling and reliving. These possibilities for retellings and relivings occurred for the individuals and me in relation to the different roles. At various times I understood my narratives and the narratives as others as competing or conflicting. It was over time that these narratives shifted from competing to conflicting, although in some cases they also shifted from conflicting to competing as in the case of Justin. In all of these examples I was able to see the ways my personal practical knowledge was lived in and out in the various situations. When I engage in speech acts with a goal of opening a plotline for an individual that I believe has power, and therefore, responsibility, I am more likely to engage in competing stories, instead of conflicting ones. Sometimes, as with Justin and the detention debacle, my attempt to open the plotline was to avoid capitalizing on our divergent plotlines about Justin’s motivation. With my mentee, I engaged in neutral questioning with the intention of good will. For my former university student, I shared part of my personal experience with a similar problem to hers and I revealed my plotline about myself as a teacher. I also find that advocacy is one issue in teaching where those who engage in it have to continually re-imagine and re-open their own narratives about how they became a teacher, and what the purpose of education really is. While interrogating these issues can be uncomfortable for me, I also find that doing so is the surest path to new understandings for me and my students.

Brock Education, 18(2) 27

M. Rice Self-study of Multiple Roles

References

Bullough, R.V. Jr., & Pinnegar, S. (2001). Guidelines for quality in autobiographical forms of self-study. Educational Researcher, 30(3), 13-22.

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (1992). Teacher as curriculum maker. In P.W. Jackson (Ed.), Handbook of research on curriculum (pp. 363-401). New York: Macmillan.

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (1996). Teachers’ professional knowledge landscapes: Telling stories—stories of teachers—school stories—stories of schools. Educational Researcher, 25(3), 24-30.

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (1997). Asking questions about telling stories. In C. Kridel (Ed.), Writing educational biography: Explorations in qualitative research (pp. 202-209). New York: Garland.

Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Clinton, H. (2004). Living History. New York: Scribner.

Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (2004). Practitioner inquiry, knowledge and university culture. In J. Loughran, M. L. Hamilton, V. LaBoskey & T. Russell (Eds.), International Handbook of Self Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (pp. 601-649). Dordrecht: The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishing.

Harré, R., & Van Langenhove, L. (1999). Positioning Theory: Moral Contexts of International Action. Oxford, England: Blackwell.

LaBoskey, V. (2004). The methodology of self-study and its theoretical underpinnings. In J. Loughran, M. L. Hamilton, V. LaBoskey & T. Russell (Eds.). International Handbook of Self Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (817-869). Dordrecht: The Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishing.

Loughran, J., & Northfield, J. (1996). Opening the Classroom Door: Teacher, researcher, learner. London: Falmer.

Putnam, R. (2001). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Searle, J. (1970). Speech Acts: An Essay in the Philosophy of Language. Cambridge University Press.

Brock Education, 18(2) 28

Through Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction: A Programmatic Self-Study of Writing Expectations

Cynthia A. Lassonde State University of New York College at Oneonta

Alison Black State University of New York College at Oneonta

Jane Miller State University of New York College at Oneonta

Hanfu Mi State University of New York College at Oneonta

Abstract

Colleagues in a teacher education program describe their journey of programmatic self-study as they examine how they teach and assess teacher candidates’ writing in a series of three required and sequenced undergraduate literacy courses. They lead the reader through the questions they asked themselves about their instruction and their reflective process with a goal of improving teacher candidates’ technical, reflective, and creative writing. Readers are encouraged to reflect on their expectations for teacher candidates’ writing in light of instruction and assessment. Implications for teacher education are explored.

Keywords: writing, assessment, teacher education, rubrics, teacher candidates, teaching expectations

Cindy Lassonde is an associate professor in the Elementary Education and Reading Department at the State University of New York College at Oneonta. Her research interests include collaboration, teacher research, and writing pedagogy. Email:[email protected]

Alison Black is an associate professor in the Division of Education at the State University of New York College at Oneonta. Her research interests include children’s writing, the creative arts, and issues of teacher education. Email: [email protected]

Jane Miller is a lecturer in the Elementary Education and Reading Department of the Division of Education at the State University of New York College at Oneonta. Her areas of research include the development of writing skills of children and teacher candidates. Email: [email protected]

Hanfu Mi is an associate professor in the Faculty of Education at the State University of New York College at Oneonta. His areas of research include language acquisition and vocabulary development with an emphasis on socio-cultural perspectives. Email: [email protected]

Brock Education, Volume 18, No. 2, Spring 2009, 29-46.

C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction

Students learn to write when we surround them with examples and models…. (Bromley, 2003, p. 144)

What better model is there for a student learning to write but a teacher who is a confident and competent writer? Aren’t all teachers writing teachers, regardless of the grade level or content area they teach? This was the premise with which we—four literacy faculty from a teacher education college in mid-state New York—began the programmatic self-study presented in this paper. For years we have been concerned about our undergraduate teacher candidates’ preparedness to go out into schools as competent and confident writers. We had been integrating writing instruction into our literacy courses in implicit and explicit ways, such as the classroom methods we modeled and taught, our expectations for written assignments, direct instruction of problematic skills, and the introduction of writing best practices. We strongly believed that all teachers should surround their students with exemplary writing models as Bromley (2003) prescribes and should express content and ideas effectively to families and colleagues. How effective were we in helping our graduates achieve this objective? Although assessment was already integrated within each instructor’s course, we wanted to confirm our assumptions of effectiveness of our teaching. It seemed a systematic and organized study of how we were attempting to facilitate teacher candidates’ achievement of effective writing skills was in order. Setting out to follow a cohort of teacher candidates as they moved through a series of three sequenced literacy courses required for our childhood education programs, we wanted to study how our teacher candidates develop as writers as a result of participation in three required, sequenced, writing-intensive undergraduate literacy courses. As we collected and analyzed our data, our work together turned into a dynamic interchange and meshing of philosophies and ideas that have resulted in changes in our literacy courses and program. We found that as we studied teacher candidates’ learning in our classes, both our instruction and expectations came into the spotlight. This paper shares the story of what we discovered while in that spotlight and the ensuing journey we took. This article does not share the findings of our study of teacher candidates’ development as writers. Instead, we plan to outline and reflect upon the strategies and tools our group developed while we engaged in the research process and examined our instruction and expectations under the spotlight. Our work together developed into a collaborative programmatic self-study that asked

How do we as instructors shape our courses and program to influence the development of writing of our teacher candidates?

We are pleased to share our journey’s story with what we believe are valuable resources for other educators to use to analyze their instruction of writing with their students. We believe educators who assign written tasks with the intent of improving students’ writing will benefit from the ideas presented in this article. While our work is with teacher candidates, we see this journey’s story as relating to any classroom that teaches writing, from elementary and high- school classrooms to adult learning and the teaching of English to speakers of other languages. Sharing our research and self-study process may guide diverse groups of educators as they think about • Their expectations for candidates’ writing. (With what writing skills and attitudes do they want their candidates to graduate?)

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• How they model, scaffold, and teach writing in their courses. (Do they teach writing or merely assign writing tasks? Which do they need to do to meet candidates’ needs?) • How they assess writing tasks and determine writing development. To begin, first let us explain the theory and current literature that support and shape our philosophy of teaching writing and, therefore, our work.

Theoretical Background

Our work draws from classic perspectives of writing as social and personal and from current literature on writing pedagogy. We view writing as a social process (Vygotsky, 1978). It is a way to communicate cultural understandings. In interactive classrooms, such as when children are engaged in writing workshop, teachers are part of the social environment. They model and coach writing attitudes and skills for students through their social interactions as they respond to students’ writing, share ideas and resources, and exchange writing successes and frustrations. When teachers model and participate in the writing process with students, they demonstrate personal and authentic engagement and immersion that result in students’ learning skills and developing personal perceptions of writing (Cambourne, 1988; Graves, 1983). Therefore, we propose, it is important for writing teachers—including teacher educators—to demonstrate, model, and coach authentic, productive, and positive attitudes about and skills in writing. We also see writing as a cognitive process (Sperling & Freedman, 2001) in that students can learn to be better writers through instruction and practice. We expected our teacher candidates to learn from our modeling and direct instruction of writing. In addition, we expected them to take on the discourse of literacy—the constructs, the vocabulary, the voice—as a way of growing in their understanding of literacy through writing (Flower, 1994). Our study also draws from Elbow and Belanoff’s (2003) view of genre. They see genre as a way of helping writers create content. While others may see the structures and characteristics of writing genres as constricting and restraining, Elbow and Belanoff say these structures and characteristics help writers expand their thinking and look at a topic in new and interesting ways. The reader might relate this to the mirrors in the fun house at a carnival. When you stand in front of various mirrors, you look different. Your head might be expanded in one mirror while your stomach is in another. Writing about the same topic using different genres helps the writer think about the topic in ways that meet the structural needs and characteristics of a particular genre. By introducing multiple writing genres in our program, we intend to stretch and expand—like the mirrors in a fun house—our teacher candidates’ thinking as they learn content. Furthermore, we believe that critical reading emphasizes skill-based tasks such as distinguishing fact from opinion and recognizing propaganda in texts. At an advanced level, critical reading becomes a part of critical literacy (Cervetti, Damico, & Pardeles, 2001). The reciprocity of critical reading and writing occurs when individuals work cooperatively to apply metacognitive strategies to create meaning of text through reading and writing (Stevens & Bean, 2007). We have explored current literature about the development of teacher candidates’ writing skills and how teacher educators teach, model, and facilitate teacher candidates’ writing (Dowdy, 2008; Smith, 2005; Totten, 2005). We have also looked at the use of rubrics in higher education (Banta, 2008; Moriarty & Garrett, 2008). From this literature, we bring to our own work an appreciation for the need to stretch our instructional and assessment muscles so we can best design and implement course expectations.

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Our work is grounded by Ivanic’s (1998) ideas on writing identities. Through writing, individuals develop writing identities that fit the academic community in which each participates. In our literacy courses, we believe teacher candidates work toward bridging the gap from thinking and writing like students to thinking and writing like teachers. Finally, this work is a result of a programmatic self-study in the field of teacher education. This paper represents a collaborative, systematic study of our work together, our expectations for teacher candidates’ writing, and our evaluation of writing. Underlying the various forms of self-study in teacher education is the “analysis of one’s own practice with all the attendant challenges and celebrations associated with such scrutiny” (Clarke & Erickson, 2007, p. 55). One of the prominent outcomes of self-study tends to be “teacher knowing” or “learning that is in a state of evolution” (p. 55). We propose that our analyses have added to our teacher knowing and this knowing has shaped and defined our practices as a result.

The Literacy Sequence

The Elementary Education and Reading Department offers a program in Childhood Education, which leads to teacher certification to teach grades 1 through 6. The program requires candidates complete a 30-hour concentration in one area consistent with the New York State Learning Standards. Concentrations include Biology, Chemistry, Computer Science and Technology, Earth Science, English, French, Spanish, General Science, Geography, Liberal Arts and Science, Mathematics, Political Science, and Social Studies. SUNY College at Oneonta’s education programs are accredited by the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education and approved by the New York State Regents and the New York State Education Department. Teacher candidates studying in the Childhood Education program take the first in the series of three required literacy courses, EDUC 284 Development of Language and Literacy, as undergraduates in their sophomore or junior year. The second course, EDUC 235 Reading and Literacy I, is taken the semester after EDUC 284. The third course, EDUC 236 Reading and Literacy II, is usually taken the semester after EDUC 235, which is typically the semester before they student teach. The courses cover major reading and literacy theories and practices in teaching and learning. Figure 1 describes each course’s focus.

Course Number Instructor(s) Course Title Course Focus EDUC Lassonde The Development Language acquisition 284 of Language and theories, linguistic diversity, Literacy the impact of home environment on language acquisition, and the stages of oral and written language development; experiential connections of materials and instructional approaches for birth through grade 3 EDUC Black Reading and The language arts 235 Miller Literacy I components, New York State English Language Arts

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction

Learning Standards, and learning theories with experiential connections of materials and instructional approaches for grades 4 through 6 EDUC Mi Reading and Areas of literacy 236 Miller Literacy II comprehension, balanced literacy models, word recognition, assessment, and children’s literature

Figure 1. These are the three required literacy courses in the Childhood Education Program.

Who Are Our Teacher Candidates as Writers?

Most of our candidates are from New York State. The majority come from either the Long Island/New York City area or the local area. Our teacher candidates’ writing proficiency has been established by these achievements: • They come to the first course (EDUC 284) having already satisfactorily passed the New York State English Language Arts Regents’ Examination in high school. • They have passed the college’s required Writing Examination. • They have already completed Composition 100 and Education 106 Issues in Education, which are designated in the program as writing-intensive courses. • They have also successfully completed a number of other general education courses and courses within their concentrations in which they were expected to complete assignments requiring them to write in a variety of genres. Those with a concentration in English have completed several extra courses focusing on English language usage. One to two percent of our candidates come to us with academic accommodations. We are unable to determine without further study how these candidates’ accommodations (i.e., extended time to complete tests, the use of a notetaker in class, and alternative testing location) may influence their writing performance in our courses.

What Are Our Writing Expectations?

After much discussion, we decided our graduates should be confident writers in three areas: 1. Technical writing—writing professional reports such as a case study and lesson plans, letter to a child’s family or classroom teacher. 2. Reflective writing—writing that provides evidence of their ability to think metacognitively about their profession and teaching that would develop a deeply conceptual understanding and also provide a basis for making more informed instructional decisions. 3. Creative writing—writing poems and stories to share with and model for students. We base our beliefs on our personal experiences as K-12 teachers as well as teacher educators and our familiarity with the International Reading Association’s standards and the New York State English Language Arts standards for teaching and learning. We believe our

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction candidates should be capable of writing on-demand works, which are those created in front of or interactively with students, as strategies and expectations are modeled. Also, we expect candidates should be able to write prepared works that include time for process writing before being shared. Therefore, writing tasks across courses include creation of both types of works. In this study, we did not look at the ability to effectively respond in writing to students’ work. Although we know that this is also an important writing skill for teachers, this sequence of literacy courses does not include these opportunities in its curricula. Our teacher candidates perform a variety of writing tasks in the three literacy courses (Figure 2).

Course EDUC 284 EDUC 235 EDUC 236 Technical Lesson Plans Lesson Plans Lesson Plans

Case Study Informal Reading Inventory (IRI) Report

Letter to Child’s Family or Teacher

Reflective Field Experience Field Experience Directed Listening- Teaching Activity (DL- TA) Reflection Portfolio Reflections Mini-lesson Guided Reading Lesson Plan Reflection Read to Feed Reflection Poetry Reflection (Service Learning) Creative Poetry Poetry Poetry Predictable Children’s Book

Figure 2. These are the technical, reflective, and creative writing tasks assigned to candidates in each of the three required literacy courses in our program.

How Do We Communicate Our Expectations?

We generated the following list of ways we attempt to communicate our expectations for candidates’ writing. The items are supported by our beliefs that when learners are surrounded by positive writing models and attitudes about writing and are taught through modeling and direct instruction, they will learn to write and take on the discourse of literacy (Bromley, 2003; Sperling & Freedman, 2001). 1. We affirm that candidates are capable of achieving their goals and our expectations. Positive reinforcement is grounded in personal relationships in which instructors communicate these principles to candidates: Writing is important; I know you can do it; I won't give up on you. 2. We structure and organize learning in ways that communicate that we value the personal interests, unique strength, and intelligences of each individual. For example, candidates write a biopoem, which allows instructors to get to know them at the beginning of the semester.

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction

3. We use several approaches to assess writing, including authentic assessments that promote reflection, critical inquiry, and problem-solving, and assessments that validate different intelligences, strengths, and learning styles (Smith, 2005; Totten, 2005; Vygotsky, 1978). 4. We motivate candidates and instill within them a responsibility for improving their writing. We engage candidates in a variety of writing activities that connect to their interests, strengths, and real-world activities. Candidates are expected to participate actively and make decisions in the daily life of the classroom to build responsibility and ownership for learning (Ivanic, 1998; Vygotsky, 1978). For example, we discuss, What kind of teacher would you want to teach your child? Would you want someone who was a competent writer or someone who just got by? 5. We consider the wording in our syllabi and assignments. We attempt to be specific and clear, and provide opportunities for candidates to ask questions in and outside of class. 6. We break extensive writing assignments, such as the field experience case study, down into components with separate deadlines and discuss with the candidates the expectations for each component. 7. Writing samples, checklists, and rubrics (see Appendices A, B, and C) are provided ahead of time when possible and appropriate, so candidates have a clear understanding of our expectations (Banta, 2008; Cervetti, Damico, & Pardeles, 2001; Moriarty & Garrett, 2008; Stevens & Bean, 2007). These are analyzed with candidates. 8. Goals for each week are provided, discussed, and set with candidates when possible.

Providing Threads of Consistency

With these points on the table, we then decided we wanted to provide threads of consistency in our expectations that wove the three courses together for the candidates in a very concrete and visible way. Through a forum of dialogue and reflection (Clarke & Erickson, 2007), we created three writing rubrics: technical, reflective, and creative writing (see Appendices A, B, and C). These allowed us to see evidence of growth and skills as candidates progressed through the courses. To begin, we discussed what components we valued most for our candidates as technical, reflective, and creative writers. We drew from the genre work of Elbow and Belanoff (2003). We based our decisions on our familiarity with the International Reading Association’s standards and the New York State English Language Arts standards for teaching and learning.

Technical Writers. We said that, as technical writers, candidates should be able to • Use professional language • Portray an unbiased objectivity and sensitivity to content • Write for a purpose to a particular audience • Follow certain specific formats • Be concise and clear; and • Reflect the state learning standards and curriculum in their writing.

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction

Reflective Writers. In creating a rubric for reflective writing, we first considered the specific components of this type of writing used in the classroom. They include the following: • Maintaining a strong “I” voice when responding (text to self); • Using metacognitive understanding; • Demonstrating analysis, synthesis, and evaluation; and • Basing insight upon course content and real world experience (text to text, text to world).

Creative Writers. As creative writers we wanted our candidates to • Use sensory images, • Provide focus and continuity within each piece, • Consider word choices and uses of language, • Use the expected form or structure when appropriate (i.e., haikus and other forms of poetry); • Demonstrate creativity. And, of course, for all writing, we highly valued strong skills with mechanics and spelling.

Drafting the Three Rubrics

As a result of our dialogue about our expectations for technical, reflective, and creative writing, we drafted three writing rubrics. Initially, we drafted the rubrics separately using the bulleted expectations we had generated so we would have time to think about how to construct the categories and the rubrics themselves. We also researched similar writing rubrics online, such as those found at www.rubistar.com. Next, we used the rubrics with sets of teacher candidates’ writing to give the rubrics a test run. We used the rubrics to score each genre of writing. After individually scoring, we shared comments as we critically reviewed what we were learning from the application of the rubrics. We discussed the effectiveness of each rubric on various genres within our three categories. For example, we asked, Was the technical writing rubric equally useful for assessing a case study as it was a lesson plan? We also talked about the uses of specific language in each category. What was, for instance, the difference between using or, and, and and/or in our wording and how measurable and consistently interpreted were phrases such as extensive use, clearly recognizable, and readily comprehensible?

Field Testing the Rubrics

When we were satisfied with our rubrics, we field tested them in our classes to be sure the rubrics served the needs of our candidates. We asked candidates to use them and comment upon their clarity and comprehensiveness. After this, we met again and tweaked the wording and categories. Finally, we brought our rubrics (see Appendices A, B, and C) to the International Reading Association’s annual convention in Toronto in the Spring of 2007 and to the National Council of Teachers of English’s annual convention in New York City in the Fall of 2007. We shared our rubrics with participants and asked for feedback. Taking our colleagues’ comments into consideration, we revised the rubrics again as appropriate. Overwhelmingly, we found that participants at the conferences felt our rubrics were valuable tools for assessing writing. Many expressed their anticipation for seeing the rubrics published so they could adapt and/or use them in their classrooms.

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction

How Do We Model, Scaffold, and Teach Writing?

After the rubrics were developed, tested, and finalized, we realized that while they would work as threads to weave the writing expectations together for the three courses and they would be assessing similar writing genres, each course and instructor provided varying levels of assistance and support for writing within their courses. For example, in EDUC 284 (the first course), Lassonde introduced lesson planning and provided candidates with opportunities to write lesson objectives in class, discuss them with their peers, and refer to models of objectives from past semesters. However, because candidates were expected to have gained experience in writing lesson plans in EDUC 284, the instructors of EDUC 235, Black and Miller, provided less support in an effort to scaffold candidates’ learning and allow them to work toward independence. We decided to analyze how we were scaffolding tasks from one course to another.

Determining Scaffolding of Writing Skills

We devised a chart that allowed us to visualize our thoughts. We developed three levels of scaffolding and agreed upon the following degrees of support that should be available at each level. Here are the levels. Scaffold Level 1—Resource only Scaffold Level 2—Resource and support from instructor Scaffold Level 3—Resource, support from instructor, modeling by peer or instructor, and social interaction among peers The resource might be text such as an article or a website that provided instructions or a model. Support from instructor could be class or online support including reviewing drafts and providing feedback online. Modeling would be interactive writing or some type of demonstration. Social interaction among peers would include writing or computer workshop forums in which candidates wrote collaboratively or brought in drafts to share and discuss. Generally, we saw Level 3 as needed most when candidates were introduced to a new genre. Levels 2 and 1 helped the candidates move toward independence. There were tasks that we could expect candidates to perform at the next level of scaffolding because they were familiar with the general writing genre such as writing a business or professional letter. The genre was so familiar that we expected candidates could plug in the content with less scaffolding support than less familiar genres.

Scaffolding of Genre Work

Next, we determined that we needed to analyze the scaffolding levels we used across the courses for our writing assignments. Below are the courses, assignments, and scaffolding level represented by SL-1, 2, or 3. SL stands for scaffolding level. EDUC 284 Technical: read-aloud lesson plan (pretest) emergent guided reading lesson plan (SL-3) case study (SL-3) letter to child’s family or teacher (SL-2) Reflective: field experience reflection (SL-3) portfolio reflection (SL-2)

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Creative: children’s poetry (SL-2) predictable children’s book (SL-3) EDUC 235 Technical: phonics lesson plan (grade 1; review of phonics concepts and lesson planning) (SL-3) read-aloud lesson plan (4-6 level) (SL-3) Reflective: field experience reflection (SL-2) Creative: poem for two voices (SL-2) EDUC 236 Technical: DL-TA lesson plan (SL-2) guided reading lesson plan (both primary and intermediate) (SL- 2); IRI report (SL-3) Reflective: DL-TA reflection (SL-1) guided reading lesson plan reflection (SL-1) poetry reflection (SL-1) Creative: poetry (biopoem) (SL-3)

The process of creating these scaffolding levels and plugging in our assignments across the course sequence opened spaces for us to re-evaluate our expectations. Our awareness of each others’ expectations for candidates was heightened, and we became acutely aware of candidates’ needs and the implications for our instruction. It was a revealing way to look at learning and instruction. We realized, for example, that it wasn’t as simple as saying all tasks in the first course should be at SL-3; all in the second course should be SL-2; and all in the final course should be SL-1 leading candidates’ toward independence. There were factors that justified candidates’ need to discuss their writing or to use a model. The conversations we had explaining our rationale provided valuable insight. They led to discussions about how each of us taught writing in our classes. We were already keenly aware of each others’ teaching styles and curriculum based on several years of working together. Through the years, we had worked together to hone the scope and sequence of our three courses, and we had shared the responsibility of developing candidates who were skilled and knowledgeable about students’ literacy needs. We respected each others’ work and talents. Therefore, when new, effective ideas and approaches were described, we carefully listened to each other and considered updating applications to our own courses. We noticed that as we shared the strategies we used, the strategies informed our practices. We began to blend our ideas.

Teaching Technical Writing

Learning to write reports, letters to family members, lesson plans, and other technical products for which a teacher is responsible is a complex process. Teacher candidates are not only trying out professional language and vocabulary and incorporating unfamiliar concepts, they are experiencing genres of writing—some unique to education—that they have never had to master previously (Elbow & Belanoff, 2003). Due to the complexity of the task and our high expectations for our candidates, we provide them with a good deal of support in the technical writing genre (i.e., Scaffold Level 3), especially in EDUC 284, the first required literacy course.

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One of the ways we do this is by providing writing workshop time during class in which candidates write, share, and discuss writing pieces. As they write, they interact. Writing becomes part of an intricate social process as they critically read and apply metacognitive strategies to create meaning in the text they are writing (Cervetti, Damico, & Pardeles, 2001; Vygotsky, 1978). Some of these workshop times take place in the computer laboratory on campus so candidates can access helpful resources on the Internet to assist them in their writing. We discuss language use and appropriate voice and style. They are taught how to avoid the reflection of the deficit model in their writing by replacing phrases like has trouble with and the child cannot with is progressing in his ability to, is working on, and should work next on. Another method we use to support candidates’ development as technical writers is through the use of writing frames. Within the use of best practices, writing frames are frequently used at the elementary level to provide support for developing writers. Frames may be used to model—to name a few examples—sentence structure and syntax, paragraph construction, story sequence, and even the format for a particular genre. Following is an example of a simple paragraph frame. My favorite animals are ______. I like them because ______. They live in ______and eat ______. Can advanced writing frames be valuable in helping teacher candidates learn to write technical genres professionally? Teachers are expected to produce reports and lesson plans as part of the responsibility and expectations of their position. Therefore, teacher candidates need experience in using the appropriate language, voice, and format for the genre. They also need practice and instruction in effective ways to support evaluative remarks with evidence in their use of technical writing. We also provide writing frames that explicitly outline the structure and content of a particular genre, such as a case study or a lesson plan. See Figure 3 for an excerpt. We see the use of writing frames as supported by Elbow and Belanoff’s (2003) view of genre as a way to help writers create and shape content. In the case study assignment, for instance, we have found that providing the overall structure of the report through the headings and subheadings helps our candidates categorize the assessments and lessons they do in the field with a kindergarten student. The headings help the candidates visualize the components of literacy within the context of their field experience. This ability to visualize the components of literacy pushes them to think about precisely what they have observed in the field.

(child’s first name)’s Reading Development

(Write an introductory paragraph here. Go to pages 50-51 of the ELP. Highlight the behaviors you observed in each of the four developmental stages and each of the three categories. Generally, which stage has the most bullets highlighted? Write about this here. Explain why you have chosen this stage. Mention also if some bullets in other stages were highlighted. This is common.)

Characteristics of Texts That Are Appropriate for (child’s first name)

(This section is a little different from the others because you are looking at the texts the child reads and understands rather than the child. As you write this section, use the language in this scale to describe explicitly what type of texts the child is able to read with help, what type

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction he/she can read independently, and what type the child would be frustrated with. Also, what type would the child understand if read to him/her? Then specifically tell how you observed this. Was it while you were reading I Went Walking with the child, while you were doing guided reading…? Back up whatever you say with a specific observation or response of the child’s. Include the stages from the scale.)

Reading Strategies (child’s first name) Demonstrates

(As you write this section, use the language in this scale to describe explicitly what the child’s strengths and needs in this area are….

Figure 3. This is an excerpt from the case study writing frame.

Teaching Reflective Writing

For teachers to become education professionals committed to excellence, they need to be reflective practitioners. Embedded within the Conceptual Framework of our Division of Education, reflection enhances understanding of content as well as instruction. It provides a forum for teacher candidates to go beyond description and consider how and why: “this is what I did; this is what occurred; therefore, why was it successful or not and how can I improve it or not?” The reflective process requires a critical analysis of what was done during instruction. This component of critical thinking needs scaffolding for teacher candidates to look beyond a description of what happened (Cervetti, Damico, & Pardeles, 2001). We provide this scaffolding through modeling, thinking aloud, handouts providing directions, and discussion. Our expectations for reflection are made clear in the specific questions we ask teacher candidates to address. An example would be How did the peer feedback in class from your read aloud of the book we were reading during Literature Circle influence your preparation for and reading to students? The explanation and modeling of reflection is essential, and providing relevance and allowing teacher candidates to participate or have first-hand experience helps to develop their reflective capabilities.

