Images of the Crowned Buddha Along the Silk Road: Iconography and Ideology

humanities

Article Images of the Crowned Buddha along the Silk Road: Iconography and Ideology

Rebecca L. Twist

Art Department, Paciﬁc University, Forest Grove, OR 97123, USA; rtwist@paciﬁcu.edu

Received: 9 August 2018; Accepted: 10 September 2018; Published: 21 September 2018

Abstract: The interpretation of early Buddha images with a crown has long been a source of debate. Many scholars have concluded that the iconography of the crown is intended to denote Sákyamuni¯ as a cakravartin or universal Buddha. A few have suggested it represents a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha in Mahay¯ ana¯ Buddhism. This art historical and Buddhological study examines the visual record of early crowned Buddhas along the Silk Road, focusing on the iconographic signifiers of the crown, silk items, and ornaments, and interprets them within a broader framework of Buddhist theoretical principals and practice. Not only is this a visual analysis of iconography, it also considers contemporary Buddhist literary evidence that shows the development of the iconography and ideology of the crowned Buddha. As a result of this examination, I propose that the recurring iconographic evidence and the textual evidence underscore the intention to depict a form of sambhogakaya¯ Buddha as an early esoteric meditational construct. Moreover, many Buddhas perform one of the two mudras¯ that are particular to the esoteric form of Vairocana Buddha. Therefore, the iconography also signifies the ideology of the archetypal Adi¯ Buddha as an esoteric conception.

Keywords: crowned Buddha; Buddhism; Vajrayana;¯ sambhogakaya;¯ Vairocana; cakravartin; Silk Road; Pat.ola S´ahi¯

1. Introduction The paradigm of the crowned Buddha figures found along the transcontinental travel system of the Silk Road has been a discourse in scholarship for many years. These images are often called bejeweled Buddhas because they not only feature a crown, they are also decorated with ornaments and jewels in contrast to the depiction of the unadorned Buddha in monastic robes. The most prevalent interpretation for this iconography is that the crown is used to denote a Buddha as a cakravartin or universal sovereign. Under this ideology, the historical Sákyamuni¯ Buddha has been given new, transcendent powers within Mahay¯ ana¯ Buddhism.1 In particular, several scholars suggest the iconography of the crowned Buddha with a cape (often called a chasuble) and jewels depicts Sákyamuni’s¯ coronation or abhis.eka (consecration) as a cakravartin in Tus.ita paradise, where Maitreya, the future Buddha, will reside until his eon or kalpa arrives (Rowland 1961; Snellgrove 1978; Klimburg-Salter 1989; Taddei 1989; Von Schroeder 2001). In a Mahay¯ ana¯ Buddhist context, the crown typically represents the highest level of knowledge and attainment, especially due to the completion of the last or 10th stage or bhumi¯ on a bodhisattva path experienced by all bodhisattvas or Buddhas-to-be before their last rebirth.2 As such,

1 Rowland(1961) suggests that the ornamentation was added to distinguish Mah ay¯ ana¯ Buddha images from Hinayana¯ ones. 2 For example, in Mahay¯ ana¯ Buddhism, a tenth-stage or great bhumi¯ bodhisattva is an advanced being who has completed the practice of the ten dharmas of the ten bhumis¯ . The bodhisattvas at this level perform intense meditation, allowing them to visualize or experience various Buddhas and to receive the teachings. On the 10th bhumi¯ , which is equivalent to attaining the dharmakaya¯ , the bodhisattva is on the threshold of Buddhahood (Grifﬁths 1994; Xing 2005).

Humanities 2018, 7, 92; doi:10.3390/h7040092 www.mdpi.com/journal/humanities Humanities 2018, 7, 92 2 of 31 the crown is a marker of Buddhahood. Klimburg-Salter(1989) stated that during the coronation, he is crowned and given royal regalia, which corresponds to the iconography of these images.3 Another ideology presented by previous scholars is that the iconography of the crowned Buddha relates to the pañcavar¯ s.ika ceremony (Rowland 1961; Klimburg-Salter 1989; Taddei 1989). The ceremony was documented by Buddhist pilgrims, such as Faxien and later by Xuan Zhang in various Buddhist kingdoms and sites, including Bamiyan, Kapisa, Khotan, and Kucha.4 For example, Xuan Zhang (629) described one ceremony that involved the king and all of his people as well as a procession of “highly adorned images of Buddha, decorated with precious substances and covered with silken stuffs” (Klimburg-Salter 1989; Walter 1997). During the ritual, the king gives his crown and cape to the adorned Buddha. It is at this point, according to Maurizio Taddei(1989), that the Buddha revealed himself as a universal sovereign or cakravartin. Moreover, Taddei proposed that an image of a jeweled Buddha was a gift during the ceremony. Since the ritual is closely tied to the sacred role of the king, it is often argued that only the images of the crowned Buddhas with accompanying donors can be interpreted as this particular ceremony. Using the Sam. gha¯.ta Sutra¯ (a text also found among the Gilgit Manuscripts), Rob Linrothe(2014) suggested that the cape as an expensive garment is meant to be a gift to an image of the Buddha, and is not necessarily tied to the ceremony or kingship. This is based on a section where Sákyamuni¯ Buddha recalls one of his previous lives as a wealthy householder and the gifts he gave to Buddhas, including garments, ornaments, and cloaks. On the other hand, some scholars have suggested that the crowned Buddha represents a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha in Mahay¯ ana¯ Buddhism (Mus 1928; Coomaraswamy 1928; Rowland 1961; Snellgrove 1978; Paul 1986). The sambhogakaya¯ or enjoyment body form of a Buddha is a meditational construct that is part of the trikaya¯ or three-body system, which will be discussed in depth later in this article. V. Krishan(1971) and Taddei(1989) disagreed with this notion, saying the iconography refers to the abhis.eka. Moreover, Taddei said that in the Lotus Sutra, Sákyamuni¯ only revealed his sambhogakaya¯ form to a multitude of bodhisattvas, and therefore, since no bodhisattvas are depicted with the crowned Buddhas, the iconography does not fit. This article focuses on the visual record of images specifically depicting crowned Buddhas, including sculptures and paintings, from some of the major cities along the Silk Road, including Bamiyan, Foundukistan, Had. d. a, Gandhara, Swat, Kashmir, Tibet, Gilgit, and Baltistan or Bolor¯ (today known as Northern Pakistan). Using this visual record, I first demonstrate that there are recurring core iconographic elements on the crowned Buddhas with underlying symbolism. These iconographic parallels consist of the cape, the crown, and the symbol of a crescent moon with a sun. Next, using more recent publications on Buddhist iconography and Vajrayana¯ Buddhism (Huntington and Bangdel 2003; Chandrasekhar 2004; Twist 2011), I show that an examination of these images with their coded visual language within a larger Buddhist framework underscores the intention to depict a form of a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha or enjoyment body nature of a meditational construct that relates to early Vajrayana¯ Buddhism. In addition, I propose that there are also iconographic signifiers that are relevant to an esoteric form of Vairocana Buddha as an archetypal Adi¯ or Primordial Buddha. Thus, through the new contextualization of these crowned Buddhas along the Silk Road, a form of religious transmission or early Vajrayana¯ ideology and practice is revealed.

3 Klimburg-Salter(1989) stated that originally, ﬂames on the shoulders were used in early iconography for this purpose, which were then replaced by the moon and sun symbols. 4 Klimburg-Salter(1989) stated that this ceremony was found in China from the sixth to eighth century and Japan from the sixth to the 11th century. Humanities 2018, 7, 92 3 of 31 Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 30

2. Recurring Core Iconographic Elements

2.1. Cape The distinct cape found on the Buddha images is depicted with a triangle corner draped over each shoulder, shoulder, one one on on the the chest, chest, and and one one on on the the back, back, making making a four a four pointed pointed cape. cape. This Thiscan be can seen be seenon a onseventh a seventh to eighth to eighth c. crowned c. crowned Buddha Buddha from fromKashmir Kashmir published published in Buddhist in Buddhist Sculptures Sculptures in Tibet in Tibet(Von (VonSchroeder Schroeder 2001), 2001 pl.), pl.16A. 16A. These These capes capes are are typically typically decorate decoratedd with with jewels jewels and/or tassels. tassels. Although Klimburg-Salter ((1989)1989) calledcalled itit aa three-pointedthree-pointed cape,cape, TaddeiTaddei( 1989(1989)) and and P. P. Banerjee Banerjee(1992 (1992)) among otherother scholarsscholars generallygenerally agreed agreed that that in in a frontala frontal image image with with such such a cape, a cape, the the fourth fourth corner corner on theon backthe back is likely is likely to be to understoodbe understood asanother as another point. point. Examples Examples of thisof this cape cape can ca ben be found found on on a sculpture a sculpture of Buddhaof Buddha from from Gandhara Gandhara (second (second to fourth to fourth c.) and c.) on and a Buddha on a Buddha painted painted in niche in I atniche Bamiyan I at Bamiyan (seventh 5 c.)(seventh (Figures c.)1 (Figures and2). 1Similarly, and 2).5 Similarly, a fragment a offragment a Buddha of a ﬁgure Buddha from figure Had. d.froma wears Haḍḍ a capea wears decorated a cape withdecorated jewels, with including jewels, aincluding large crescent a large moon crescent symbol moon (Figure symbol3). A(Figure similar 3). cape A similar is found cape on is a found Buddha on froma Buddha Niche from D at Niche a monastery D at a inmonastery Fondukistan in Fondukistan (seventh c.); (seventh he is wearing c.); he a is jeweled wearing four-pointed a jeweled four- cape 6 withpointed tassels cape (Figure with tassels4). In (Figure addition, 4).6 there In addition, are several there sculptures are several of sculptures Buddhas fromof Buddhas Gilgit orfrom Baltistan Gilgit 7 (Littleor Baltistan or Greater (Little Bol oror)¯ Greater that all Bol featureōr) that the all same feature distinct the same elaborate distinct cape elaborate (Figures cape5 and (Figures6). Through 5 and ´ inscriptions,6).7 Through these inscriptions, are known these to haveare known been commissioned to have been bycommissioned the Pat.ola Sahi¯ by dynasty the Paṭola that Śā ruledhi dynasty in that regionthat ruled (Von in Hinüberthat region 2004 (Von; Twist Hinüber 2011). 2004; Since Twist the geographical 2011). Since locationthe geographical of Gilgit location is more commonlyof Gilgit is knownmore commonly in scholarship, known I willin scholarship, use that term I wi forll thisuse that article. term for this article.

Figure 1. Buddha wearing a crown and jeweled cape, second to fourth c. Gandhara. Stucco. H H 51 51 cm. cm. Walmore Collection,Collection, London.London. PhotographPhotograph courtesycourtesy ofof JohnJohn C.C. Huntington.Huntington.

5 It is not clear if there is a symbol of a sun and moon on the shoulders or not. According to Klimburg-Salter(1989), there are ﬂame-like emblems on the shoulders. She provided images of other crowned Buddhas with capes at Bamiyan, such as in the colossal Buddha niche (Klimburg-Salter 1989, Figures 31, 35, 36); one in cave S (Figure 33); and in cave K on the ceiling (Figure 5 ). 65 David It is not Snellgrove clear if( 1978there) suggestedis a symbol that of the a Buddha sun and had m aoon metal on crown the shoulders originally. Thereor not. is According also a Buddha to ﬁgure Klimburg-Salter made of clay from(1989), Tapa there Sardar are onflame-like the left wall emblems in Chapel on 23 the who shoulders. wears monastic She pr robesovided and images a cape. Thisof othe is discussedr crowned in (BuddhasTaddei 1989 with). 7 Forcapes an at additional Bamiyan, example, such as see in the the colossal Buddha wearingBuddha a nich crowne (Klimburg-Salter and cape with crescent 1989, moonFigures and 31, sun 35, symbols 36); one that in cave was commissioned by the monk Bhadradharma and his parents, 679/680 C.E. Gilgit. Brass with silver inlay. 20.5 cm H × 20.2 cm W.S (Figure Po ta la 33); Collection: and in Sa cave gsum K lhaon khang:the ceiling inventory (Figure no. 82.5). Red Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, in Ulrich Von Schroeder(2001, pl. 22). 6 David Snellgrove (1978) suggested that the Buddha had a metal crown originally. There is also a Buddha figure made of clay from Tapa Sardar on the left wall in Chapel 23 who wears monastic robes and a cape. This is discussed in (Taddei 1989). 7 For an additional example, see the Buddha wearing a crown and cape with crescent moon and sun symbols that was commissioned by the monk Bhadradharma and his parents, 679/680 C.E. Gilgit. Brass with silver inlay. 20.5 cm H × 20.2 cm W. Po ta la Collection: Sa gsum lha khang: inventory no. 82. Red Palace, Lhasa, Tibet, in Ulrich von Schroeder (2001, pl. 22).

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Figure 2. BuddhaBuddha wearing a crown and cape. Painting in niche “I” at Bamiyan, seventh c. Photograph Photograph courtesy of John C. Huntington.

Figure 3. Buddha figure wearing a cape and jewels. Haḍḍa. Stucco fragment. Musée Guimet, Paris Figure 3. Buddha ﬁgurefigure wearingwearing aa capecape andand jewels.jewels. HaHad. d. a. Stucco fragment. Musée Musée Guimet, Paris (MG 20996). Photograph from Taddei( 1989(1989)),, courtesy courtesy of of the the Mus Muséeée Guimet.Guimet.

Figure 4. BuddhaBuddha wearing wearing a jeweled jeweled cape. Clay Clay fragment fragment from niche D, seventh c. Fondukistan. Fondukistan. Musée Musée Guimet, Paris. Photograph from Twis Twist,t, courtesy of the MusMuséeée Guimet.Guimet.

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Figure 5. Buddha wearing a crown and cape with crescent moon and sun symbols performing the

dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā. Commissioned by King Nandivikramadityanandi, April or September, Figure715 C.E. 5. 5. BuddhaGilgit.Buddha wearingBrass wearing witha crown copper a and crown capeand and with silver cape cre scentinlay. with moon crescent36.8 and cm sun moonH. symbols Pritzker and performing sun Collection. symbols the performingdharmacakra-pravartanahttps://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress. the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā. Commissioned mudr a¯bycom/2015/08/8th-c-715-gilgit-shakyamuni-brasssil-c-. CommissionedKing Nandivikramadityanandi, by King Nandivikramadityanandi, April or September, April715inlay-donorsattendantsda C.E. or September,Gilgit. Brass 715 ncer-private-col.jpg.with C.E. copper Gilgit. and Brass silver with inlay. copper 36.8 and cm silver H. inlay.Pritzker 36.8Collection. cm H. https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress.Pritzker Collection. https://himalayanbuddhistart.ﬁles.wordpress.com/2015/08/8th-c-715-gilgit-com/2015/08/8th-c-715-gilgit-shakyamuni-brasssil-c- inlay-donorsattendantsdashakyamuni-brasssil-c-inlay-donorsattendantsdancer-private-col.jpgncer-private-col.jpg. .