Teaching Creative Writing

According to Bruner (1962), a creative act is one that “produces effective surprise…that strikes with wonder or astonishment.” Therefore, creative writing should address • Vivid sensory images that writers paint so that readers can see in their mind’s eye, • A clear focus expressed through either one perspective or multiple perspectives, • Wordplay with verbal contortions, surprising juxtapositions, great puns, etc., • Structure through which writers can see patterns and find order in their thoughts, and • Original and imaginative thoughts that value the writers’ identities. Candidates are required to write poems in the form of a cinquain, haiku, free verse, poem for two voices, biopoem, and acrostic poem in their required literacy courses. These poems provide the candidates with the opportunities to think and to use their imaginations when they develop their writing skills as both teachers and learners.

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction

Our Findings from the Self-Study

This programmatic self-study developed as a branch of our original study of candidates’ writing development. Writing this article helped us to formalize our thoughts through reflection and revision. In many ways Ivanic’s (1998) theory of creating identities through writing came true for us. Our writing became a tool to help us clarify our thoughts about writing and our academic community and who we were as writing teachers. In the following sections, we share our final thoughts based on our discussions, the creation of the three rubrics, our collaborative sharing and blending of strategies and expectations, and our reflections of how to best develop and assess our candidates’ writing.

How Do We Assess Writing Tasks?

Prior to our study of teacher candidates’ writing, we each assessed writing in different ways. There was little continuity in expectations; therefore, there was little consistency and predictability for the teacher candidates. When they moved from course to course, they voiced their confusion with the discrepancies among instructors’ expectations. With the development of our writing rubrics, that has changed. In the first literacy course, candidates are introduced to the three rubrics: Technical Writing (Appendix A), Reflective Practice (Appendix B), and Creative Writing (Appendix C). Candidates review the language, categories, and concepts each semester. Instructors have the option of inserting task-specific language into each rubric to tailor it to each course’s syllabus. For example, in EDUC 284, Dr. Lassonde inserts language in the technical writing rubric to ensure candidates include specific information within their case study report on the literacy assessments used in their field experience. The rubrics have become not just a tool for assessment but a guide to facilitate candidates’ writing as proposed by Banta (2008) and Moriarity and Garrett (2008). They experience the characteristics of and learn to format a particular genre through the rubrics’ criteria (Elbow & Belanoff, 2003).

How Do We Determine Writing Development?

As we continue to study candidates’ writing and our instruction, we plan to research how candidates’ writing develops in our three literacy courses. We are currently collecting data from a cohort of candidates who have already taken the first two courses and are enrolled in their final literacy course at our college. We plan to be able to report findings about the candidates’ attitudes and skills in writing as a result of our scaffolding and instruction.

Implications

Teacher educators should consider scaffolding their writing instruction, providing multiple opportunities for teacher candidates to practice a particular genre of writing, and creating a forum for them to discuss their writing. Our observations were confirmed by other works of practitioners and researchers (Cambourne, 1988; Flower, 1994; Graves, 1983; Sperling & Freedman, 2001), and we incorporated expectations that writing should include the use of a variety of genres, the incorporation of professional vocabulary, and the integration of new learning, with a focus on learning that moves from the course to the field.

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction

To promote writing growth, teacher educators should model writing; provide experiences and opportunities for teacher candidates to develop positive attitudes about and competent skills in writing; discuss the importance of metacognition; and share their own writing processes, frustrations, and accomplishments. In our courses, we often describe how we would approach a particular writing assignment, share texts we are writing ourselves, and continually reiterate the professional importance of developing as competent and confident writers and writing teachers. Reflecting upon their own writing instruction, teacher educators should consider how they foster teacher candidates’ development as writers in their courses, what layered expectations their writing assignments carry, and how they may effectively and explicitly teach writing genres as “a way to generate or invent content” (Elbow & Belanoff, 2003, p. 73).

Programmatic Recommendations

Our work thus far implies that self-study can fuel advocacy for programmatic concerns. When we were each busy going about fulfilling our daily obligations and responsibilities, we often voiced our concerns about candidates’ writing. However, this focused systematic study and reflection caused us to discuss in detail exactly what our concerns were. And, our work provided evidence that we eventually took to our Department Chair and Associate Dean. As a result, the Division of Education is taking a close look at the development of candidates’ writing skills and attitudes and how we teach writing across all courses. We obviously found this process very productive and rewarding. We highly recommend all teacher education programs examine their literacy objectives and determine how effectively they are meeting candidates’ writing needs. Often as instructors we take for granted the work we do and the work our candidates do. We recommend program reviewers examine the bulleted list provided at the very beginning of this article. That is, we recommend they examine • Their expectations for candidates’ writing; • How they model, scaffold, and teach writing in their courses; and • How they assess writing tasks and determine writing development. Based on our experiences, we suggest action: Set into motion a systematic, programmatic self- study as we did. Make the time to have collegial conversations with each other to analyze candidates’ writing skills and needs, take ownership in your courses, and set specific goals for writing within each of your assignments. Get to know what your colleagues are doing in their classrooms to meet candidates’ writing needs and consider ways to scaffold writing within the program. In two words: Teach writing.

Instructional Recommendations

There are several instructional recommendations we would like to offer. First, we recommend an adherence to a literacy program established by its instructors that reflects national, state, and local learning standards. This provides support and consistency for both instructors and teacher candidates. Second, we recommend a developmental sequence of literacy courses. Such a sequence incorporates layered expectations for writing and helps to scaffold teacher candidates’ learning. Third, we recommend consistent modeling and use of professional language that sets a standard for candidates to follow. Fourth, a collaborative model for instructors and teacher candidates is recommended because such a model allows each group to learn from its peers and to build on one another’s knowledge. Finally, clear and frequent communication among literacy

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C. A. Lassonde, A. Black, J. Miller, and M. Hanfu Rubrics and Scaffolded Instruction faculty is vital. This may be accomplished through regular meetings, email, and even office proximity. In many ways the relationships we have established with each other in our collaborative literacy group are the core of our work together. We each feel confident in sharing our triumphs and our challenges. When we are unsure of ourselves or perhaps the way we are presenting a certain concept, we talk openly about our concerns. We rely on each others’ expert and varied experiences to enrich and clarify our own foundations. We share not only our expertise we also share our vulnerabilities. Therefore, our final recommendation is that the reader find such a cohesive group of colleagues with whom to work. Seek out comrades within your faculty with whom you feel safe and grow with them. Your work together “is likely to promote rich discussion…essential to informed critique and development of self-study” (Clarke & Erickson, 2007, p. 61). Your growth may foster the advancement of your teacher candidates in outstanding, measurable, and immeasurable ways.

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References

Banta, T. W. (2008). Sadly, rubrics are not for everyone. Assessment Update, 20(4), p. 3.

Bromley, K. (2003). Building a sound writing program. In L. M. Morrow, L. B. Gambrell, & M. Pressley (Eds.). Best Practices in Literacy Instruction (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford Press.

Bruner, J. (1962). On knowing. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Cambourne, B. (1988). The whole story: Natural learning and the acquisition of literacy in the classroom. Auckland, NZ: Scholastic.

Cervetti, G., Damico, J. S., & Pardeles, M. J. (2001). A tale of differences: Comparing the traditions, perspectives, and educational goals of critical reading and critical literacy. Reading Online. Retrieved March 1, 2009, from www.readingonline.org.

Clarke, A., & Erickson, G. (2007). The nature of teaching and learning in self-study. In J. J. Loughran, M. L. Hamilton, V. K. LaBoskey, & T. Russell (Eds.), International Handbook of Self-Study of Teaching and Teacher Education Practices (pp. 41-67), The Netherlands: Springer.

Dowdy, J. K. (2008). From poems to video script. Excelsior, 3(2), 61-76.

Elbow, P., & Belanoff, P. (2003). Being a writer: A community of writers revisited. Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Flower, L. S. (1994). The construction of negotiated meaning: A social cognitive theory of writing. Carbondale, IL: Southern Illinois University Press.

Graves, D. (1983). Writing: Teacher and children at work. Portsmouth, NH: Heinemann.

Ivanic, R. (1998). Writing and identity: The discoursal construction of identity in academic writing. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.

Moriarty, L. J., & Garrett, J. J. (2008). Criminal justice assessment: Staying ahead of the bullet. Criminal Justice Studies, 21(3), 217-222.

Smith, M. A. (2005). Are you ready for college writing? The Voice, 10(3). Retrieved 2/10/09. Available online at http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/print/resource/2254.

Sperling, M., & Freedman, S. W. (2001). Research on writing. In V. Richardson (Ed.). Handbook of research on teaching (4th ed.). (pp. 370-389). Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Stevens, L. P., & Bean, T. W. (2007). Critical literacy: Context, research, and practice in the K- 12 classroom. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Totten, S. (2005). Writing to learn for preservice teachers. The Quarterly, 27(2). Retrieved 2/10/09. Available online at http://www.nwp.org/cs/public/ print/resource/2231.

Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

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Appendix A Rubric for Technical Writing

CATEGORY (4) (3) (2) (1) Organization Structure establishes Structure establishes Structure establishes Structure does not relationship relationships some relationship establish connection between/among between between/among some between/among ideas/events. ideas/events, of the ideas/events. ideas/events. The Organization is a although minor The structure is overall structure is logical progression of lapses may be minimally complete. incomplete or ideas/events and is present. There is a One or more major confusing. unified and complete. logical progression lapses in the logical Ideas/events are of ideas/events and is progression of presented in a random reasonably complete, ideas/events are fashion. although minor evident. lapses may be present. Voice Consistently Usually Demonstrates Lacks sensitivity to demonstrates demonstrates minimal sensitivity to readers' point of view, sensitivity to readers’ sensitivity to readers' point of view lacks professional point of view; readers’ point of and needs and tone and authoritative consistent use of view and uses a sometimes uses a stance, or expresses a professional professional professional deficit model of tone/authority. tone/authority. tone/authority. learning. Elaboration Elaboration consists Elaboration consists Elaboration consists Elaboration is sparse; (as appropriate for of specific, developed of some specific of general and/or almost no details. piece and genre) details that show details that show undeveloped details, Shows little highly developed well developed which may be understanding or understanding of understanding of presented in a list- misunderstanding of literacy theory and literacy theory and like fashion. Shows literacy theory and practice. practice. some evidence of practice. understanding of literacy theory and practice. Level of Demonstrates writer Demonstrates some Repeats vocabulary Doesn't use language Discourse can synthesize creative use of and language of of teaching or uses it language & teacher language; teacher; repeats inaccurately. vocabulary learned; may include some memorized creates with the repetition of utterances. language of a teacher; vocabulary and uses variety of expressions. vocabulary and expressions. Composition Readily Reader has to pause Text requires Almost impossible to comprehendible; or reread to interpretation on part understand; reader clear; flows; provides understand text; of reader; mostly has to "figure out." support for ideas. ideas flow; some comprehendible; support. lacks support.

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Appendix B Rubric for Reflective Writing

CATEGORY (4) (3) (2) (1) Personal Conveys Conveys Conveys some Conveys little Response extensive evidence of evidence of evidence of evidence of personal personal personal (Text to self) personal response to response to response to response to issues raised issues raised issues raised issues raised

Use of Strong Use of “I Weak “I” No “I” voice “I” voice voice” voice Demonstrates Demonstrates Some personal No sense of personal beginning of growth but personal Personal growth with personal little metacog- growth and/or Growth and metacognitive growth with nitive under- no meta- Metacognition understanding some standing of cognitive of information metacognitive information understanding supported with understanding with or of information explicit of information without with or without examples with examples examples examples Strong ability Ability to Weak ability No ability to to question and question and to question question or Critical consider other consider other and consider consider other Analysis perspectives perspectives other perspectives perspectives

Connections Is able to Is able to relate Describes Makes explicitly what is heard what is heard minimal or no (Text to text, relate what is and read to and read reference to text to world) heard and read course content and/or what is heard to course and/or real demonstrates and read with content and world and some insight lack of insight real world and demonstrates demonstrates some insight insight Comprehension Clearly and Clearly and/or Learning to Not able to logically logically clearly and clearly and expresses expresses logically logically arguments, arguments, express express opinions and opinions and arguments, arguments, responses responses opinions and opinions and responses responses All required Most required elements are elements are Few required Little to no complete complete elements are required complete elements are complete

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Appendix C Rubric for Creative Writing

CATEGORY (4) (3) (2) (1) Sensory Images Vivid, detailed Clear use of sensory Some use of image, Difficult to visualize images and/or images to portray idea, or emotion. image or emotion. intensely felt ideas or emotions. emotion. Focus and Well focused and Focused and interests Some focus, but Unfocused; author Continuity interests reader reader throughout lacks continuity. seems unsure of throughout, strong with some continuity direction. continuity, and and rhythm. rhythm. Word Choice/Use Precise, original, Appropriate choice of General or ordinary Imprecise or of Language fresh words. Creates words/language. words. Attempts inappropriate word vivid images. Experiments with new new words with choice. and different words limited success. with some success. Form Structure Effective, logical, Logical and follows May follow some Does not fit poetry follows rules. rules. form rules. form.

Creativity Effectively presented Presented in an Minimally presented No evidence of in an original manner original manner using originality. originality in which supports which supports presentation. deliverance and interpretation. interpretation.

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This Must Be a Suburban Classroom!: Using Photographs to Investigate Teacher Candidates Developing Professional Identities

Nancy Brown Oakland University

Robert Wiggins Oakland University

David Secord Oakland University

Abstract

The study described in this paper used photo-elicitation to investigate teacher candidates’ developing understanding of learning, students and classroom environment. Specifically we sought to determine if our students internalized the concepts taught in two courses in our teacher preparation program. Analysis revealed that despite our efforts to expand our students’ perspectives on culturally diverse classrooms they continued to hold traditional views on the nature of the environment, and the nature of the learner. Photo- elicitation was an excellent means to uncover the impact we as teacher educators have on our students’ developing professional identities.

Keywords: Photo-elicitation, Cultural Diversity, Pre-service Teacher Education

Nancy Brown is an assistant professor in the School of Education and Human Services. Her research interests include understanding ways teacher identity influences learning and knowledge. She is interested in enabling teachers to teach in ways that promote an equitable and conceptually rigorous education for all students. Email: [email protected]

Robert Wiggins is an associate professor and Associate Dean in the School of Education and Human Services. His research interests are in the areas of multicultural issues in teacher education, the connections between K-12 and higher education, and the role of the arts in the education of children.

David Secord is the School and Field Service Coordinator for the School of Education. His research interests include the developing professional identity of teacher candidates and how that developing identity impacts their dispositions toward social justice.

Brock Education, Volume 18, No. 2, Spring 2009, Pages 49-65 49

N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom!

This paper reports findings of a study that investigated how photographs of a classroom revealed teacher candidates’ conceptions about students, learning, and classroom environments. The participants in this study were teacher candidates in two foundational pre-service courses. These integrated courses were intended to facilitate teacher candidates’ developing professional identities including their understanding of cultural responsiveness as well as commitment to social justice. Central to the study was the use of a panoramic photo-elicitation device used as a final course activity. This culminating assignment was designed to examine ways in which the teacher candidates’ thinking aligned with or varied from the goals embedded within our diversity course and the co- requisite instructional design and assessment course. To this aim we (researchers/instructors) asked the following questions: What facets of the teacher candidates’ emerging professional identities were evident in their elicited responses to the panoramic photographs of the classroom? In what ways did this activity provide insight into the teacher candidates’ understandings of the course goals?

Theoretical Framework

The demographics of the United States public schools continue to become more diverse while our pool of teacher candidates remains mostly white, middle class, and female (Cardina & Roden, 1998; Hodgkinson, 2002; Landsman & Lewis, 2006). One goal of many teacher education programs is to address the urgent need to develop teacher candidates with professional identities that contain aspects of both cultural responsiveness to the needs of an increasingly diverse student population and are capable of advocating for a more socially just world. However, many of our attempts to change teacher education to align with these crucial goals fail due in part to an inability to develop teachers with a critical awareness of the major issues that have a long reaching impact on public education (Kincheloe, 2005). Specifically, teacher candidates often have the inability to come to terms with the role of schooling in social justice and equality in our society (Darling-Hammond, 1996; Lynn & Smith-Maddox, 2007; Zeichner, 1993). Historically, teachers have conveyed the acceptable cultural norms of our mainstream society thus sharing some responsibility for perpetuating social inequity (Ladson- Billings, 1995; Pedroni, 2007). It is our belief that when teachers are adopting a culturally responsive approach to teaching they are - creating a more socially just learning environment for their students as well as acting as agents for social change. However, we were not certain if our teaching was enabling our students to see themselves as potential leaders who can initiate such change. It is presumptuous to believe that teacher candidates will understand these larger issues without the self-awareness to understand their personal role within the process of schooling. There has been considerable discussion about self-awareness as it relates to the development of identity (Zembylas, 2003), its connection to teacher candidates’ prior conceptions of what it means to be a teacher (Britzman, 1986), and the role of teacher education programs in fostering self-awareness and identity development (Korthagen, 2004). It is our belief that to develop self-awareness we must begin by facilitating future teachers’ understandings of their own biases toward teaching students of diverse backgrounds, thus enabling these teacher candidates to ultimately develop professional identities that exhibit a commitment to social justice (Adams, Bell, & Griffin, 2007).

Brock Education, 18(2) 50 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom!

Once developed, this aspect of a professional identity will be a catalyst toward teacher candidates’ willingness to teach diverse populations of students in both urban and suburban settings (Milner, 2005), and will provide the impetus for these individuals to take active roles in the development of a socially just world (Sevier, 2005). A critical element of the formation of professional identity is the self-awareness of the preconceived notions about teaching that teacher candidates bring to their educational program (Aslup 2006; Brown, Morehead, & Smith, 2007; Kagan, 1992). It has long been believed that preconceived notions frame a teacher candidates’ view of teaching (Danielewicz, 2001; Lortie, 1975). While researchers have acknowledged that changing conceptions is difficult (Richardson & Anders, 1994), we believe the effort is imperative to assure teacher candidates success in an ever-changing diverse environment (Richardson & Placier, 2001). Thus, it is especially important to assist teacher candidates in their self-examination of these conceptions and beliefs towards diversity (Ladson- Billings, 1999; Kincheloe & Steinberg, 1998; Wiggins & Follo, 1999; Wiggins, Follo & Eberly, 2007). One tool that holds promise for helping teacher candidates to uncover preconceived conceptions is photo elicitation (Brown, 2005; Harper, 2002; Taylor, 2002). Through the examination of photos, teacher candidates can - probe and reflect upon their developing professional identities in ways that allow for recognitions of their conceptions about issues of race, culture, religion, and poverty. Participating in this photo elicitation activity will, hopefully, better prepare them to teach in culturally diverse classrooms. Photographs often shed light on the taken for granted assumptions the viewer brings to the photograph (Sontag, 1977). It is the viewers’ interpretation of the photograph that gives meaning to a perceived visual reality of the scene in the photograph (English, 1988; Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The viewer can only speculate on the photographer’s intentions in representing an interpretation of reality. As Sontag (1977), explains, “There is the surface. Now think --or rather feel, intuit – what is beyond it, what the reality must be like if it looks this way” (p. 23). The photograph creates a dichotomous space where objective reality and the individuals’ constructed reality merge. This interaction becomes a mental playground in which teacher candidates can conceptualize and re-conceptualize aspects of teaching, students, and classrooms enabling them to form and reform meaning within the photograph. The ambiguity inherent in this interplay, between the visual reality and the viewer, mirrors and reflects the ambiguity of teaching itself. Thus, understanding what it is the teacher candidate is noticing about a classroom photograph gives teacher educators insight into their students developing understandings.

Methods

This study took place at a comprehensive institution serving over 17,000 students, with approximately 300 elementary education students graduating per year. We focused our efforts on a group of students enrolled in two classes taken together as a block during the teacher candidates’ first year of professional course work. One course focuses on instructional design and assessment, while the second deals primarily with diversity and creating classroom communities. These courses are linked because our program stresses the importance of connecting instructional design of content to understanding the needs

Brock Education, 18(2) 51 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom! of all learners early in the teacher candidates’ program. The students were enrolled in both courses. This dual enrollment made it possible for us to meet with them for seven contact hours per week throughout the semester. We were also able to establish underlying tenets that crossed the boundaries of the two individual courses. For example, one primary tenet underlying both courses is that there are alternative ways of describing and negotiating the world and that these other ways of thinking are socially constructed. A primary goal of the combined courses was to encourage students to examine their own belief structures with the hope that they would acknowledge the possibility of the existence of an alternative reality besides their own. The opportunity to question assumptions was purposefully designed into the class sessions. Additionally, as part of these courses, students participated in a thirty-hour semester-long field placement. Working in teams of two, to help facilitate reflection and peer interaction, students were placed in K-3rd grade classrooms in an urban charter school in our nearby city. The school population was 100% African American with a low SES as measured by state documentation. We regularly debriefed with our students about the experience of working in a school that was out of their comfort zone (Tyson, Brown & Secord, 2007). This charter school placement afforded a very different model of instruction and classroom management than the approach our courses presented. We used this difference as an opportunity to question preconceived notions about learning, instructions and student diversity. Participants Participants in this study were elementary education teacher candidates (n=13) of which 11 were female and 2 were male. Of the female candidates, one was African American and one was Middle Eastern; all other participants were of European descent. All candidates other than one male were of traditional college age and all were of middle- class backgrounds. All names used in this paper are pseudonyms. Instrument/ Data Source A digital panoramic photograph was assembled and printed from still images taken at an urban school in a local metropolitan school district. While the classroom had its own character, it was specifically chosen to be representative of a generic elementary school environment without trappings to suggest its locale or clientele. Teacher candidates were given a packet containing two panoramic photographs (one wide range and one close-up of the classroom) and a questionnaire. The open-ended questionnaire asked for detailed responses that described what the teacher candidates noticed about the classroom and the learners who utilized the classroom. Students were also asked to reflect on how they would re-structure the classroom to represent their emerging professional beliefs. Within the course experience students were not previously given photographs to interpret. This was done purposely to avoid directly teaching our students that there was only one correct interpretation of a photograph. We did not want the students simply to mimic back what they had learned. However, we did spend considerable time on the construct of noticing. Sherin and van Es (2005) studied teachers’ ability to notice. using videos of mathematics teaching. They sought new ways for teachers to see classroom practice beyond mere surface observation. They found that video-based professional development provided teachers with opportunities to learn. Of particular interest to our study is their use of noticing as a construct to help teachers develop expertise within

Brock Education, 18(2) 52 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom! mathematics education. We expanded noticing to our context within pre-service teacher education. We applied this construct throughout the diversity course to facilitate teacher candidates’ developing understanding of culturally responsive classroom practices and awareness of social justice. Noticing became a part of our everyday language. Students would preface descriptions of their field placement with “I noticed….” They would question each other about what they noticed. We modeled this way of seeing by engaging students in an extended discussion about what they noticed about their own communities, the communities they drive through, the schools they attended and the urban school in which they did their field placements. For example we seeded the questions – What do you notice when you leave your house in the morning? What do you suppose a person living in an urban community notices? We were careful not to express value judgments, only a comparison of the visual details. The reason we spent so much time on this construct was that by noticing the details of the lives of these urban students and comparing those details to their own experience in schools we hoped our pre-service teachers would come to know these students as individuals. We wanted our students to understand that there are strengths and weaknesses in both urban and suburban schools and recognize that urban students need not automatically be labeled as disadvantaged and in need of correction. We were hopeful that they would be able to envision the classroom as something other than a fixed entity consistent with their pre-determined vision of one correct school environment: to instead, see classrooms as flexible environments intended to serve the needs of the individual students. In short, our goal is to have future teachers contributing to social justice and equity. To do so, they must be willing to take steps to adjust their teaching to meet the needs of each student rather than attempting to adjust the student to be in compliance with predetermined norms of a mainstream definition of schooling. Procedure The packets were distributed on a Tuesday with instructions to complete and send the response via e-mail by the following Sunday. Participants signed an academic honor statement to assure independent thinking and responses. Participation in the study was voluntary while participating in the final class activity was not. Of the 13 students in the class, none asked that their responses be removed from the analysis. On the contrary the students were excited to be a part of this research project. Data Analysis Our approach to analyzing the data followed the constant comparative process (Strauss and Corbin, 1990). Each of the three researchers independently read and reread the student responses with the intent of identifying themes through a three step process. (1) Data were initially analyzed using a scoring rubric that allowed us to compare participant responses with course expectations. The coding rubric was kept intentionally uncomplicated and open-ended. We simply recorded anything the students reported they noticed. We looked for any elaboration the participants offered and any connection they made to their personal philosophy. The second part of the rubric documented any statements the participants made about the imaginary learners in this classroom; what claims did they make about the learners? How did they support those claims? Did they notice anything that seemed to contribute to social justice and culturally relevant teaching

Brock Education, 18(2) 53 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom! in this classroom setting? Finally, the rubric guided us to statements concerning what the participants would change and what they would keep the same in this classroom. (2) Data were next analyzed using direct interpretation (Stake, 1995) to garner themes within individuals’ responses to understand their emergent professional identity. Each researcher took the statements recorded on the rubric and classified them by identifying emerging themes. Our initial categories concerned comments about classroom organization and the arrangement of the furnishings, classroom decoration and visual appeal, indications of student diversity, and statements about instruction and learning. (3) As a final overarching analysis data were aggregated (Stake, 1995) across individuals to understand commonalities and differences in teacher candidates’ responses which allowed us to clarify the definition of each constructed category. Once the three researchers came to agreement, the responses were categorized and the categories were grouped into two larger overarching themes – understandings about the nature of the environment and understandings about the nature of the learner.

Results

Findings suggest that the photo-elicitation did engage the teacher candidates in a reflective process that provided insight into many aspects of their developing professional identity. What was particularly interesting is that the participants’ belief system acted as a lens through which they interpreted the photograph. This use of a lens was evident on two levels. The first was the abstraction of the teachers’ work around the nature of the environment and second was the participants’ projected assumptions about the nature of the learners. It is important to note that these teacher candidates had only participated in the planning of lessons in the theoretic world of a college assignment or from experience as participant observers during required field placements. What is presented within these results is a glimpse into the teacher candidates’ developing and transforming understandings. We organize the results around the two emergent categories as representative of the thinking of these teacher candidates: 1) the teacher candidates’ understandings about the nature of the environment, and 2) the teacher candidates’ assumptions about the nature of the learners.

Understandings about the Nature of the Environment

Participants’ responses all described and discussed the importance of classroom organization for effective teaching. In fact, teacher candidates referred to the work of the teacher as being in charge of the classroom organization that included “making the classroom visually appealing”, “neat and tidy”, and “arranged to facilitate lessons.” Providing a well-organized environment was credited with: “encouraging student responsibility,” “making students feel welcome,” and “facilitating good instruction.” All of these are laudable goals. One student wrote, “This room is very organized. There does not seem to be anything out of place. Having the room as organized as it appears helps the days run more smoothly and learning to happen here” (Amy). This student mirrored the thoughts of many others who conclude the importance of a “tidy” work environment to the overall learning process of the classroom. Marcy wrote,

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The first thing I noticed about this classroom was how visually appealing it was to me. It is very bright and cheery. I also appreciated how even though there is plenty going on in this room it is very neat and organized. Every item has its place in the room and there was nothing to be tripped over or moved around. This is very important to me because I believe that a clean organized environment creates better performance, and just feels better to be in. I do not know if this is a proven fact among children but I know that as a teacher I will perform better in a neat and organized environment where everything has a place and for the most part are in it. Marcy clearly used her own needs as the barometer of student needs. From this comment, we are unable to determine if she has considered that a clean and tidy environment might be important to her but not as critical to her students. Kayla’s statement goes a bit further, “I would be comfortable with the highly organized room and the clutter free atmosphere. I feel this comforts students because it demonstrates routine.” In this comment, Kayla shared her need for routine and organization as a form of comfort without questioning if this need is universal to all individuals. She assumes that her perception of the room will match that of her students. The emphasis on cleanliness seems to identify two aspects of the teacher candidates developing professional identity: 1) using the self as a filter for student needs, and 2) the need to control learning. At this early stage in their professional development the students seem to use their own needs as an indicator of student needs. This is not surprising. These students were, as yet, fairly new in our teacher education program. We anticipate potential new teachers might seek order and routine as a reasonable strategy for handling the challenges they will face.” Teacher candidates applied a similar filter to the issue of visual appeal. If the candidates thought the room was warm and inviting, surely, the students would as well. “The first thing I noticed about this classroom was how visually appealing it was to me. It is very bright and cheery” (Susan). Visual appeal is based on the student’s personal sense of style separate from cultural norms. Several students did address the fact that the classroom in the photograph did not visually reflect other cultures besides a white, middle class one. Even when this lack of diversity was noted, the teacher candidate contradicted this observation and returned to how comfortable they, and thus the students must feel in this room. This is illustrated in Amy’s two contradictory comments. First: I do not feel that this class promotes diversity. It does not feature any words or vocabulary from other languages and it is very Americanized. The room has generic school supplies, and does not suggest influences from different cultures. I did notice on the ’Who we are…’ wall that there is a good mixture of ethnic backgrounds, however I feel that they are similar in socioeconomic status…From face value, the room is not diverse, and needs to incorporate more culturally diverse items.” This is inconsistent with her following comment: I feel that this is a great classroom. I would feel very comfortable in this room, and it parallels many aspects of my philosophy. Other then the lack of a computer, this would be a picture of my ideal room. I would definitely use a layout similar to this one.”