Figure 6. Buddha wearing a crown and cape with crescent moon and sun symbols performing the Figure 6. Buddha wearing a crown and cape with crescent moon and sun symbols performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ā.. Commissioned byby Samṃkarasenṇa and the princess Devasr ¯ı,ī, April 20, 714 Figure 6. Buddha wearing a crown and cape with .crescent. moon and sun symbols performing the C.E. Gilgit. Gilgit. Brass Brass with with inlays inlays of ofcopper, copper, silver, silver, and and zinc. zinc. 12 ¼ 12 in.1 H.in. (31.1. H. (31.1. cm). Asia cm). Society, Asia Society, New York: New dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā. Commissioned by Saṃkaraseṇa4 and the princess Devasrī, April 20, 714 York:Mr.and Mr.and Mrs.Mrs. John D.John Rockefeller D. 3rd CollectionRockef (1979.44).eller https://www.buddhistdoor.net/news/3rd Collection (1979.44). C.E. Gilgit. Brass with inlays of copper, silver, and zinc. 12 ¼ in. H. (31.1. cm). Asia Society, New York: collecting-paradise-buddhist-art-of-kashmir-and-its-legacieshttps://www.buddhistdoor.net/news/collecting-paradise-buddhist-art-. of-kashmir-and-its-legacies. Mr.and Mrs. John D. Rockefeller 3rd Collection (1979.44). 2.2. Crown https://www.buddhistdoor.net/news/co llecting-paradise-buddhist-art-of-kashmir-and-its-legacies.

2.2. CrownCrowns are utilized in a plethora of religions for the representation of deities as an emblem of their supremacy. Thus, it is no surprisesurprise to findfind imagesimages ofof crownedcrowned BuddhasBuddhas both with and withoutwithout the jeweledCrowns cape are from utilized the in Silk a plethora Road. Two Two of religions exemplarsexemplar fors of the crowned representation Buddhas of without deities the as ancape emblem are from of theirKashmir supremacy. (eighth to Thus, ninth it c.) is (Figures no surprise 77 andand to8 8).).find Numerous Numerous images of crowned crowned crowned Buddhas Buddhas Buddhas also also both without without with and capes capes without come come the jeweled cape from the Silk Road. Two exemplars of crowned Buddhas without the cape are from from Gilgit, some with inscriptions that indicate they are are from from the Pa Patṭ.ola ŚāSáhi¯hi dynasty dynasty (Figures (Figures 99–12)–12) (Kashmir(VonVon SchroederSchroeder (eighth 20012001;to ninth; VonVon c.) HinüberHinüber (Figures 2004 2004;7 and; Twist Twist8). Numerous 20112011).).88 It crowned isis importantimportant Buddhas to notenote also thatthat without thesethese capes bejeweledbejeweled come fromcrowns, Gilgit, some some with with a string inscriptions of pearls,pearls, that are indicate consistently they are depicted from the with Pa flowingflowingṭola Śāhi silk dynasty ribbons (Figures attached 9–12) to (Von Schroeder 2001; Von Hinüber 2004; Twist 2011).8 It is important to note that these bejeweled crowns, some with a string of pear ls, are consistently depicted with flowing silk ribbons attached to 8 8 Two otherother crowned crowned Buddhas Buddhas of a of similar a similar artistic artistic idiom areidiom believed are believed to be from to Gilgit be from as well Gilgit or perhaps as well Kashmir. or perhaps (See (Kashmir. Von Schroeder (See 2001(von , pl.Schroeder 25A and 25B)2001, or pl. (Twist 25A 2011 and, Figures25B) or A25 (Twist and 2011, A26)). Figures A25 and A26)). 8 Two other crowned Buddhas of a similar artistic idiom are believed to be from Gilgit as well or perhaps Kashmir. (See (von Schroeder 2001, pl. 25A and 25B) or (Twist 2011, Figures A25 and A26)).

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9 sides along with two open lotuses as jewels on each side of the crowns. This iconography9 is consistent sides along with two open lotuses as jewelsjewels onon eacheach sideside ofof thethe crowns.crowns.9 ThisThis iconographyiconography isis among the Silk Road crowned Buddhas, and will be discussed later. consistent among the Silk Road crowned Buddhas, and will be discussed later.

Figure 7.7. Buddha wearing a crown.crown. EighthEighth c.c. Parihasapura,ParihasaParihasapura, Kashmir. Stone. H 128.2 cm. Sri Pratap Singh Museum, Srinagar, Kashmir.Kashmir. PhotographPhotograph courtesycourtesy ofof JohnJohn C.C. Huntington.Huntington.

Figure 8. BuddhaBuddha wearingwearing aa crown.crown. EighthEighth toto ninthninth c.c. KashKashmir. Brass. H 35 cm. Po to la Collection: Li Figure 8. Buddha wearing a crown. Eighth to ninth c. Kashmir. Brass. H 35 cm. Po to la Collection: Li ma lha khang; inventory no. 1392. Red Palace, Lhasa, Tibet. ma lha khang;lha inventorykhang; no.inventory 1392. Red Palace,no. Lhasa,1392. Tibet. https://www.himalayanart.org/items/Red Palace, Lhasa, Tibet. https://www.himalayanart.org/items/9086. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Inc. https://www.himalayanart.org/items/9086.9086. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Copyright@ Inc. 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Inc.

9 The silk ribbons were likely derived from royal crowns on historical kings, thus becoming a symbol of royalty used by Buddhist artists. This could have originated from the Iranian or Sassanian kings, perhaps back to the Achamenids. The ribbons are also attached to carved images of stupas¯ along the Silk Road for similar royal symbology.

99 The The silksilk ribbonsribbons werewere likelylikely derivedderived fromfrom royalroyal crownscrowns onon historicalhistorical kings,kings, thusthus becomingbecoming aa symbolsymbol ofof royaltyroyalty used by Buddhist artists. This could have originated fromfrom thethe IranianIranian oror SassanianSassanian kings,kings, perhapsperhaps backback toto thethe Achamenids.Achamenids. TheThe ribbonsribbons areare alsoalso attachedattached toto carvedcarved imagesimages ofof ststūpas alongalong thethe SilkSilk RoadRoad forfor similarsimilar royalroyal symbology.symbology.

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Figure 9. Buddha wearing a crown. Commissioned by King Nandivikramadity anandi, April 714 C.E. FigureFigure 9. Buddha 9. Buddha wearing wearing a crown.a crown. Commissioned Commissioned by by King King Nandivikramadity Nandivikramadityanandi,anandi, April April 714 C.E. 714 C.E. Gilgit.Figure Brass–copper 9. Buddha wearingalloy with a crown. copper Commissioned and silver inlays. by King 11 Nandivikramadity ½”H1 × 6”W × 4”D.anandi, Virginia April 714 Museum C.E. of Gilgit.Gilgit. Brass–copper Brass–copper alloy alloy with with copper copper andand silver inlays. inlays. 11 11½”H2 ”H × 6”W× 6”W × 4”D.× Virginia4”D. Virginia Museum Museum of Gilgit. Brass–copper alloy with copper and silver inlays. 11 ½”H × 6”W × 4”D. Virginia Museum of ofFine Fine Fine Arts, Arts, Richmond.Arts, Richmond.Richmond. Arthur andArthurArthur Margaret and Glasgowand MargaretMargaret Fund (86.120). GlasgowGlasgow https://alaintruong2014.ﬁles. FundFund (86.120).(86.120). Fine Arts, Richmond. Arthur and Margaret Glasgow Fund (86.120). wordpress.com/2015/01/1919.jpghttps://alaintruong2014.files.wohttps://alaintruong2014.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/1919.jpg.rdpress.com/2015/01/1919.jpg.. https://alaintruong2014.files.wordpress.com/2015/01/1919.jpg.

FigureFigure 10. Buddha 10. Buddha wearing wearing a crowna crown performing performing the dharmacakra-pravartanadharmacakra-pravartana mudra mudra. Commissioned. Commissioned by by Figure 10. Buddha wearing a crown performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra. Commissioned by Sr´ ¯ı SurabhŚrī Surabh¯ı andī and the the monk monk Hari Harisaya´sa,678/679ṣayaśa, 678/679 C.E. C.E. Gilgit. Gilgit. Brass Brass with with copper copper and silver and inlay. silver 22cm inlay. H. 22cm FigureŚr ī10. Surabh Buddhaī and wearingthe monk aHari crown. ṣaya śperforminga, 678/679 C.E. the Gilgit. dharmacakra-pravartana Brass with copper and mudra silver. Commissionedinlay. 22cm H. by H. TibetTibet Museum, Museum, AlainAlain BordierBordier Foundation, Gruyeres/Suisse Gruyeres/Suisse (No. (No. 3). (item 3). (item #3 on #3 website on website page) page) Śrī SurabhTibet īMuseum, and the monkAlain HariBordierṣaya Foundation,śa, 678/679 C.E.Gruyeres/Suisse Gilgit. Brass (No. with 3). copper (item and#3 on silver website inlay. page) 22cm H. http://tibetmuseum.info/e/Kashmir.htmlhttp://tibetmuseum.info/e/Kashmir.html. . Tibethttp://tibetmuseum.info/e/Kashmir.html. Museum, Alain Bordier Foundation, Gruyeres/Suisse (No. 3). (item #3 on website page) http://tibetmuseum.info/e/Kashmir.html.

Figure 11. Buddha wearing a crown performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā. Approx. 675–722 Figure 11. Buddha wearing a crown performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā. Approx. 675–722 FigureC.E. 11. GilgitBuddha or Kashmir. wearing Brass a crown with performing copper and the silverdharmacakra-pravartana alloy. 31.1 cm H. Jo mudrkhang/gTsuga¯. Approx. lag 675–722 khang C.E. C.E. Gilgit or Kashmir. Brass with copper and silver alloy. 31.1 cm H. Jo khang/gTsug lag khang GilgitCollection: or Kashmir. inventory Brass with no. copper 261[A]. and silverLhasa, alloy.Tibe 31.1t. https://www.himalay cm H. Jo khang/gTsuganart.org/items/57104. lag khang Collection: Collection: inventory no. 261[A]. Lhasa, Tibet. https://www.himalayanart.org/items/57104. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Inc. inventoryFigureCopyright@ 11. no.Buddha 261[A]. 2018 wearing Himalayan Lhasa, a Tibet. crown Art Resources https://www.himalayanart.org/items/57104 performing Inc. the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā.. Copyright@Approx. 675–722 2018 HimalayanC.E. Gilgit or Art Kashmir. Resources Brass Inc. with copper and silver alloy. 31.1 cm H. Jo khang/gTsug lag khang

Collection: inventory no. 261[A]. Lhasa, Tibet. https://www.himalayanart.org/items/57104. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Inc.

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Figure 12. CrownedCrowned Buddha, Buddha, seventhseventh century.century. SideSide oneone ofof aa three-sidedthree-sided stonestone sculpturesculpture fromfrom Gilgit.Gilgit. Photograph courtesy courtesy of of John John C. Huntington.C. Huntington.

More importantly, severalseveral imagesimages ofof crownedcrowned BuddhasBuddhas feature bothboth iconographic motifs of the crown and the elaborate cape. Several Several examples examples of crownedcrowned BuddhasBuddhas with with capescapes comecome fromfrom KashmirKashmir (seventh(seventh to to eighth eighth and and ninth ninth c.) c.) (Figures (Figures 13–16).1313–16).–16). TwoTwo Buddhas Buddhas believed believed to to be be from from Gilgit Gilgit or or possibly possibly 10 Kashmir also feature a cape and a crown (Figures 17 and 1818).). 10 An An example example can can even even be be found found on on a a rock carvingcarving fromfrom ChilasChilas clearlyclearly depicting depicting a a crowned crowned Buddha Buddha ﬁgure figure wearing wearing the the cape cape (dated (dated prior prior to to630)to 630)630) (Figure (Figure(Figure 19 19).19).). In InIn addition, addition,addition, several severalseveral examples examplesexamples mentioned mentionedmentioned previously previouslypreviously regarding regardingregarding thethethe elaborateelaborateelaborate capecape fromfrom BamiyanBamiyan andand GilgitGilgit alsoalso featurefeature aaa crowncrowncrown (Figures(Figures(Figures2 22,5 andand and 5–6).5–6).6).

Figure 13. Buddha wearing a crown and jeweled cape with a crescent moon and sun symbols, eighth Figure 13. Buddha wearing aa crowncrown andand jeweledjeweledcape cape with with a a crescent crescent moon moon and and sun sun symbols, symbols, eighth eighth c. c. Parihasapura, Kashmir. Stone. Sri Pratap Singh Museum, Srinagar, Kashmir. Photograph courtesy Parihasapura,c. Parihasapura, Kashmir. Kashmir. Stone. Stone. Sri Sri Pratap Pratap Singh Sing Museum,h Museum, Srinagar, Srinagar, Kashmir. Kashmir. Photograph Photograph courtesy courtesy of of John C. Huntington. Johnof John C. C. Huntington. Huntington.

10 For a similar Buddha located in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, see Pal, Bronzes of Kashmir, pl. 36.

10 10 For For aa similarsimilar BuddhaBuddha locatedlocated inin thethe MeMetropolitantropolitan MuseumMuseum ofof Art,Art, seesee Pal,Pal, Bronzes of Kashmir,, pl.pl. 36.36.

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Figure 14. Buddha wearing a crown and a jeweled cape, seventh to eighth c.Kashmir. Brass with silver FigureFigure 14. 14.Buddha Buddha wearing wearing aa crown and and a jeweled a jeweled cape, cape, seventh seventh to eighth to c.Kashmir. eighth c.Kashmir. Brass with Brass silver with inlay. H 16 cm. Jo khang/gTsug lag khang Collection; inventory no. 644, Lhasa, Tibet. silverinlay.Figure inlay. 14.H H Buddha16 16 cm.cm. wearing JoJo khang/gTsugkhang/gTsug a crown and laglag a jeweled khangkhang cape, Collection;Collection; seventh inventorytoinventory eighth c.Kashmir. no.no. 644,644, Brass Lhasa,Lhasa, withTibet. Tibet.silver https: https://www.himalayanart.org/items/57102. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Inc. //www.himalayanart.org/items/57102https://www.himalayanart.org/items/57102.inlay. H 16 cm. Jo khang/gTsug .lag Copyright@ khangCopyright@ Co 2018llection; 2018 Himalayan Himalayan inventory Art Art no. Resources Resources 644, Lhasa, Inc. Inc. Tibet. https://www.himalayanart.org/items/57102. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Inc.

Figure 15. Buddha wearing a crown and jeweled cape, ninth c. Kashmir or Northern India. Bronze. Figure 15. Buddha wearing a crown and jeweled cape, ninth c. Kashmir or Northern India. Bronze. FigureAlan 15. RobertBuddha Naftalis wearing Collection. a crown https://www.hi and jeweledmalayanart.org/items/86315/images/primary#-1710,- cape, ninth c. Kashmir or Northern India. Bronze. AlanFigure Robert 15. Buddha Naftalis wearing Collection. a crown https://www.hi and jeweledmalayanart.org/items/86315/images/primary#-1710,- cape, ninth c. Kashmir or Northern India. Bronze. Alan2380,3009,-1. Robert Naftalis Copyright@ Collection. 2018 https://www.himalayanart.org/items/86315/images/primary#-1710, Himalayan Art Resources Inc. 2380,3009,-1.Alan Robert NaftalisCopyright@ Collection. 2018 Himalayan https://www.hi Art Resourcesmalayanart.org/items/86315/images/primary#-1710,- Inc. -2380,3009,-12380,3009,-1.. Copyright@ Copyright@ 2018 2018 Himalayan Himalayan Art Art Resources Resources Inc. Inc.

Figure 16. Buddha wearing a crown and a cape with crescent moon and sun symbols, eighth to ninth Figure 16. Buddha wearing a crown and a cape with crescent moon and sun symbols, eighth to ninth c.Figure Kashmir. 16. Buddha Brass. H wearing 52 cm. The a crown Metropolitan and a cape Museum with cres of Art,cent Newmoon Yo andrk, sunGift symbols,of Ben Heller eighth (1970.297). to ninth Figurec. Kashmir. 16. Buddha Brass. wearing H 52 cm. a The crown Metropolitan and a cape Museum with crescent of Art, New moon Yo andrk, Gift sun of symbols, Ben Heller eighth (1970.297). to ninth c. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39345.c. Kashmir. Brass. H 52 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Ben Heller (1970.297). Kashmir.https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39345. Brass. H 52 cm. The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, Gift of Ben Heller (1970.297). https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39345. https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39345 .

Humanities 2018, 7, 92 10 of 31 Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 30

Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 30 Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 30

Figure 17. Buddha wearing a crown and cape performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā, eighth c. FigureFigure 17. Buddha 17. Buddha wearing wearing a crowna crown and and cape cape performingperforming the the dharmacakra-pravartanadharmacakra-pravartana mudr mudrā, eightha¯, eighth c. c. Figure 17. Buddha wearing a crown and cape performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā, eighth c. GilgitGilgit or Kashmir.Kashmir. or Kashmir. GiltGilt Gilt coppercopper copper alloy,alloy, alloy, private private private collection. collecollection. https://himalayanbuddhistart.ﬁles.wordpress. https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress.https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress. Gilgit or Kashmir. Gilt copper alloy, private collection. https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress. com/2015/08/8th-c-gilgit-shakyamuni-labellted-maitreya-gilt-bronze-photo-hughes-dubois.jpegcom/2015/08/8th-c-gilgit-shakyamuni-labellted-maicom/2015/08/8th-c-gilgit-shakyamuni-labellted-maitreya-gilt-bronze-photo-hughes-dubois.jpeg.treya-gilt-bronze-photo-hughes-dubois.jpeg. . com/2015/08/8th-c-gilgit-shakyamuni-labellted-maitreya-gilt-bronze-photo-hughes-dubois.jpeg.

Figure 18. Buddha wearing a crown and cape with crescent moon and sun symbols. Approx. 675–722 FigureFigure 18. Buddha 18. Buddha wearing wearing a crowna crown and and cape cape withwith cr crescentescent moon moon and and sun sun symbols. symbols. Approx. Approx. 675–722 675–722 C.E. Kashmir or Gilgit. Brass.1 7 ¼” H. Pan-Asian Collection https://www.himalayanart.org/ C.E.Figure KashmirC.E. 18. Kashmir Buddha or Gilgit. wearingor Gilgit. Brass. a Brass.crown 7 ” H. 7and ¼” Pan-Asian cape H. withPan-Asian Collection crescent Collection moon https://www.himalayanart.org/items/ and https://www.himalayanart.org/ sun symbols. Approx. 675–722 items/61436. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan4 Art Resources Inc. 61436C.E. items/61436..Kashmir Copyright@ or Copyright@ Gilgit. 2018 Himalayan Brass. 2018 Himalayan 7 Art¼” ResourcesH. Art Pan-Asian Resources Inc. Inc.Collection https://www.himalayanart.org/ items/61436. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Inc.

Figure 19. Crowned Buddha with a cape, prior to 630 C.E. Rock carving from Chilas. Commissioned Figure 19. Crowned Buddha with a cape, prior to 630 C.E. Rock carving from Chilas. Commissioned Figureby 19.SiṃCrownedhota. Photograph Buddha courtesy with a of cape, John priorC. Huntington. to 630 C.E. Rock carving from Chilas. Commissioned by Siṃhota. Photograph courtesy of John C. Huntington. by Sim. hota. Photograph courtesy of John C. Huntington.

Figure 19. Crowned Buddha with a cape, prior to 630 C.E. Rock carving from Chilas. Commissioned by Siṃhota. Photograph courtesy of John C. Huntington.

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2.3. Crescent Moon with a Sun The symbols of the crescent moon with a rosette-like sun are also recurring iconographic elements on crowned Buddha figures from the Silk Road. Sometimes, these symbols are depicted within the crown and/or on the shoulders of the Buddha; hence, they can be considered a form of jeweled ornament. Several crowned Buddha figures from Kashmir that were mentioned earlier feature crowns that carry the motifs of the crescent moon with a rosette-like sun inside of it (see Figures7,8, 13 and 16). Note that two of the four Buddhas also feature the elaborate cape, and that Figure 16 also bears the same symbolic motif on the shoulders. Similar lunar and solar symbolism appears on quite a few of the crowns on the Pat.ola Sáhi¯ Buddhas. More importantly, a crescent moon with a sun inside is found on all of the shoulders of their crowned Buddhas wearing capes (see Figures5,6 and 19). Interestingly, the symbols also appear on the top of the stupas¯ that flank the Buddha in one sculpture (Figure6). These are not the only examples of this iconography along the Silk Road. The crescent moon with a solar disc is also depicted on several stupas¯ found in rock carvings in Chilas and one from Thalpan.

3. Crowned Buddha as Cakravartin As mentioned previously, one iconographic interpretation of a Buddha with a crown is that he is to be understood as a cakravartin, and as such, the recurring parallels of the above motifs can certainly support the meaning of a universal sovereign. For example, some scholars suggest that the elaborate cape was adopted from royal attire, perhaps from Gandhara, Central Asia, or even the Himalayas, in order to denote a cakravartin Buddha (Taddei 1989; Klimburg-Salter 1989; Von Schroeder 2001; Paul 1986).11 An example of a royal donor figure wearing a cape can be seen on two Gandharan sculptures. One from the Lahore Museum in India depicts Pa¯ῆcika with a donor that wears a cape (see S. Huntington, The Art of Ancient India, Figure 8.25). Another sculpture from a private collection is believed to be a donor wearing a cape holding his offering (see Isao Kurita, The World of the Buddha: Ancient Buddhist Art-Gandhara, vol. 2, Figure 523) However, it is important to note that the donor capes are made of what appears to be animal skin, and they are not decorated with jewels or a fringe of tassels. Therefore, they are very different than the capes depicted on the crowned Buddhas. Moreover, several Pat.ola Sáhi¯ kings are depicted in their sculptures, and none of them wear a cape. Linrothe(2014, pl. 1.30) pointed out a sculpture that is possibly from Kashmir published by John Siudmak(2013, pl. 189) that features Surya and Danda in a tasseled cape, suggesting this indicates it was not strictly used in Buddhist iconography. Rather, he stated that it was used to show power on images from Greater Kashmir. However, it is significant to note that these capes are not decorated with jewels. Regardless, it is certainly possible that the cape may have been a symbol borrowed from kings to convey the notion of the attainment of Buddhahood. The crown is historically an ancient symbol that is worn to mark royalty in the earthly realm, and therefore, it became an emblem to denote power and authority. Since the crown is a signifier of kingship, it is no surprise to see it used in Buddhist images to convey the ideology of a universal sovereign or cakravartin Buddha. As mentioned previously, the crown represents the highest level of knowledge and attainment of Buddhahood in the completion of the last stage or bhumi¯ (his abhis.eka); hence, he could be recognized as a universal Buddha via the crown. The flowing ribbons and lotuses on the crown further signify the royal imagery of a universal sovereign.

11 Several scholars argue that the cape motif is from a famous image at the Mahabodi Temple in Bodh Gaya. This suggestion comes from a ninth c. painting discovered at Dunhuang that has the following inscription: “Country of Magadha light emitting magical image.” See (Rowland 1961). It is believed that this painting was a representation of the same Buddha at Bodh Gaya, and it bears a cape and crown. However, the cape is different, with scalloped edges rather than the distinct four corners found on the Buddha images used for this article. The only cape I found that was similar with the scalloped edges is on the stone-carved crowned Gilgit Buddha. Humanities 2018, 7, 92 12 of 31

The lunar and solar symbols are also effigies of kingship, and therefore, their royal connotations serve as iconographic symbols on a crowned Buddha to denote his status as a cakravartin.12 A Buddha in the aspect of a universal sovereign is depicted wearing a crown and jewelry to symbolize his great power and authority. John Huntington explained that the crown and jewelry “draw a visual analogy between the attainment of Buddhahood and coronation as a king” (Huntington and Huntington 1990). Therefore, the crescent moon with the rosette-like sun on a Buddha’s shoulders, together with a crown, signifies his highest status. These iconographic symbols are also significant emblems in Buddhist iconography. The sun and the moon are often used as metaphors or descriptors for Buddhas and Buddhist teachings. For example, the Lotus Sutra¯ says, “As the light of the sun and moon can banish all obscurity and gloom, so this person [Buddha] as he passes through the world can wipe out the darkness of living beings” (Watson 1993). The sun and the moon dispel darkness and aid in disseminating light just like the light of knowledge taught by the Buddhist dharma. In addition, in the Bhaisajyagura Sutra¯ found in Gilgit, it says that the sun and moon have great power, just like the Buddha and the dharma (Schopen 1976). Moreover, in visual imagery, a moon or sun disk on a lotus represents the perfect wisdom attained by all Buddhas through the dharma. Thus, it is likely that these recurring key motifs were deliberately chosen as iconography explicitly used for crowned Buddhas to set them apart and convey specific meanings. Since they were all emblems used by royalty, this iconography of kingship was given to a supreme Buddha figure to imbue him with a higher status and mark him as a cakravartin. Therefore, it is clear that these core iconographic motifs can work together on one level to denote the notion of a transcendent Buddha and universal sovereign, signifying the crowned Buddha’s attainment of the highest truth and authority of Buddhahood. Similar to other scholars, Linrothe(2014) suggested that it is safest to conclude that the crown and cape are merely associated with kingship and royal rituals.13

4. Crowned Buddha as Sambhogakaya¯ However, Buddhist iconography is often multivalent, and as such, several of these symbols hold underlying esoteric ideologies as well. I propose in a deeper contextualization of these crowned Buddhas that the iconography reveals an underlying pattern of the primary benchmarks that are needed to portray an early meditational construct of a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha. The sambhogakaya¯ or enjoyment body form of a Buddha is the meditational form that serves as a way to experience or visualize the highest or non-representational form body of a Buddha called the dharmakaya.¯ It is part of the trikaya¯ or three-body system that is used to understand the nature of numerous Buddhas, and is a fundamental concept in both Mahay¯ ana¯ and Vajrayana¯ Buddhism. The three natures of a Buddha can be experienced as nirma¯n. akaya¯ (the transformation and physical body), sambhogakaya¯ (the enjoyment body), and dharmakaya¯ , which is inconceivable, so it has no representation.14 All three bodies were considered different aspects of the same reality. Paul Grifﬁths (1994) explained that dharmakaya¯ is considered to be identical to dharmadhatu¯ or the dharma realm. Minoru Kiyota(1982) explained that sambhogakaya¯ is indestructible and eternal, similar to dharmakaya¯ , but it is also capable of communicating with sentient beings like nirma¯n. akaya¯ . The enjoyment body

12 Evidence of this can even be seen on some of these artworks. For example, both the Pat.ola Sáhi¯ king and queen donors of the Buddha in Figure5 have crescent moons with a solar symbol inside of it decorating their crowns. Moreover, Klimburg-Salter (1989) pointed out examples at Bamiyan and Fondukistan with other variations of the heavenly symbols incorporated into the decoration of the crowns used for kings. It is possible that these motifs also derive from the Sassanians, such as the silk ribbons on the crown. 13 I agree that the iconography clearly has references to kingship; this is discussed in several chapters in (Twist 2011). 14 The trikaya¯ system was developed primarily by Asanga,˙ his teacher Maitreya, and his brother Vasubandhu in fourth century India. Together, they are often credited with establishing a new school of thought in Mahay¯ ana¯ Buddhism called Yogac¯ ara.¯ The earliest texts written by the sect introducing the trikaya¯ system are the Mahay¯ anas¯ utr¯ ala¯ m. kara¯ by Maitreya and the Mahay¯ anasam¯ . graha by Asanga.˙ See (Hanson 1980, pp. 62–65; Griffiths 1989). Humanities 2018, 7, 92 13 of 31 transcends the nirma¯n. akaya¯ Buddha as a symbol for living beings to understand dharmakaya¯ , and as such, sambhogakaya¯ concretizes the indefinable (Xing 2005; Williams 1989). In the meditational realm of skilled adepts, the sambhogakaya¯ enables beings to perfect their skills and attain the reification of dharmakaya¯ and Buddhahood (Griffiths 1994). Thus, the intrinsic nature of the Buddha field and sambhogakaya¯ is manifested in the mind. Chaya Chandrasekhar (2004) explained that enjoyment bodies “are sole meditational constructs, manifested in the minds of skilled practitioners ... In other words, through envisioning a Buddha field and its inhabitants, an adept practitioner, while physically bound to earthly existence, conceptually experiences the glory of the sambhogakaya¯ and transcends ordinary space and time.” In Vajrayana¯ Buddhism, in particular, through using transformative meditation practices, the adept even becomes a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha in the highest meditational realm of Akanis.t.ha on Mt. Meru. In essence, a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha is a meditational construct that is manifest in the minds of advanced practitioners, especially in esoteric Buddhism.

4.1. The Representation of a Sambhogakaya¯ Buddha When a Buddha (such as the historical S´akyamuni)¯ is portrayed or visualized in his human emanation body or nirma¯n. akaya¯ , he is depicted as an unadorned ascetic wearing monastic garments. Often, his mudra¯ refers to a particular life event highlighting his nirma¯n. akaya¯ nature. Chandrasekhar (2004) explained that the nirma¯n. akaya¯ Buddha’s mudras¯ relate to the earthly activities completed in order to bring living beings to enlightenment. According to Sonam Kazi’s translation (Kazi 1989–1993) of Kün-zang Lama’s instructions, the visual representation of a tantric, meditational, or sambhogakaya¯ Buddha is presented with key identifying traits. The list of 13 speciﬁc characteristics for the fully developed iconography of a meditational Buddha is listed below, and is divided into Silk Items and Jeweled Ornaments (Huntington 2003a): Five Silk Items:

(1) Ribbons (ties on the crown) (2) Upper garment (almost never depicted) (3) Silk scarf (billowing behind) (4) Sash at the waist (often hidden) (5) Lower garment (dhoti)

Eight Jeweled Ornaments:

(1) Crown (2) Right and left earrings (count as one) (3) Necklace (4) Two armlets (count as one) (5) Long and short necklaces (count as one) (6) Two bracelets (count as one) (7) Finger rings (count as one) (8) Two anklets (count as one)

The sculpture of a 14th century Vairocana Buddha from Western Tibet displays this fully developed codiﬁed iconography of a sambhogakaya¯ (see Figure 20). Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 30 sometimes dhyana Buddhas), and are generally shown wearing the silk items and jeweled ornaments of a sambhogakāya. Vairocana Buddha is shown in the center of their mandala as the most important, sinceHumanities he personifies2018, 7, 92 the transcendent insight of the full understanding of truth and reality, or14 ofthe 31 totality of all five insights.