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On one level this participant questions the visual environment however still finds a need to filter the environment through her own eyes. Participants used their own preferential needs as a filter for student needs and many persistently related their needs by discussing the importance of teaching their ideas for organization and responsibility to students. For example, Marcy continues by discussing the need to write and post an organized schedule, believing this will teach students a sense of importance and responsibility. Amanda shares, “Helping students to learn and use organizational skills is an essential part of education. This is a life long lesson that will assist them in every different area of their life. It teaches them to be responsible and aware of their actions, (putting everything in its place), and that organization is a skill that they can learn and use.” Evident in this statement is a belief about learning. This teacher candidate, and others, conceptualizes learning as an organized, controllable process that is facilitated and enhanced by a model environment. Lastly, our findings indicated that our participants’ understanding of the nature of the environment was being filtered through their own need for control. We conjectured that the substance of this theme is really a reflection of the teacher candidates’ own personal learning bias and need to control the learning environment. We wondered if the students’ motivation to over-emphasize classroom organization addressed their own anxiety about classroom management.. Were students attempting to consolidate their own power in the classroom by adding layers of control through both teaching their conception of organization and by organizing the room to meet their own needs? Even when our students’ responses reflected the diversity tenets that we teach in our courses, there was a discrepancy between their stated understanding of a desire to reach all students and an internal need for order. Viewed in this light, their responses, while reasonable for new pre-service teachers, raised some questions about our teaching and their learning. Had they considered that too much routine might stifle spontaneity? Would adherence to order cause unexpected teachable moments to be overlooked? Was this desire for organization an expectation we fostered in our program? If so, was that intentional? Is this reaction benign or do we need to attend to it to insure that we are developing balanced, flexible decision makers? Is the need to develop good classroom management skills overshadowing the competing need for a culturally relevant, child-centered classroom?

Nature of the Learners

On a second, more complex level, we examined the participants’ projected assumptions about the backgrounds and needs of the learners in this fictional classroom. For example, all students made the assumption that they were looking at a middle class suburban classroom when in reality, they were viewing a photograph of an urban, low SES classroom. The reasons supporting the student candidates’ hypothesis varied. Examples include: “floors were carpeted”, “trees were visible in the windows”, and “the quality and character of the furniture were of a good condition.” These statements were rather curious because these teacher candidates had concluded an urban field placement in a highly renovated, technology savvy building. In our class sessions we spent considerable time noticing and discussing the differences between urban and suburban buildings emphasizing what the environmental attributes of each setting afforded the learner. In the

Brock Education, 18(2) 56 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom! discussions, students openly question their own assumptions about how a school “looks” and “feels.” In their responses to the assignment, the participants portray value judgments about the classroom in the photograph that appear to uncover their underlying preconceived notions that urban classrooms are environmentally different from their view of a “good” classroom. More importantly, they appear to be making corollary value judgments about the level of instruction that takes place within each set of walls. Although they question some instructional practices shown in the classroom, they reach conclusions that these practices are good and that the learners are ultimately at fault. One instructional practice that raised attention from all of the participants was the desk arrangement. In the photograph, all but seven desks are shown in clusters of six. We were pleased to see that our students valued the clusters as indicative of a more constructivist view of learning. Constructivism is a foundational tenet within our courses. Joy articulates this shared sentiment: I am a fan of having students sit in pods. I think that this allows students to not only learn how to work together, but it also gives them the opportunity to learn and scaffold off of each other. Students are able to build up their communication skills by being exposed to group settings. This desk layout also promotes cooperative learning. I see desk pods as being an important part of having a classroom community or family. Francine concurs, “Diverse learners are sustained by the layout of the desks in clusters.” Many other students reflected these sentiments and spoke of the importance of shared learning, students scaffolding instruction for one another, and building a positive, diverse classroom community. These instructional approaches were all tenets underlying the design of these courses. From a practical standpoint, even when students are working in groups there are times when whole class instruction is called for and everyone must attend to the teacher. One student commented on that: It seems the classroom is oriented in a way to optimize student learning and achievement. The desks are all arranged in a way that none of the students’ will have their backs to the white board. This makes instruction easier because the teacher is not talking to a student’s back and the student does not have to turn around and sit uncomfortably while looking at the teacher. While this observation reflects a potentially positive aspect of our fictional classroom, this response to the photo-elicitation activity might also have identified a student who still sees transmission as the preferred approach to teaching. Unfortunately he did not say more about this and our process did not allow us to probe more deeply. However, the photo itself was intended to elicit further consideration of the room arrangement. Seven of the desks were isolated from the rest and from each other. While espousing the benefits of desk clusters, the teacher candidates also justified the separate desks as beneficial for the majority of the learners, and implied that the students seated separately from the group somehow deserved to be excluded and no longer warranted what the teacher candidates described as advantageous instruction. Joy writes: I understand that some students may not learn well in a group setting due to an endless amount of factors. I am guessing that is the case here. However, by just looking at the classroom, I will never know the reason.

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Joy leaves the question open but Faith espouses a more exclusionary sentiment: I believe the purpose of the individually placed desks are to separate the disruptive students from the rest of the group in order to give the majority of the class a fair opportunity to work with and learn from their peers. When one disruptive student is thrown into a group of students that are trying to complete their work, not much learning can take place because the disruptive student manages to throw the others off task and distract them from getting their work done. These two examples illustrate the fine line in the teacher candidates’ developing philosophies between seeing students as individuals who have specific learning needs and viewing some students as lesser and not entitled to the same learning benefits as others -- in Joy’s response, "non-group learners, while in Faith’s case, “disruptive students.” Had something in our instruction conveyed the notion that some students should be isolated and marginalized allowing teachers and other students to ignore them? Did other teacher candidates believe that bad students do not deserve to benefit from good instruction or social interaction? Do prospective teachers believe the solution is to simply label students so they are no longer the teacher’s concern? There are certainly times when isolating a troubled student is best and this classroom provided the teacher candidates with an exit strategy for disruptive and difficult students. We wondered if there was a plan of reentry into the classroom community – another place we would like to probe. We pondered whether our participants’ comments represented the complex process of developing a professional identity. Were they melding our course expectations with their previously held belief systems and, thus, distorting the original intent of our course goals? If in fact melding beliefs is a process within changing belief systems, how do we plan for and help our students through this process? Findings related to the participants’ beliefs about the nature of the learner appear to be contradictory. Our teacher candidates used visual clues from the photograph to explain their growing understanding of constructivist teaching. However, they also used visual clues to make exclusionary value judgments about students, while professing a belief in diversity and inclusion. Furthermore, the photograph allowed us to identify outlier students with serious misconceptions about learning, students, and teaching.

Discussion

We begin this discussion with an overarching observation; it appeared to us that our students perceived the setting in the photograph to be close to an ideal classroom that needed little alteration. This may have occurred for a number of reasons. First, our students knew this was a real classroom that we chose to photograph. Recognizing our power position in this situation, they would have little incentive to challenge our photographic choice. Unless they determined that this was a trick question they might have assumed that we presented them with what we considered to be a quality setting, and responded accordingly. With the addition of Sontag’s (1977) proposition that events become more important simply by virtue of being recorded, it is reasonable that our students felt this classroom setting was worthy and chosen primarily to identify the positive aspects. Consequently, it appears they interpreted this assignment in terms of “can you recognize what is good?” and not with an eye toward “how would you make

Brock Education, 18(2) 58 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom! this your own reflecting your own understanding of what a good teaching and learning situation should be like”? In response to the first question of this assignment: “What do you notice about this classroom?” Students primarily noticed the superficial characteristics of the room and spoke about it in terms of classroom control. Although our teacher candidates described grouping desks to allow for collaborative work, their comments were more consistently about the seating arrangement that drew the pupils’ attention to the teacher at the front of the room and creating easy pathways for the teacher to reach the pupils’ desks. In the photograph a few desks were set aside. These were seen as valuable tools for classroom management purposes in terms of gaining control. Although throughout the semester the teacher candidates had professed a commitment to the learning of all students, they were generally comfortable with some students being isolated from the group and rationalized that this was a positive approach to dealing with students who are not able to behave or learn within a group setting. Is this an indication that our teacher candidates might be willing to discount and marginalize any potential contributions to the learning community of students whose behavior or academic progress placed them outside the norms of the mainstream learners in the classroom. This marginalization of learners’ contrasts with one of the foundational course tenets - that all students are individuals with a unique and valuable contribution to make to the whole. Yet in this instance the candidates appeared comfortable reducing the class they imagined fit in this photograph down to only those students who accepted the candidates’ view of power sharing and conformity. This insight will help us to facilitate a redesign of our instruction to sufficiently emphasize the diversity in learning among learners, and the formation of cultural norms for group interaction. Consequently we have learned that the links between teacher candidates’ instructional choices and the larger discussions of power and control must be more explicit. There was some indication that our candidates’ approach to classroom organization and management was deemed appropriate because this was a suburban classroom. That is, suburban students knew well the cultural norms that determined the behavior expectations for a classroom and were deserving of punishment if they did not meet those expectations. We were taken aback to uncover an unexpected belief held by the teacher candidates: they perceived teachers as having a dual role of teacher/judge – one who instructs those who do know the rules while handing out punishments to those who should know better. Yet, in retrospect, perhaps we should have anticipated this. Our teacher candidates’ comments during class sessions and in other assignments revealed they believed that a lack of awareness of classroom norms placed urban students at a disadvantage. The candidates’ expressed the understanding that more personal attention and further instruction were needed for these students, rather than punishment. This belief prevailed even though their field placement was in an urban school that had rigorous rules for behavior and they repeatedly witnessed urban students who had no problem meeting the schools’ expectations. Yet given the opportunity to self actualize their developing professional identity, the candidates mirrored a puritanical view of punishment as motivation for correction toward the status quo. This view was directly opposed to what we thought we had taught in the two teacher preparation courses. We

Brock Education, 18(2) 59 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom! suspect the candidates beliefs may have been overtly reinforced as a consequence of both their socio-economic status and educational class standing. There were aspects of the classroom to which our participants gave scant attention. For example, our teacher candidates noticed the bulletin boards in the room but they spoke about them as places for the teacher to display curricular materials or to post information (classroom rules and expectations or the daily schedule.) Students would look at and learn from, rather than interact with, the bulletin boards. They made little mention of the number of books in the classroom and only passing mention of classroom technology. There was one computer visible in the photograph and, interestingly, most students assumed that, since this was suburban classroom, there was likely a computer lab elsewhere in the building. Some also acknowledged a consolidation of power with the teacher by assuming that the one computer must be for the teacher’s exclusive use. On the whole, they made almost no mention of those aspects of the classroom that would contribute to student’s independent learning. These comments are consistent with Britzman’s (1986) discussion of cultural myths. For Britzman, the first myth is that “everything depends on the teacher” (p. 449). It was clear that our students viewed this classroom in terms of the traditional image they had of the classrooms of their youth. All but one came from a suburban environment and, when presented with a space that looked familiar, reverted to a vision of teaching and teacher that fit with that environment. In response to the second question: “Who are the learners in the classroom?” The prospective teachers used visual clues to ascertain the grade level of the students. For the most part they correctly identified the third grade but were troubled that some aspects of the visual instruction were below grade level. They were confident that the classroom displays would have a positive impact on learning.. The alphabet chart, word wall, and bulletin board were all in keeping with their notion of appropriate visuals in a third grade classroom. However, they accepted this at face value and never questioned the actual impact of the visuals on student learning. For the most part, our students suggested very few changes to this classroom. Question three asked them how they would structure the classroom to represent their emerging professional beliefs. It appears they interpreted “structure” to refer to the organization of the curriculum rather than the learning environment and spoke primarily about what they would teach and how they would present the curriculum to the students. This is understandable for at least two reasons. First, the assignment may have been unclear. We did not specifically define what was meant by structure the classroom and it could easily have been interpreted as curricular structure. Second, we were naïve to think that students would have much sense of their own emerging professional beliefs. These were second semester students who were just beginning to become self-aware, who had had little experience with self-reflection, and were not in a position to connect that reflection to practical experience (Zembylas, 2003). It is not surprising that they were unable to connect their professional beliefs to something as abstract as a photograph of a classroom that, again, they might have assumed was intended to represent an ideal classroom. It is possible that our students followed a logical thought process that began with what they assumed was a good classroom, looking a lot like the classrooms they knew, evoking memories of teachers they had admired. Here too, they revealed that the

Brock Education, 18(2) 60 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom! myths of a good teacher are deep seated. They spoke of the teacher as expert (Britzman, 1986, p. 450) and essentially described themselves as disseminators of knowledge. It is generally accepted that prospective teachers’ dispositions are influenced by their past experiences (Lortie, 1965, Goodman, 1988) and, to some extent, can be influenced by their experiences in teacher education programs. These dispositions guide the decisions teachers make when they act or react in various teaching/learning situations.

Educational Significance

The implications of this study to the teacher education community are twofold. First, we have expanded the literature concerning the use of photo-elicitation as a tool for revealing teacher candidates thinking about teaching, leaning and community. Other researchers have used, and studied, photo elicitation as a creative process to facilitate teacher candidates’ growth in issues of diversity. Our approach separates the creative process of taking the photograph from what we feel is more important, the actual interpretation of the photograph. The photographs were created as a tableau for the expressed purpose of stimulating and capturing teacher candidates’ understandings. The creative process of taking photographs requires a skill, albeit one with which our students may be familiar, which adds its own layer of stress to the learning process. While the possession of photographic skills would add to the candidates’ photographic understanding, it does little to enhance their understanding of belief systems elicited by the photograph. Additionally, by controlling the process of creating the photograph we define the avenue for the elicitation of candidates’ reflections., We now have a much greater understanding of the limitations of the activity and the interpretations that stem from it. Our students’ interpretations were limited by the fact that the photograph is, by definition, one moment captured in time. Our interpretations were limited by our inability to probe further into the thinking behind our students’ written responses. This was compounded by our decision to structure this project as a final class activity rather than an ongoing interactive discussion. In retrospect, we could have focused our course on the two themes that emerged from the study – the nature of the classroom environment and the nature of the learner. We did not solicit our students’ views on these issues at the beginning of the semester and thus, did not capture how much they brought with them and how much they learned from us. In addition, we did not scaffold our students in the process of interpreting photos. This was an intentional decision that will lead us to investigate the benefits from semester-long work with photo-elicitation. These limitation notwithstanding, what is perhaps most important is that this activity provided us with substantial insight into our own teaching and the assumptions we made about the messages we were conveying to our students. Our future work will focus on some of these issues. We have in mind using a series of photographs that depict a variety of classrooms that suggest different perspectives of the role of the teacher and the learner. This could be paired with a semester long assignment that asks students to consider how their individual professional identities align or conflict with each of these perspectives, and asks them to suggest changes in their classroom to support their emerging identities. New teachers are reluctant to challenge authority even in something as minor as the arrangement of a classroom. We want them to aspire to be change agents, and to perceive themselves as

Brock Education, 18(2) 61 N. Brown, R. Wiggins, and D. Secord This Must Be a Suburban Classroom! having the agency to challenge their instructors and, ultimately, their teacher colleagues and supervisors. We need to do more to model that process. Second, this study aims to contribute to what is understood about the development of professional identities, which include a commitment to social justice and a dedication to being culturally responsive to the needs of all learners. Our course goals reflected the belief that all students have intrinsic value as individuals and are entitled to an equitable education as equal participants within our society. Participants in the study portrayed dual conceptions with respect to diversity. These amalgams of belief systems were extremely disturbing to us as instructors. We wondered if students’ sentiments about the positive aspects of diversity were simply giving the instructor what they knew she wanted. On the one hand, the photographs enabled the students to express their honest beliefs; however, the educational ramifications of those same beliefs dismayed us. On the other hand the amalgam of beliefs may represent an ongoing process teacher candidates undergo as they develop more inclusive professional identities. We are left with quandaries of interest to the teacher education community including: Is the melding of beliefs a stage of learning or an anomaly to these students? Is noticing a fruitful construct for changing beliefs? Ultimately, what we take away from this study is as much about what the students did not notice as it is about what they did. It is about the actions they failed to take and the changes they did not make. They did not consider that this might be an urban classroom. Therefore, they did not suggest changes to the classroom that would be more consistent with their professed beliefs about the needs of students in an urban environment. In fact, they made no mention of the external environment—be it urban or suburban. They did not consider how this fictional classroom and its imaginary teacher interact with the rest of the school or the larger context of the community. Could we have promoted that approach to thinking about the images of the teachers our students are striving to become? Even recognizing that these students were at the beginning of the teacher education program, the photo-elicitation process tells us a great deal about the impact of our instruction on promoting social justice as an integral part of our future teachers’ professional identity.

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Brock Education, 18(2) 65 A Context for Professional Learning: Teacher Candidates in Intergenerational Literature Circles

Lynn Lemisko University of Saskatchewan

Marg Epp Prairie Spirit School Division, Saskatchewan

ABSTRACT

Our findings indicate that intergenerational literature circles were sites where multi-layered learning took place for teacher candidates. These adult learners developed a deeper understanding of and how children read, learn concepts and respond to text and they enhanced their understandings of multiple perspectives. Teacher candidates indicated that co-learning in the context of a literature circle helped them in their transformation into professional teachers as they experienced and reflected on learners, learning and teaching/learning strategies. Many revised their definitions of ‘teacher’ as a result of their experiences in intergenerational literature circles.

Key Words: teacher education; co-learning; learning contexts; discourse communities.

Lynn Lemisko is an assistant professor of Curriculum Studies at the University of Saskatchewan, teaching social studies methods at the undergraduate level. Her areas of research include teacher education, history of education and citizenship education. Email: [email protected]

Marg Epp is a Learning Support Facilitator in Prairie Spirit School Division. She has 20 years of experience teaching K-6 and undergraduate classes in the area of English Language Arts. Her areas of research interest include literacy, comprehension and constructivist learning approaches.

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L. Lemisko and M. Epp A Context for Professional Learning

A Context for Professional Learning: Teacher Candidates in Intergenerational Literature Circles

One aspect of our research investigated intergenerational literature circles as pedagogical locations where teacher candidates might become more deeply aware of themselves as co- learners/facilitators and as future teachers of young learners. In our multi-layered project, we explored intergenerational literature circles as discourse communities (a) that might be an effective integrated approach to social studies concept development, (b) that would provide a context to assist teacher candidates in becoming more deeply aware of themselves as learners and as future teachers of young learners, and (c) where school-age students could be empowered as they assume an equal role with adult co-learners. Questions we addressed include: 1. What is the relationship between personal reading and teaching and learning? 2. Are intergenerational literature circles effective in exploring diverse perspectives? 3. Are intergenerational literature circles effective in developing more complex and diverse understanding of concepts? 4. Are intergenerational literature circles effective in empowering students? 5. Are intergenerational literature circles effective in assisting teacher candidates in understanding the complexities of their role as professional teachers? For the purposes of this we focus on the last question: Are intergenerational literature circles effective in assisting teacher candidates in understanding the complexities of their role as professional teachers? We examined, in particular, the efficacy of intergenerational literature circles as an approach to assist teacher candidates in enhancing their understandings of: (a) young learners and their ways of thinking; (b) the processes and strategies of teaching, learning, reading, responding and concept development;(c) diversity and multiple perspectives; and (d) challenges to particular traditional/status quo definitions of ‘teacher’. Our findings indicate that intergenerational literature circles were contexts in which multi-layered learning took place for teacher candidates. These adult learners developed a deeper understanding of how children read, learn concepts and respond to text and teacher candidates also enhanced their understandings of multiple perspectives. Participants generally indicated that they learned more about the act/practice of teaching itself and many found that intergenerational literature circles became the venue through which their definitions of ‘teacher’ were revised or reformulated.

Related Literature/Theoretical Framework

Research investigating literature circles and collaborative talk, proliferating since the early 1990s (e.g., Commeyras, Bisplinghoff, and Olson, 2003; Daniels, 2002; Alvermann, et al. 1996; Almasi, McKeown & Beck, 1996; Langer, 1995; and Wells, 1994), has particularly explored the advantages of engagement in literature circles for grade-school learners. Literature circles provide the context in which the epistemic mode of engagement with text can be elicited (Wells, 1994) as well as the place and space where students can use and practice the personal and heuristic functions of language (Halliday, 1973). Schmidt and Pailliotet (2001) investigated the influence of children’s literature on children’s attitudes, values and beliefs and how literature is a means of children coming to understand the stories of others. Literature circles can be considered a physical and social location (or context) in which talk should be considered the foundation of

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L. Lemisko and M. Epp A Context for Professional Learning literacy and conversation the key to comprehension. It is through interaction with others that students develop the ability to construct and communicate meaning (Daniels, 2002). In comparison, there have been only a handful of studies exploring the benefits of literature circles for teacher candidates in their professional development. For example, Asselin (2000) examined how engagement in peer-based literature circles effected the assumptions about literature and reading held by a group of teacher candidates, while Schick and Hurren (2003) investigated the role of narrative in teaching social studies by engaging teacher candidates in book clubs where members discussed auto-biographies, memoirs and historical fiction. One study (Finke & Edwards, 1997) investigated literature circles as a site where school-age children worked together with teacher candidates as co-learners. This study revealed that grade four and five students were effective in demonstrating to teacher candidates the processes young learners use when constructing meaning from reading. However, there have been studies in teacher education (e.g., Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999) which indicate that learning experiences for becoming teachers need a design that enhances their understanding of teaching as a "complex and multifaceted intellectual, creative, decision-making activity" (Schulz, 2005, p. 149). We speculated that intergenerational literature circles could provide this type of experience and we believe that our study contributes to scholarship by exploring the efficacy of literature circles in assisting teacher candidates develop their understandings of students, learning processes, diverse perspectives and the complexity of teaching roles. Central to our approach is a theory arising out of a relatively new set of ideas about cognition and learning, labeled the ‘situative perspective’(Putnam & Borko , 2000, Greeno, 1997; Greeno, Collins, & Resnick,1996, Lave & Wenger 1991). Three main ideas underpin this way of thinking: that cognition and learning are (a) situated in particular contexts; (b) social in nature; and (c) distributed across people, resources and tools (Putnam & Borko, 2000). Situative theorists (Brown, Collins, & Duguid, 1989; Lave & Wenger, 1991) take the position that knowing and learning are not individualistic functions of the human mind nor based purely on individual experience. They argue, rather, that cognition takes place within particular physical and social contexts which deeply influence how and what an individual learns – that what we know, how we know it, and how we express ideas, are products of interactions within groups of people, or within discourse communities (Fish, 1980; Resnick, 1991; Putnam & Borko, 2000). According to Putnam and Borko (2000), “…discourse communities provide the cognitive tools— ideas, theories, and concepts—that individuals appropriate as their own through their personal efforts to make sense of experiences” (p. 5). In discourse communities, cognition is distributed, because it is “stretched over” (Lave, 1988), or shared, among participants who engage in collaborative meaning-making conversations about text and other artifacts. This perspective argues strongly for the notion that learning activities must be ‘authentic’ – that is, that learning activities should share contextual features with the ‘real life situation’ for which the learner is being prepared. This supports the notion that teacher education should be situated within classrooms, however, the situative perspective also helps us see why learning in real life classrooms can be a powerful tool for reinforcing ‘traditional’ or status quo approaches to teaching, because of the strength of existing schooling culture. Putnam and Borko (2000) suggest that if educational reformers want teachers to think in new ways, “it may be important to have them experience learning in different settings” (p. 6). We posit that an intergenerational literature circle is a type of discourse community that provides a different setting, or context, within which teacher candidates could develop new ways

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L. Lemisko and M. Epp A Context for Professional Learning of thinking. Because they would engage primarily with children as co-learners in literature circles, we imagined that teacher candidates could learn new ways of thinking about young learners, learning processes, diverse perspectives and the complexities of their role as professional teachers.

Methods for Gathering and Analyzing Data

To explore the effectiveness of intergenerational literature circles, we arranged opportunities for cohorts of teacher candidates, enrolled in a Social Studies method's class, to visit classrooms where they participated in literature circles with young learners. The classroom visits took place over a three year period and involved two different cohorts of teacher candidates per year. Teacher candidates participated as co-learners with grade school students in the literature circle context and all participants explored social studies concepts using contemporary and historical fiction. To create a comfortable environment for all participants, the intergenerational literature circles were composed of a fewer or equal number of teacher candidates as compared to grade- school students. In preparation for their field experiences, teacher candidates were coached about their role as co-learners. It was suggested that young learners not be treated as ‘peers’ or ‘buddies’, but that teacher candidates must work with students and listen to them. Teacher candidates were advised that they should behave with young learners as they would when working to accomplish group tasks with adult classmates. During the first year of the project teacher candidates visited a grade six classroom where they participated with students in intergenerational literature circles. The first cohort of teacher candidates visited the grade six students five times during the fall term. All participants read and discussed the same contemporary fiction novel (Peacekeepers by Dianne Linden). The second cohort visited seven times in the winter term and each literature circle group read and discussed a different historical fiction novel related to the theme 'diversity' (Across the Steel River by Ted Stenhouse; Morning Girl by Michael Dorris; Behind the Bedroom Wall by Laura Williams; Daniel’s Story by Carol Mataas; The Captive by Joyce Hansen; Underground to Canada by Barbara Smucker; Home Child by Barbara Haworth-Attard; The Lights Go On Again by Kit Pearson; Days of Terror by Barbara Smucker) In the second and third years of the project, teacher candidates visited classrooms five times during each term. In the fall term of the second year, the cohort of teacher candidates was divided between two classrooms.1 One group worked with grade five students, reading and discussing a historical fiction novel (Underground to Canada by Barbara Smucker) , while the other worked with grade seven students, reading and discussing a contemporary fiction novel (Parvana’s Journey by Deborah Ellis). During the winter term of the second year, the cohort of teacher candidates was divided among three classrooms. Two groups worked with two different groups of grade five students at the same school, reading and discussing a contemporary fiction novel (Seedfolks by Paul Fleischman), while the third group of teacher candidates worked with grade five students at a different school, reading and discussing a historical fiction novel (Copper Sunrise by Brian Buchan). During the third and final year of the project, in the fall term, two groups of teacher candidates worked with two different groups of grade five students at the same school, reading and discussing a contemporary fiction novel (Peacekeepers by Dianne Linden), while the third

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L. Lemisko and M. Epp A Context for Professional Learning group of teacher candidates worked with grade four students at a different school, reading and discussing a historical fiction novel (Number the Stars by Lois Lowry). During the winter term, two groups of teacher candidates worked with two different groups of grade five students at the same school, while the third group of teacher candidates worked with grade four students at a different school. All teacher candidates and grade school students read and discussed the same historical fiction novel (Copper Sunrise by Brian Buchan). To address the research questions related to teacher candidate learning, we gathered data from reflective portfolios written by teacher candidates. The portfolios were created as an assignment for their Social Studies methods course. In their portfolio, teacher candidates were required to record observations about students, classroom and literature circle interactions, social studies concepts and strategies and personal learning. Teacher candidates were also expected to record written reflections about what they had observed. The following questions were provided to them to assist in their reflections: • Did you (and others) gain more knowledge about people, places, issues, and events (social studies concepts & content) – why/why not? • What social, communication and thinking skills do you think were used/practiced? Do you think literature circles (and extension activities) are effective ways to learn/practice these skills – why/why not? • What did you learn about reading (your own and others) and how people respond to text? • What are you learning about younger learners from the literature circles and activities? o Are they responding to the story in ways that you had predicted? Do you think they are learning the things you predicted they would? Are they highlighting the same issues as you have? (etc.?) • What are you learning about teaching & learning from experiences in literature circles? • What are you learning about yourself [teacher identity] from experiences in literature circles? Teacher candidates submitted their portfolios for evaluation. Graded portfolios, along with consent forms, were returned to teacher candidates with both a verbal and written invitation to re-submit a copy of their portfolio, stripped of identifying references. Teacher candidates who agreed to re-submit, signed consent forms and submitted these along with their portfolios to a person who was not associated with the project. This person did not pass the portfolios to the researchers until final grades for the methods course had been submitted to the registrar. While one of the researchers was in a position of power as the instructor of potential participants, teacher candidates had full and voluntary control over whether or not they submitted portfolios for use as data. The data was analyzed using a qualitative analysis approach. Portfolios were read and coded by each researcher to determine patterns and themes in relation to the research questions. A cross comparison of coding and patterns identified by each researcher was done to confirm emerging themes.

Our Description of Literature Circles

While there are different names to describe this contextual situation, we begin with the idea of ‘literature circles’ as semi-structured small groups of learners who gather to discuss texts they have read. While some literature circles are more structured, with individual members being

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L. Lemisko and M. Epp A Context for Professional Learning assigned particular roles (e.g., ‘questioner’, ‘recorder’), we prefer to use a less structured approach so that group members can participate in discussions without constraints that can be imposed when roles are assigned. Through the oral conversations about what they have read, learners construct meaning by retelling events, talking about characters, sequencing events, paraphrasing, making comparisons to their own lives, predicting outcomes, sharing alternate perspectives, and posing questions. Specifically for this project, all intergenerational literature circle participants were expected, at a minimum, to read the portion of the novel agreed upon and record ideas for discussion. In particular, participants were asked to: (1) mark passages that they found important, puzzling, curious, confusing, unclear, or well written; and (2) record reactions and connections that address questions such as: Did it remind you of past experiences, people, or events in your life? Did it make you think of anything happening in other stories or books or newspapers you have read? Did it make you think of anything happening around the office/school/university or in your community, or on the news? The intergenerational literature circles became the launching point for other associated learning activities that included researching and representing understandings in multiple formats, and so on. Keeping this idea in mind will be helpful when reading comments made by teacher candidates, as they sometimes refer to activities associated with, but not directly tied to, their literature circle conversations.

Findings and Discussion

We will share what we have discovered primarily by using the voices of teacher candidates.2 To organize the data, we have divided this section into the themes that emerged during data analysis. While examining and analyzing the portfolios, we discovered four categories of information about the effectiveness of intergenerational literature circles in assisting teacher candidates in their transformation into professional teachers, including: what teacher candidates said they learned about learning; what teacher candidates said they learned about learners and multiple perspectives; what teacher candidates said they learned about strategies and resources; and what we, as researchers, discovered about how teacher candidates define teaching.

What teacher candidates said they learned about learning Teacher candidates indicated that intergenerational literature circles were powerful contexts in which learning theory was reinforced. Although on-campus course work introduces ideas about the importance of tapping into prior knowledge arising out of individual life experiences, comments made by teacher candidates regarding their literature circle experiences indicate that this idea was not made real for them until they engaged with grade school students. For example, teacher candidates wrote: *At first I thought that the group was just poor at comprehension in reading because they were making poor predictions that I thought were off topic. This thought soon changed after realizing that the students were placing meaning and importance on different aspects of the novel based on their understanding in relation to their own lives and experiences. Each child experiences different things in life, each situation affecting them in different ways. As a teacher, I need to recognize that each student will be able to relate to the same Brock Education, 18(2) 71

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story in different ways. Each individual will place more value on a certain aspect of the story more than another. ** Before I thought it was all about different levels of learning. Now I think it’s all about life experiences and how the stages in our lives help us to experience books. I still believe that we need to view learning through a child[‘s] experiences. It is only through this that we begin to grasp what children need from us as teachers. Teacher candidates indicated that intergenerational literature circles were a discourse community through which they came to understand more profoundly how conversations deepen comprehension. They wrote about how they came to understand that talking about personal experiences - connecting ‘real life’ and prior knowledge to issues being discussed – was vital for building deeper understanding for both adults and children. In addition, they commented on the notion that listening is as important as talking:

*While participating in the literature circles I also realized how a lot of the conversations that we were having would stray away from the book and end up with the children sharing personal experiences. I believe this is how they were internalizing what they were reading and relating it to their own personal experiences. I had never really seen the connection before but now I see what Ketch (2005) means when she said that conversations allow us to make sense of who we are. As an individual I participate in conversations daily. I think that the power of them and the influences they have in my life has really only become apparent to me now. But after making the connection between my personal experience with having conversations and with what Ketch talks about in her article, I am better able to understand why so often, children especially, relate topics of discussion back to their own life experiences.

**The opinions and knowledge that you can gain by listening to others will also give more value and substance to the ideas that you share (when it is your turn, of course). This experience in the school further entrenched in my mind the amount of knowledge one can gain merely by listening to your peers. I think that too many times in school we are encouraged to listen to and learn from our teachers, when we can learn so much more if we also learn to listen to and learn from our peers.

***…I have learned that learning truly is a social process. The students really impressed me with their ability to contribute their own insightful points in discussions based around Copper Sunrise. The students seemed to enjoy asking their own questions, and the students seemed to enjoy taking turns answering those questions. Each question always led to another insightful comment or question and it was awesome to see deep learning taking place.

Intergenerational literature circles provide a context in which teacher candidates discovered that authentic learning involves making choices, taking risks and ‘thinking for yourself’. Teacher candidates commented on how their experiences in literature circles helped them discover that learning requires freedom, experimentation, risk-taking and making mistakes:

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*As a teacher I must let students decide their own path to learning. I found myself often trying to guide the students in the direction I wanted them to go at the beginning. I found near the end that when I allowed them to go their own way, even if it was into mistakes, they learned more

**The goal of education is to get the students thinking for themselves and questioning why or how something is the way it is or came to be. Just giving them the answers is doing them an injustice and hindering their ability to think for themselves. What teacher candidates learned about learners and multiple perspectives Intergenerational literature circles were an effective setting which helped teacher candidates discover that they are teaching individuals, not homogeneous groups. They learned that they must take diversity into account by considering learning styles, skills, interests, developmental differences, ways of representing understanding and so on. Again, while these ideas are explored through on-campus study, teacher candidate comments reveal that they learned about learner diversity far more profoundly in the literature circle context. In two examples, different teacher candidates wrote: *I feel that I have learned a lot as a teacher over the past few weeks working in literature circles. I have seen what a great range of learning abilities, styles, and interests can exist within one small group of children, let alone an entire classroom. It has made me realize that I will have to be very vigilant in attending to the great and varied needs of my students when I have my own classroom. **Reflecting on my literature circle experience has helped me to carefully consider the type of students I have worked with thus far as a teacher-candidate…I need, at all times, to be aware of who my students are as individuals, so that I can best teach to their needs and abilities and so I can be inclusive of the unique perspectives and varied identities that they bring to the learning process. Further, intergenerational literature circles assisted teacher candidates in discovering that diversity among learners is to be celebrated rather than feared. They commented on ways in which they saw diversity actually enhancing learning experiences, for example: *I have also seen, however, how students of varying interests, learning styles and abilities can help one another to build background knowledge, create learning connections, and think critically about material they are studying. This is why literature circles are so wonderful…being useful in almost every subject area and it excites me to think of all the educative possibilities it opens the door to. In the context of intergenerational literature circles, teacher candidates discovered that their assumptions about young learners are often wrong. They learned that children can be more capable, mature, creative, open, respectful, and accepting than expected. *Little did I know that I could not prepare for the type of questions that were going to be posed. …What came up instead were questions of a much deeper level/meaning.

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**We then got talking about Marciella and her baby. This stemmed off into a talk about the girl who dropped off her baby in the cold on someone's doorstep [referring to a local news story]. The students demonstrated empathy by feeling sad for the girl being in that position. They felt that she made the wrong choice and there were more appropriate ways to deal with the situation. Children this age sure can surprise you with the maturity of their logic. I did not expect them to be able to assess this situation so well.

***Being in intergenerational literature circles has taught me that young people see the world differently, and they bring new light to a dark situation. I think that young people think differently than I do, and I can learn a lot from them. I feel the one main thing that intergenerational literature circles has taught me, is that young people are smarter than I thought and they need to be challenged or they will not be interested in paying attention.

In addition, we also discovered that teacher candidates found intergenerational literature circles effective because conversations in this context helped them learn that young people have diverse, complex, and valuable perspectives. Teacher candidates indicated that learning about these multiple perspectives enabled them in better understanding the students with whom they worked and, as an added bonus, they thought that learning about and from multiple perspectives enriched everyone’s understanding.

*There was such a range of opinions and feelings on this subject, which was very neat to see. …. I also found interesting, the range of knowledge behind the discussion. They had good reasons to back up their answers and actually thought about the concept, which impressed me…. Seeing how different opinions of children of the same age can have was a good experience for me. It was good to see that I have to be aware of children having opposing views and not trying to persuade anyone to believe my view on a certain topic.

**Without literature circles I don't know if I would have analyzed the novel as much as I did. I also don't think I would see the novel in the same light if it wasn't for having young minds in our group.

***…everyone’s understanding of the novel was expanded because each of us could learn from the diverse perspectives of each other.

****When discussing the thoughts and questions, the children got to make meaning of their thoughts by making them more concrete as they discuss. They also get to see things in the text that they may not have found on their own, as everyone interprets information a little bit differently. The idea that everyone interprets information differently held true during this activity. The children were able to answer questions that I had not found answers to myself. I have found that they can be deep readers with little guidance.

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Through conversations in intergenerational literature circles, teacher candidates had a window into students’ thinking. These insights assisted teacher candidates in developing their understanding of how learning is enhanced when ideas are explored from differing points of view.

What teacher candidates learned about teaching strategies and resources While constructivist teaching strategies and evaluation approaches are endorsed in on-campus courses, teacher candidates are often skeptical about the practical use of such methods. In the context of intergenerational literature circles, teacher candidates discovered that conversation, reflection, knowledge seeking and questioning, constructing knowledge, and collaboration are approaches which promote student engagement and, hence, student learning. *…using the literature circle method was very eye opening. I see now that having students work in groups to attain knowledge collectively is a great teaching tool. The students were much more excited with these lessons then the one I observed student teaching. The students were much more creative, energetic, and eager to learn using the literature circle as a tool. With lecture they seemed to zone out and lose interest in the lesson very quickly. This is something I want to avoid in my own lessons. I want to try and engage my students in the material and let them think critically about the material I am giving them.

**While I was on my student teaching experience, I experienced a much different teaching/learning style than what was presented at the literature circles. In the literature circles, the students were encouraged to become active and critical members of group discussions, where in the classroom students sat quietly in their desks, researching pre- determined question and coloring provincial maps. From what I saw, the students in that classroom were not being challenged to critically examine their environments, or develop skills to examine the past, present, or future. There appeared to be very little opportunity for students in the classroom to sit and discuss their information, probe for deeper meaning, or share their findings with one another. After seeing the benefit of literature circles, which involved amazing conversations and deep questions, I think it would have been of a benefit to allow the students to share their information with one another, rather than perform writing and copying exercises. I feel that a dynamic classroom where students use their imaginations and critical thinking skills to find the answer is a more beneficial exercise than numbly finding and copying answers down into a notebook. When students engage in the lesson being taught, they are more likely to apply and remember the information being taught.

In addition, through intergenerational literature circles, teacher candidates discovered the importance of using an integrated approach – that is, the fusion of subject areas.

* The intergenerational literature circle helped me learn more about how young learners develop understanding of social studies by creating an awareness of how their cognitive ability and experience base affect their learning. Their ability to make connections and understand concepts is strongly related to their prior knowledge and Brock Education, 18(2) 75

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experience. [student] was able to relate to Nell's family situation by relating it to his father working up north and being away for long periods of time. He was also able to make a historical connection from a current event article [teacher] brought into class and the novel. This reinforces how young learners benefit from interrelating subjects and how expanding the boundaries by not teaching subjects in isolation is beneficial for the student.

What we, as researchers, discovered about how teacher candidates define teaching We thought that the intergenerational literature circle project would provide good field experience opportunities from which all teacher candidates could garner deeper insights into the process of becoming a professional teacher. However, perhaps more importantly, we hoped that these discourse communities, composed of adults and children participating together, would provide the place and space where teacher candidates could begin to see themselves as professional teachers who are co-learners, facilitators and mentors rather than simply transmitters of information. Based on the data, it became clear to us that some teacher candidates struggled with preconceived definitions of teacher as ‘sage on the stage’. We learned that for some, there remained a clear separation between ‘teacher’ (talker, giver of information, director, authority) and ‘co-learner/facilitator’. The degree of discomfort about their role as co-learners expressed in the following excerpts demonstrates this point:

*Today I felt very comfortable being a co-learner, although, we had more of a teacher role today because we had to explain how to create a bibliography as well as how to write effective jot notes. We also had to demonstrate for the students how to change information into their own words. Today we were a little clearer on our role and this made it a good day.

**Today was a good day for being a co-learner because it was mostly a brainstorming day. Our role for today was very clear and we knew exactly how to help the students. I find that the day always runs better if we have direct instruction on what to do. This helps eliminate any confusion about our role.

***I enjoyed moving to the research portion because I felt more confident of my position and what I was supposed to be doing. I felt that I could be a benefit to the student I was working with.

****I feel that I had a better understanding of what I was supposed to do. I felt useful in helping the student I was working with to find the proper terms to use in order to find the information he was looking for on the internet. I did not allow the student to draw me into doing the work for him.

These people drew clear distinctions between the role of teacher and the roles of co- learner and facilitator - roles with which they were uncomfortable because they perceived these

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L. Lemisko and M. Epp A Context for Professional Learning as too fluid and lacking in specific direction. It seems that these teacher candidates think teaching mainly involves transmission, direction-giving, explaining, intervention, and making decisions for learners. For these people, ‘to teach’ does not, necessarily, include ‘to learn’ By contrast, we did learn that for many teacher candidates the experience in intergenerational literature circles helped them define, or re-define, teaching and ‘teacher’. These people’s comments showed them coming to believe there was no separation between being teacher, listener, organizer, guider, facilitator, and learner. For them, ‘to teach’ necessarily includes ‘to learn’. *We also must recognize that we are all teachers and we are all learners and this type of experience helps us come to grasp with this concept. In their own little ways [student] and [student] taught me about life and myself, they also opened my eyes to different things I will need to work on as a future teacher and as a human being.

**It was interesting for me to see that the teacher does not have to have all the answers. When given the opportunity, students can be great problem solvers, and come up with ideas that I would not have thought of as options.

***The literature circle has also taught me not to react so fast, and to let students share their thoughts before assuming that they are off task…I have come to understand my identity, and who I am more. I think that the more aware we are of who we are, and what factors contribute to our identity, the more we understand ourselves and the world around us.

We also learned that through intergenerational literature circles many teacher candidates discovered that teaching is about relationships and the gradual release of responsibility. *I think the biggest thing to remember is that teaching is our job and therefore we are getting paid to pay attention to children and talk with them. It is our job to care, it shouldn’t be a forced feeling, sure there is not always enough time in a day to have a one-on-one personal conversation with every student in the class, but we do teach for more than one day. As teachers if we dread having to talk with our students and listen to their “underdeveloped” thoughts then I believe we are in the wrong profession. Teaching is a lot like Social Studies, we can take things from the past and look at how things are going and decide where we want to be. Hearing the “underdeveloped” thoughts of children and watching them grow to more and more developed thoughts over time is what teaching is all about, it’s the learning process. … And caring relationships are being able to sit down with your students and have conversations with them, allowing them to make sense of the world around them and have the assurance that they are not alone, and that asking questions is a good thing.

Conclusion

Our findings indicate that intergenerational literature circles were contexts in which multi- layered learning did take place for teacher candidates. In providing a context for epistemic

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L. Lemisko and M. Epp A Context for Professional Learning modes of engagement (Wells, 1994), literature circles provided the place and space for teacher candidates to work in a discourse community with young people. Challenged to use a set of cognitive tools within a discourse community composed of both adults and children, the teacher candidates’ personal efforts to make sense of experiences (Putnam & Borko, 2000, p. 5), generally appear to have helped them develop deeper understanding of teaching as complex, creative and multi-faceted (Schulz, 2005). These adult learners developed a deeper understanding of learners and learning and they enhanced their understandings of multiple perspectives. Participants generally indicated that they learned more about the act/practice of teaching itself and many found that intergenerational literature circles became the venue through which they revised their definitions of ‘teacher’ and teaching. We supposed that intergenerational literature circles could provide a ‘situated’ learning experience in a context where teacher candidates could develop new ways of thinking. We think our findings indicate that many of them did. As researchers and teacher educators, we have several lingering questions – for example: 1. Will those teacher candidates who redefined ‘teacher’ and teaching carry these ideas into their practice in the long run? 2. How can we best mentor and support these teacher candidates in sustaining the enthusiasm and belief that all children are capable when they enter environments where change is not always embraced? 3. How might we support in-service teachers in their transformation into lifelong learners? 4. Would other kinds of configurations of literature circles provide similar kinds of potentially transformative learning experiences for teacher candidates (e.g., discourse communities involving teacher candidates and seniors from the community, or teacher candidates and aboriginal members of the community)?

Wrapping Up

We found that the intergenerational literature project was a learning experience for us, too. Reflecting upon what we witnessed as the project unfolded and upon the direct feedback offered by teacher candidates during and after their experiences in the learning circles has pointed out the power of situated learning. We became poignantly aware of the challenges faced by pre- service teachers as they grappled with cognitive dissonances arising from the culture clash between traditional views of teacher, teaching and schooling and ideas about teachers as co- learners and mentors. We learned that if teacher educators are aiming to support transformational teaching and learning, we must carefully consider the contextual features of the learning opportunities we offer. Overall, we discovered that intergenerational literature circles are communities where school-age children, teacher candidates and teacher educators have the opportunity to observe, engage and learn together – a powerful combination.

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by a three-year grant from the Dr. Stirling McDowell Foundation for Research into Teaching.

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Notes

1 Originally the project was designed to have teacher candidates visit the classroom of one grade six teacher. During the second year of the project, the grade six teacher took up a new position as Learning Support Facilitator in her school division, so visits were arranged in which the cohorts of teacher candidates worked with more than one teacher and group of students. 2 A series of asterisks in the following sections denotes different teacher candidate voices.

References

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Brock Education, 18(2) 80

The Reform of Teacher Education at the University of New Brunswick: Why and How?

Mark Hirschkorn University of New Brunswick

Alan Sears University of New Brunswick

Sharon Rich University of New Brunswick

Abstract

In the fall of 2008, the Faculty of Education at the University of New Brunswick implemented its ‘new’ Bachelor of Education program. This was precipitated by a number of factors including pressure from the education community in New Brunswick, streamlining due to declining faculty numbers, and a drive to incorporate recommendations drawn from recent teacher education literature. Two of the changes made were: (a) the program is now completed in 1 year (formerly 2 years); (b) education students complete a one year practical component at the same time they complete their on campus components. The article concludes with some implications for faculty at other institutions who may be asking themselves – are they ready to make changes in their programs? Keywords: teacher education, program reform, professional learning communities

Mark Hirschkorn is an assistant professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of New Brunswick. His research areas are teacher education reform, teacher induction and professional development and inquiry-based science education practices. Email: [email protected]

Alan Sears is a professor in the Faculty of Education at the University of New Brunswick. His research areas are citizenship education, educational policy and teacher education.

Sharon Rich is a professor and Dean at the Faculty of Education, University of New Brunswick. Her research interests include virtual teaching and learning, learning communities and literacy education.

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M. Hirschkorn, A. Sears, and S. Rich Reform of Teacher Education

The Reform of Teacher Education at the University of New Brunswick Why and How? In the fall of 2008, the Faculty of Education at the University of New Brunswick (UNB) implemented its ‘new’, reworked, Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) program. This moment was highly anticipated by faculty as well as the education community in the province of New Brunswick (UNB graduates more teachers than all of the other education institutions in the province combined) and was years in the forging. In this article, we begin with a discussion of the context that led to changing the B.Ed. program at UNB. This is followed by a description of the reconceptualization process; what aspects of research were incorporated and how the NB educational community was included in the re-envisioning process. Third, we offer a brief overview of the teacher education program that resulted including a discussion of how the new program is different than the program it replaced and why. There is then a short description of the methodology being used to study the new program in addition to early findings from the program review research implemented alongside the new program. The article concludes with some implications for faculty at other institutions that may be asking themselves – are they ready to make changes in their programs? We recognize that other teacher education institutions in Canada are struggling with reform issues of their own and we intend our work to contribute to the wider conversations about the preparation of beginning teachers.

Context: Why a New Education Program at UNB? In early 2006 the Faculty of Education at UNB undertook a significant revision of its B.Ed. program. At that point the faculty was offering a 60 credit hour B.Ed. program that could be pursued either consecutively (following a first undergraduate degree) or concurrently (in combination with another undergraduate degree). The program was extremely flexible with multiple entry points and a range of routes through the requirements. For example, consecutive students might enter the program in September or January and concurrent students might enter after completing the first, second, or third year of their other degree. The program was originally designed to provide a 15 week internship followed by one term back at the university. The intent was to focus reflections on this immersion in teaching in the context of previous academic and professional education. However, many students planned their programs so as to complete all required course work before the internship. They thus left the program without the opportunity for structured reflection on their teaching practice. Additionally, provincial course requirements coupled with faculty members' individual interests and passions led to the creation of courses that were often only loosely connected to what is required for teacher accreditation. The result was over 178 courses listed in the teacher education program, excluding the field experiences. Although the faculty had attempted to organize courses around core studies and related subject methodology, the proliferation of courses and the numbers of options available made it difficult to maintain coherence. The result was a range of pragmatic, pedagogical and theoretical concerns combining to force a rethinking of the faculty’s programs. We believe UNB’s particular circumstances were characteristic of larger trends and issues facing teaching and teacher education across Canada and elsewhere. These include:

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The Continuing Evolution of Faculties of Education as Sites of Research and Knowledge Production Related to Education in Addition to Being Institutions Primarily Responsible for Initial Teacher Education. In 1973, following a trend set earlier in Central and Western Canada, New Brunswick saw the integration of its teachers’ colleges into universities as faculties or departments of education (Chan, Fisher & Rubenson, 2007). This created a shift not only in the location of teacher education but in the expectations of faculty members who were now seen not only as teacher educators but also as researchers and scholars. Overall, UNB faculty members responded well to the new expectations with the Faculty moving up considerably over the years on the University’s internal research ranking exercise. This change in role, however, also poses several challenges to teacher education including a more limited direct role of tenure stream faculty in the enterprise (particularly the field based-components) as they focus more on research and graduate teaching. There is also often a sense of disconnect from the field as faculty are perceived to be focusing on more general and theoretical concerns while ignoring the development of applied teaching skills and specific provincial policies. At UNB theses concerns were first filtered back to the faculty in terms of anecdotal evidence from internship supervisors and other contacts between faculty members and colleagues in the field. However, a large-scale survey of new graduates, cooperating teachers and school administrators conducted by the Department of Education (DoE) produced devastating results for the faculty. The survey targeted the three English language B.Ed. programs in New Brunswick and one from the University of Maine that provided most of the new teachers hired in the province. UNB’s program was regarded as least effective in virtually every area by a significant degree. In particular, our students were perceived as not having a common background of knowledge and skills in teaching and learning generally and were also considered relatively weak in a number of areas including: specific techniques for teaching literacy; the capacity to differentiate instruction for students at a range of academic ability levels; classroom management skills; and knowledge of provincial policies and curricula. Although there were problems with the survey instrument and many faculty members contested the often narrow, functional and non-theoretical nature of the concerns raised, there was no doubt that the poor perception of the faculty was widespread and a threat to ongoing positive and professional relationships with partners in the field.

Significant Shifts in Understandings of Teaching as a Profession and the Role of the Profession in the Education and Induction of New Members. Chan, Fisher and Rubenson (2007) argue that a key component of evolving teacher professionalism is growing professional autonomy including a role for the profession in pre- service education and professional induction. Ungerleider (1994) points out that the creation of a College of Teachers in British Columbia “gave teachers control over entry to the profession, the preparation of its members, and the judgment of their competence” (p. 375). Even in jurisdictions without Colleges of Teachers, there has been “a shift from a view of schools as bureaucratic organizations to one of schools as professional learning communities” (Williams, Brien, Sprague & Sullivan, 2008, p. 2) including responsibility for inducting and mentoring new members of the profession. Consistent with this changing view of the profession’s role in the preparation of new members, a range of recent scholarship in teacher education argues for teacher education

Brock Education, 18(2) 83 M. Hirschkorn, A. Sears, and S. Rich Reform of Teacher Education programs “to consider how they can engage in partnerships with schools and districts that work to transform schooling and teaching in tandem” (Bransford, Darling-Hammond & LePage, 2005, p.5). Unfortunately, practice in the faculty of education at UNB seemed a considerable departure from that ideal. The DoE survey demonstrated that teachers and administrators in New Brunswick felt a significant degree of disconnection between themselves, their schools and the UNB Faculty of Education. Declining faculty numbers meant internship supervision was provided more often by non-faculty supervisors so that there was significantly less actual faculty presence in schools. However, the problem was greater than a lack of direct contact. Teachers and school administrators indicated they felt they had virtually no input into teacher education at UNB and that interns were being assigned to them with poorly articulated expectations and little support from university supervisors. On the other hand, university supervisors often felt schools worked to undermine the program by telling students some version of, “you can forget all that theory you learned at the university: this is the real world.” Again, reported perceptions on both sides represented a slanted description of faculty-school relations but there was no doubt these perceptions, regardless of accuracy, were both genuinely felt and a significant problem for the success of the program.

The Perpetual Struggle to Link Theory and Practice in Teacher Education In his seminal work on communities of practice Wenger (1998) argues, “With respect to newcomers, it may be better to intersperse moments of information sharing and reflection with moments of peripheral engagement in practice than to ‘front-load’ all the classroom training and call that ‘learning’” (p. 250). On this view opportunities for professional practice and classroom learning/reflection would be closely connected and recursive. Where to place teaching practice in a program and how to integrate with university-based experiences, is a perennial issue for faculties of education everywhere. At UNB there was a significant sense of disconnection noted by students and some faculty between course work and the internship. Part of the reason for this was the lack of regular faculty involvement in internship supervision for reasons discussed above. The situation was exacerbated by the growing trend to leave the internship to the end of the program. Unintentionally, we had fallen into just the practice Wenger warned against and by front-loading all the classroom learning we had established weak connections between opportunities for professional practice and in class reflection. While the particular problems that gave rise to the reconsideration of our B.Ed. program were specific to our own institutional and provincial context the underlying issues are ones faced by faculties of education everywhere: fostering the development of faculty members as researcher and scholars while maintaining their participation and influence in initial teacher preparation; recognizing the growing role of the profession and professional bodies in teacher education; and linking theory and practice in recursive and mutually beneficial ways. As we considered our old program in light of these trends it was clear we were a long way from fostering the professional learning communities advocated both by the province and in a range of literature on teacher professionalism (Wenger, 1998; Darling-Hammond, & Bransford, 2005).