Figure 20.20. VairocanaVairocana Buddha. Buddha. 14th 14th century, century, Western Wester Tibetn Tibethttps://himalayanbuddhistart.ﬁles. https://himalayanbuddhistart. files.wordpress.com/2015/09/12th-c-tibet-ct-vawordpress.com/2015/09/12th-c-tibet-ct-vairocana-c-a-cold-g-61-cm-albuquerque.jpgirocana-c-a-cold-g-61-cm-albuquerque.jpg..

Moreover,In Vajrayana¯ when or a esotericcrown on Buddhism, a Buddha has the five five-pointed points or triangular crown especially sections or represents five jewels thearound five thetranscendent diadem, it insights especially (jñ ana¯represents) that are the needed five insights to attain of all the knowledge pañca jina andBuddhas, ensuing and Buddhahood. is therefore called These afive pañca qualities jina crown are personified (Figure 21). in The Buddhist crown can iconography also depict by each the ofpañca the (five)five Buddhasjina (victorious) as well. The Buddhas, pañca jinawho crown are often is an depicted esoteric insymbol a mandala. of the15 fiveThey transc areendent also called qualities cosmic and orfive transcendent Buddhas that Buddhas constitute (or thesometimes totalitydhyana of enlightenmentBuddhas), and or areBuddhahood generally shown(Huntington wearing and the Huntington silk items and 1990; jeweled Livingston ornaments 2003; of Huntingtona sambhogakaya¯ and. Vairocana Bangdel 2003). Buddha16 Thus, is shown both in the the pañca center jina of their Buddhas mandala and as the the crown most important,are a paradigm since forhe personifiesVajrayāna symbology, the transcendent practice, insight and of attainment. the full understanding of truth and reality, or the totality of all fiveConsidering insights. the representation of a sambhogakāya Buddha, it is evident that many of the crowned BuddhasMoreover, in the whenvisual arecord crown from on a the Buddha Silk Road has five feature points some or triangular of the primary sections benchmarks or five jewels from around Kün- zangthe diadem, Lama’s itlist especially that are representsespecially needed the five to insights distinguish of the thempañca as jina earlyBuddhas, forms of and esoteric is therefore meditational called a constructs—inpañca jina crown particular, (Figure 21 the). Thecrown, crown the silk can ribbons, also depict and each the jeweled of the five ornaments. Buddhas While as well. not The all ofpañca the crownsjina crown found is an on esoteric the Buddha symbol images of the are five the transcendent five-pointed qualitiespañca jina and crowns, five Buddhassome of them that constituteappear to havethe totality five leaves. of enlightenment Regardless, orthe Buddhahood symbology of (Huntington the crown andcreates Huntington a clear distinction 1990; Livingston between 2003 an; unadornedHuntington Buddha and Bangdel and a 2003 crowned).16 Thus, one bothwearing the pañcajeweled jina ornaments.Buddhas and the crown are a paradigm for VajrayIt ana¯is possible symbology, that the practice, elaborate and cape attainment. was an early form of the upper garment listed under the Silk Items. In a Buddhist practitioner’s context, each of the four corners of the cape represent the four corners of Mt. Meru (or the Buddhist cosmos), and the four quarters of the worldly realm of knowledge15 The five insights (Bangdel are: Akshobhya and Huntington = mirror-like 2003). wisdom;17 This Ratnasambhava is even =evident equality oftoday all things; in Vajray Amitabhaāna = discriminatingBuddhism, wisdom; Amoghasiddhi = perfected action; and Vairocana = full understanding of truth and reality. Each jina Buddha presides over what is called a Buddha family or kula, each with their own color, direction, mudra¯, symbol, and female prajña¯ (partner). For a detailed discussion on the pañca jina Buddhas, see (Livingston 2003). 16 Anand example reality. of Each the pañca jinajina Buddhacrown’s presides esoteric functionover what can beis seencalled with a Buddha the Vajrasattva family headdress or kula, wheneach itwith is used their in public own ritualscolor, indirection, Nepal. When mudr theā, practitionersymbol, and places female the crownprajñā on (partner). his head, heFor becomes a detailed purified discussion as an adamantine on the pañca being, jina and transformedBuddhas, see into (Livingston the deity Vajrasattva. 2003). The practitioner can then perform the Buddhist ritual with authority and full 16 knowledge An example of theof the secret pañca rites. jina This crown's marks theesoteric knowledge function and can power be seen thatare wi inherentth the Vajrasattva in the crown. headdress The crown when is part it ofis esoteric initiations as well. John Huntington suggested that, because their concept is so fundamental in Vajrayana¯ Buddhism, theusedjina inBuddhas public arerituals inherent in Nepal. in every When piece ofthe esoteric practitioner art, including places the the five-pointed crown on crown his he (Huntingtonad, he becomes and Bangdel purified 2003 as). an adamantine being, and transformed into the deity Vajrasattva. The practitioner can then perform the Buddhist ritual with authority and full knowledge of the secret rites. This marks the knowledge and power that are inherent in the crown. The crown is part of esoteric initiations as well. John Huntington suggested that, because their concept is so fundamental in Vajrayāna Buddhism, the jina Buddhas are inherent in every piece of esoteric art, including the five-pointed crown (Huntington and Bangdel 2003). 17 Mt. Meru is conceptually the center of the Buddhist world system; it not a physical place, but a conceptual one, where almost all meditation and all levels of Buddhist attainments occur. Since every Buddha has attained highest enlightenment, Mt. Meru symbolism is inherent in all Buddhist artworks, architecture, and practice. See (Huntington 2003c).

Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 15 of 30

where this same type of cape is worn by Vajrasattva priests in Nepal when they do meditations, visualizing themselves as being on Mt. Meru at the center of a mandala (Huntington and Bangdel Humanities2003). The2018 cape, 7, 92 aids in the transformation of space and identity in Vajrayāna practice for a 15yogin of 31 priest, particularly taking place in the highest meditational realm on Mt. Meru: Akaniṣṭha.

Figure 21. Paῆca jina Crown, Tibet. https://www.himalayanart.org/items/59558/images/primary#https://www.himalayanart.org/items/59558/images/primary#-55,- -55,-1300,2524,01300,2524,0. Copyright@. Copyright@ 2018 2018Himalayan Himalayan Art Resources Art Resources Inc. Inc.

ConsideringMoreover, the the moon representation and sun symbols of a sambhogak appearingaya¯ Buddha, in the crown it is evident and on that the many shoulders of the crownedcould be Buddhasconsidered in jeweled the visual ornaments record fromfrom thethe Silklist. RoadAs Gérard feature Fussman some of (1994) the primary pointed benchmarks out, the sun from and Kün-zangmoon symbols, Lama’s especially list that on are a cr especiallyowned, tantric needed Buddha’s to distinguish shoulders, them signify as early his formsattainment of esoteric of the meditationalhighest truth constructs—inand Buddhahood, particular, similar the to crown, the iconography the silk ribbons, of the and crown. the jeweledBoth the ornaments. Buddha and While his notteachings all of the emanate crowns light found and on truth; the Buddha similar images to the he areavenly the five-pointed symbols, theypañca reflect jina crowns, his great some power of them and appearsovereignty. to have five leaves. Regardless, the symbology of the crown creates a clear distinction between an unadornedIn a further Buddha contextualization and a crowned oneof the wearing Buddhis jeweledt iconography, ornaments. there is another level of interpretationIt is possible for the that symbols. the elaborate The emblems cape was are an found early formon the of shoulders the upper of garment many crowned listed under Buddhas the Silkwearing Items. the In elaborate a Buddhist cape, practitioner’s which as mentioned, context, each symbolizes of the four Mt. corners Meru. ofHence, the cape it is representalso possible the fourthat cornersin Vajray ofā Mt.na mediations, Meru (or the the Buddhist sun and cosmos), moon symbols and the fourrepresent quarters the ofsun the and worldly moon realm that are of knowledgevisualized (toBangdel circle around and Huntington Mt. Meru, 2003 aiding).17 inThis theis transformation even evident today of space. in Vajray Therefore,ana¯ Buddhism, the effigies where are most this likely same typeanother of cape iconographic is worn by element Vajrasattva that is priests chosen in to Nepal reinforce when the they notion do meditations, of the highest visualizing realm of themselvesattainment asin beingAkani onṣṭha Mt. on MeruMt. Meru. at the They center are of also a mandala symbols (Huntington in yogic meditation and Bangdel where 2003 the). sun The and cape moon aids inmotif the transformationrepresent the top of spacechakras and (Huntington identity in Vajrayand Bangdelana¯ practice 2003). for Moreover, a yogin priest, in Vajray particularlyāna Buddhism, taking place the inemblems the highest of the meditational sun and moon realm can on also Mt. symbolize Meru: Akanis the. malet.ha. and female principles, and are still used to representMoreover, their the union moon in and esoteric sun symbols methodolog appearingy (Dasgupta in the crown1974; Huntington and on the shouldersand Bangdel could 2003; be consideredTwist 2011). jeweled18 Thus, ornaments the visual fromevidence the list. indicates As Gé rardthat Fussmanthe hallmark(1994 symbols) pointed that out, consistently the sun and appear moon symbols,were possibly especially chosen on and a crowned, understood tantric at a Buddha’s multivalent shoulders, level to signifyconvey his the attainment iconography of theof an highest early truthform andof esoteric Buddhahood, sambhogak similarāya Buddha. to the iconography of the crown. Both the Buddha and his teachings emanate light and truth; similar to the heavenly symbols, they reflect his great power and sovereignty. 4.2. TextualIn a further Evidence: contextualization Transition from of Cakravartin the Buddhist to iconography,Sambhogakāya there is another level of interpretation for theThis symbols. raises the The question: emblems “What are found contemporary on the shoulders Buddhist of literary many crownedevidence Buddhasexists that wearing specifically the elaboratedescribes cape,the same which iconography as mentioned, of symbolizesa sambhogak Mt.āya?” Meru. Consequently, Hence, it is alsoI examined possible various that in VajrayBuddhistana¯ mediations,texts, such as the the sunMah andāvastu moon, the Avatamsaka symbols represent Sūtra, the the Mañjusr sun andīmūlakalpa moon,that the Guhyasam are visualizedāja Tantra to circle, and aroundthe Mah Mt.āvairocana Meru, aiding abhisa inṃbodhi the transformation Tantra, looking of space. for descriptions Therefore, the of effigies crowned are mostBuddhas likely and another the iconographicsambhogakāya elementnature. The that isdates chosen of the to reinforcetexts provide the notion a general of the understanding highest realm ofof attainmentthe religious in Akaniprincipless.t.ha onand Mt. practices Meru. Theythat were are also current symbols at the in yogictime of meditation this visual where record. the Although sun and moon this article motif represent the top chakras (Huntington and Bangdel 2003). Moreover, in Vajrayana¯ Buddhism, the emblems of the sun and moon can also symbolize the male and female principles, and are still used to represent18 According their to union Shashi in Bhushan esoteric Dasgupta methodology (1974), ( DasguptaVajrayāna Buddhism1974; Huntington practiced andin Nepal Bangdel uses 2003the sun; Twist and 2011moon).18 Thus, symbols the to visual express evidence male and indicates female. The that crescent the hallmark moon symbolizes symbols the that female consistently element, appearand the wereflame inside it is the male aspect, representing their union. The union of male and female as a symbol of non- duality is an important concept in esoteric methodologies. Perhaps the version of the crescent moon with the rosette sun on these images is an earlier prototype for this metaphor of non-duality through the union 17 Mt. Meru is conceptually the center of the Buddhist world system; it not a physical place, but a conceptual one, where almostof male all meditationand female. and Pairing all levels of of male Buddhist and attainmentsfemale donors occur. is Since also every found Buddha with hasthe attainedPaṭola highestŚāhi sculptures, enlightenment, see Mt.discussion Meru symbolism in (Twist is inherent2011). in all Buddhist artworks, architecture, and practice. See (Huntington 2003c). 18 According to Shashi Bhushan Dasgupta(1974), Vajray ana¯ Buddhism practiced in Nepal uses the sun and moon symbols to express male and female. The crescent moon symbolizes the female element, and the flame inside it is the male aspect, representing their union. The union of male and female as a symbol of non-duality is an important concept in esoteric Humanities 2018, 7, 92 16 of 31 possibly chosen and understood at a multivalent level to convey the iconography of an early form of esoteric sambhogakaya¯ Buddha.

4.2. Textual Evidence: Transition from Cakravartin to Sambhogakaya¯ This raises the question: “What contemporary Buddhist literary evidence exists that speciﬁcally describes the same iconography of a sambhogakaya¯ ?” Consequently, I examined various Buddhist texts, such as the Mahavastu¯ , the Avatamsaka Sutra¯ , the Mañjusr¯ımulakalpa¯ , the Guhyasamaja¯ Tantra, and the Mahavairocana¯ abhisam. bodhi Tantra, looking for descriptions of crowned Buddhas and the sambhogakaya¯ nature. The dates of the texts provide a general understanding of the religious principles and practices that were current at the time of this visual record. Although this article cannot discuss all of the texts in detail, the premise is that there is a clear development in the texts illustrating the iconographical conception of a crowned Buddha, which transitions from a cakravartin, and changes to then portray a sambhogakaya¯ aspect within Vajrayana¯ theoretical practices. This transition includes images of Vairocana Buddha as the archetypal sambhogakaya¯ .

4.3. Mahavastu¯ The Mahavastu¯ , an early Mahay¯ ana¯ Buddhist text, was compiled over a long period of time, so it is generally dated from the first to the fourth c. (Jones 1973–1978). It is a collection of history and legends regarding Sákyamuni¯ and other Buddhas. It is an example where magic powers and superhuman qualities are attributed to Sákyamuni¯ in the emanation body. Adjectives such as “transcendent”, the “king of dharma”, and “splendid in majesty” are used to describe Sákyamuni¯ (Jones 1973–1978). Although there are references to Sákyamuni¯ as a king, he is not directly called a universal king or cakravartin, nor is he described as wearing a crown. The term “universal king” is used throughout the text, but it is used for the 10th stage bodhisattvas in their last rebirth as a cakravartin king, which of course relates to Sákyamuni¯ (Jones 1973–1978). This is the text that is most commonly used to refer to the abhis.eka ceremony or coronation associated with the iconography of a royal crown on images of Sákyamuni.¯ Hence, in the text, the ascetic figure of Sákyamuni¯ developed into a transcendent Buddha endowed with great powers.19 The date of the text is too early for the established trikaya¯ system, and the sambhogakaya¯ body theory is not mentioned or implied in the Mahavastu¯ text.

4.4. Avatamsaka Sutra¯ (Flower Garland Sutra)¯ The Avatamsaka Sutra¯ was begun as early as the second century, with a comprehensive rendition existing by the early ﬁfth century (Cleary 1993). It is a Mahay¯ ana¯ text that is primarily about Vairocana (Intense Light) and spiritual experience. In addition, it is considered the precursor of later Tantras that centered on Mahavairocana¯ (Greatly Intense Light). Moreover, Shashi Bhushan Dasgupta(1974) said that the dharmakaya¯ ’s cosmological and ontological meaning in this sutra¯ lead to the development of the tantric concept of the primordial or Adi¯ Buddha. In the text, Sakyamuni,´ as a cakravartin, is no longer the primary Buddha. The new theory of sambhogakaya¯ is presented as a means to differentiate between the emanation body and the enjoyment body, so Vairocana is described as the universal Buddha. Therefore, it has a clear description of the dharmakaya¯ as Vairocana who resides in Akanis.t.ha (the realm of the sambhogakaya¯ beings), where he is the entirety of all of the Buddha realms and teachings (Huntington and Chandrasekhar 2000). It

methodologies. Perhaps the version of the crescent moon with the rosette sun on these images is an earlier prototype for this metaphor of non-duality through the union of male and female. Pairing of male and female donors is also found with the Pat.ola Sáhi¯ sculptures, see discussion in (Twist 2011). 19 However, the text does briefly mention the name of Vairocana in relation to a universal king. It says, “Suprabhasa was tathagata¯ and a perfect Buddha when the bodhisattva Maitreya, as the universal king Vairocana, was aiming at perfect enlightenment in the future and first acquired the roots of goodness” (Jones 1973–1978). Humanities 2018, 7, 92 17 of 31 states that the universe or dharmadhatu¯ realm is the Buddha, and the essence of Vairocana.20 Therefore, when Vairocana is visualized or depicted, it is generally understood that his sambhogakaya¯ nature personifies dharmakaya¯ . To indicate Vairocana’s status as a universal Buddha and early sambhogakaya¯ form in the sutra¯ , he is described as an intensely luminescent light, transcendent as the sun, pervading the whole universe. Vairocana is also described as purified by jewels and arrayed with adornments, or with marks of greatness, so that each limb is adorned with multiple jewels (Cleary 1993). The sutra¯ also contains the “Tenth Stage of Enlightenment”, which is the stage of coronation or anointment where receiving a crown represents the attainment of a Buddha as a symbol of all knowledge, including Vairocana. In this sutra¯ , Sákyamuni¯ is simultaneously present in several places in different forms, so at this point, it is important to discuss the hypostasis or conflation of Buddhas that will be seen in later iconography. In the text, while Sákyamuni¯ is sitting under the bodhi tree, he also ascends to the peak of Mt. Meru in Akanis.t.ha to preach to enlightened beings. In other words, Sákyamuni¯ is Vairocana, and they are just two different manifestations in two places. This happens in other Buddha fields (or Pure Lands) as well. The conflation of two seemingly different Buddhas indicates a conscious association of the two; therefore, the identity of a Buddha can be layered with the identity of sambhogakaya¯ Vairocana. In addition, using the Avatamsaka Sutra¯ and its 10th stage coronation to explain the iconography of a crowned Buddha, some scholars argue about when and where Sákyamuni¯ can appear as a crowned Buddha. As mentioned earlier, it is thought that crowned Buddhas represent the abhis.eka Buddhas in Tus.ita, and that bodhisattvas should be present as other figures in the composition. Yet in this text, it is clear that he is conflated with other Buddhas in other paradises, so the singular interpretation of the crown as only related to the abhis.eka ceremony does not hold up. Hence, by the time of this sutra¯ , the royal motif of a crown and the solar symbolism is clearly used as a signifier not only for a cakravartin, but also for a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha. It is obvious that the text is no longer referring to an all-powerful or transcendent Sákyamuni¯ Buddha, but rather, a cosmic principal of the universe: Vairocana, who is a dharmakaya¯ Buddha. There are several extant images that likely represent Vairocana in his Mahay¯ ana¯ sambhogakaya¯ form that relate to this text. The colossal Buddha carved at Longmen in Honan, China commissioned by the Empress Wu in 672–675 is identified as Vairocana. This representation of a giant Buddha is based on the Avatamsaka Sutra¯ , which was popular in China at that time. His transcendent light that emanates and pervades all things is symbolized through his flaming halo and mandorla. Moreover, the large size of the sculpture conveys the notion in the sutra¯ that he has a great cosmic body as a Universal Buddha. Both the eighth c. colossal Vairocana Buddha (Birushana) at Todai-ji¯ in Japan and the eighth c. Vairocana Buddha at Tosh¯ odai-ji¯ (with 1000 little Buddhas in his halo) were likely based on the same premise and sutra¯ . Although missing the solar symbolism, perhaps the colossal Buddha at Kargah, near Gilgit, is meant to represent Vairocana as the great Universal Buddha as well (Figure 22).

20 For discussion on the dharmadhatu¯ in the Avatamsaka, see (Grifﬁths 1994, 122 ff). Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 17 of 30 of Mt. Meru in Akaniṣṭha to preach to enlightened beings. In other words, Śākyamuni is Vairocana, and they are just two different manifestations in two places. This happens in other Buddha fields (or Pure Lands) as well. The conflation of two seemingly different Buddhas indicates a conscious association of the two; therefore, the identity of a Buddha can be layered with the identity of sambhogakāya Vairocana. In addition, using the Avatamsaka Sūtra and its 10th stage coronation to explain the iconography of a crowned Buddha, some scholars argue about when and where Śākyamuni can appear as a crowned Buddha. As mentioned earlier, it is thought that crowned Buddhas represent the abhiṣeka Buddhas in Tuṣita, and that bodhisattvas should be present as other figures in the composition. Yet in this text, it is clear that he is conflated with other Buddhas in other paradises, so the singular interpretation of the crown as only related to the abhiṣeka ceremony does not hold up. Hence, by the time of this sūtra, the royal motif of a crown and the solar symbolism is clearly used as a signifier not only for a cakravartin, but also for a sambhogakāya Buddha. It is obvious that the text is no longer referring to an all-powerful or transcendent Śākyamuni Buddha, but rather, a cosmic principal of the universe: Vairocana, who is a dharmakāya Buddha. There are several extant images that likely represent Vairocana in his Mahāyāna sambhogakāya form that relate to this text. The colossal Buddha carved at Longmen in Honan, China commissioned by the Empress Wu in 672–675 is identified as Vairocana. This representation of a giant Buddha is based on the Avatamsaka Sūtra, which was popular in China at that time. His transcendent light that emanates and pervades all things is symbolized through his flaming halo and mandorla. Moreover, the large size of the sculpture conveys the notion in the sūtra that he has a great cosmic body as a Universal Buddha. Both the eighth c. colossal Vairocana Buddha (Birushana) at Tōdai-ji in Japan and the eighth c. Vairocana Buddha at Tōshōdai-ji (with 1000 little Buddhas in his halo) were likely based on the same premise and sūtra. Although missing the solar symbolism, perhaps the colossal Buddha Humanitiesat Kargah,2018 near, 7, 92Gilgit, is meant to represent Vairocana as the great Universal Buddha as well (Figure18 of 31 22).

Figure 22. ColossalColossal Buddha, Buddha, seventh seventh to to eighth eighth century. Carved Carved into into cliffs cliffs at at Kargah Kargah near near Gilgit. https://explorebeautyofpakistan.com/gilgit-baltistan/gilgit-region/kargha-budhha/https://explorebeautyofpakistan.com/gilgit-baltistan/gilgit-region/kargha-budhha/. .

Vairocana’s early sambhogakayaā¯ya aspect was also depicted through other forms of of representation. representation. For example, the cave painting at Balawaste in CentralCentral Asia (seventh to eighth c.) depicts the concept of the universal and cosmic Vairocana by painting ornaments andand symbols onon the body of the Buddha (Figure 2323).). Vairocana Vairocana even has a solar symbol on his right shoulder and a crescent moon with a rosette on his left shoulder.shoulder. BanerjBanerjeeee ((1992)1992) suggestedsuggested thatthat hehe heldheld aa crowncrown inin hishis handshands thatthat isis nono longer present. Other images that are similar in includeclude a Vairocana Buddha painted on a banner from Dunhuang which is now in the British Museum, and others from Farhad-Beg, Kyzyl, Karashar, and China, some dated as early as thethe ﬁfthfifth toto sixthsixth c.c. ((HowardHoward 19861986).). Thus, the textual evidence of the Flower GarlandGarland SSutra¯ūtraindicates indicates an an understanding understanding of of the thesambhogak sambhogakaya¯ āformya form in Mahin Mahay¯ ana¯āyā Buddhism,na Buddhism, but Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 30 visually,but visually, the iconography the iconography of correlating of correlating images isimages still being is formulated.still being formulated. Although the Although iconography the successfullyiconography conveyssuccessfully a cosmic conveys and universala cosmic formand univ withersal solar form symbolism, with solar the extantsymbolism, Buddhas the doextant not yetBuddhas feature do crowns. not yet feature crowns.

Figure 23. Vairocana with crescent moon andand sunsun symbols.symbols. Painting from Balawaste, Central Asia, eighth c. National Museum, New Delhi, Stein CollectionCollection ofof CentralCentral AsianAsian Antiquities.Antiquities. PhotographPhotograph courtesy of John C. Huntington. Huntington. See See also also http:http://museumsoﬁndia.gov.in/repository/record/nat_del-//museumsofindia.gov.in/repository/record/nat_del-99- 99-1-46-46351-46-4635. .

4.5. Mañjusrīmūlakalpa The Mañjusrīmūlakalpa (hereafter called the Mmk) is another Buddhist text that was compiled over time and contains parts that might have existed independently at one time (Wallis 1999). It is suggested that Mmk 4 is the oldest, perhaps dating between the second and fourth century, while the remaining chapters are dated somewhere between the fifth and seventh centuries.21 However, Glenn Robert Wallis (1999) pointed out that it is clear that the Mmk documents a prevalent form of Buddhism practiced by the early eighth century. This text is important not only because it introduces many new Buddhist deities, but also because they are to be worshiped inside mandalas (sacred diagrams) through various rituals using mantras (sacred syllables or words) and mudrās (sacred hand gestures), which are all associated with Vajrayāna Buddhist practice.22 In the Mmk, the iconography is clearly set forth where sambhogakāya Buddhas are described as crowned and adorned with jewels and garments, including Mañjusrī and Ratnaketu (also known as the jina Buddha Akṣobhya). Interestingly, there is a crowned Buddha figure that is often identified as Mañjusrī (714 CE) from the Paṭola Śāhi dynasty in Gilgit that has these primary visual indicators to create a sambhogakāya Buddha with the crown and jewels and silk scarfs (Figure 9). Some scholars, such as Klimburg-Salter (1989), have attempted to use the explanation for an image of a crowned Buddha in the Mmk mandalas as a direct correlation to a coronation or abhiṣeka during the 10th stage. Klimburg-Salter stated that transcendent Śākyamuni is dressed as a king in the center of the mandala; however, it is Ratnakatu who is named in the text as being in the mandala. It is rightly so in Vajrayāna Buddhism that the abhiṣeka takes place in the mandala for the initiate, and there, the initiate identifies with the crowned Buddha. However, in theoretical application, it is not a nirmāṇakāya Buddha that one visualizes for identity transfer, but rather a sambhogakāya crowned Buddha. Therefore, the crowned Buddha in a mandala is best explained in the Mmk as the sambhogakāya nature manifesting the body of dharma. Thus, in the Mmk, there is a standard formula developed for the iconography of an enjoyment body Buddha, particularly with the crown, garments,

Humanities 2018, 7, 92 19 of 31

4.5. Mañjusr¯ımulakalpa¯ The Mañjusr¯ımulakalpa¯ (hereafter called the Mmk) is another Buddhist text that was compiled over time and contains parts that might have existed independently at one time (Wallis 1999). It is suggested that Mmk 4 is the oldest, perhaps dating between the second and fourth century, while the remaining chapters are dated somewhere between the fifth and seventh centuries.21 However, Glenn Robert Wallis(1999) pointed out that it is clear that the Mmk documents a prevalent form of Buddhism practiced by the early eighth century. This text is important not only because it introduces many new Buddhist deities, but also because they are to be worshiped inside mandalas (sacred diagrams) through various rituals using mantras (sacred syllables or words) and mudras¯ (sacred hand gestures), which are all associated with Vajrayana¯ Buddhist practice.22 In the Mmk, the iconography is clearly set forth where sambhogakaya¯ Buddhas are described as crowned and adorned with jewels and garments, including Mañjusr¯ı and Ratnaketu (also known as the jina Buddha Aks.obhya). Interestingly, there is a crowned Buddha figure that is often identified as Mañjusr¯ı (714 CE) from the Pat.ola Sáhi¯ dynasty in Gilgit that has these primary visual indicators to create a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha with the crown and jewels and silk scarfs (Figure9). Some scholars, such as Klimburg-Salter(1989), have attempted to use the explanation for an image of a crowned Buddha in the Mmk mandalas as a direct correlation to a coronation or abhis.eka during the 10th stage. Klimburg-Salter stated that transcendent Sákyamuni¯ is dressed as a king in the center of the mandala; however, it is Ratnakatu who is named in the text as being in the mandala. It is rightly so in Vajrayana¯ Buddhism that the abhis.eka takes place in the mandala for the initiate, and there, the initiate identifies with the crowned Buddha. However, in theoretical application, it is not a nirma¯n. akaya¯ Buddha that one visualizes for identity transfer, but rather a sambhogakaya¯ crowned Buddha. Therefore, the crowned Buddha in a mandala is best explained in the Mmk as the sambhogakaya¯ nature manifesting the body of dharma. Thus, in the Mmk, there is a standard formula developed for the iconography of an enjoyment body Buddha, particularly with the crown, garments, and jewels that are seen in contemporary images. It is a means of visualization and representation for the meditational construct of a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha, not nirman¯ . akaya¯ Sákyamuni.¯

4.6. Guhyasamaja¯ Tantra: (Secret Assembly Tantra) The Guhyasamaja¯ Tantra is dated by some to the third to fourth century or by others to the sixth to seventh century, with its explanatory Tantras written in the eighth to 12th centuries (Cunningham 2003).23 It is more systematic than the Mmk with a clear classification of the Vajrayana¯ Buddhist pantheon worshipped through mandalas, mantras, invocations, and mudras¯ . It includes the esoteric form of Mañjusr¯ı, as Guhyasamaja-Mañjuvajra,¯ and the esoteric pañca jina Buddhas with their prajῆas¯ or female counterparts (Cunningham 2003). The Buddhas are described as wearing the fully codified iconography consisting of the five silk items and the eight jeweled ornaments, particularly the crown, in order to manifest their esoteric sambhogakaya¯ nature.24 Moreover, Vairocana is referenced as becoming a supreme Buddha. As quoted by David Snellgrove(1959), “At that moment, (the yogin) becomes equal in radiance to Vairocana, (he becomes) Vajrasattva, the Great King, a Buddha, comprehending the vara of the threefold body.”

21 Scholars debate over the dates. Although Wallis(1999) said it is early, Rob Linrothe(1999) claimed it is from the sixth to seventh century, with later parts from the eighth century. 22 It is not within the scope of this article to argue whether this text is Mahay¯ ana¯ or early Vajrayana.¯ For the sake of this study, it is considered, at least, proto-Vajrayana¯ with many esoteric elements. 23 The GS tantra was originally associated with the Sarva Tathagata¯ Tattva Sam. graha in the sixth to seventh c. as a supreme uttaratantra in India. 24 For Tibetan images of Guhyasamaja¯ from the 12th and 15th c., see (Huntington and Bangdel 2003, pl. 134, 135; and Huntington and Huntington 1990, pl. 127). Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 19 of 30 and jewels that are seen in contemporary images. It is a means of visualization and representation for the meditational construct of a sambhogakāya Buddha, not nirmāṇakāya Śākyamuni.