Toward a Collaborative Approach to Reform

With these issues in mind the process of framing a new approach to pre-service education at UNB was begun. From the beginning we saw collaboration as a central imperative both in terms of how we would work toward reform and the purpose of the reform itself. In other words, we

Brock Education, 18(2) 84 M. Hirschkorn, A. Sears, and S. Rich Reform of Teacher Education were committed to collaborating so that the resulting program would foster better professional collaboration. We understand this collaboration to be multidimensional, recursive and persistent. It is multidimensional in the sense that collaboration will be going on at a number of levels and in various sites. As important as communities of practice are to professional learning, Wenger (1998) points out that if they become too insular they can actually reify poor practice and stifle reflection and reform. It is important to recognize, he writes, that “communities of practice cannot be considered in isolation from the rest of the world, or understood independently from other practices” (p. 103). In teacher education a number of communities of practice are at play including university faculty members, teachers in schools, and the B.Ed. students themselves (not to mention other possibilities such as adjunct faculty often hired to supervise field experiences but not really included in the faculty community of practice). We were committed to fostering “boundary practices” (Wenger, 1998, p. 114): that is, setting up situations where members crossed boundaries and engaged with colleagues in the other communities. These practices can disrupt taken for granted assumptions on all sides and foster significant growth. Our approach is recursive in the sense that ideas for reform flowing from collaboration, and especially the cross-boundary work described above, will flow in all directions. This is not just about reforming teacher education at UNB but about school reform more generally. We are hoping our collaboration with colleagues across the education sector in New Brunswick will shape our program in positive ways but also help foster thinking and reflection about their own practice: perhaps opening up new possibilities for collaborative scholarship and research in schools unrelated to the B.Ed. program. We want to build not only a new undergraduate teacher education program but also “constellations of interconnected practice” (Wenger, 1998, p. 127) among the faculty, teacher interns and school partners. This broader vision is consistent with recent work in teacher development, which calls for teacher education programs “to consider how they can engage in partnerships with schools and districts that work to transform schooling and teaching in tandem” (Bransford, Darling-Hammond & LePage, 2005, p. 5). Finally, our work is persistent in the sense that it is ongoing. The partnerships we are establishing with teachers, schools and school systems will stay in place and not only serve to run the program, but to reflect on and reshape the program as well. In his recent book on educational reform, Levin (2008) argues that too often educational reforms are rushed into place based on little or no evidence and then abandoned just as quickly when spectacular results are not immediately evident or when the political climate changes. He argues for a much more tempered approach to reform that would include ongoing monitoring of initiatives, reflection on both data collected and the experiences of participants, and revisions as necessary. Reform in teacher education often follows the pathological pattern described by Levin: reforms almost never include systematic monitoring of progress and feedback to those involved. We believe the partnerships established to reform and implement our new B.Ed. program can be used effectively as part of the ongoing monitoring and revising of it as well. The work described in this paper is a first attempt at that. With these principles in mind we set out to build intersecting communities of practice. We engaged our educational partners very early in the process. Research indicated that the best collaborative relationships among faculties of education, school districts and schools include crucial elements such as “a collegial and egalitarian relationship among participants” and “partnership center[ed] around a genuine problem or issue to be solved” (Lefever-Davis, Johnson & Pearman, 2007, pp. 204-205). Before that consultation could begin, however, the faculty established some key parameters and principles – the theoretical model by which the program

Brock Education, 18(2) 85 M. Hirschkorn, A. Sears, and S. Rich Reform of Teacher Education was guided. Shulman’s (1987) work on content knowledge, Darling-Hammond’s (2000) work on the integration of classroom and clinical experiences, and the Association of Canadian Deans of Education ACCORD (2006) list of principles for more coherent, cohesive programs that meet the needs of teachers and students, were keystones in the drafting of the parameters. The following is the list of the parameters and principles with which the Steering Committee began: (a) The program would extend over 11 months beginning in late August and ending in mid- July. (b) The program would include three compulsory core courses: Introduction to Teaching and Learning; The Social Context of Education; and Inclusionary Practices. (c) Field experiences would be contained within the Introduction to Teaching and Learning course and would be a carefully structured set of experiences designed to move newcomers from the periphery to the core of the professional community; to help them develop what Wenger calls an “inbound trajectory.” These experiences should provide “an approximation of full participation and can take various forms such as “lessened intensity, lessened risk, special assistance, lessened cost or error, close supervision, or lessened production pressures” (Wenger, 1998, pp. 100-101). (d) A professional learning community’s model would be central to the development of the program. A central theme from the program feedback discussed above is that people were largely working in isolation and any sense of community within the faculty, among interns or between the faculty and its educational partners was largely absent. With Sfard (1998) we recognized that professional learning “is now conceived of as becoming a member of a certain community” (p. 6) and we were determined to create an overlapping set of professional learning communities within the program. For this reason we made a fundamental change to the way interns would be assigned. Rather than assigning them to individual teachers, the interns would be assigned to a school with a ‘school liaison’ acting to coordinate the in-school experiences of the interns. Through this we hoped to foster a sense of school staff as a professional learning community, rather than individual teachers. We also hoped that the team of interns assigned to a school would themselves develop as a professional learning community. This would also provide the school some flexibility to fine tune the field experience; to take into consideration the interpersonal and pragmatic ‘realities’ of placing teaching interns in schools. Several faculty members had experience with fostering the professional growth of learning communities both in the context of student teaching and wider professional practice. We drew on this expertise in establishing our new approach (Whitty, 1996; Kristmanson, Dicks, Bouthillier, & Bourgoin, 2008). Additionally, the faculty committed to the principle that university supervisors would become part of the professional learning communities of the schools in which they worked. We wanted to develop and sustain a substantial partnership with our colleagues in the field to support our mutual work in teacher education. In establishing this framework we were cognizant of Wenger’s (1998) contention that professional communities function best as sites of learning when there is the right degree of creative tension between reification and participation. Reification, or the setting out of explicit policies and procedures, is necessary because it gives shape and consistency to professional practice, but an emphasis on it alone can squelch growth and contribute to the stagnation of practice. Wenger argues that members of a community of practice must be able to participate in shaping and reshaping policies and practices if the community is to be a dynamic site of professional learning and growth. In Wenger’s terms the recommendations set out here establish

Brock Education, 18(2) 86 M. Hirschkorn, A. Sears, and S. Rich Reform of Teacher Education a reified framework for the UNB Faculty of Education’s revised B.Ed. program and we believed them to be a solid basis for beginning extensive consultation with colleagues from the public education community. It was recognized however, that the parameters needed to remain malleable while reconceptualising the program: during our consultations leading up to finalizing of the new program; and after its implementation. With the assistance of a grant from the UNB Teaching and Learning Fund, in November 2006 we began extensive consultations with educational partners in New Brunswick. The first step was a two-day meeting between faculty members and 50 representatives from various sectors of public education in the province, nominated by the DoE and the New Brunswick Teachers’ Association (NBTA). Our work together included plenary sessions where representatives of the NB educational community set out their concerns about teacher education and representatives of the Faculty presented the draft framework for the new program. There were also several opportunities for small group and large group discussion and interaction. From that initial meeting, a Steering Committee was formed that included representatives from the Faculty and the various educational partners. Members of the committee from the field included teachers, principals, school district supervisors and superintendents, in addition to representatives from the DoE and the NBTA. The committee met for full day meetings four times between January and May 2007. Our partners responded enthusiastically to the initial framework and worked hard to help flesh out program components based around the principles listed above. There were, of course, a number of substantive issues that were debated and logistical threats to the new program debated. Space does not allow full consideration of those here but discussion of them is contained in the report prepared by the Steering Committee and approved by Faculty Council. The ground work for the new program had been established. The Plan: A Characterization of the New Education Program This program seeks to unify the students’ experiences with respect to course content and school practica; to have these components contribute to and depend on each other. It is also designed to create learning communities comprised of both school and university personnel; to change the nature of school-university collaboration to a reciprocated partnership in which each partner benefits from the insights and expertise of the other. From a students’ experiential perspective, however, the program is driven by their timetable, what is expected of them, and when. It is from this perspective that we describe the new program. Dewey (1938) considered experience to be the means through which educational processes work, hence an understanding of education requires an appraisal of the kind of experience individuals have. After receiving their acceptance letter (that includes information on the assigned school for the practica), the students’ education program begins with a 2-Day Introductory Seminar in mid-August. During this orientation, students receive an overview of the program (including the practica), meet the other students placed at their schools, are introduced to professional portfolios and Danielson’s (2007) four Domains of Professional Practice – the backbone of their teaching and professional development assessment. Additionally, because these interns are in the schools immediately after the 2-day seminar, they are introduced to the Code of Professional Conduct for New Brunswick teachers in addition to policies and issues concerning teaching as a profession. The following week, students begin a two week Initial Practicum in which they report to their assigned school, are introduced to key personnel such as the administrative team, the school liaison and teachers who work in the areas in which they have an interest, and generally assist in the start up period of a school. They attend professional development sessions along with their

Brock Education, 18(2) 87 M. Hirschkorn, A. Sears, and S. Rich Reform of Teacher Education teacher colleagues, prepare materials and classrooms alongside teachers in their fields, and are there on the students’ first day to welcome them to the school year and their new classes. These interns are not teachers yet, but have begun the process of participating in the start-up behaviours of classroom teachers; experiences that many of the old program interns did not have. Following the 2-week initial practicum, the interns begin their Novice Practicum, and their role shifts. On Mondays each week, interns return to their schools and a schedule created by the liaison teacher for exposure to a range of classroom contexts, teachers, and teaching styles. It is hoped that the intern is directed toward experiences that build on and reinforce the topic discussed that week on campus, and that they are an active participant in the teaching environment in which they find themselves. During the novice practicum, interns also attend classes at the university Tuesday through Friday to engage in course work. The three core courses offered during these four days were designed to present topics that align with their school experiences and ask the students to use these experiences to respond and connect to the topics being covered from a more informed and personal perspective. For example, one of the earlier topics is ‘organizing the learning environment’ – which corresponds to teachers’ activities at the beginning of the school year. Thus, the students are asked to reflect upon their practicum experiences as each topic is presented in the Introduction to Teaching and Learning course. Students have a number of other optional and subject specific courses that round out their schedules each week by proceeding courses intended to provide the specific teaching strategies and pedagogical theories they will encounter as subject or Elementary specialists. The structure of the novice practicum leads students to complete courses while drawing upon and embedding their own classroom experiences. This block culminates in an intermediate practicum in November-December. The Intermediate Practicum begins in the third week of November and is three weeks long. At this point interns are assigned to a specific teacher (ideally in pairs) to promote collaboration and support. This experience moves interns gradually from a support and observation role into a teaching role; this is a gradual transition that is incremental and encourages reflection, and is operatively defined for the intern, the students and the mentor teacher as keeping everyone "safe". The emphasis at this stage is not on the quantity of teaching but on a variety of specific classroom experiences. In the New Year, interns return to a Monday in the schools, Tuesday to Friday on-campus format, with similar intentions and priorities as described in the novice practicum. Interns continue to relate course topics to their in-school experiences, culminating in a 7-week advanced practicum. The Advanced Practicum begins in April. By this point interns should be well aware of the culture of their school, have built many relationships with the teachers and the students in the school, and are expected to be prepared and ready to teach. Here each intern experiences the full range and intensity of teaching activities and carries full teaching responsibilities for a minimum of fifty percent of the time. Although interns will continue to draw upon the support and feedback of their peers, this practicum stresses opportunities for each intern to shine as an individual in the classroom. The program concludes with a two month on-campus component in which students are asked to reflect upon their teaching experiences and the resources/materials they have collected throughout the practica. For example, the interns fine tune their professional portfolios and turn their attention toward practical concerns such as finding teaching positions and additional professional development oriented topics such as what it means to be a teaching professional.

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This period is also unique in that the interns are given the opportunity to reflect upon their placements (their teacher experiences) in the context of an informed and receptive group of peers. There will be variances in every student’s experience with the new program depending on context, background, motivation, nature and many other factors. As such, it is at times difficult to implement a program that meets the specific expectations and needs of each intern. It is also recognized that a program of this nature needs to remain responsive to the many stakeholders influenced by the program. This list includes the student, school personnel, the DoE, and university personnel influenced by the new program. Toward this end a program review has been established that actively seeks the opinions, experiences and feedback of the stakeholders or participants influenced by the new education program. The next section will give a brief overview of the methodology used to study the new program. It is our intention in a follow-up article (Part 2 in a series of three articles) to give a more detailed description of the program review research itself, what has been learned in the process of doing the research, and to make recommendations for other institutions that wish to study their teacher education programs.

Overview of Methodology

In 2008 a research team of three faculty members applied for and received funding and research ethics approval to conduct a three year study on the impact and effectiveness of the newly implemented B.Ed. program at UNB. Since the research is a program review, fundamentally, the research focus is: How effective is the new teacher education program at preparing teachers for NB schools? Casey & Childs (2007) point out that this is an important (but not easy) question to ask when they recommend that research needs to be done that asks if beginning teachers are experiencing success in their first few years of practice, and what factors influence the likelihood of that experience. Data on the impact of specific components of the new program are being collected by soliciting qualitative, experiential feedback/insights from the participants in four ways. First, an anonymous and secure website has been set up to allow all participants to login and offer their feedback on their experiences. Second, each member of the research team is immersed within the new program and is documenting feedback received from participants anonymously and anecdotally (what we have labelled as the ‘ears & eyes’ stage). This includes research notes on interviews with individual participants. Third, focus groups of randomly selected participants are held at the end of each semester to discuss the experiences of the participants in the program and to make recommendations for changes that would be a ‘better’ alternative to the current program design. Fourth, follow-up surveys will be sent to graduates one and two years after graduation, in addition to the individual interviews of randomly selected graduates at that time. Data will be analyzed using a recursive and emergent grounded theory approach. As alluded to previously, the participants in the research reviewing the new program encompass anyone who is influenced by, or who influences the program. At this stage the participants have been grouped into three broad categories; students, school personnel and university personnel (see Table 1 for a list of participants that make up each participant category).

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Table 1

Participant Groupings

Students School Personnel University Personnel Preservice education students Mentor Teachers Faculty Representatives Graduated education students Liaison Teachers Tutorial Instructors School Administration Faculty District Administration Field Services Support Staff Deans

In the next section we will describe some of the early feedback from the participants that provide a glimpse into the reception and perception of the program three months into its inaugural year. The intention for doing this is to provide a glimpse of what is being learned by studying the new program – a glimpse that in our opinion indicates the potential and value of doing this research. However, the data is still being collected and there has been no formal data analysis done that could act as a basis for definitive conclusions or generalizations. There is a brief discussion of the implications of this article for other teacher educators which follows.

The Early Results: The Participants Speak Crocker and Dibbon (2008) quoted Fullan's (2001, p. 247) description of Collaborative enterprises between faculties and schools/districts can serve as in- school laboratories for nurturing teaching and learning, action research on authentic problems of practice, testing innovative approaches, collecting and analyzing evidence, and an extensive continuum of development for new teachers in a program driven by the practical needs of the sites and districts involved. Such reciprocal relationships are characterized as arrangements whereby “schools become just as committed to teacher education as they are to school improvement; and universities become just as committed to school improvement as to teacher education”. (p.115) This quote exemplifies how the new program at UNB seems well suited to address recommendations for teacher education programs Canada wide. Any new program provides a unique opportunity to learn from the process and reflect on the effectiveness of the various intentions that make up the program – in this case, intentions distilled from the educational research as well as the educational community in New Brunswick. Not surprisingly, the insights and feedback received from each participant varies, but there already seems to be patterns in the feedback received from each of the categories of participants. For example, students tend to focus on issues of cost and workload, school personnel tend to discuss scheduling and communication, whereas university personnel tend to address administrative issues. At this juncture, however, data is still being collected and a formal data analysis remains to be done, thus it is not appropriate to frame a discussion of the results around

Brock Education, 18(2) 90 M. Hirschkorn, A. Sears, and S. Rich Reform of Teacher Education the participant groupings, or the relative ‘success’ of the program components. What follows is a summary of early patterns that are emerging from the data.

Feedback, Empowerment and Human Nature

Anecdotally, there has been more positive feedback about the new program than criticism, but the positive feedback tends to be more diffuse and undirected (as compared with negative feedback). For example, comments such as “really liked”, “got a lot out of the two week practicum at the beginning”, “it is going well”, or even “everything is going well, why would I take the time to offer feedback?” have been made and represent a large, seemingly silent majority that is appreciating and benefitting from the program but largely go unrecorded. Examples of the negative feedback are discussed later in this section. Interestingly, it appears that because it was made clear to the participants (particularly the students and school personnel) that there is a research project reviewing the new program, this has empowered the participants to have opinions and question the structure of the program more than they might otherwise. Unlike many other experiences in life in which a person “toughs it out” because there is no feedback mechanism or simply because “you have to” – we have seemingly given the participants the willingness to question the program. This is good from a feedback perspective, but has this also decreased the willingness of the participants to fight their way through hardship?

Shadows of the Past

Putting the reputation of the old education program at UNB amongst the education community in New Brunswick aside for the moment, there is an expectation for how practica and education programs in general “work” – a historical norm if you will. What has been observed, in the schools in particular, is that many ‘old practicum’ patterns are re-emerging in the absence of knowing explicitly what the alternatives are. Examples include: (a) Schools do not know how to “use” the university and its personnel as a member of a learning community. (b) Interns are assumed to have much more background in pedagogic content knowledge than should be expected (remember they are in the schools prior to taking any university education classes) – because that is what previous student teachers have had. Similarly, some interns are being asked to teach lessons because “that is what other interns have done”. (c) Comparisons with other education programs is inevitable in a province this size, and because some of the other programs have begun their full-time internships, while UNB’s education students at this point have been limited to two weeks at the beginning and few Mondays, UNB students are not seen as advanced as other students. (d) A keystone of the new program was to provide as much flexibility for the schools as possible – to create experiences for the interns under broad topic headings, but to leave it to designated liaison teachers to direct the interns. However, traditionally schools have been told quite explicitly “what to do”. In the absence of this top-down, “do as I tell you” model – some school personnel have expressed uncertainty regarding the university’s expectations. This is perhaps exacerbated by the relative inexperience of the university

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representatives in the schools with the new program expectations (they too are more familiar with the old, top-down model).

Administrivia

The old program used a semester system, with clear distinctions between practica and course work on campus. With the advent of the new program crossing semesters and embedding the practica within course work, it created difficulties for the registrar’s office as they tried to make it fit within their existing administrative system. Thus there were many instances in the first month of the program in which the students and schools were asked to be patient as the schedules (and paperwork) were worked out on a student by student, school by school basis. This created frustrations for all concerned, not the least of which, for the staff doing the paperwork. It also served as a reminder for how closely budgeted the finances of students are – last minute requests for “practica fees” weeks after the other fees were described and asked for were not well received. On a related note, because this is the inaugural year for the new program, the preparation for courses and practica, particularly by university faculty, continued until the last minute. As a result, the intended immersive dependency and collaboration between the on-campus components was not fully realized. Faculty members were frustrated in their preparations by the relative reticence of other faculty to have their planning at a stage in which it could be shared and built upon. It is expected that these problems will diminish greatly in future years of the program as the faculty members gain a better sense of how topics are broached by their colleagues, and how more extensive collaboration might occur.

Work, Work, Work

Many students report feeling overwhelmed with the workload required of them within the education program. Some students (and faculty) believe it is a function of two years of material being compressed into a single year by faculty. Others believe it is the poor communication among faculty regarding due dates for major assignments. Still others believe it is due to the shorter week, and the time and energy it takes to immerse themselves in the schools every Monday – time and energy they traditionally would direct toward completing course requirements. Whatever the cause, there is an overwhelming amount of data stemming from the students that points to what has been described as “ridiculous work and reading requirements being given to the students”. A few of the students have suggested that faculty clarify how much work is collectively being asked of the students and to consider how to modify the expectations for each course to allow students time to complete and reflect upon their experiences.

Tabula Rasa?

Some members of the education community (members of the DoE, schools and school districts) in New Brunswick have indicated they are gratified to see the changes to the education program and believe the changes to be a significant improvement over the old program; that they are motivated to work with faculty and students – even though they had openly criticized the program in the past. A truism of universities and schools in general is not whether an allegation is true, it is whether it is believed to be true – one clear message that has been stated is that the

Brock Education, 18(2) 92 M. Hirschkorn, A. Sears, and S. Rich Reform of Teacher Education faculty of education at UNB has been granted the benefit of the doubt with the advent of the new program. Even though the slate may not have been wiped entirely clean, the changes to the B.Ed. program have kindled a hopeful optimism in the education community regarding the program. Individuals that had refused to work with the education faculty and program at UNB in the past have reopened themselves to that possibility. This revitalized willingness is an indication of the potential of the program, and how it was conceived and implemented. It also conveys the importance of working to realize the potential of the program, the importance of research designed to inform the success and challenges of the program, and allowing it to evolve and grow according to the insights of the New Brunswick education community and the educational research.

Conclusion

Throughout the conception and implementation process of the new teacher education program at UNB, two things were maintained. First, it was understood that we were not creating final solutions for many of the issues that plagued our old program or that plague other teacher education programs. Program improvement is a recursive and ongoing process. Incorporating changes, assessing program effectiveness, and the evaluation and improvement of our teacher education program has continued after its implementation date. Second, it was deemed vital to include the educational community in the creation of the program, and to remain sensitive to the opinions and experiences of this community once the program had begun. This program review research and the dissemination of the findings is one way in which we are endeavouring to do so. The factors driving UNB toward reform (changing roles for faculty members; greater demands from the profession for a role in teacher education and ongoing attempts to better integrate theory and practice) impact virtually every faculty of education in some way. We believe our experience might prove valuable to others as they attempt to work out solutions in their own contexts. This article is our attempt to offer readers a window into how we are attempting to address these issues; to widen conversation around the context that led up to the decision to reform the UNB teacher education program; and to provide a brief description of the program setting and the practices upon which it is currently being employed. It is hoped that by sharing our context and circumstances with other teacher educators we are inviting them to consider how their own contexts may be similar and different to UNB, and to perhaps gain some insights into how they may approach teacher education reform in their own institutions.

Acknowledgements Kathy Winslow and Ruth Forsythe

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References

Association of Canadian Deans of Education (2006). ACCORD on Teacher Education. Retrieved September 01, 2006 from http://www.csse.ca/CADE/TeacherAccord.pdf Bransford, J., Darling-Hammond, L., & LePage, P. (2005). Introduction. In L. Darling- Hammond & J. Bransford (Eds.), Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do (pp. 1-39). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Casey, C., & Childs, R. (2007). Teacher education program admission criteria and what beginning teacher need to know to be successful teachers. Canadian Journal of Education Administration and Policy, 67, 1-23. Chan, A. S., Fisher, D., & Rubenson, K. (Eds.). (2007). The evolution of professionalism: Educational policy in the Provinces and Territories of Canada. Vancouver: University of British Columbia, Centre for Policy Studies in Higher Education and Training. Crocker, R., & Dibbon, D. (2008). Teacher education in Canada. Kelowna, BC: Society for the Advancement of Excellence in Education. Danielson, C. (2007). Enhancing professional practice: A framework for teaching (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1). Retrieved September 01, 2006 from http://epaa.asu.edu/eppa/v8n1 Darling-Hammond, L., & Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing teachers for a changing world: What teachers should learn and be able to do. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and Education. New York: MacMillan. Kristmanson, P., Dicks, J., Le Bouthillier, J., & Bourgoin, R. (2008). Exploring the teaching of writing through a professional learning community. Education Canada, 48(3), 37-39. Lefever-Davis, S., Johnson, C., & Pearman, C. (2007). Two sides of a partnership: Egalitarianism and empowerment in school-university partnerships. Journal of Educational Research, 100(4), 204-210. Levin, B. (2008). How to change 5000 Schools: A practical and positive approach for leading change at every level. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press. Sfard, A. (1998). On two metaphors for learning and the dangers of choosing just one. Educational Researcher, 27(2), 4-13. Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57(1), 1-22.

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Ungerleider, C. (1994). Power, politics, and the professionalization of teachers in British Columbia. In L. Erwin & D. MacLennan (Eds.), Sociology of Education in Canada (pp. 370-379). Toronto: Copp Clark Longman. Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning, meaning, and identity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. Whitty, P. (1996). Academic wisdom and practical action. Learning for the workplace: Nordic and Canadian Perspectives. Finland: Department of Education. Williams, R., Brien, K., Sprague, C., & Sullivan, G. (2008). Professional learning communities: Developing a school level readiness instrument [Electronic Version]. Canadian Journal of Educational Administration and Policy. Retrieved December 21, 2008 from http://www.umanitoba.ca/publications/cjeap/pdf_files/williamsspraguesullivanbrien.pdf

Brock Education, 18(2) 95 Teacher Education Partnerships: Integration of Case Studies within an Initial Teacher Education Program

Darlene Ciuffetelli Parker Brock University

Deirdre Smith Ontario College of Teachers

Patricia Goldblatt Independent Consultant

Abstract

This paper outlines the partnership between the Faculty of Education at Brock University and the Ontario College of Teachers as the self-regulatory body for the teaching profession in Ontario. The paper explores how two institutions collaborated to use case study methodology with faculty members in an initial teacher education program. The paper explores the planning and delivery of a case study institute to faculty members of the Teacher Education Department at Brock University and how self-study was incorporated to reflect on the partnership. This paper details the partnership and the links between self-study of teacher education practices and the constructivist approach of case study methodology.

Darlene Ciuffetelli Parker, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor in the Teacher Education Department at Brock University. Her research interests include narrative inquiry research methods, teacher education practices, and programmatic complexities related to poverty and education. Email: [email protected]

Deirdre Smith is the Manager of the Standards of Practice and Education division of the Ontario College of Teachers. In this capacity, she has led provincial teacher education policy development and research initiatives that support a collective vision of professionalism as articulated in the ethical standards and standards of practice for Ontario's teaching profession

Dr. Patricia F. Goldblatt is a former program officer from the Ontario College of Teachers in Ontario and secondary teacher in Toronto. Her articles, books and essays that focus on education, women’s issues and narrative research have been published locally, nationally and internationally.

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Teacher Education Partnerships: Integration of Case Studies within an Initial Teacher Education Program

This paper outlines the partnership between the Faculty of Education at Brock University and the Ontario College of Teachers as the self-regulatory body for the teaching profession in Ontario. The paper explores how two institutions collaborated to use case study methodology with faculty members in an initial teacher education program. The paper explores the planning and delivery of a case study institute to faculty members of the Teacher Education Department at Brock University and how we used self-study and case methodology to reflect on our partnership. As authors of this paper we each reflected on the process of our partnership from its inception, to the culminating event of the case study institute at the Faculty of Education, to the reflection of the data received from participants of the institute. In this manner, we participated in a self-study (Loughran, 2004) of our teacher education practices on the use of case studies for pre-service teacher education, as well as by our reinterpretation of the critical events that took place in the partnership process of the case study institute. This paper details our partnership and the links between self-study of teacher education practices and the constructivist approach of case study methodology.

Context

Forty faculty members attended a case study institute that was organized by a member of the faculty of education and two members of the certification institution. The institute participants, comprised of full time tenure-track and tenured professors as well part time instructors, acted as advisors to teacher candidates during their practicum as well as during a practicum course in the Teacher Education Department at Brock University. To plan the institute, we (one faculty member representing the Faculty of Education and two self-regulatory members representing the Certification Institution) met for one full day. Afterward, we consulted throughout the planning process via email and phone correspondence. Our conversations focused primarily on teacher education practices with attention on the use of case studies. After we delivered the institute as a collaborative team, we reviewed data received from the participants of the institute. We then considered the entire process by reflecting together and individually. Each aspect of the institute provided opportunities for us to dialogue and consider how our institutions’ goals could be achieved. This involved the selection of relevant cases, to the collection of data through informal observation and charts to record participant thoughts (Guskey, 2002) provided opportunities for us to dialogue and consider how our institutions’ goals could be achieved. As well, our reinterpretation of the critical events that took place in the process of our partnership of the case study institute aided in building future relationships between the faculty and self-regulatory body. We elaborate on this partnership and provide further context from the perspective of the Faculty of Education at Brock University and from the perspective of the Ontario College of Teachers.