4.6. Guhyasamāja Tantra: (Secret Assembly Tantra) The Guhyasamāja Tantra is dated by some to the third to fourth century or by others to the sixth to seventh century, with its explanatory Tantras written in the eighth to 12th centuries (Cunningham 2003).23 It is more systematic than the Mmk with a clear classification of the Vajrayāna Buddhist pantheon worshipped through mandalas, mantras, invocations, and mudrās. It includes the esoteric form of Mañjusrī, as Guhyasamāja-Mañjuvajra, and the esoteric pañca jina Buddhas with their prajῆās or female counterparts (Cunningham 2003). The Buddhas are described as wearing the fully codified iconography consisting of the five silk items and the eight jeweled ornaments, particularly the crown, in order to manifest their esoteric sambhogakāya nature. 24 Moreover, Vairocana is referenced as Humanitiesbecoming2018 a supreme, 7, 92 Buddha. As quoted by David Snellgrove (1959), “At that moment, (the yogin)20 of 31 becomes equal in radiance to Vairocana, (he becomes) Vajrasattva, the Great King, a Buddha, comprehending the vara of the threefold body.” The pañca jina Buddhas in the sutra¯ are also embodiments of the dharmakaya¯ , and as such, they play The pañca jina Buddhas in the sūtra are also embodiments of the dharmakāya, and as such, they a fundamental role in the conception of sambhogakaya¯ (Huntington 2003b).25 Iconographically, they play a fundamental role in the conception of sambhogakāya (Huntington 2003b).25 Iconographically, appear in sambhogakaya¯ form and are most often depicted with the characteristic enjoyment body traits, they appear in sambhogakāya form and are most often depicted with the characteristic enjoyment body in particular, the pañca jina crown mentioned earlier. Two sculptures from Kashmir (seventh to eighth traits, in particular, the pañca jina crown mentioned earlier. Two sculptures from Kashmir (seventh c.) represent the early iconography for the esoteric group of pañca jina Buddhas (Figures 24 and 25). to eighth c.) represent the early iconography for the esoteric group of pañca jina Buddhas (Figures 24 Both sculptures show the five transcendent Buddhas sitting in a row upon their vahanas¯ (vehicles). and 25). Both sculptures show the five transcendent Buddhas sitting in a row upon their vāhanas However, in these figures, only Vairocana is shown as a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha with a crown, jeweled (vehicles). However, in these figures, only Vairocana is shown as a sambhogakāya Buddha with a ornaments, and silk items; the other Buddhas are unadorned. This early iconography likely sets him crown, jeweled ornaments, and silk items; the other Buddhas are unadorned. This early iconography apart from the others in order to mark his primary role in Vajrayana¯ Buddhism as the totality of all five likely sets him apart from the others in order to mark his primary role in Vajrayāna Buddhism as the insights (Snellgrove 1978). Consequently, the Guhyasamaja¯ Tantra indicates a formulated iconography totality of all five insights (Snellgrove 1978). Consequently, the Guhyasamāja Tantra indicates a for the esoteric meditational construct of a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha that is also reflected, in part, in some formulated iconography for the esoteric meditational construct of a sambhogakāya Buddha that is also contemporary artworks from the Silk Road. reflected, in part, in some contemporary artworks from the Silk Road.

Figure 24. Paῆcaca jinajina BuddhasBuddhas withwith crowned crowned Vairocana, Vairocana, seventh seventh to to eighth eighth c. Kashmir.c. Kashmir. Brass. Brass. H14.7 H 14.7 cm W.cm 25.6W. 25.6 cm. Pocm. ta Po la ta Collection: la Collection: Li ma Li lha ma khang: lha kh inventoryang: inventory no. 567. no. Red567. Palace, Red Palace, Lhasa, Lhasa, Tibet. Tibet.https: Humanities//himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com/category/all/tibet/buddhas-masculine-form/amitabha/https://himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.co 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW m/category/all/tibet/buddhas-masculine- 20. of 30 form/amitabha/.

23 The GS tantra was originally associated with the Sarva Tathāgata Tattva Saṃgraha in the sixth to seventh c. as a supreme uttaratantra in India. 24 For Tibetan images of Guhyasamāja from the 12th and 15th c., see (Huntington and Bangdel 2003, pl. 134, 135; and Huntington and Huntington 1990, pl. 127). 25 Huntington (2003b) and Snellgrove (1978) explain that sambhogakāya jina Buddhas began with three Buddha families rather than five, consisting of the Tathāgata or Buddha Family (Vairocana), the Vajra family (Akṣobhya), and the Padma family (Amitābha). By the fourth to fifth century, the three developed into the five families, manifesting the jina Buddhas.

Figure 25. Paῆca jina Buddhas with crowned Vairocana. Possib Possiblele Kashmir originally, originally, now in Ladakh, Tibet, seventhseventh toto eightheighth c.c. Brass. Photograph courtesy of John C. Huntington.Huntington.

4.7. Mahāvairocana abhisaṃbodhi Tantra 25 Huntington(2003b) and Snellgrove(1978) explain that sambhogakaya¯ jina Buddhas began with three Buddha families rather The Mahāvairocana abhisaṃbodhi Tantra, which is also called the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (hereafter than five, consisting of the Tathagata¯ or Buddha Family (Vairocana), the Vajra family (Aks.obhya), and the Padma family called(Amit MVTabha).¯ ), Bywas the fourthmost tolikely fifth century,composed the three during developed the intofirs thet half five families,of the seventh manifesting century the jina Buddhas. according to Stephen Hodge (2003), who also said that it is one of the first fully developed extant tantras.26 In this tantra, Mahāvairocana is indeed a supreme Ādi or Primordial Buddha. 27 Thus, there is a clear reference to him as a sambhogakāya by describing him as blazing in light with his topknot, crown, and jeweled ornaments (Hodge 2003). Michael Saso (1990) pointed out that in the meditation, Vairocana is wearing the paῆca jina crown and is finely adorned. The imagery identifying Mahāvairocana as a sambhogakāya Buddha is further confirmed in the eighth century commentary on the sūtra by Buddhaguhya, where it directly states that Mahāvairocana is a sambhogakāya Buddha. In the MVT, Vairocana or Mahāvairocana as a transcendent Buddha not limited by time and space is also considered the universal sovereign. Tom Kasulis (2004) explained that the universe is a manifestation of the actions and deeds of Vairocana; thereby, this Buddha is at the core of everything in the cosmos. According to John Huntington (2003b), the Ādi Buddha “who, depending entirely on sectarian teachings, is actually the Dharmakaya or is a sambhoga kaya Buddha manifesting the Dharmakaya”. Therefore, Vairocana is the descriptor or manifestation of dharmakāya (Saso 1990; Huntington 2003b). In the MVT, it is clear from the prescribed practice and the text itself that Mahāvairocana is a mind-manifested being. It says, “Know your mind as it really is. That is, the supreme, full and perfect enlightenment” (Hodge 2003). In other words, to know enlightenment is to know Mahāvairocana. Hodge (2003) explained that he manifests all three bodies of the trikāya in the tantra.28 The dharmakāya is Mahāvairocana’s mind, and since it is formless, it cannot be directly manifested. In this aspect, he is an Ādi Buddha, generating the mandala of the mind. Therefore, he is an archetypal enjoyment body Buddha and Ādi Buddha, and now he is worshiped and visualized through Vajrayāna practices (Saso

26 The sūtra was taken to China by the monk Śubhākarasiṃha (637–735). Hodge (2003) suggested a date for the sūtra around 640 C.E., making it a true tantra of the early phase. Śubhākarasiṃha spent two years in Kashmir learning the tantra before going to China (Huntington 1981). The tantra then made it to Japan by the early ninth c. (Snellgrove 1959). This sūtra features the Gharbadhātu mandala with Vairocana at the center, and it is used in both Shingon and Tendai Buddhism in Japan. For a discussion of the transmission to Japan, see (Kiyota 1978, pp. 11–14). 27 Krishan (1971) and Coomaraswamy (1928) stated that N.G. Mazumder (1926–1927) suggested that the crowned Buddha is an Ādi Buddha; however, Krishan said this concept did not exist until the 10th c. Hodge’s (2003) more recent study on the MVT indicates that Mahāvairocana was an Ādi Buddha. 28 Vairocana and the mandala that he manifests embody the relationship of the trikāya. The center of the mandala is dharmakāya, then there is the sambhogakāya, and then on the outside, there are the nirmāṇakāya beings (Hodge 2003; Kiyota 1982).

Humanities 2018, 7, 92 21 of 31

4.7. Mahavairocana¯ abhisam. bodhi Tantra The Mahavairocana¯ abhisam. bodhi Tantra, which is also called the Mahavairocana¯ Sutra¯ (hereafter called MVT), was most likely composed during the first half of the seventh century according to Stephen Hodge (2003), who also said that it is one of the first fully developed extant tantras.26 In this tantra, Mahavairocana¯ is indeed a supreme Adi¯ or Primordial Buddha.27 Thus, there is a clear reference to him as a sambhogakaya¯ by describing him as blazing in light with his topknot, crown, and jeweled ornaments (Hodge 2003). Michael Saso(1990) pointed out that in the meditation, Vairocana is wearing the paῆca jina crown and is finely adorned. The imagery identifying Mahavairocana¯ as a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha is further confirmed in the eighth century commentary on the sutra¯ by Buddhaguhya, where it directly states that Mahavairocana¯ is a sambhogakaya¯ Buddha. In the MVT, Vairocana or Mahavairocana¯ as a transcendent Buddha not limited by time and space is also considered the universal sovereign. Tom Kasulis(2004) explained that the universe is a manifestation of the actions and deeds of Vairocana; thereby, this Buddha is at the core of everything in the cosmos. According to John Huntington(2003b), the Adi¯ Buddha “who, depending entirely on sectarian teachings, is actually the Dharmakaya or is a sambhoga kaya Buddha manifesting the Dharmakaya”. Therefore, Vairocana is the descriptor or manifestation of dharmakaya¯ (Saso 1990; Huntington 2003b). In the MVT, it is clear from the prescribed practice and the text itself that Mahavairocana¯ is a mind-manifested being. It says, “Know your mind as it really is. That is, the supreme, full and perfect enlightenment” (Hodge 2003). In other words, to know enlightenment is to know Mahavairocana.¯ Hodge(2003) explained that he manifests all three bodies of the trikaya¯ in the tantra.28 The dharmakaya¯ is Mahavairocana’s¯ mind, and since it is formless, it cannot be directly manifested. In this aspect, he is an Adi¯ Buddha, generating the mandala of the mind. Therefore, he is an archetypal enjoyment body Buddha and Adi¯ Buddha, and now he is worshiped and visualized through Vajrayana¯ practices (Saso 1990; Huntington and Chandrasekhar 2000; Huntington 2003b). Hence, the image of a crowned Buddha clearly evolved from the Mahay¯ ana¯ universal sovereign to an esoteric conception.29

5. Crowned Buddha as Adi¯ Buddha An Adi¯ Buddha is a primordial or supreme Buddha that is considered to be the essence of Buddhist dharma; they are dharmakaya¯ in Mahay¯ ana¯ and Vajrayana¯ Buddhism. Since the dharmakaya¯ is non-representational, a visual depiction of an Adi¯ Buddha is regarded as a sambhogakaya¯ manifestation (Huntington and Bangdel 2003). Some of the Adi¯ Buddhas include Vairocana, Vajrasattva, and Vajradhatu. Vairocana, as the embodiment of dharma, is the totality of the processes of the pañca jina Buddhas and an Adi¯ Buddha; therefore, he is the true teacher of esoteric Buddhism. In a conversation with John Huntington in 2005, he stated, “The Vairocana concept humanizes and reiﬁes the teachings

26 The sutra¯ was taken to China by the monk Subh´ akarasi¯ m. ha (637–735). Hodge(2003) suggested a date for the sutra¯ around 640 C.E., making it a true tantra of the early phase. Subh´ akarasi¯ m. ha spent two years in Kashmir learning the tantra before going to China (Huntington 1981). The tantra then made it to Japan by the early ninth c. (Snellgrove 1959). This sutra¯ features the Gharbadhatu¯ mandala with Vairocana at the center, and it is used in both Shingon and Tendai Buddhism in Japan. For a discussion of the transmission to Japan, see (Kiyota 1978, pp. 11–14). 27 Krishan(1971) and Coomaraswamy(1928) stated that N.G. Mazumder (1926–1927) suggested that the crowned Buddha is an Adi¯ Buddha; however, Krishan said this concept did not exist until the 10th c. Hodge’s (2003) more recent study on the MVT indicates that Mahavairocana¯ was an Adi¯ Buddha. 28 Vairocana and the mandala that he manifests embody the relationship of the trikaya.¯ The center of the mandala is dharmakaya¯ , then there is the sambhogakaya¯ , and then on the outside, there are the nirman¯ . akaya¯ beings (Hodge 2003; Kiyota 1982). 29 Claudine Bautze-Picron(2010) discussed Figure6 in this article and how the iconography relates to the Mahavairocana¯ abhisam. bodhi Tantra. She identified the naga figures in the base as associated with the goddess Aparajit¯ a¯ in the tantra; however, in the story, they give Sákaymuni¯ power to overcome demons while under the Bodhi tree. It is possible that this interpretation is correct, as Linrothe(2014) pointed out, but if it relates to the image of a crowned Buddha with the cape and the sun and moon symbols, I would think that the iconography of nagas would consistently also appear on the other images, but it does not. Humanities 2018, 7, 92 22 of 31 that generate all Buddhas.” In other words, Vairocana is implied in any and every Buddha, making him the perfect construct for the sambhogakaya¯ and Adi¯ Buddha. Vairocana in his sambhogakaya¯ form can be distinguished by the silk items and jeweled ornaments. Interestingly, in early esoteric artworks in Tibet, the iconography of the cape was used as a means to distinguish an Adi¯ Buddha from other Buddhas (Von Schroeder 2001). For example, the four-pointed cape is placed on a rock carving of Vairocana abhisam. bodhi (804–816 CE) at lDan ma brag in Eastern Tibet or Kahms (see Von Schroeder 2001, Figure xxi-9). The cape was also used in later images in Tibet to individualize the other Adi¯ Buddhas, such as Vajrasattva, Vajradhara, and Sarvavid Vairocana.