Faculty of Education at Brock University Perspective

In the Teacher Education Department at Brock University, becoming a teacher is both an exciting and complicated journey. There is a constant pull and tug of merging theory into practice, practice into theory, and preparing new teachers in a very short time span. To ease these

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tensions, Dr. Darlene Ciuffetelli Parker, was appointed as the coordinator of the Elementary Foundational Methods course. Darlene’s role was to revise the Methods course of the teacher education program and contemplate how the complementary methods cohort seminar could merge better the theory practice divide. Darlene turned to the idea of case study to merge method theory topics to seminar practice topics. Using narrative cases of real teachers would dramatize the issues that teaching candidates might encounter in their classes and prepare them in practical ways (Sykes & Bird, 1992; McAninch, 1993; Merseth, 1997; Richert, 1991). Darlene then began a project to edit a case study book which matched methods topics to real life case scenarios in classrooms, schools and educational communities across Ontario. The idea was to incorporate cases in the cohort seminar where skilled faculty members could aid the facilitation for teacher candidates and use their own skilled knowledge and experiences to stimulate a rich theory practice discourse (Shulman, 2002). Emulating a reflective and collaborative stance would help beginning teachers guide their decision-making processes (Cochrane-Smith, 2002). During the planning stages with the staff from the Ontario College of Teachers, Darlene recognized that the cohort faculty members required training in case pedagogy. The Ontario College of Teachers employed cases as a means to implement the standards of practice. Darlene had observed Deirdre Smith’s and Patricia Goldblatt’s in-service presentations and heard their presentations at CSSE and AERA. Darlene revised the Methods course outline to include the foundational standards for the teaching profession that was developed by the Ontario College of Teachers. She had many conversations in and around this revision with Deirdre and Patricia early on. Subsequently, she contacted both Deirdre and Patricia and invited discourse on the topic of case study use for the cohort seminar. Their partnership grew and it focused on collaboratively delivering a case study institute for the Teacher Education Department at Brock University. The self-regulatory body for teachers was responsible for certification, ongoing education of their members in the province, and ensuring that teachers were aware of the standards. Several resources such as a casebook (authors, 2003) had been developed, written in teachers’ own words, and with cases commentaries. The two members of the self-regulatory body with whom Darlene worked in this study were the authors of the casebook, had documented the successful impact of using cases and had raised standards awareness with the teachers. Since Darlene knew and incorporated the standards of practice into her foundational methods course, there was positive collaboration between herself and the staff of the self-regulatory body. However, Darlene took the lead in ensuring that the case, the protocol, and the methodology, would be welcomed by faculty members during the institute. Intent on ameliorating how the Methods Course could be made more relevant to pre-service teachers, but also to provide in-service for faculty members, Darlene’s vision was aimed at enhancing the way classes at both faculty, and in schools were taught: augmenting teacher education through case pedagogy. Her partnership with the Ontario College of Teachers was pivotal to this vision.

Ontario College of Teachers Perspective

Supporting the integration of the [regulatory body of standards] within teacher education and providing for the ongoing professional learning of teachers are key objects of the Ontario College of Teachers. Ontario College of Teachers staff supports the ongoing attainment of both of these objects. They collaborate with the programs of Professional Teacher Education to authentically infuse the profession’s standards within initial teacher education courses and

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practicum experiences. These standards are one of the criteria set out in regulation for the Accreditation of teacher education programs in the province of Ontario. Case inquiry proved to be a relevant and meaningful process for accomplishing these goals as many Faculties of Education were using the extensive set of Ontario College of Teachers case resources as pedagogical and curriculum resources. Darlene was responsible for revising the methods course in the faculty’s teacher education department: a course outline closely connected to the practicum (cohort) seminar at Brock University’s Faculty of Education. She recognized the potential of the Ontario College of Teachers’ case resources for enhancing the practicum cohort model. A few of Darlene’s colleagues had previously worked with the Ontario College of Teachers staff in the use of cases to support teacher induction. Thus, with these connections, Darlene contacted the Ontario College of Teachers to seek further partnership. Darlene engaged in several conversations with Ontario College of Teachers staff, Deirdre and Patricia, regarding the use of the Ontario College of Teachers case materials within teacher education. The cohort seminar appeared to be an authentic forum for integrating the standards through the use of the Ontario College of Teachers’ case materials. The cohort seminar appeared to be the ideal context for linking practice and theory through case methods and the standards. It became very evident that a collaborative professional learning project involving both the Ontario College of Teachers and Brock University could result in the revitalization of the methods courses and cohort seminar and successfully meet the objects of the Ontario College of Teachers. Once we mutually recognized that both institutes’ goals could be attained and effectively addressed through collaboration, through this project, we immediately worked to conceptualize a joint plan. Darlene worked with support from the Chair of her department as well as the Dean of Education. She edited a case study book, which contained many cases from the Ontario College of Teachers; and she facilitated the idea of a plan for a professional learning session in case pedagogy for all faculty responsible in teaching the cohort seminar. Deirdre worked with the Registrar of the Ontario College of Teachers to provide access to its published and unpublished case resources.

Theoretical Framework

Self-study

Self-study is a methodology characterized by examination of the role of the self and “the space between self and the practice engaged in” (Bullough & Pinnegar, 2001, p. 15). According to Bullough & Pinnegar (2001), it is through reflection and teacher conversations, that we negotiate the tensions between ourselves and our contexts; between biography and history. Among the attractions of self-study to the partnership of the self-regulatory body and the faculty of education are notions that self-study is highly compatible with other qualitative research methodologies and it focuses on substantive issues of importance to teacher educators (Zeichner & Noffke, 2001). While self-study is primarily a personal inquiry, we benefitted by working as collaborators to step outside ourselves in order to notice collaboration and partnership in our work. The case study institute was an opportunity for us to build on our partnership and work in teacher education. In this manner, self-study became an integral part of our own professional

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practice as teacher educators and evoked “deeper understandings of the aims, methods, and outcomes of [our] work with beginning teachers” (Dinkelman, 2003, p. 8). The manner in which we worked was important for future expectations, needs and practices not only to teacher candidates but to our own future practices as well (Korthagen, Loughran & Russell, 2006). Self-study is a methodology in this paper that has helped us to examine our own roles as collaborators, as well as individuals in the planning of the case study institute, hand “the space between self and the practice engaged in” (Bullough & Pinnegar, 2001, p. 15). Building relations in a partnership, particularly between a faculty of education and a self-regulatory body, is committed work. Our work together offers perspective and unites the aspect of reflection on our own teacher education practices while also promoting a constructivist and reflective strategy, such as case methods, for use in an initial teacher education program. We explain further case methodology.

Case Methodology

Case methodology functions as a central inquiry process as teachers position themselves and their knowledge as central to their focused inquiry. Teacher cases present holistic descriptions and provoke analysis of a single instance, phenomenon or social unit (Merriam, 2001). Educators’ conversations provide the basis for social interchange (Dewey, 1938) that facilitates “teacher talk” and collaborative communities form for the purposes of stimulating meaningful dialogue. Because those dialogues were sparked by first person descriptions of dilemmas in cases are personal and professional (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988). We reasoned that constructing knowledge with other teachers, would aid in raising personal awareness and foster deepening understanding of their lives as professional educators. Like the methodology of self- study, case methodology is a uniquely constructivist approach to learning about and reflecting on practice. We found this connection useful as we planned and implemented the case institute. Cases also are qualitative processes that allow teachers to gain in-depth understanding of themselves in particular situations, such as school cultures. Engaging in analysis, structuring it on reflection of experiences (Korthagen, 2001), is essential for the development of professional knowledge to inform effective practice. The re-construction of stories, dialogues and commentaries surrounding the narratives results in professional conversations (Rust, 1999) that expose diverse views, created in communities of inquiry and self-study (Loughran, 1999; Korthagon, 2004). We adapted the case discussion models set out by Judith Shulman (Shulman, Whittaker, & Lew, 2002; Shulman, 1992) in order to develop a unique protocol and structure that integrates the Ontario College of Teachers’ standards into the process. Charts were created to align with our strategies of and to deepen knowledge of the standards. To link the theory of the standards and concrete descriptions of practice, we looked for evidence of evocative rich, “thick description” (Geertz, 1973) in responses, and in the animated discussions of educators’ lived experiences to which served as catalysts for participants to remember these sessions at a later date. As a means to improve practice, we were aware of the benefits of cases in planning for future dilemmas, as sites for reflection, inquiry and dialogue regarding educational issues, for linking theory to practice, and supporting teachers as navigators of their own practice (Sykes & Bird, 1992; McAninch, 1993; Author & Author, 2004). Cases then became professional learning texts to be shared with others, used as both curriculum and pedagogical resource within teacher education.

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Data Set

We draw on a variety of data sources such as: responses from participants of the case study institute; our own reflections of the partnership process; our reflections after the case institute was completed; and, other artifacts such as letters of appreciation and input from other stakeholders. By collecting this data from our institute planning and final outcome of the case study institute, we were able to deepen our understanding of ourselves as collaborators and teacher education practitioners and what that meant for each respective partner. In the following section we describe the case institute session and new understandings from our respective positions.

The Case Study Institute for Faculty Within an Initial Teacher Education Program

In the early spring of 2007, forty elementary full and part time faculty members at Brock University had the unique opportunity to participate in a full day case study institute with Ontario College of Teachers staff. Faculty discussion supported cases as touchstones that provided teacher candidates with an opportunity to anticipate real life scenarios of school and to use their growing knowledge to resolve tensions alongside peers and faculty in the cohort seminar. The use of cases to create powerful and substantial opportunities for learning was anticipated as a bridge between the theory practice divide. Cases were seen by faculty as a constructivist approach to theory and practice which encourages teacher candidates to use their own learning and active participation in solving the everyday dilemmas teachers face in Ontario schools today. The following is a description of the methodology of case use during the institute.

Analysis of Case Methodology with Faculty Members

We carefully selected a case entitled, A Student Teacher faces the Challenges of the Classroom (Author & Author, 2005) that we anticipated would meet the needs of this group. Because faculty advisors function as mentors and supports to pre-service teachers, we chose a narrative, written by a first year teacher that focused on the burgeoning identity and self-doubt experienced by an ingénue. The case describes an associate teacher who is absent while the teacher candidate faced classroom management and supply teacher dilemmas. As well, tensions that impinge on the teacher concerns gender, power struggles, and hierarchies within the school environment. This case has been used successfully with numerous pre-service groups and teachers in their beginning years of teaching. We have noted that each teacher must determine the needs and exigencies of their own practice, and through our case process we added relevant commentaries so that participants can understand that there is never only one way to deal with an issue. The Ontario College of Teacher’s cases, all written by teachers in their own voices, are always accompanied by three to five commentaries that offer diverse interpretations of the situations presented in the case. To complement this particular case used with the faculty members, we provided three commentaries written by a professor, a researcher and a dean from Ontario, Alberta, and Columbia University. Case commentaries can provide catalysts in initiating the construction of knowledge relevant to teacher education. Through interpretation, teachers might blend what was present and what could be imagined (Moustakas, 1994) in their own

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settings. Commentators’ interpretations serve as catalysts for resources and insights to deepen understandings of issues that occur in educational settings. We were mindful of the role commentaries have played in probing dialogues into teacher education issues, thinking of Perkins & Saloman’s (1998) “bridges” but also “hugs’ between disparate elements that encourage revelations in learning. Next, we invited participants to use the standards of practice and the ethical standards as lenses in recognizing how the teacher in the case was living out the standards in the story, and how the standards might help in providing redress to the multiple issues. We believed in “situated knowledge” (Bruner, 1990) and thick description (Geertz, 1973) that would lodge in participants’ minds because the stories were situated in emotional struggles. Our process concerned building knowledge of facts as the basis for generating issue but the process was also immensely reflective and engaged the faculty members in an active constructivist framework as they read, reacted and enacted the case. The conversations and facial expressions were lively as faculty members affirmed that the case narrative was very credible. They shared that they, themselves, had experienced similar incidents with associate teachers in their first years of teaching. The room was abuzz with interesting and meaningful conversations about professional practice related to the case. Two participants stopped the process to ask questions and asserted that they had already been working with cases. Although using cases was not new to this group, our theoretical framework that reflected Judy Shulman’s (Shulman, Whittaker & Lew, 2002) case discussion process differed from other pedagogies they had experienced. We noted a moment of tension from one faculty member who dismissed case study as frivolous, but Darlene addressed the situation and explained that cases can and have been used in different ways for teacher education programs across Ontario. She acknowledged that cases were not unknown but had not been used previously in her own cohort group. The tension between theory and practice was discussed and the majority of faculty members agreed that case methodology was a positive step in the right direction. We then divided the group into three sections. Each small group read one commentary and synthesized the points. Then, one person per small group, voiced the commentator’s perspective with the entire group. After every monologue, the entire group discussed the response, acknowledging, refuting, comparing or contrasting it to the others they had heard. Once more, talk was spirited and thoughtful as participants underscored the importance of the lessons being offered in the wise writings of the commentators. Another incidence of tension occurred as some participants grappled with one of the commentaries on how to affect change in educational landscapes (Connelly & Clandinin, 1988). This was a concept that required deeper discussion as there were metaphors, proactive strategies and philosophical underpinnings that differed from some of the very practical and concrete recommendations in the other two commentaries. Once more, Darlene, having worked with a variety of faculty members, provided feedback and practical meaning to the metaphorical commentary. We believed in the importance of multiple, varied and diverse responses to cases because of the variety of levels and experiences participants bring to the sessions. As well, this was an opportunity for ongoing learning: the “messiness” (Newman, 1987) of inquiry often yields wonderful rewards and ways to reconsider and reframe issues in practice. Providing several commentaries ensures that there is never only one way to consider an issue in a case. In the next section, we provide our reflection/s of the process of planning and carrying out our case institute. New understandings about teacher education practices through case study

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methods, as well as our partnership, are presented by each one of us. Themes include: re- visioning in the faculty of education; leadership within institutions; and; reflective practice of institutional partnerships. Each theme is written in the voice of the author to represent either the faculty of education or the self regulatory body.

New Understandings

Re- visioning in the Faculty of Education: Darlene’s Reflection

a) Re-visioning and strengthening foundational courses : using cases

When I was hired as a new faculty member, I was immediately given the mandate as a co- ordinator to revise the foundational methods course and to link new and revised methods topics to our cohort seminar course. This seemed, at best, a large if not impossible feat. In retrospect, my new understanding of the use of case pedagogy over the last two years has strengthened not only my own teacher education practices but has also bridged new partnerships with the self- regulatory body. The professional knowledge of case methodology and the work that the self- regulatory body had invested in throughout Ontario was a significant resource and timely strategy for use in our teacher education program. I was able to not only strengthen the foundational methods course but also to provide further insight about case usage to faculty members. Still, tensions were cited from 2 members during the institute and I wondered what they signified from various perspectives? Did faculty members feel “regulated” after the institute to then use only case pedagogy in their cohort seminar; or, were they perhaps feeling tension between their own academic freedom and the recommendation to “change” their seminar course? Were others, like so many in-service teachers during professional development workshops, feeling the pressure to do “even more work”, given the extensity of the work that is already required? These perspectives came to the surface for me as a co-ordinator still on the brink of re-visioning program.

b) Necessary support

I was supported throughout the process of re-visioning the methods course in my first year of tenure by the Chair of my department. As well, the Dean acknowledged my leadership role and understood its complexity as it was related to the cohort seminar for our entire department. I already had forged personal links with staff at the self-regulatory body, when I, myself, had presented at CSSE in June 2006. They had demonstrated the effective use of case pedagogy. I immediately made links to: a) my own practice and narrative work in teacher education, and b) foresaw the potential for new possibilities for case pedagogy in the foundations course and cohort seminar These first insights encouraged the pathway for my in-depth work in creating a supplementary case book resource for the cohort seminar as well as for conceiving of a faculty partnership with the Ontario College of Teachers. The ensuing support from both the Chair of the Teacher Education Department as well as the Dean of Education affirmed my leadership role and further suggested to me that there was definite promise in cases to impact on our methods’ course and on faculty. This motivated my own moral and positive momentum in working with Deirdre and Patricia and on my faculty work in creating the partnership throughout these two years. Further, the acknowledgment of our

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partnership in other venues such as faculty meetings, conferences and other professional development spaces, ensured the sustainability of our work for the future.

c) Personal and professional insights

I have learned, through this collaboration with the Ontario College of Teachers, that my own teacher education practices for the profession have been illuminated, supported and renewed in partnership with others. My own in-faculty work in other courses, research and other collaborations with colleagues, has been strengthened through this experience. I have shifted my frame of reference to include wider perspectives and broader narratives of practice, now embedding them in my own teacher education practices. In a recent concurrent education program retreat with faculty members, I shared these insights as a personal perspective to revision the future of our five year concurrent education program. The ideas were very well received by faculty members. I have come to understand, through my own self-study of this partnership venture with the Ontario College of Teachers, that change and momentum can be effective when a partnership is authentic and possesses a vision towards success of both institutions. I have learned that affirmation of successful work is also an indicator for success in future partnerships. Subsequent to the case study institute, the Ontario College of Teachers wrote a letter to the Dean of Education outlining the successful partnership by both institutions and how the partnership has benefit and encouraged future relationships. In turn, the Dean responded with an affirmation for leadership as witnessed by both institutions and an acknowledgement that our work with the Ontario College of Teachers is valuable and has implications for all programmatic success in the future.

The Significance of Leadership: Deirdre’s Reflection

The role of senior leadership

This professional learning project provided several insights for me as an Ontario College of Teachers staff member working with a Faculty of Education. It illustrated the importance of having senior leaders in an organization actively involved in an initiative. The presence of both the Dean of Education and the Program Chair at the institute conveyed support for the collaboration, elevated the importance of the project and communicated a clear message regarding the value of the standards and case inquiry. The visibility and participation of these organizational leaders were significant in climate and tone of the institute. The Dean initiated the session by expressing his commitment to the direction undertaken by DR.P regarding the proposed revision to the cohort seminar. He then connected the profession’s standards to the vision and mission of the Faculty of Education. The Dean his opening remarks by stressing the importance of case inquiry. The investment of time on the part of this Dean of Education and his well crafted message honored the past and future work of the faculty as he communicated respect for and belief in his faculty to work together towards common goals in teacher education. He encouraged faculty to use or adapt the Ontario College of Teachers’ resources in relevant ways, based on their own individual contexts and teaching philosophies. The leadership, commitment and interest of the senior leaders in this project reinforced the importance of having all levels of both organizations involved in initiatives that are deemed

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important and central to its mission. The value given to teacher education was conveyed in word and action by those in leadership roles in this Faculty of Education. This project illuminated the importance of senior leaders providing visible support to faculty members that have been delegated the responsibility of facilitating organizational change that involves collaboration with external partners.

Reflecting on Institutional Partnerships: Patricia’s Reflection

In thinking about this partnership, I was conscious of the benefits of a process that continued to generate discussion and deepen awareness as I reviewed the feedback forms that highlighted the faculty advisors’ new insights. Because a close working association had developed, we were privy to the thinking and instructional processes at a faculty. As staff at the self-regulatory body, we could be assured that the standards had become a foundational piece, and that our case resources were being used. In this way, we could reflect on the applicability of the standards’ implementation. That Darlene was promoting this approach reassured us that we had been on the right track. Participant faculty advisors documented in writing what we had heard in their conversations. The group reported that the standards had been brought to life for them; they saw the connections between the cases and their own professional practices. They realized the links between the ethical standards and the standards of practice, and wrote that they now felt more comfortable using the “terminology” of the standards. They could assert that the sessions had “heightened my awareness of the standards of practice and the importance of using them as a basis for all cohort group sessions.” As well, participants approached the sessions from a global perspective that spoke to the place of the standards in teacher education and teachers’ roles in that context, but also to a more localized level of “teacher’s [everyday] realities”. Several stated that they felt the cases “reinforced knowledge with a new perspective.” The words “reinforced” and “perspective” conveyed that faculty members had understood the purpose of the commentaries and the open dialogues to make personal meaning from the case process. The majority of responses endorsed this perspective.

a) the importance of using teachers’ own language

We were pleased that faculty had confirmed “the effort and thought that went into the development of the document.” We were hopeful that participants could acknowledge and incorporate case pedagogy as their own, even after leaving the one day session. Teacher acceptance and acknowledgement of the standards and case pedagogy empowered us to proceed in our established implementation direction as once again, teachers asserted their special status as “insiders” who know what teachers need to know (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1990).

b) The availability of resources

The written feedback conveyed excitement as participants used the word “relevance” over and over again to describe how they would implement the “tools and techniques” that [the self- regulatory body ] had developed and made to teachers. Some participants remarked that the resources “were ready to go”.

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Participants stressed that the standards themselves were valuable documents because they “share our values and beliefs” and will aid the development of “a learning community”. As a small partnership collaborative community ourselves, we reflected that we modeled our process as we shared our values and beliefs and deepened our understanding of one another and our institutions. By using inquiry-based processes, participants lauded “problem-solving” as an excellent educational strategy because of the role each teacher can play in their own professional milieu of teaching. They were now aware that multiple intelligences had been honoured in the institute and that the resources provided a diversified approach to problem solving.

Replicating and enhancing process

As a group, faculty described how they would replicate our methodologies and they ventured beyond our work to conceptualize “on-line forums…online courses…cohort group blog” and “focus-groups”. They reinforced how cases could be foundational in talking about teacher education. Their feedback targeted the usefulness of cases, especially in thinking about “common goals.” They reflected that they could use cases “during orientation of program and in cohort seminars...in P.D. sessions-teacher educators, or retreats” (sic)…self-reflection opportunities” One participant suggested, “Use the standards as a filter for debriefing after a micro-teaching lesson” or “…as a way of reflecting upon practice teaching experience.” Another commented that s/he would model “role playing of the writers of the commentaries.” Several also recommended “a new course emphasis/orientation” of “tying things back to the standards.” The group speculated beyond their own classes’ needs to consider “sharing within the faculty”...and globally, “use the standards as a way of reflecting upon teaching practice experience.” These responses demonstrated to us the multiple ways the information and case processes could become meaningful to the practices in the context of teacher education.

c) The role of making emotional connections

Exhibiting enthusiastic involvement and passion, the group interaction suggested that ongoing learning would likely be replicated or used in their classrooms (Guskey, 2002). We were gladdened to hear participants acknowledge the role of the Ontario College of Teachers as “proactive”. Once more, we could be assured that the strategies we had chosen for implementation were not frivolous. The case process really did work towards enhancing teacher knowledge. Faculty would embrace a methodology because it was based on teachers’ lived experiences and situated teachers as their own experts. Conceptually, many participants reflected on their new insights as a multilayered process. The following statement suggests that the writer has gone deeply into thinking about the experience by finding a resonating simile of an onion to capture the experience, The case study approach has countless opportunities. The layers of analysis are multifaceted. Just like peeling away the layer of an onion, there is yet another layer or strata of discussion (possible dilemma) to be explained. This could/would lead to extremely meaningful and focused dialogue within the classes.

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d) Planning for the future

One faculty member’s recommendation on extending cases through technology such as in blogs and on-line, suggested possible venues and potentially new ways to think about communicating and collaborating with educators across the province... Aside from formal repercussions of using cases, we had begun to build strong networks and models for collaboration with Brock University’s faculty of education. We were proud to build bridges because we knew that, by sharing insights and information in a collaborative partnership, we could work towards improving teacher education in the province.

e) Modeling a collaborative spirit

As documented through oral and written responses, the faculty participant understood us to be a cohesive and collaborative team who modeled strategies, passion and ongoing professional learning in teacher education. The presentations appeared effortless. Participants answered one another’s questions, or providing direction or assistance when needed. Faculty seemed to appreciate our relaxed and inviting approach in which no one person dominated.

Educational Significance

In the following, we offer educational significance of our case study institute from the perspective and impact of work of the faculty of education and the self regulatory body. Then, in our conclusion, we discuss the usefulness of collaborative partnerships in general.

Impact for Work of Faculty of Education

The partnership with the Ontario College of Teachers and the Faculty of Education at Brock University is a valued and significant relationship. The example in this paper of a partnership towards a culminating event such as the case study institute, illustrates how diverse institutions might strive together for the common good of initial teacher education in Ontario and how this importance can be reflected at both the Ontario College of Teachers and Brock University. As I looked at my own work with Deirdre and Patricia, I reviewed their feedback on our work and invited them to visit our cohort seminars while case studies were conducted. I continued to approach various cohort groups and learned that many educative events have taken place, including other faculty members’ presentation of their experiences of case study work in our cohort group at the Ontario Ministry of Education/Faculties conference in Toronto (May 13, 2008). Further, the Dean of Education was invited by the Ontario College of Teachers to speak at a special session about his vision of our partnership in the future. These examples indicate that partnerships between teacher education programs and their educational partners must and should be grounded first in relationships of trust, commitment and a common goal for both institutions. For the faculty of education, the impact of this institute has opened doors for all faculty members to embrace the standards of practice in other course work beyond the cohort seminar. Embedded is the notion that we are one faculty working towards a common vision. Our short term goal of using case pedagogy with our teacher candidates, through work with the Ontario College of Teachers strengthens the commitment by all faculty instructors to incorporate case pedagogy in new courses and programs. At the same time, we have paid close attention to

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various perspectives and respect issues in academia related to academic freedom, work load and other strategies already in use in foundational courses. Still, our long term goal supports the faculty of education’s re-visioning and restructuring impetus promoted by our university’s Dean.

Impact for Work of the Ontario College of Teachers

This collaborative professional learning project illustrated the value of partnerships for supporting the Ontario College of Teachers’ efforts to assist in the meaningful integration of the standards and case pedagogy within initial teacher education. This particular project was successful because it involved the following three key components: • the presence of a highly committed faculty member who was responsible for facilitating significant programmatic change through a foundations course • the visible support for the change provided by the Dean in the teacher education program • relevant resources and the involvement of external partners who were equally committed to the institutional change initiative. This project holds implications for the future work of the Ontario College of Teachers as related to the standards and initial teacher education. Participant feedback identified multiple uses of the case institute. These included: • the value of case protocol for their professional learning • the relevance of the College’s resources for their practice • the importance of authentically integrating the standards within teacher education courses • the acknowledgement that teachers have an important role to play in developing policy: that their words and narratives formed the bases for the standards and College’s resources • the new understanding they had gained regarding the role of the College’s body to work with faculties and individual teachers.

Faculty Professional Learning Community

The format of full day experiential institutes has been strongly supported by faculty members as effective professional learning. These teacher educators commented on the importance of having “time to share and discuss with colleagues” in order “to reflect on how the standards can be woven into practice”. Faculty also identified professional learning that incorporates dialogue, reflection and collaboration to promote appropriate and engaging professional learning opportunities for educators at multiple career levels: pre-service, in-service, and principals. The institute modeled, in this manner, a constructivist and reflective approach to learning about and unraveling the complexities of teaching.

Standards Resources

The Ontario College of Teachers’ standards resources were extremely well received by the teacher educators. They described them as being “a fabulous document”, “very professional resources”, “top quality”, “relevant” and “creative, telling, practical and inspiring”. These inquiry based resources were viewed as highly applicable for teacher education. The faculty was extremely eager to begin using these materials in their courses.

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Standards

The orientation sessions that described how to implement the standards into practice were identified as “wonderful”, “very professional”, “rich” and “easy to understand especially with the graphic organizer layouts”. The core significance of standards for teacher education was identified by many faculty members. They indicated that they had gained considerable understanding and insight into the foundational role of the standards for initial teacher education. The teacher educators also strongly validated the potential use of case inquiry for supporting the formation of teacher candidates. Many stated that they were eager to integrate the case protocol immediately into their courses. Some felt that they could build on the presentation by incorporating on-line or technology aspects into their work with teacher candidates.