5.1. Representations of Mahavairocana:¯ Bodhyagr¯ ¯ı Mudra¯ The artworks depicting the concept of a universal dharmakaya¯ Buddha and theoretical practice of Vairocana as a meditational construct or sambhogakaya¯ become more consistent in their iconography by the seventh to eighth century along the Silk Road. He no longer appears solely as a luminescent, colossal, or cosmic representation. Rather, Vairocana is depicted with the specific characteristics of a sambhogakaya¯ that are described in the MVT, such as the crown, silk items (including those tied to the crown), and jeweled ornaments. Moreover, the sambhogakaya¯ and Adi¯ Buddha Mahavairocana¯ performs the bodhyagr¯ ¯ı mudra¯ that symbolizes supreme wisdom and immediate enlightenment. This mudra¯ is also called the bodhagr¯ ¯ı and the bodhyang¯ ¯ı mudra (fist of wisdom). The bodhyagr¯ ¯ı mudra¯ is formed by the index finger of the right hand pointing upwards, while the thumb and remaining fingers of the right hand make a fist. The fingers of the left hand wrap around the vertical right finger. As prescribed in the Sarva-tathagata-tattva-sa¯ m. graha (sixth to eighth c.) and the Sadhanam¯ al¯ a¯ for Vairocana, this mudra¯ is specific to Vairocana, because it represents the totality of the five transcendental insights of the pañca jina Buddhas.30 As such, Vairocana is a manifestation of the supreme or highest enlightenment of the five (Chandra and Snellgrove 1981; Wilson and Brauen 2000). Therefore, as Chandrasekhar(2004) explained, the bodhyagr¯ ¯ı mudra¯ of Vairocana is, in essence, an attribute that conveys his primary nature as a meditational tantric Buddha. In addition, this mudra¯ represents the union of wisdom and compassion, which is also representative of male and female principles in esoteric Buddhism (Huntington and Bangdel 2003; Snellgrove 1978). Therefore, it is the gesture or symbol of a promise of quick enlightenment; in other words, it is a symbol of the rapid Vajrayana¯ path. Thus, the bodhyagr¯ ¯ı mudra¯ denotes the highest enlightenment held by a dharmakaya¯ Buddha in esoteric Buddhism. This iconography unequivocally identifies the eighth c. sculpture of Mahavairocana¯ from Kashmir (Figure 26) and the seventh to eighth c. sculpture from Gilgit (Von Schroeder 2001, pl. 23E). There are three similar sculptures of Vairocana from Swat, one from the seventh c. (Figure 27) and the other two from the eighth and ninth c. (Figures 28 and 29). Another example is from Kashmir or Gilgit, dating to the ninth or early 10th c. (Figure 30). As esoteric constructs, they all consistently wear the silk items of the ribbons tied to the crown, a silk scarf, perhaps a sash at the waist, and the lower garment. They also wear the jeweled ornaments, including the crown, earrings, beaded necklace, armlets, bracelets, ring, and anklets. Thus, the iconography corresponds to Kün-zang Lama’s codified representation for a tantric sambhogakaya¯ Buddha.

30 The Sarva-tathagata-tattva-sa¯ m. graha is believed to have immediately followed the Mahavairocana-abhisa¯ m. bodhi Tantra with a more elaborate version translated by Amoghavajra in 753. Similar to the MVT, it is a fully developed Tantra with sophisticated practice and doctrine, using mandalas, mantras, mudras¯ , and yogin practices of transformation. It also focuses on Vairocana, with two major mandalas: Gharbadhatu¯ mandala from the MVT and the new Varjadhatu¯ mandala. At the center of the Garbhadhatu¯ mandala, Vairocana performs the samadhi¯ or dhyana mudra¯, while he performs the bodhyagr¯ ¯ı mudra¯ in the Vajradhatu¯ mandala (Hodge 2003). It is suggested that since the same forms of the mandalas are seen in the caves at Ajanta around the ﬁfth c., that there must have been some form of this Tantric soteriological methodology extant at that time (Huntington and Chandrasekhar 2000). Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 22 of 30

Humanitiesexplained, 2018 the, 7 , bodhyx FOR āPEERgrī mudrREVIEWā of Vairocana is, in essence, an attribute that conveys his primary22 of 30 nature as a meditational tantric Buddha. explained,In addition, the bodhy thisāgr mudrī mudrā ārepresents of Vairocana the is,union in essence, of wisdom an attribute and compassion, that conveys which his primary is also naturerepresentative as a meditational of male and tantric female Buddha. principles in esoteric Buddhism (Huntington and Bangdel 2003; SnellgroveIn addition, 1978). Therefore,this mudr āit isrepresents the gesture the or unionsymbol of of wisdoma promise and of quick compassion, enlightenment; which inis otheralso representativewords, it is a symbolof male ofand the female rapid principlesVajrayāna in path. esoteric Thus, Buddhism the bodhy (Huntingtonāgrī mudrā denotes and Bangdel the highest 2003; Snellgroveenlightenment 1978). held Therefore, by a dharmak it is theāya gestureBuddha or in symbol esoteric of Buddhism. a promise of quick enlightenment; in other words,This it isiconography a symbol of unequivocally the rapid Vajray identifiāna path.es the Thus, eighth the c. bodhy sculptureāgrī mudr of āMah denotesāvairocana the highest from enlightenmentKashmir (Figure held 26) byand a dharmakthe seventhāya Buddhato eighth in c. esoteric sculpture Buddhism. from Gilgit (Von Schroeder 2001, pl. 23E). ThereThis are iconographythree similar sculpturesunequivocally of Vairocana identifies fr omthe Swat,eighth one c. fromsculpture the seventh of Mah c.ā vairocana(Figure 27) from and Kashmirthe other (Figuretwo from 26) the and eighth the seventh and ninth to eighth c. (Figures c. sculpture 28 and from29). Another Gilgit (Von example Schroeder is from 2001, Kashmir pl. 23E). or ThereGilgit, aredating three to similarthe ninth sculptures or early 10th of Vairocana c. (Figure 30).from As Swat, esoteric one cons fromtructs, the seventh they all c.consistently (Figure 27) wear and the othersilk items two offrom the the ribbons eighth tied and to ninth the crown, c. (Figures a silk 28 scarf, and perhaps 29). Another a sash example at the waist, is from and Kashmir the lower or Gilgit,garment. dating They to alsothe ninthwear or the early jeweled 10th c.ornaments, (Figure 30). including As esoteric the cons crown,tructs, earrings, they all consistentlybeaded necklace, wear thearmlets, silk items bracelets, of the ring, ribbons and anklets.tied to the Thus, crown, the ic aonography silk scarf, perhaps corresponds a sash to atKün-zang the waist, Lama’s and the codified lower garment.representation They foralso a tantricwear the sambhogak jeweledā yaornaments, Buddha. including the crown, earrings, beaded necklace, Humanitiesarmlets, bracelets,2018, 7, 92 ring, and anklets. Thus, the iconography corresponds to Kün-zang Lama’s codified23 of 31 representation for a tantric sambhogakāya Buddha.

Figure 26. Mahāvairocana in sambhogakāya form performing the bodhyāgrī mudrā, eighth c. Kashmir. Brass. Sri Pratap Singh Museum, Srinagar, Kashmir. Photograph from Pal, Bronzes of Kashmir, pl. 37. Figure 26. Mahāavairocana¯vairocana in sambhogakāaya¯ya formform performing performing the the bodhybodhyāagr¯grī¯ı mudrmudrāa,¯, eighth eighth c. c. Kashmir. Kashmir. Brass. Sri Pratap Singh Museum, Srinagar, Kashmir. Photograph fromfrom Pal,Pal, BronzesBronzes ofof KashmirKashmir,, pl.pl. 37.37.

Figure 27.27. VairocanaVairocana in insambhogak sambhogakaya¯ āyaform form performing performing the thebodhy bodhyagr¯ ¯ıā mudrgrī mudra¯, seventhā, seventh c. Swat. c. Swat. Brass Brass with

silverwith inlaysilver eyes andinlay copper inlayeyes lips, 19and cm H. https://himalayanbuddhistart.ﬁles.wordpress.com/copper inlay lips, 19 cm H. HumanitiesFigure2012/10/7th-c-swat-valley-vairocana-brasssil-inlay-19-cm-rossi.jpghttps://himalayanbuddhistart.file 2018 27., 7 ,Vairocana x FOR PEER in REVIEW sambhogak s.wordpress.com/2012/10/7th-c-swat-valley-vairocana-brasssil-āya form performing the bodhyāgr. ī mudrā, seventh c. Swat. Brass23 of 30 withinlay-19-cm-rossi.jpg. silver inlay eyes and copper inlay lips, 19 cm H. https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/7th-c-swat-valley-vairocana-brasssil- inlay-19-cm-rossi.jpg.

Figure 28. Vairocana in sambhogaksambhogakayaā¯ya form performing the bodhyāagr¯grī¯ı mudr āa¯,, eighth to to ninth c. Swat. Swat. Copper alloy withalloy silver inlay.with Private collection.silver https://himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com/inlay. Private collection. category/all/swat-valley-area/#jp-carousel-15485https://himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com/category/all/swat. -valley-area/#jp-carousel-15485.

Figure 29. Vairocana in sambhogakāya form performing the bodhyāgrī mudrā, eighth to ninth c. Swat. Bronze with silver inlay. 12.7 cm H. Private Collection. https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/8-9th-c-swat-valley-vairocana-bronzesil- eyes-127-cm-christies.jpg.

Figure 30. Vairocana in sambhogakāya form performing the bodhyāgrī mudrā, ninth to early 10th c. From Pakistan (possibly Gilgit region). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism#/media/ File:MET_DT5714.jpg.

5.2. Representations of Mahāvairocana: Dharmacakra-Pravartana Mudrā Some scholars have argued that a figure can only be identified as Vairocana if he is performing the bodhyāgrī mudrā. However, there is another mudrā that acts as an iconographic signifier to identify Vairocana, although it is perhaps less known. It is the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra (Snellgrove 1978; Huntington and Chandrasekhar 2000; Von Schroeder 2001). This mudrā refers to the turning or

Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 30 Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 23 of 30

Figure 28. Vairocana in sambhogakāya form performing the bodhy āgrī mudrā, eighth to ninth c. Swat. FigureCopper 28. Vairocanaalloy in sambhogakwithāya form performingsilver the inlay.bodhyā grī mudrPrivateā, eighth to ninthcollection. c. Swat. HumanitiesCopperhttps://himalayanbuddhistart.w2018 , 7, 92 alloy withordpress.com/category/all/swat silver inlay.-valley-area/#jp-carousel-15485. Private collection. 24 of 31 https://himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com/category/all/swat-valley-area/#jp-carousel-15485.

Figure 29. Vairocana in sambhogakāya form performing the bodhy āgrī mudrā, eighth to ninth c. Swat. FigureBronze 29. Vairocanawith in sambhogaksilver āaya¯yainlay. form performing 12.7 the thecm bodhy āagr¯grH.ī¯ı mudr mudr āa¯,, Privateeighth eighth to to ninth ninthCollection. c. c. Swat. Swat. Bronzehttps://himalayanbuddhistart.file with silverwith inlay.silver 12.7 cm H.s.wordpress.com/2012/10/8-9th-c-sw Privateinlay. Collection.12.7 https://himalayanbuddhistart.ﬁles.wordpress.cm H. at-valley-vairocana-bronzesil-Private Collection. https://himalayanbuddhistart.filecom/2012/10/8-9th-c-swat-valley-vairocana-bronzesil-eyes-127-cm-christies.jpgeyes-127-cm-christies.jpg. s.wordpress.com/2012/10/8-9th-c-swat-valley-vairocana-bronzesil-. eyes-127-cm-christies.jpg.

FigureFigure 30. Vairocana inin sambhogaksambhogakaya¯āya formform performingperforming thethe bodhybodhyagr¯āgr¯ıī mudrmudra¯ā,, ninthninth toto earlyearly 10th10th c.c. FromFrom FigurePakistanPakistan 30. (possibly Vairocana(possibly Gilgit inGilgit sambhogak region). region). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism#/media/File:āya form https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism#/media/ performing the bodhyāgrī mudrā, ninth to early 10th c. From PakistanMET_DT5714.jpgFile:MET_DT5714.jpg. (possibly. Gilgit region). https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandharan_Buddhism#/media/ File:MET_DT5714.jpg. 5.2.5.2. Representations ofof MahMahavairocana:¯āvairocana: Dharmacakra-Pravartana MudrMudra¯ā 5.2. Representations of Mahāvairocana: Dharmacakra-Pravartana Mudrā SomeSome scholarsscholars have argued that a figurefigure can only be identifiedidentified as Vairocana ifif hehe isis performingperforming thethe bodhybodhySomeagr¯ā grscholars¯ıī mudrmudra¯ā ..have However, argued therethere that isis a anotheranotherfigure can mudrmudr onlya¯ā thatthat be identified actsacts asas an iconographicas Vairocana signifierifsignifier he is performing toto identify theVairocana,Vairocana, bodhyāgr althoughalthoughī mudrā. However, itit isis perhapsperhaps there lessless is known. known.another It mudr is theā that dharmacakra-pravartana acts as an iconographic mudra signifier (Snellgrove(Snellgrove to identify 1978;1978; Vairocana,HuntingtonHuntington although andand Chandrasekhar Chandrasekhar it is perhaps 2000 less 2000;; Vonknown. Von Schroeder ItSchroeder is the 2001 dharmacakra-pravartana ).2001). This mudrThis a¯mudrrefersā to refersmudra the turning to(Snellgrove the orturning teaching 1978; or Huntingtonof the wheel and of Buddhist Chandrasekhar law. Typically, 2000; Von in the Schroederdharmacakra 2001). mudra This, the mudr wheelā refers is formed to the by turning the thumb or and forefinger of the right hand in front of the chest, or where the seat of the heart–mind lies, while the index or second finger of the left hand points to the wheel. In the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯, the right hand is creating the same wheel; however, the little or fourth finger of the left hand points to the wheel instead (Huntington and Chandrasekhar 2000). While there are images of a Buddha using the index finger or the third or ring finger to point to the wheel, the symbolic meaning of the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ especially relates to the use of the fourth finger of the left hand touching the dharmacakra formed in the right hand.31 Huntington and Chandrasekhar( 2000) suggested that since a mudra¯ is a symbolic language, there is a sequential progression counted on the fingers in the mudra¯s that refers to a specific category of Buddhist teaching. In this case, this fourth or little finger pointing to the forefinger of the right hand refers to the fourth

31 For a discussion of some related images, see (Huntington and Chandrasekhar 2000). Humanities 2018, 7, 92 25 of 31

Buddhist teaching. They suggest that this might relate to the teachings of Zhiyi, the founder of the Tendai sect (Huntington and Chandrasekhar 2000).32 Zhiyi divided Sákyamuni’s¯ teachings into five categories. The first category refers to the moment of Sákyamuni’s¯ enlightenment and victory over Mara when he goes to Akanis.t.ha and teaches as Vairocana. The second teaching refers to the First Sermon at Deer Park, or what is known as Hinayana¯ or Sravakayana¯ Buddhism. The third category is the Mahay¯ ana¯ Buddhist teachings. Since esoteric Buddhism is the last and most complex of the Buddhist teachings, it is suggested that the fourth teaching refers to Vajrayana¯ Buddhism. Therefore, the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ is not only another means of depicting Vairocana as a sambhogakaya¯ and Adi¯ Buddha—the embodiment of dharmakaya—¯ it is also another symbolic reference to esoteric Buddhist teachings, which are the quickest and highest method of enlightenment through Vajrayana¯ Buddhism. The dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ is known to be performed by Vairocana Buddha in the Durgatipari´sodhana mandala in the eighth to ninth c. Ni´spannaYogaval¯ı (Garland of Perfection Yoga) (Skorupski 1983). In the text, Vairocana is dressed in the monastic robes of Sákyamuni¯ (meaning he is unadorned) and performs this mudra (Von Schroeder 2001).33 Chandrasekhar(2004) explained that the mudras¯ of Vairocana can also serve to underscore his sambhogakaya¯ identity. In Buddhism, a mudra¯ is defined as a sign or a seal. It is a symbolic mark or seal of a vow to lead sentient beings to enlightenment; therefore, it is a visual manifestation of the permanent and absolute dharma. In other words, since he embodies the ultimate state of Buddhahood, he does not need an attribute; his mudra¯ is his symbol or promise. As the manifestation of dharmakaya¯ , Vairocana does not need the crown and silks, since this mudra¯ also serves as a signifier of his mind-manifested sambhogakaya¯ nature as an Adi¯ Buddha. It is no surprise that the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ is also found in images along the Silk Road, such as three Buddhas from Kashmir dating to the seventh to eighth century (Figures 31–33).34 There is one from Swat as well, although it is dated much later (see Klimburg-Salter 1982, pl. 113). As the text describes, the unadorned Buddhas wear monastic robes and perform this mudra.¯ 35 Through the iconographic signifier of the mudra¯, they can be identified as Vairocana or Mahavairocana:¯ the quintessential enjoyment body Buddha.

32 For a detailed discussion of the Five Periods of Teaching, see (Chegwan 1983, pp. 55–61). 33 Without a complete understanding of the iconography, von Schroeder suggested that when Sákyamuni¯ made the mudra¯, it represented the First Sermon, but on other images, it just represented the wheel of the dharma, 118. For a further discussion on the meaning of a mudra¯, see (Beer 1999, pp. 149–50). 34 Examples of the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ can be found as early as the caves at Ajanta (Huntington 1981 and Snellgrove 1978). An image in Cave 4, dating to the fifth century, shows a Buddha performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯. The dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ is found frequently, and remained consistent throughout West India; thereby, it is suggested that it must be an iconographic convention based on a particular teaching (Huntington and Chandrasekhar 2000). Moreover, in several caves at Aurangabad, especially caves 6 and 7, the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ is performed by a Vairocana Buddha and a Maitreya Buddha, respectively. These caves date to the sixth century (Huntington 1981). 35 In addition, some of these unadorned Buddhas feature the flaming jewel as a bindu on top of his merujata¯ hair arrangement that indicates his yogic attainments and identifies him as Mahavairocana.¯ Humanities 2018, 7, 92 26 of 31 Humanities 2018,, 7,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 25 of 30

Figure 31.31. VairocanaVairocana BuddhaBuddha performingperformingperforming thethethe dharmacakra-pravartanadharmacakra-pravartana mudrmudra¯ā... circa circa 725–750.725–750.725–750. India,India, India, JammuJammu andand and Kashmir,Kashmir, Kashmir, KashmirKashmir Kashmir region,region, region, SouthSouth South Asia.Asia. Asia. BrassBrass Brass inlaidinlaid inlaid withwith with silver.silver. silver. 1616 ×× 88 16 1/21/2× ×× 8 33 1/25/85/8 in.in.× (40.64(40.643 5/8 ×in. 21.59 (40.64 ×× 21.599.2 ×cm).9.2 cm).Nasli Nasli and and Alice HeeramaneckHeeramaneck Collection Collection (M.69.13.5). (M.69.13.5). LACMA. LACMA. https: //collections.lacma.org/node/236668https://collections.lacma.org/node/236668..

Figure 32. VairocanaVairocana Buddha Buddha performing performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrmudra¯ā... Kashmir Kashmir eighth eighth c. c. GildedGilded bronze, BritishBritish MuseumMuseum (1953,0718.1) (1953,0718.1) http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/ http://www.britishmuseum.org/researitishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/ collection_object_details/collection_image_gallercollection_object_details/collection_image_gallery.aspx?assetId=57550001&objectId=247419&y.aspx?assetId=57550001&objectId=247419&partId=1. Copyright@partId=1. Copyright@ Trustees of Trustees the British of theMuseum. British Museum.

Figure 33. VairocanaVairocanaVairocana BuddhaBuddha performingperforming the the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrmudra¯ā... 7th7th c. c. Kashmir.Kashmir. Kashmir. BrassBrass withwith cold gold and pigments from Ti Tibet.bet. https://himalayanbuddhistart.ﬁles.wordpress.com/2015/08/7th-https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/7th-c-.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/7th-c- kashmir-shakyamuni-brasspig-c-kashmir-shakyamuni-brasspig-232-cm-karkota-potala.jpg232-cm-karkota-potala.jpg. .

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Humanities 2018,, 7,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 26 of 30 Moreover, the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ is commonly found on the Patola Sáhi¯ Buddhas (Twist Moreover, the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā isis commonlycommonly foundfound onon thethe. PaPaṭṭola Śāhi Buddhas 2011). Four similar Patola Sáhi¯ Vairocana Buddhas dating from the seventh to eighth c. are unadorned, (Twist(Twist 2011).2011). FourFour similarsimilar. PaPaṭṭola Śāhi Vairocana Buddhas dating from the seventh to eighth c. are wear monastic robes, and perform the dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ (Figures 34–36). Interestingly, unadorned, wear monastic robes, and perform the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā (Figures(Figures 34–36).34–36). several crowned Buddhas from the Patola Sáhi¯ dynasty featuring jewelry, flowing silk ribbons, a cape, Interestingly,Interestingly, severalseveral crownedcrowned BuddhasBuddhas. fromfrom thethe PaPaṭṭola Śāhi dynasty featuring jewelry, flowing silk and a crescent moon with a sun, perform the same mudra¯ as well, and therefore can likely be identified ribbons, a cape, and a crescent moon with a sun, perform the same mudrā asas well,well, andand thereforetherefore cancan as Vairocana (Figures5,6, 10 and 11). In addition, a Buddha with all of the similar iconographic likelylikely bebe identifiedidentified asas VairocanaVairocana (Figures(Figures 5,5, 6,6, 1010 andand 11).11). InIn addition,addition, aa BuddhaBuddha withwith allall ofof thethe similarsimilar emblems comes from seventh Kashmir (Figure 37), while another similar Vairocana Buddha from the iconographiciconographic emblemsemblems comescomes fromfrom seventhseventh KashmirKashmir (Figure(Figure 37),37), whilewhile anotheranother similarsimilar VairocanaVairocana seventh to eighth c. comes from Gilgit or Kashmir (Figure 38). Buddha from the seventh to eighth c. comes from Gilgit or Kashmir (Figure 38).

Figure 34. BuddhaBuddha performingperforming thethe dharmacakra-pravartanadharmacakra-pravartana mudr mudrāa¯.. FromFrom From aa a pairpair ofof paintedpainted coverscovers fromfrom ṃ ṭ ṃ Manuscript 3, Samṃ. ghāa¯.tṭa S ūutra¯tratra,, commissionedcommissioned by by Deva´sirikDevaDevaśirikirikāa¯ andand AtthocasiAtthocasimṃ. gha, 627/628 C.E. C.E. Gilgit. Gilgit. Pigment onon birch birch bark. bark. 9” 9”× 3”.× 3”. Museum Museum of the of Institute the InstituteInstitute of Central ofof CentralCentral Asian Studies AsianAsianat StudiesStudies Kashmir atat University, KashmirKashmir University,Srinigar, Kashmir. Srinigar, http://travelthehimalayas.com/kiki/2018/7/21/the-gilgit-manuscripts Kashmir. http://travelthehimalayas.com/kikittp://travelthehimalayas.com/kiki/2018/7/21/the-gilgit-manuscripts./2018/7/21/the-gilgit-manuscripts..

Figure 35. VairocanaVairocana Buddha performingperforming thethe dharmacakra-pravartanadharmacakra-pravartana mudrmudrāa¯.. Approx.Approx. 675–722675–722 675–722 C.E.C.E. C.E. Kashmir or Gilgit. Brass Brass with with copper copper and and silver silver inlay. inlay. 30.3 30.3 cm cm H. H. Po Po ta ta la la Collection: Collection: Li Li ma ma lha lha khang: khang: inventoryinventory no.no. 1383. 1383. Red Red Palace,Palace, Lhasa,Lhasa,Lhasa, Tibet.Tibet.Tibet. https://himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com/category/ hhttps://himalayanbuddhistartttps://himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com/category/.wordpress.com/category/ all/gilgit/#jp-carousel-178.all/gilgit/#jp-carousel-178 .

Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 26 of 30

Moreover, the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā is commonly found on the Paṭola Śāhi Buddhas (Twist 2011). Four similar Paṭola Śāhi Vairocana Buddhas dating from the seventh to eighth c. are unadorned, wear monastic robes, and perform the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā (Figures 34–36). Interestingly, several crowned Buddhas from the Paṭola Śāhi dynasty featuring jewelry, flowing silk ribbons, a cape, and a crescent moon with a sun, perform the same mudrā as well, and therefore can likely be identified as Vairocana (Figures 5, 6, 10 and 11). In addition, a Buddha with all of the similar iconographic emblems comes from seventh Kashmir (Figure 37), while another similar Vairocana Buddha from the seventh to eighth c. comes from Gilgit or Kashmir (Figure 38).

Figure 34. Buddha performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā. From a pair of painted covers from Manuscript 3, Saṃghāṭa Sūtra, commissioned by Devaśirikā and Atthocasiṃgha, 627/628 C.E. Gilgit. Pigment on birch bark. 9” × 3”. Museum of the Institute of Central Asian Studies at Kashmir University, Srinigar, Kashmir. http://travelthehimalayas.com/kiki/2018/7/21/the-gilgit-manuscripts.

Figure 35. Vairocana Buddha performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā. Approx. 675–722 C.E. Kashmir or Gilgit. Brass with copper and silver inlay. 30.3 cm H. Po ta la Collection: Li ma lha khang: Humanitiesinventory2018, 7 no., 92 1383. Red Palace, Lhasa, Tibet. https://himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com/category/28 of 31 all/gilgit/#jp-carousel-178.

Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 30 Humanities 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 27 of 30

FigureFigure 36. Vairocana 36. Vairocana Buddha Buddha performing performingthe the dharmacakra-pravartanadharmacakra-pravartana mudr mudrā. Commissioneda¯. Commissioned by Var byṣa, Var s.a, Figure 36. Vairocana Buddha performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā. Commissioned by Varṣa, 645 or645 654 or C.E. 654 KashmirC.E. Kashmir or Gilgit. or Gilgit. Brass. Brass. 29 cm 29 H.cm Anna H. Anna Maria Maria Rossi Rossi and and Fabio Fabio Rossi Rossi Collection Collection (88515). 645 or 654 C.E. Kashmir or Gilgit. Brass. 29 cm H. Anna Maria Rossi and Fabio Rossi Collection https://www.himalayanart.org/items/88515(88515). https://www.himalayanart.org/items/88515.. Copyright@ Copyright@ 2018 2018 Himalayan Himalayan Art Art Resources Resources Inc. Inc. (88515). https://www.himalayanart.org/items/88515. Copyright@ 2018 Himalayan Art Resources Inc.

Figure 37. Vairocana Buddha wearing a crown and cape with crescent moon and sun symbols FigureFigure 37. 37.Vairocana Vairocana Buddha Buddha wearing wearing aa crowncrown and cape cape with with crescent crescent moon moon and and sun sunsymbols symbols performing the dharmacakra-pravartana mudrā, seventh c. Kashmir. Brass with silver inlay. Private performingperforming the thedharmacakra-pravartana dharmacakra-pravartana mudr mudrā,a¯ ,seventh seventh c. Kashmir. c. Kashmir. Brass with Brass silver withinlay. silverPrivate inlay. collection. https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/7th-c-kashmir-shakyamuni- Privatecollection. collection. https://himalayanbu https://himalayanbuddhistart.ﬁles.wordpress.com/2012/11/7th-c-kashmir-ddhistart.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/7th-c-kashmir-shakyamuni- brasssil-inlaid-eyes.jpg. shakyamuni-brasssil-inlaid-eyes.jpgbrasssil-inlaid-eyes.jpg. .

Figure 38. Vairocana Buddha wearing a crown and jewelry performing the dharmacakra-pravartana Figure 38. Vairocana Buddha wearing a crown and jewelry performing the dharmacakra-pravartana Figuremudr 38.ā, Vairocanaseventh to Buddha eighth wearing c. Gilgit a crownor Kashmi and jewelryr. Brass performing with silver the anddharmacakra-pravartana copper inlay. mudrā, seventh to eighth c. Gilgit or Kashmir. Brass with silver and copper inlay. mudrhttps://himalayanbuddhistaa¯, seventh to eighthrt.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/7th-8th c. Gilgit or Kashmir. Brass-c-gilgit-vairocana-brasssil-eyescop- with silver and copper inlay. https://himalayanbuddhistart.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/7th-8th-c-gilgit-vairocana-brasssil-eyescop- https://himalayanbuddhistart.ﬁles.wordpress.com/2015/08/7th-8th-c-gilgit-vairocana-brasssil-lips-beaded-textile-2-donors-sharada-inscrip-identify-patron-bonhams.jpg. lips-beaded-textile-2-donors-sharada-inscrip-identify-patron-bonhams.jpg. eyescop-lips-beaded-textile-2-donors-sharada-inscrip-identify-patron-bonhams.jpg. 6. Conclusions 6. Conclusions Overall, there is a clear pattern of deliberate core iconographic elements that recur on crowned Overall, there is a clear pattern of deliberate core iconographic elements that recur on crowned Buddha figures from the extant visual record of the Silk Road. On one level, the ideology could be Buddha figures from the extant visual record of the Silk Road. On one level, the ideology could be intended to convey the notion of a cakravartin Buddha. Yet, I suggest that scholars do not need to intended to convey the notion of a cakravartin Buddha. Yet, I suggest that scholars do not need to restrict it to a singular interpretation. Rather, an analysis and contextualization reveals there is a restrict it to a singular interpretation. Rather, an analysis and contextualization reveals there is a multilayered significance to the crowned Buddha. The iconography presents a coded visual language multilayered significance to the crowned Buddha. The iconography presents a coded visual language to manifest a transcendent form of an enjoyment body Buddha. Therefore, the crown, silk ribbons, to manifest a transcendent form of an enjoyment body Buddha. Therefore, the crown, silk ribbons, ornaments, and possibly the jeweled cape are iconographic signifiers of a sambhogakāya meditational ornaments, and possibly the jeweled cape are iconographic signifiers of a sambhogakāya meditational construct. Moreover, the visual and textual evidence demonstrate the potential for some of these construct. Moreover, the visual and textual evidence demonstrate the potential for some of these

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6. Conclusions Overall, there is a clear pattern of deliberate core iconographic elements that recur on crowned Buddha figures from the extant visual record of the Silk Road. On one level, the ideology could be intended to convey the notion of a cakravartin Buddha. Yet, I suggest that scholars do not need to restrict it to a singular interpretation. Rather, an analysis and contextualization reveals there is a multilayered significance to the crowned Buddha. The iconography presents a coded visual language to manifest a transcendent form of an enjoyment body Buddha. Therefore, the crown, silk ribbons, ornaments, and possibly the jeweled cape are iconographic signifiers of a sambhogakaya¯ meditational construct. Moreover, the visual and textual evidence demonstrate the potential for some of these Buddhas to be identified as the esoteric archetypal sambhogakaya¯ and Adi¯ Buddha Vairocana in Akanis.t.ha. Thus, Vairocana can be identified not only through the sambhogakaya¯ traits, but also with the two mudras¯ that serve as attributes and identifiers. Both the bodhyagr¯ ¯ı and dharmacakra-pravartana mudra¯ denote the highest enlightenment held by a dharmakaya¯ Buddha in esoteric Buddhism, and thus convey his primary nature as a meditational tantric Buddha. Therefore, the iconography constructs Vairocana as a paradigm for early Vajrayana¯ symbology, practice, and attainment.36 Thus, the prolific examples from the various locations along the Silk Road demonstrate a systematic form of transmission and religious syncretism in both iconography and ideology.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest in the publication of this article.

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