Conclusion

Through partnership, the Faculty of Education at Brock University University and the Ontario College of Teachers became a network for faculty members and Ontario College of Teachers staff to exchange views and strategies related to case study pedagogy (Shulman, 1992; Darling- Hammond, 2006). Establishing this authentic relationship was pivotal in fostering the theory practice knowledge that exists not only for faculty, but that also needs to unfold for our future teacher candidates and the teaching profession (Stephens & Boldt, 2004). We feel that our partnership has been successful because it involved a unique collaboration, a sense of collegiality and trust, and a shared leadership in the process (Martin, Reeves, Wilson, O’Dell, & Egan, 2004). Evidence of this was seen in: the presence of a committed faculty member who had been assigned the responsibility for facilitating significant programmatic change; the visible support for the change provided by the Dean of Brock University in the teacher education program; the involvement of external partners who were equally committed to the initiative of institutional change through the use of case pedagogy. Recently, case pedagogy has been lauded as effective and necessary for building teacher candidate knowledge (Darling-Hammond, 2006). We could not agree more. Because we critically reflected before, during and after the process and delivery of the case study institute, we were open to further possibilities and to branch our experience outwards and forward in order to maintain a highly successful partnership (Peel, Peel, & Baker, 2002). We hope our partnership and the links we have made by reflecting on our collaboration through self-study and reflection, serves as an example to other educational institutions and the potential impact and success such partnerships may bring. In our case, we reflected on the partnership between a university and a self-regulatory body. Many other partnerships are as important. Collectively, the partnership within this collaborative venture provides a model with important considerations for other universities, school systems, and stakeholders interested in fostering effective partnerships (Ciuffetelli Parker, Fazio, Volante & Cherubini, 2008; Glenn, 2001; Holmes Group, 1995). Teacher education has indeed evolved into a cooperative responsibility by many, especially given the recent emphasis on educational reform (see for example Beck & Kosnik, 2006; Cole, 2000; Darling-Hammond, 2006; Sutherland, Scandlon, & Sperring, 2004). More than ever, partnerships that are based on relationship matter (Ciuffetelli Parker et. al, 2008). By building professional relationships between such learning groups as universities, school districts, regulatory bodies, governments, and teacher associations, what

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transpires is a “collective leadership in teacher education issues; a sense of belonging...and individual contributions which are listened to and supported by the learning group” (Ciuffetelli Parker et. al, 2008, p. 39).

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Mentorship and Induction: Negotiating a Collaborative Enterprise or Apprenticing for Status Quo Maintenance?

Christine L. Cho York University

Sarah Elizabeth Barrett York University

R. Patrick Solomon York University

John P. Portelli OISE/University of Toronto

Donatille Mujawamariya University of Ottawa

Christine Cho is doctoral candidate (ABD) at York University’s Faculty of Education and the Community Involvement Co-ordinator for the York Urban Diversity B.Ed. programme. A classroom teacher for several years, Christine has taught pre-service and in-service teachers at four Ontario universities. Her research interests include the exploration of social justice in pre-service teacher education particularly related to “immigrant” teacher candidates, teacher education policy and practices, critical pedagogy, and critical multiculturalism.

Sarah Elizabeth Barrett, PhD., is an assistant professor at York University’s Faculty of Education, where she teaches Cultural Studies in Science Education and Foundations of Education. Her research interests include teacher education, inclusive curriculum and teaching science for social justice.

R. Patrick Solomon, PhD., was a professor at York University’s Faculty of Education, where he taught Foundations of Education in the Urban Diversity program he co-founded. His research interests included teacher preparation for the urban environment and racialized minorities’ access to teacher education and teaching. Dr. Solomon passed away in October 2008.

Donatille Mujawamariya, Ph. D., is an associate professor at the University of Ottawa in the Faculty of Education. Her teaching and research interests include: Science teaching, teacher education, multicultural and antiracist education as well as questions concerning inequalities in general.

John P. Portelli is a Professor and Associate Chair of the Department of Theory and Policy Studies, and Co-director of the Centre for Leadership and Diversity at OISE/UT. He teaches in the History and Philosophy of Education Program and the Educational Administration Program. His major research interest is in democratic values, leadership and policy in education.

Brock Education, Volume 18, No. 2, Spring 2009, 114-130 C.Cho, S.E. Barrett, R.P. Solomon, J.P. Portelli and D. Mujawamariya Mentorship and Induction

Mentorship and Induction: Negotiating a Collaborative Enterprise or Apprenticing for Status Quo Maintenance?

Abstract

This paper is from a three-year research project that examined the Ontario (Canada) government philosophy, policy and practice in moving from standardized teacher testing to a new teacher induction program (NTIP) to achieve teacher quality and competence. This paper utilizes a critical democratic perspective to analyze the perspectives of 47 teacher educators from 10 faculties of education in Ontario. Two major themes arose from their perspectives on NTIP: a) clear collaboration/partnership among stakeholders (including faculty, school boards, schools, communities); and, b) increasing effective communication and knowledge while maintaining the importance of equity, diversity and understanding community. The findings revealed the need for a more critical examination of the process and outcome of mentorship and induction programs for new teachers.

The objective of this paper is to extend the research around mentorship and to critique new teacher induction programs as a pedagogical approach to the government rhetoric of measurable accountability. We believe that the increasingly standardized teaching environment in Ontario and North America has given rise to a climate of conformity. While some teacher educators may be satisfied with their preparation of future teachers for the so-called realities of the classroom, others are concerned with ways to disrupt the reproductive aspects of schooling and striving to prepare future teachers to be agents of change (Giroux, 1988). In our analysis, we draw from critical-democratic teacher education (Darling-Hammond, 1998), as a perspective that values divergent and dialogical inquiry, open-mindedness, critical abilities and questioning, equity and taking alternatives seriously (Portelli & Solomon, 2001). We take the position that there is an intrinsic connection between education and democracy and that centralization of policy making and politicized accountability measures (Apple, 2006) are at odds with pedagogic practices that encourage open discourses about equity and social justice. We are interested in understanding teacher educators’ underlying philosophy of the NTIP program and the implications for the effect of teacher induction and mentoring programs on classroom teaching. In the fall of 2006, the Ontario Ministry of Education introduced a new initiative, the New Teacher Induction Program (NTIP) designed to support the growth and professional development of new teachers in Ontario’s publicly funded schools (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2006b). Touted as the second step in a professional development continuum it is designed to complement the first step: pre-service education programs. The initiative strives to “provide another full year of professional support so that new teachers can develop the requisite skills and knowledge that will enable them to achieve success as experienced teachers in Ontario” (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2006a). This new initiative replaces the Ontario Teacher Qualifying Test (OTQT), a pencil and paper test implemented for the first time in 2004 with the express intention of standardizing teachers in Ontario. NTIP focuses on teacher professionalism tied to quality assurance and public accountability – not unlike the

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C.Cho, S.E. Barrett, R.P. Solomon, J.P. Portelli and D. Mujawamariya Mentorship and Induction purported focus of the OTQT. The stated aims of NTIP include development and training in the following areas: Literacy and Numeracy strategies; Student Success; Safe Schools; and Politique d'aménagement linguistique in French-language boards; classroom management; effective parent communication skills; and instructional strategies that address the learning and culture of students with special needs and other diverse learners (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2006a). Thus, the elements of NTIP are closely aligned with current Ontario Ministry policies with the specific stated goal of creating “better prepared and more confident teachers” (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2006a). Proportional funding based on the number of new teachers in relationship to the rest of the province is allocated to each school board for school- based induction resources and activities. The public and many teachers embraced NTIP as the best alternative to the OTQT with little reservation regarding the underlying philosophy of its implementation. This paper is part of a larger study that examines NTIP from the standpoint of new teachers, school administrators and teacher educators. We are interested in the perspectives of teacher educators who are directly involved in what the Ministry deems the first step of teacher education: the pre-service program. Specifically, we explore their insights on teacher induction and mentorship. Central to our theoretical framework is an understanding that education is full of contradictions. We recognize that knowledge is neither neutral nor objective, but, is a social construction rooted in a nexus of power relations (McLaren, 2003). Drawing from Kincheloe and McLaren (1998) we seek to raise questions about unexamined, daily practices and to tease apart the social political implications embedded within the taken-for-granted (Simon, 1992).We consider those future teacher educators who might benefit from an induction and mentorship program and those who may be further disadvantaged by an already inequitable system (Foster, 1990). Our research questions, therefore, are the following: Does mentorship entail collaboration? With whom? For what purposes? Will induction favour socially just education that values the principles of equity and diversity or will induction serve to further reproduce the inequities in society within our schools?

Literature Review

Despite multiracial, multiethnic, multilingual and varied socio-economic status representation of students in our schools, the norm in Canadian schools is a white, middle-class homogenous representation amongst teaching staff (Bascia, 1996). Schools consciously and unconsciously contribute to the maintenance of this status quo by reproducing and maintaining existing power imbalances (Giroux, 1983). Indeed, the process of becoming a teacher involves many facets of cultural reproduction including the socializing of pre-service teachers into the profession (Britzman, 1986). The socialization of teachers begins through schooling and the apprenticeship of observation (Lortie, 1975) continues in the faculty of education and is taken up in earnest during practicum placements. There exists a tension between what is seen as good practice in the faculties of education and the reality of teaching in the classroom (Hargreaves, 1995). New teachers often discover, as they leave faculties of education, that their understandings of what it means to be a teacher is in conflict with the reality they discover in schools (Flores, 2007). Too often, new teacher identity and visions of

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C.Cho, S.E. Barrett, R.P. Solomon, J.P. Portelli and D. Mujawamariya Mentorship and Induction socially-just teaching practices are challenged by the experienced teachers they encounter. As such, the first year of teaching may be a time to solidify the socialization begun in the faculties of education or it may be a time to pre-empt it. Wang and Odell (2002) argue that mentoring programs arise from a) a perceived need to standardize the teaching profession and b) to counter what many classroom teachers view as the ineffectiveness of teacher education programs. There is an assumption, echoed in the policy reforms, that standardization will make for better teachers which in turn will ensure student success. Embedded in the concept of mentorship is the notion that mentoring is practice-based rather than theory-based, is done in the field and is conducted at the practicum school as opposed to the university. Theoretical knowledge then becomes fragmented from the everyday reality of teaching (Britzman, 2003). Indeed, much of what is explored in the literature is using mentoring and induction to provide ways for new teachers to enter the profession smoothly (see Villani, 2002 for notable examples). This smoothness implies implicit acceptance of the current system and explicit efforts to fit into that system. Thus, information about the school system is acquired; it is not critiqued. Induction programs have been advocated by many as a way to convey essential knowledge to new teachers in different contexts (Cho & Kwon, 2004; Kennedy & Burnstein, 2004). Mentorship connotes images of a more knowledgeable individual assigned or perhaps selected by a novice to gain deeper understanding of the teaching profession. Mentorship and induction can be viewed as either an apprenticeship model which suggests assimilation into a profession or a collaborative model which stresses the exchange of ideas. When mentorship is constructed though an apprenticeship model, the focus is on the mentor as technical support (see Wang and Odell, 2002) for a full discussion of the situated apprentice perspective). In an apprenticeship model, efficient assimilation into the existing notions of what it means to be a teacher and maintaining the status quo is paramount. The apprenticeship approach to mentoring has been criticized for reproducing the status quo through its focus on the practical aspects of teaching, for narrowing the perspective on teacher education (Zeichner & Gore, 1990) and for not examining what novice teachers need to know (Cochran-Smith & Paris, 1995). Conversely, mentorship can be viewed as collaborative work in which the learning process is reciprocal. Both the seasoned mentor and the novice mentee are negotiating new knowledge (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1999). A collaborative model strives to balance the particular and individual needs of the novice teacher with larger societal issues (Jones, 2006). The focus here is on risk-taking and growth and on furthering the process of individual teacher identity presumably begun in the faculties of education. Collaborative work also offers opportunities for the seasoned mentor to explore and benefit from new theoretical approaches to teaching.

Methods of Inquiry and Data Sources

This tri-university study, involving researchers from the OISE/University of Toronto; York University and the University of Ottawa, utilized both qualitative and quantitative research methodologies, combining the use of open-ended surveys and in-depth, semi- structured interviews (Creswell, 1998; Tashakkori & Teddlie, 1998). In-depth interviews

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C.Cho, S.E. Barrett, R.P. Solomon, J.P. Portelli and D. Mujawamariya Mentorship and Induction were conducted with 132 participants, 47 of whom were teacher educators (TEs). The teacher educators were selected from both French and English faculties for maximum variation in subject specialization, institution, gender, culture, ethnic background and geographical region. Interviews mainly focused on: what specific skills and knowledge mentoring/induction programs should address to prepare new teachers for the contemporary multi-racial, multi-cultural, and multi-class Ontario context; how the programs should be administered and assessed; and who could make a good mentor. In addition, we prompted all participants to discuss the role of equity and diversity as they related to mentoring and induction (see Appendix A for a sample of questions posed and prompts used). The TEs represent 10 faculties of education in Ontario, Canada and consisted of 17 males and 30 females; 42 were in English faculties and 5 were in French faculties. Interviews were recorded and described. The data were analyzed inductively, using the techniques described by Bogdan and Biklen (1998). Analysis of the data included process coding. The codes reflected the common and various themes that emerged from the data. It should be noted that the qualitative data analysis occurred simultaneously with data collection. The data were analyzed using what Tesch (1990) characterized as “de-contextualization” in order to identify themes and coding categories and “re-contextualization” to present a unified and coherent picture. The research team reduced the data to reveal emerging themes that reflected the respondent’s perspectives/practices and to provide directionality. The research team worked in pairs to develop the data reductions with each member of each pair reviewing their partner’s analysis. Given the number of participants, member-checking was not possible; however, emerging themes were brought to the whole research team for further analysis. Finally, another researcher, who had not been part of the original research team, reviewed all of the data, checking for bias in the reductions by returning to the original transcripts and checking to see if she agreed with the research teams’ themes.

Findings and Discussion

While several themes were identified in the research, we will focus on two in this paper: clear collaboration/partnership among stakeholders (including faculty, school boards, schools, communities) and; increasing effective communication and knowledge while maintaining the importance of equity, diversity and understanding community. These two themes were reflective of significant tensions within the data.

Clear Collaboration/Partnership Among Stakeholders.

NTIP is reportedly designed to compliment pre-service education (Ontario Ministry of Education, 2006a). The interviewed TEs, however, seemed unaware of the mentorship/induction program which was apparently implemented without faculty of education input. Teacher educators in Ontario faculties are mainly drawn from three groups: contract instructors; seconded school teachers and administrators; permanent faculty. Secondees are typically teacher educators seconded from the field for a contract term of two to three years. These individuals may be principals, consultants, and/or classroom teachers. In most cases, seconded faculty has 100 percent teaching responsibilities, though they may be involved in research at the faculties. Contract

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C.Cho, S.E. Barrett, R.P. Solomon, J.P. Portelli and D. Mujawamariya Mentorship and Induction instructors are from various backgrounds, including graduate students and retired teachers who teach on a per course basis. Their teaching loads vary and they may or may not be involved in research. Permanent faculty has research as well as teaching and service responsibilities. Seconded, contract and permanent faculty were interviewed and perhaps not surprisingly the groups often had differing views with respect to collaboration and potential partnership opportunities that might arise with NTIP. While respondents strongly supported establishing clear collaboration and partnerships among stakeholders, opinions about the optimum structure of the partnership and the collaborative role differed amongst TEs. Most TEs felt the local school boards should not be solely responsible for the induction program, although most felt the local school board was the most appropriate stakeholder to oversee NTIP. Ideally, TEs felt that the theory- based faculty should offer assistance when the practice-based school board is in need. This would require focus on the exchange and flow of information and resources between faculties and school boards. In general sentiment reflected a more collaborative approach to mentorship for overall success. I like the idea of teacher educators being involved in the induction, because, it’s not [suggesting] “we have done our part now you go do yours”, because, there’s always this big argument between the boards and the faculties saying [TEs] don’t prepare our teachers, [the boards approach education] from the very traditional mode of thinking, teaching training. [Amina] The respondents’ concern regarding collaboration amongst stakeholders illuminates a deeper tension in the faculties of education themselves: faculty who are research-based as opposed to those who are primarily instruction-based. Those with stronger connections to the boards of education (such as seconded teachers and retired principals) may have closer alliances and allegiances with Ministry policies and may be less likely to press for any perceived interference by the faculties of education. Some faculty may be more skeptical of school board involvement without universities/faculties of education actively involved in the mentoring and induction process. Knowing the government’s policies and keeping current with the rhetoric, for example, seems to take precedence over teacher praxis for some teacher educators. Specific initiatives such as those in the areas of literacy and numeracy were cited as examples in which there are curriculum leaders in the schools who have the responsibility of disseminating information and modeling Ministry best practices for classroom teachers. Some faculty respondents indicated new teachers need broader knowledge of legislation to ensure teacher autonomy and to be able to interrogate and critique policy. Both the theoretical and the practical aspects that are in teacher education must also be in the teacher induction program.…One of the reasons why we have had such a difficult time retaining teachers is precisely, because, teachers….[are] being asked to not think. They’ve been asked to just follow the recipe of the provincial curriculum. And that’s essentially a very unsatisfying way of working. [Heather] In contrast, the following respondent, a contract instructor feels strongly that the mentor should be a practicing teacher precisely, because, s/he would more likely be aligned with governmental policies: You don’t want someone who’s been out of the field who doesn’t know some of the new policies, some of the new changes that have been going on. [Anne]

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While the suggestion of partnerships seems to be lauded by most, the way in which this collaboration could be created or further enhanced was not agreed upon. Retired teachers, for example and principals were seen as both ideal mentors by many respondents while others indicated these stakeholders should not be involved in a mentorship role. For instance, one respondent, who was asked “who would make an ideal mentor”, replied, It’s the kind of person, often, that we get who comes back as adjuncts after they’ve retired. You can see how conscientious they are. You just notice them around the building doing their preparations and so on. They may only have classes for, say, two hours a week or something like that, but, they’re around the building much more than that. You need somebody who’s really dedicated. [Harry] In contrast, this participant offers the following: I’m concerned about administrators…. being appropriate mentors….given the certain things that they have to do. Would they become more of an institutional mentor as opposed to a more intellectual and professional mentor? [Haniff] Here, the respondent is concerned with the tension between status quo maintenance and challenging the existing system. The prioritization of theory over practice or vice versa is contentious and is epitomized as tension among different TEs. This element is evidenced by one respondent: So unless teacher educators are part of that induction program, I don’t think there will be anybody out there who wants to touch theory looking at the sociology and looking at the politics and looking at the history of education. So that’s why I’m a little skeptical about how an induction program would include all of this if there aren’t teacher educators out there pushing for this. [Aiesha] This quote is particularly interesting, because, it is from a secondee and suggests that classroom teachers and administrators would not be stressing aspects of social justice in the schools, but, rather it is incumbent upon teacher educators to do this work. The tension between the practical-based schools and the theory-based University is summed up by this respondent: One thing the administrators said was that teacher education faculties know nothing about what’s going on in the schools… this criticism is half true. It results from the fact that faculties and school teachers are differently positioned, and these very stances or positionalities….can contribute to more collaboration and connections between school community and education. [Peter] This respondent also suggests that, It’s equally troubling for a faculty to say that teachers and administrators are so lost in their own climate of the school that they are reproducing these inequitable structures and producing, not engaging in critical thinking. [Peter] Respondents also suggests exploring the ways in which other professions ease novices into practice, such as articling for law students or residency programs for doctors. Lave and Wenger’s (1999) concept of communities of practice was raised by other TEs. This approach was thoroughly explored thoroughly by one respondent: Clearly what the government needs to do is to establish mentors and mentorship where existing in-service teachers would continue to take courses for advance coursework, where they would be exposed to adult learning models, where they would be exposed to graduate programs, where they could enhance their role and get some sort of official recognition, where they can then train the eyes and ears of

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new inductees and novices in terms of bringing what they’re learning in their pre- service program into the context of the classroom. [Haniff] This collaborative approach stresses the idea of reciprocity that Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) espouse. A collaborative model involves the exchange of information and new learnings and also invites a critical examination of the education system. Indeed, this respondent was also concerned with balancing necessary knowledge with critical interpretation of student expectations and of curriculum outcomes. Most respondents favour a collaborative program based on commitment to and encouragement of a strong relationship between faculties of education and schools. Most contract and seconded faculty suggested the possibility of Ministry of Education involvement and some suggested involvement of the school unions (Federations).

Increasing Effective Communication and Knowledge While Maintaining the Importance of Equity, Diversity and Understanding Community

The socialization of new teachers into the schooling process (Britzman, 1986) was voiced by a few participants. Jones (2006) identified the individual needs of the novice teacher to align with larger societal issues. Some respondants were critically aware of the need for new teachers to partner with a mentor who could navigate the school community and infuse notions of social justice as part of their teaching practice. Others were concerned that such partnership would serve to reinforce the status quo, and would thus maintain existing power imbalances (Giroux, 1983). Those who envision mentorship believe that transformative teaching practice should begin in the faculty where the mentees can learn why it is important to develop competencies for working on equity issues... As one respondent noted, I think that there’s just too much of this hands-on practical stuff that is pushed forward and not the thinking part. The inquiry is being lost and then we wonder why teachers are technocrats. . .[New teachers] are more concerned about how your classroom looks, not to say that that isn’t relevant to a certain extent, but, why are you teaching what you are teaching? What is the basis for your programming? Think deeper and broader. What is it about the curriculum that seems to be so static? [Aiesha] This respondent’s critical approach to mentorship asks new teachers to look for areas of improvement within schools. This position that may be threatening to seasoned teachers who may have grown accustomed to the status quo and who are not necessarily looking critically at the structure of schools. As this permanent faculty member comments: The whole notion of pedagogy should play an important role. . . . I think that some of the foundational issues should be an ongoing dialogue with the students from teacher’s college, because, to be honest with you around issues of diversity, I’m not trusting the school boards very much. [Nalini] Nalini is concerned that induction in the school board will not address issues of equity or diversity, but, would rather, for example, focus on classroom management. This is an aspect of teaching she thinks is overly emphasized in the schools. As another participant comments, I just think that if we keep picking host teachers the way we do we are undoing a lot of what we are trying to do in the Faculty. And I don’t think teacher candidates

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have strong enough foundations to go into schools and recognize what’s not appropriate and challenge anybody on it, but, we can’t ask them to do that when they are brand new pre-service candidates. [Brenda] Mentors may view their role as one who transitions a new teacher into the profession, one who assists with classroom management, one who allocates resources, and other so- called professional tasks (Villani, 2002). The stance of addressing the high priority needs of new teachers is supported by the stated objectives and elements of many induction programs. Conversely, as the above respondent suggests, if the mentor’s role is seen as collaborative, they may be in an ideal position to: work as Cochran-Smith and Lytle (1999) suggest, as change agents with new teachers; to explore what a fresh set of eyes sees within the school system and; to examine the ways in which the existing system fails some of our students. While universities and school boards may have differing ideas as to what new teachers need to know in order to successfully transition into teaching, not all knowledge is necessarily viewed equally or equally validated. Such sentiment is epitomized by this respondent: I think I have to return to what kind of skills, knowledge and dispositions we want them to exit with. For example, we have to balance getting them familiar with the curriculum, but, also being able to interpret the curriculum for its strengths and weaknesses. [Haniff] This critical approach is also echoed in this next quote. The respondant criticizes how teachers are prepared to teach with socially just, equitable and diverse ways: Issues of diversity ...should be an important issue…It’s not only the transference of the basic subjects that the students have to learn. [Nalini] Embedded within the stated outcomes of induction programs is a taken-for-granted assumption that there exists a common understanding of what skills and training new teachers require to be successful. In Ontario, for example, one of the stated intentions of NTIP is alignment with the government’s initiatives. For many respondents becoming a teacher is much more than alignment with the current government’s agenda. Rather, they look more universally at preparing teachers for numerous contexts, situations and environments: I want to have math teachers who teach very well and can transfer that kind of knowledge, but, at the same time to look at the diversity of the students in terms of gender, race, sexuality and other things. [Nalini] This TE and others hold a perspective that teaching should transcend governmental policies. In this research, several TEs had issues with the Faculty itself. The respondents criticized their own programs for not representing the principles of equity and diversity they advocate, for a lack of critical sense, for their detachment from the field, and for not preparing future teachers to deal effectively with academically disadvantaged students. These criticisms are in stark contrast to the so-called idealistic vision often levied against faculties of education by classroom teachers (Britzman, 2003). That is, embedded within the philosophies of many of our faculties of education is the very notion that social justice and socially-minded education takes precedence over teaching the fundamentals of reading, writing and mathematics.

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I think that learning to deal with learner difference is something that almost nobody would dispute, but, the actual articulation of the vision of what that difference constitutes as a challenge in your teaching, is not there…. The fleshing out is missing, a lack of courage to take an explicit social justice perspective on them. You know, we can say that [this university] stands for social justice and everything it does, but, there’s no institutional resourcing, there’s no democratic mechanism for faculty to have to debate out what their responsibilities are going to be, there’s no explicit rewarding for people who take risks in their teaching in order to push students. If anything, you just carry the burden of your own time of trying to do this. There’s much greater reward for publishing than there is for teaching, and on and on. [Maria] Our respondents also suggested specific knowledge and skills be developed in order to establish positive and constructive collegial relationships and most importantly, learn to relate to the community. One participant suggested that teachers unable to relate to parents could be a detriment to the education system, because, it suggests they are unable to provide support for students who are deemed at risk. The following respondent indicated that “It is incumbent on all of us to learn about the community we’re servicing,” and this may involve some explicit teaching and learning. To her knowledge, Sometimes even preparing for [parent]- teacher conferences is very nerve- wracking for the teacher….There are some parents that attend rarely or just never seem to have time to come in and oftentimes these are the children that need the most support. These are very delicate issues and I think having an opportunity to be trained specifically in dealing with parents would be an asset for these teachers. [Joan] Such sentiment reinforces notions that teachers, even those newly graduated, may have limited understanding of how to teach in culturally relevant ways (Ladson-Billings, 1995). Note what is not addressed in the above quote is how to tease out unintentional biases. The perception is one of training as if there is one right and correct way in which to approach parent-teacher conferences. Indeed, the suggestion of teacher training seems to allude to deeper tensions between teacher as educator and teacher as technician, echoing the disconnect some respondents described in the theory-practice rift (Barrett & Pedretti, 2006) – a rift that has the potential of being exacerbated through assimilative mentorship practices. As one respondent noted, We do train teachers, but, I don’t think we ought to. We train them, part of it, is a treatment. Part of the training is to make them obedient – part of the training is not to have them asking questions. Part of the training is to assume that there should be some sort of a knowledge base, a checklist of teacher knowledge for being a teacher, that somehow we take this idea of being an educator and reduce it… the definition of teacher is being reduced and demeaned away from that of educator, The teacher’s just really becoming this tool of the state. [Giwisay] Many participants agreed that the teacher initiation program should address issues related to anti-oppression: social class, anti-racism, gender, anti-homophobia. Some pointed out the contrast between a student population of ethnic and social class diversity with the homogeneity of white middle-class teachers and inquired how new teachers could be initiated into understanding and relating with students from diverse class and racial or ethnic backgrounds. However, two respondents explicitly disagreed that consciousness-

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C.Cho, S.E. Barrett, R.P. Solomon, J.P. Portelli and D. Mujawamariya Mentorship and Induction raising about social justice issues should be included in the initiation program. One participant rejected explicit inclusion of social justice issues by contending the following: I think teachers should be developing the skills that allow them to deliver the best instruction possible. Teachers are not social workers, and I think when we try to turn teachers into social workers, we have people who are not very good social workers and not very good teachers. [Beatrice] The suggestion is that to try and prepare teachers to do more than teach would jeopardize quality teaching. This notion, again, is in conflict with socially-just education philosophies and university mission statements that stress concern for the individual child over the teaching of an explicit set of skills and discreet knowledge base. However, while faculties of education may indicate they are teaching for social justice, this might not in fact be the case: The system doesn’t allow [for emancipator teachers]. I mean, for me, the teacher is the political worker, the social worker, is a health worker, is a cultural worker, a spiritual worker and yet what essentially happens …they try to compartmentalize and tell us, “no,” that we’re a subject teacher and not only are we a subject teacher, we only teach the subject that we’re going to prescribe what the subject is and then we’re going to tell you how to teach that subject and then we’re going to tell you to test to be able to tell if learning’s taking place [Giwisay] Such sentiment reaffirms the notion that faculties train teachers within a rigid set of constraints and, that while some teacher educators may feel the philosophy of their institution is concerned with social justice, they are rather complacent in the way it is taken up. In terms of partnership and collaboration, a tension emerged with respect to overlooking the underlying biases and the power dynamics embedded in social institutions in favour of a discreet set of skills and the behaviours that are being emphasized in mentorship and induction programs: classroom management techniques, interactive skills with parents and community and applying a standardized curriculum.

Conclusions

Overall, teacher educators were highly supportive of a mentorship/induction model for new teachers, particularly, as an alternative to the former pen and paper test (OTQT). The varied responses from participants reinforce the notion that there are no neutral pedagogies: education is irreducibly a political and philosophical pursuit (Frere, 1998). Teacher educators see mentorship as a place for risk-taking, yet simultaneously, fear the program may be focused on conformity. Recognizing there are problematic aspects about the program’s structure, some teacher educators are concerned with finding ways to disrupt the reproductive aspects of induction/mentorship programs in order to implement change within schools. The opportunity to dialogue further with experienced teachers was seen as positive, as was the potential to address on-going support and critical inquiry into practice. Other concerns pertain to the focus on the perceived “high priority needs” of new teachers which might lead to a narrow conception of what constitutes key or essential knowledge for teachers entering the profession, particularly, in an increasingly standardized teaching environment. The need to address the overwhelming pressure to conform in a climate of standardization was of paramount concern. By favoring a

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C.Cho, S.E. Barrett, R.P. Solomon, J.P. Portelli and D. Mujawamariya Mentorship and Induction transmission model, NTIP runs the risk of socializing new teachers into established ways of knowing. New teacher induction programs that lack a critical stance will continue to reproduce and maintain the status quo and thus hinder opportunities for change. The participants’ perspectives in this study raise concerns and reservations concentrated around lack of resources, both financial and human. Most TEs believed that mentor teachers should have demonstrated mastery and excellence in teaching and have a strong critical sense. They had differing opinions in terms of where the mentors should come from: the school board, a faculty of education or the Ministry of Education. However, collaboration was seen as the key concern. The need for careful selection of mentors and the selection of the new teachers with whom they would be partnered were strongly addressed. Tensions arose with respect to the perceived purpose of mentorship and induction. The tensions were about the positioning of the university as a research-based location versus the elementary and secondary schools constructed as practice-based locations. Several TEs are concerned with the ways in which equity content is being included or excluded in the program. In addition, tensions relating to power and control are also illuminated by respondents.

Implications

Unless systemic issues are addressed teaching for social justice may remain in the realm of theory with little translation into practice. The involvement of the Ministry and school boards without the potential critical or theoretical lens as offered by the university/faculty of education may run counter to critical democracy (Darling- Hammond, 1998; Freire, 1998; Portelli & Solomon, 2001). The study explored the idea that TEs are not homogenous by addressing them as three types of instructors: secondees, contract and permanent faculty. In this exploration we were able to derive greater detail from the respondents about their concerns with respect to the stated aims of the NTIP: balancing Ministry policies with the theoretical aspects of the university. Induction can be an opportunity to foster collegiality and increase opportunities for collaboration with the various stakeholders such as TEs, classroom teachers, administrators, parents and the community, for example. However, this requires reframing perceived hierarchies between stakeholders. The lack of direct involvement by the universities/faculties of education with mentoring and induction may further reinforce the theory-practice divide. The responsibility of mentorship should fall to a team of mentors rather than one individual at the school level. What was clear from the teacher educators’ perspective was the desire to form strong partnerships with the faculty, school boards, and possibly the Ministry of Education as well as other community stakeholders to broaden and deepen new teachers’ entry into the profession and to work towards systemic change. There remains a criticism that mentoring programs are designed to reinforce the status quo, not create a model of collective, collaborative inquiry that will serve to sustain new teacher idealism and forge school cultures focused on change and socially just practices. On the one hand, an extended pre-service program, in partnership with the school boards, would facilitate both the breadth and depth deemed necessary to successful induction into teaching. However, infrastructure constraints that are coupled with the current one year or ten-

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C.Cho, S.E. Barrett, R.P. Solomon, J.P. Portelli and D. Mujawamariya Mentorship and Induction month teacher education programs in Ontario are currently problematic. Educator workload and the context in which the program is being implemented must be taken into account. Perhaps, a new program design could be offered to include: a) a reduced work load in the first two years and b) a variety of options from which new teachers can self- select their preferred induction process. Embedded in the stated purpose of mentorship and induction programs is a set of assumptions that the predetermined competencies and skills new teachers should acquire are universally understood by all those involved. In order for mentorship and induction programs to focus on professional development as transformative practice rather than as technical training, programs would need to be disconnected from any form of certification. Mentoring programs that focus on outcomes as predetermined by the government and that are overly concerned with conformity and standardization could undermine teaching for democracy. The teacher educators who were interviewed suggest that a mentoring and induction program should focus on either preparing new teachers to fit into the present system, or, conversely, preparing new teachers to change the system. It is recommended that educational equity be included as part of the mentoring program context as well as part of the mentor selection criteria. This paper adds to on-going conversations about mentorship and induction. It is abundantly clear that critical-democracy can become a reality when all stakeholders are involved in additional conversation and exploration.

Acknowledgement

This research was supported by a grant from the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council of Canada.

While this paper is the result of a research team, the primary author for this paper is Christine Cho. We wish to thank the following who contributed in the collection of data and to general discussions of issues from this project: Nathalie Di Francesco, Fang Duan, Karen Pashby, Laura Pinto, Cindy Rottmann, Jordan Singer and Aparna Tarc.

We dedicate this paper to the memory of Dr. R. Patrick Solomon.

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References

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Cho, D., & Kwon, D. B. (2004). Determining the content of induction programs to improve instructional performance: A case in Seoul, Korea. Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 50(2), 189-199.

Cochran‐Smith, M., & Paris, P. (1995). Mentor and mentoring: Did Homer have it right? In J. Smith (Ed.), Critical discourses in teacher development (pp. 181‐202). London: Cassell. Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (1999). Relationships of knowledge and practice: Teacher learning in community. In the series, Review of Research in Education, 24, 249-305. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Creswell, J. W. (1998). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five traditions. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage Publications.

Darling-Hammond, L. (1998). Education for democracy. In W. C. Ayers & J. L. Miller (Eds.), A light in dark times: Maxine Greene and the unfinished conversation (pp. 78-91). New York: Teachers College Press.

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Foster, P. (1990). Policy and practice in multicultural and anti-racist education: A case study of a multi-ethnic comprehensive school. London: Routledge.

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Appendix A

Question Prompts The Ministry has proposed a one-year What should an in-school mentorship induction program with an emphasis on in- program look like? school mentorship for new teachers How should it be administered? following their initial “teacher training”. What infrastructure should be put into What do you think about this proposal? place to ensure accountability to the province’s broader policy mandates to address equity, diversity and inclusive and special education? What kind of competencies should new teachers be developing in order to work for equity, diversity and social justice with students’ parents and the community? Who do you see as the most appropriate What criteria would you use for selection? mentor for new teachers and who should How do you think they should be prepared select them? for their job as mentors? Who will provide the preparation?

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BOOK REVIEW

Title: Moral Clarity: A Guide for Grown-up Idealists

Author: Susan Neiman

Publisher: Harcourt Inc. Year of Publication: 2008

Reviewed by: Kelly Rizzo (Brock University)

The title of Susan Neiman’s 2008 book suggests that she will provide the reader some answers, or at least a lens through which they might gain clearer understanding of what is right and wrong in today’s world. Neiman argues that moral clarity can be obtained if the reader has the courage to examine critically the world around them and to take required action. Neiman uses historical writings from the past two centuries, religious and secular, to force the reader to reflect on the current state of society. Aspects of society which are good, evil, or, at the very least, disparate, are discussed. This leads readers to reflect on their place within that society. The purpose of which is to suggest alternative possibilities for a framework with which to examine contemporary events. Neiman has organized this text into three parts: Ideal and Real, Enlightenment Values, and Good and Evil. Her style of moving between the spaces of historical writing and events of contemporary society keeps readers engaged as they too begin to question, with greater awareness that which is so often taken for granted. Beginning with a well recognized story of the Bible, Sodom and Gomorrah, Neiman illustrates how Abraham chooses his course of action by seeking justice and questioning the will of God. The story of Abraham at Mount Moriah depicts a different practice. At this time, Abraham accepts the word of God on faith alone, without question. Some might say that the two stories represent two polarities on the continuum of human action. The former illustrates how one’s beliefs require one to question and try to makes sense of things, where the later illustrates one simply obeying rules without such questioning. For those who may not be familiar with either story, the story of Sodom and Gomorrah tells the tale of Sodomites who threaten to rape two strangers who have been granted shelter. Earlier, God had disclosed to Abraham that he intended to destroy the city of sinners. Abraham questioned God, suggesting that there may be innocents among the guilty, and to punish them all would not be right. Abraham is willing to risk his own life to right what he sees as a moral injustice. Abraham at Mt. Moriah does not demonstrate the same questioning behaviour. When God commands Abraham to sacrifice his own son, Abraham packs up his son and two servants and makes his way to Mt. Moriah. When he arrives, he and his son ready the altar for the sacrifice. Abraham then ties up his son and places him on the altar. As he is about take the knife to his son’s throat he is stopped by a messenger. He is told that because he was willing to make such a great sacrifice without question, God will see that he and his off-spring are rewarded. Neiman’s point is that one must question the world in order to make sense of it, seeking justice in what we find, not reward and punishment. Ethical thinking, she argues, K. Rizzo Moral Clarity

is learned through reflection and is not handed down in the form of dogmatic rules. She argues that religion does not form the basis of morality, nor does self-interest. Making the connection to opposing views in contemporary society, Neiman draws the distinction between conservative and liberalism, a theme which is revisited throughout the book. Through the first section of the book, Real and Ideal, Neiman focuses on the gap between these two concepts, again linking them to present day examples. This section begins with the philosophies of two great thinkers, Hobbes and Kant. Hobbes is used as an illustration of the conservative outlook, to demonstrate the recurring themes of struggle for power and good. In the Hobbesian sense, the rule of law is critical to maintaining order; reality then is fixed. To break the law is to disrupt order. Kant would agree a framework is necessary for order, however, it must be the right framework, based on principles of justice. Just how this order is maintained varies depending on the use of, and perspective on, power. According to Neiman, it is power that makes the world go around. Neiman refers to the work of political scientist Joseph Nye, who describes variations of power. Soft power in conjunction with hard power are both necessary to influence behaviour. Soft power aims to bring in notions of goodness and self interest, while hard power is simply the big stick of intimidation. Using the example of the George W. Bush administration, Neiman illustrates an unsuccessful use of this coordinated practice. While the power of the United States may go uncontested by many, friend and foe alike may share distaste for the tone of the messages being delivered. Further categorizing power, Nye describes two other types. Command power may succeed in changing what people do but co-optive power is changing what people want. If the George W. Bush administration is an illustration of the former, perhaps some of the appeal of the newest United States President, Barack Obama, is that he appears to practice the later form of power. His dialogical approach, messages of change, and the ability of every person to have an impact were warmly received by many who may have grown weary from being hit over the head in the previous eight years. Ultimately Neiman explains that we need the hard truth if we are to improve the status quo and that soft power should not be used to disguise the truth about a situation, or the rationale for decisions and action taken. Neiman cites the war in Iraq as an example of how thinly veiled motives guide action, suggesting that the rationale for the war was really less about the ideal of justice and spreading democracy (as it was promoted publicly), and more about protecting foreign interests. The distinctions Neiman makes between ideology, idealism, and realism are important to introducing the next critical concept for this framework, the difference between is and ought. Ideology is defined as “any comprehensive system of beliefs about the world” (p.75). Ideologies help people to understand themselves in relation to others. Idealism broadly defined means, “a belief that the world can be improved by means of ideals expressing states of reality better than the ones we currently experience” (p.75). Humankind, according to Neiman, needs to recognize how it is shaped by reality, but also needs to pay greater attention to how we can shape that reality. The Enlightenment was a period characterized by a number of assumptions, including: the perfection of human nature, the infallibility of science, and unlimited potential of reason to solve the ills of the world. Neiman attempts to resurrect this era as a state of mind, applicable to present day. Enlightenment thinking sees progress as inescapable, yet

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there are choices to be made. Enlightenment and Fundamentalist thinkers both share the belief that the world can be changed. A Conservative view, according to Neiman, claims to anchor itself in realism, and seems to focus on the worst of humankind. This can be a dangerous self fulfilling prophecy; if people believe things are constantly worsening they are less likely to do something to change this from happening. This obviously is not moving closer to the ideal that Neiman set out to illustrate is possible. However reality is perceived, according to David Hume, will determine what can be accomplished within that framework. Hume goes on to explain that much about what humankind does has little to do with reason, and more to do with custom or tradition. This was in direct contradiction to Kant who believed that the principles which guide humankind are not customs or habits, but the result of reason. To believe otherwise, would limit our ability to seek justice because we would be recycling customs and habits for all time, maintaining the status quo. According to Neiman “Ideals are not measured by whether they conform to reality; reality is judged by whether it lives up to ideals” (p.140). How does one reconcile the difference between is (realism) and ought (idealism)? The divide between the ideas and ideology of the liberal-minded and the realist conservative-minded are again re-visited. According to Neiman, what mediates the two is truth. When we can explain a thing, we are discussing knowledge, not necessarily truth. Moral judgment on the other hand is about what should be truth. To move from one towards the other requires that we acknowledge what has been and look to something which is better. Without the acceptance of ideas, (not necessarily truths), reality would be fixed, maintaining the world much as it has always been. Neiman used the example of the idea that slavery was unjust to illustrate how such an idea can in fact change a reality. There is an almost universal assumption, according to Neiman, that happiness is balanced with virtue. Yet sometimes bad things happen to good people. Humankind holds that we have a right to pursue happiness, and yet in practice many believe we have a right to actually obtain it and to fail to do so is viewed as a tragedy. In contemporary society many seem fixed on buying or acquiring this happiness, while the view of the stoics was that happiness was not found in earthly possessions but in the consciousness of our soul. Principles of Enlightenment-type thinking would lead to the assumption that happiness is not bestowed, but created. To accept what is given, the ‘is’ (i.e. materialism, instant gratification, individual interests) of today, will not yield true happiness but might help dull the senses to what is passing us by and what ought to be. How does one know what he or she may be missing? Enter, reason. Reason is not only the ability to perform operations, and achieve understanding of the actual; reason allows us the opportunity to consider what may be possible. This ability forms the basis for social justice as well as scientific research. Without it, humankind would be unable to question, and could not imagine society being any other way. Only when we are courageous enough to ask the difficult questions, do we stand a chance of moving closer to ought. For these purposes evil spurs us on because the occurrence of evil seems so fundamentally unjust or unfair that we are forced to question why things are as they are, and not otherwise. Some might look for rigidity of mindset or dogmatic rules to apply when handling a difficult situation. Dewey described a danger in this suggesting that regardless the number of rules or laws there will always be situations to which they do not apply. To put too much stock into rules would therefore be a mistake for governing

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behaviour. According to Rousseau, “calibrating the right path is a matter of judgment, which cannot be learned by rule” (as cited in Neiman, 2008, p. 207). Research conducted with very young children concluded that even in the absence of a rule, they knew it was wrong to cause harm to another (Smetana, 1981). They were able to use their judgment to determine the appropriate course of action. Nevertheless, to say rules are unnecessary is also not true. Rules give people a starting point and a standard for handling a situation. However, to teach rules and not develop judgment cannot possibly prepare individuals for every situation they may encounter in a lifetime; to say nothing of the rules that may in fact be immoral. Consider the events of WWII in Hitler’s Germany with such a perspective to illustrate the dangers in this approach. Moral clarity deals with thinking about vital ethical issues and bumps into what is often thought of as the realm of religion. What, if any, is the relationship between morality and religion? The Enlightenment was responsible for changing the view of religion and morality, where previously it was believed that without religion there could be no morality. Much of the traditional 18th century religion, according to Neiman’s interpretation of philosophers of the day, drove good behaviour with the threat of punishment, or the possibility of reward. Following this line of thinking, humankind would be forced to believe that happiness and virtue are in fact linked as are vice and unhappiness. To suffer unhappiness would therefore be the result of one’s own actions. According to Kant, to behave in a particular manner, either for reward or fear of punishment, may be good behaviour, but it is not moral behaviour. For Kant, and I am inclined to agree, not knowing that your actions will be rewarded, or punished, is critical to moral judgment, for the motivation to act morally should be based on principles of justice (Kohlberg, 1981), welfare (Turiel, 1983; Nucci, 2001), or caring (Noddings, 2002) and not on self interest. Looking at human nature critically can take many different perspectives. Consideration of human nature while examining its most primitive form yields some interesting learning for humankind. The work of Frans De Waal, who studied non-human primates, concluded that human morality is based in the emotional responses to the suffering of others. Non-human primates, according to De Waal, demonstrate the most elemental aspect of moral development, the ability to put oneself in the shoes of another. While Kant believed that one’s actions cannot be fully moral without a foundation in principle, it was Hume who argued that humankind is naturally endowed with concern for others. It is critical, according to Neiman, to acknowledge that both emotion and reason may have roles to play in ultimately determining action. Further, the motivation for and satisfaction in actions taken does not come from anticipated reward, but from the actions themselves. The theme of hope is explored to illustrate the importance of state of mind in making change. Neiman explores this theme with three concrete examples. According to Kant the industrial revolution marked a turning point for humankind, giving rise to a hope that such systemic change might improve conditions for all. The gap between is and ought was expected to lessen. Since this time, there have been other signs that things are either getting better or are deteriorating drastically (dependant upon the view of the observer). Neiman cites the elimination of certain methods of torture, the abolition of slavery, and the changes in the lives of many women, as examples of what is possible if humankind believes there is progress to be made. Without such hope, the likelihood of affecting change, minimizing the chasm between is and ought, is drastically reduced.

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Neiman suggests that if philosophy begins with wonder (a view advanced by Aristotle), what we should wonder about are the changes that have occurred which are now taken for granted. At some time they were of great importance to individuals who were willing to sacrifice greatly for their advancement, yet today often go un-recognized as remarkable in any way. Consider the work of abolitionists, of great scientists and explorers who sought to change the way people understood and behaved in their world. In their day, they would have faced enormous challenges in having their views recognized, including public humiliation, abandonment, even death. The third and final section of this book focuses on the themes of good and evil. Using the story of The Odyssey, Neiman illustrates how nature and reason, much like pre- modern and modern heroes, are divided by significant differences. Neiman argues that in modern time what tends to be focused on more than heroes, are victims, and suggests that humankind return to a pre-modern way of thinking “where your claims to legitimacy are focused on what you’ve done to the world, not what the world did to you” (p. 316). We control our own fate and will need to struggle as heroes do. Heroes can see is and ought and must negotiate their actions between the two states. Heroes such as Odysseus are imperfect, a quality which makes them more alive and obtainable for all. Such demystification of the hero exemplifies Enlightenment thinking, encouraging humankind to rise above simple acceptance of our lot in life. I tend to agree with Neiman when she claims that if heroes are ‘other’ people who somehow posses some special quality which enables them to do exceptional things, we permit ourselves to escape our responsibility to try. If given the choice to stand up for an injustice or face death, as Neiman says, most would understand if you remained ‘seated.’ Evil, is not as foreign as we might like to believe. It is not the evil that exists in some other place or is done by some alien form that humankind needs to worry about but rather the quiet, insidious forms of evil done by individuals or groups who never really set out to be or do evil. Desire such as the want of power, lust, and luxury are all drives which can incite action. According to Neiman, we tend to judge the actions of others not on outcome, but on intent, as she illustrates the difference between how the legal system distinguishes between manslaughter and murder; both end with the death of another, but the intent of the killer is given measure in the determination of penalty. To judge one action as more ‘good’ or less evil than another where the actions are identical suggests that the soul can be judged. This, according to Kant is wrong, because in most cases people do not even know their own souls. Crimes (evil) can be committed with any number of intentions, but ultimately we are responsible for what we choose to do. Neiman has established a dichotomous relationship between concepts. The purpose of which is to force the reader to reconcile their perspective as they view the world, past and present. Using the organizing theme of is and ought, Neiman uses examples of good and evil, hope and despair, conservative and liberal, hero and villain, modern and pre- modern, and idealism and realism to illustrate the gaps between these two states of being and creates dissonance for the reader. Readers are then required to position themselves somewhere along the continuum between the two polarities. Her intent, it would seem, is to advance the thinking of the reader such that what has occurred and is currently occurring in our world do not go unrecognized and unchallenged, but are viewed with eyes, hearts, and minds open. As adults we should not accept, according to Neiman, constrained thinking about possibility, but rather live lives fully by questioning and

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demanding more from ourselves and those who would tell us there is no more to life. In fact, the only real limit to what is possible or ideal should never be our thinking, for the only real certainty is our mortality. Neiman’s work has implications for moral education now taking shape in public schools across North America in the form of character education initiatives. In order to avoid having such initiatives remain one dimensional and superficial, educators would do well to heed Neiman’s warnings. Youth today need more than rules to govern, and rewards and punishments to motivate. Educators must rise above such dogmatic practices and allow for room in their pedagogy for youth to question, critically reflect on, and challenge that which they view as immoral in today’s world. Youth need opportunity to explore the possibilities and to see on a regular basis ordinary heroes who do not settle for the is (of reality) but who go for the ought (of idealism). Without such courage, we are unlikely to see lasting and positive change in our world.

References

Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Essays on moral development, (Vol. 1). New York: Harper & Row.

Neiman, S. (2008). Moral clarity: A guide for grown-up idealists. New York: Harcourt Inc.

Noddings, N. (2002). Educating moral people: A caring alternative to character. New York: Teachers College Press.

Nucci, L. (2001). Education in the moral domain. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Smetana, J.(1981). Preschool children’s conceptions of moral and social rules. Child Development, 52 (4), 1333-1336.

Turiel, E. (1983). The development of social knowledge: Morality and convention. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press.

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BOOK REVIEW

Title: John Dewey in China: To Teach and to Learn

Author: Jessica Ching-Sze Wang

Publisher: State University of New York (Albany) Press Year of Publication: 2007

Reviewed by: Xiaobin Li (Brock University)

Part of the SUNY series in Chinese philosophy and culture, this book is a combination of biography and philosophy. Wang delineates Dewey’s two-year teaching in China (May 1, 1919 – July 11, 1921), how Dewey was interpreted there, and what influence he has had. In addition, Wang discusses what Dewey learned from his stay in China and how his experience there influenced his philosophy. Wang states that in the existing literature Dewey’s own intention to learn from other cultures has been ignored and his mature thoughts after his encounter with these cultures are never considered. Her account of Dewey’s stay in China has filled a large gap in the common understanding of the Deweyan story (p. 121). She offers her interpretations as an attempt to understand what happened to Dewey in China (p. 9). In chapter one Wang provides a brief introduction of the relationship between China and the West and the background of Dewey’s visit. Wang examines Dewey’s role as a teacher during his visit in chapter two, focusing on what he said to the Chinese and what kind of teacher he was in China. In chapter three Wang looks at the reception of Dewey’s ideas in China, focusing on the enthusiasm on his lectures, followed by a discussion of the increasing radicalism among Chinese intellectuals. Chapter four examines Dewey as a learner. “In his long sojourn, Dewey came to understand Chinese social and political psychology and philosophy of life” (Wang, 2007, p. 11). With concrete evidence, Wang discusses the meanings of Dewey’s journey in the larger context of his personal life and work. One example is that after his return, Dewey urged the United States to alter its traditional parental attitude toward China into one of respect for a cultural equal (p. 74). In chapter five Wang contends that Dewey’s learning in China contributed to his evolving thought about internationalism and the distinction between democracy as a form of government and democracy as an ideal community. Wang demonstrates that Dewey’s own observations and appraisals of Chinese society can lend credence to the notion of “Confucian democracy” for China. Chapter six offers Wang’s suggestions for future research on Dewey and China. One suggestion is to explore the relevance of Dewey’s reflections on internationalism to contemporary ethics of globalization. The main strength of Wang’s book is that she points out that scholars in the United States discussed Dewey’s influence in China but ignored Chinese influence on him. She gives a convincing description of how in China Dewey was not only a teacher, but also a learner. Dewey’s experiences in China and later in other countries opened his X. Li John Dewey in China mind and transformed him from being primarily an American philosopher into a transnational intellectual.

A weakness of the book is that not much of Dewey’s current influence in China is discussed. At Fudan University, one of the top 10 Chinese universities, a Dewey Studies Centre was established on January 7, 2004, and the translation into Chinese of The Collected Works of John Dewey began (Shanghai Culture, Radio, TV and Film Bureau, 2004). In current Chinese academic journals there are articles on Dewey’s influence related to education and philosophy. Chinese are very interested in learning from the West, particularly from the United States, Canada, Britain, and Australia. Almost all Chinese children have to learn English in school. In 2007 approximately 145,000 Chinese went overseas for further education (Meng, 2008). China is different from what it was 90 years ago when Dewey lectured there. Currently the American government owes the Chinese government money, which is a complete reverse of the situation 90 years ago when Chinese governments at various levels owed foreign governments money. In agreeing to lend money to Chinese, these foreign governments obtained privileges in return. Still, China is a developing country at least in terms of education. In 2005 the Chinese combined gross enrolment ratio of primary, secondary, and tertiary schools was 69, compared with the American ratio of 93 and the Canadian ratio of 99 (United Nations, 2007). The combined gross enrolment ratio is the number of students enrolled in primary, secondary, and tertiary education as a percentage of the population of theoretical school age for the three levels. Before Dewey’s visit, Chinese began going overseas to learn from the West, and some Chinese became his students at Columbia University. At least four of Dewey’s Chinese students became well-known scholars back in China. Dewey was one of the very few Westerners at the time who thought the West could learn something from the Chinese. As the first foreign scholar to be invited formally to lecture in China, Dewey was ahead of his time. He continues to be relevant today, not only in North America, but also in China. Chinese still need to learn from Dewey and other Western scholars. With the largest education system in the world, China is changing, but this change may not be appropriately noticed outside of China. In 2007 about 195,000 international students received education in China, with the United States being the number three source country (Zhang & Gong, 2008). If the current Chinese economic development rate continues, it is possible that more North Americans may find it useful to have some understanding of the Chinese. In China Dewey received an honorary degree with a citation calling him a “Second Confucius” (Grange, 2004). Confucius (551 – 479 BC) was a great Chinese educator who believed knowledge should be used to improve existing conditions. Dr. Wang, we enjoyed reading your book and have certainly increased our understanding of Dewey as a teacher and a learner. Anyone interested in education and philosophy with regard to the relationship between China and the West may also find the book enlightening.

Brock Education, 18(2), 137-139 138 X. Li John Dewey in China

References

Grange, J. (2004). John Dewey, Confucius, and Global Philosophy. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Meng, Z. (2008, June 26). 30 years of students going overseas. People’s Daily Overseas Edition, 6.

Shanghai Culture, Radio, TV and Film Bureau. (2004). 杜威思想的当代意义 [The contemporary implications of Dewey’s ideas]. Retrieved December 29, 2008, from http://www.justice.gov.cn/epublish/gb/paper117/1/class011700003/ hwz660150.htm

United Nations. (2007). Human Development Report 2007/2008. Retrieved December 28, 2008, from http://hdr.undp.org/en/media/hdr_20072008_en_complete.pdf

Zhang, C., & Gong, J. (2008, September 2). Last year almost 200,000 foreign students studied in China. People’s Daily Overseas Edition, 1.

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