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Soil Mobility of Allyl Isothiocyanate and Chloropicrin As Influenced By

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Soil Mobility of Allyl Isothiocyanate and Chloropicrin As Influenced By HORTSCIENCE 54(4):706–714. 2019. https://doi.org/10.21273/HORTSCI13836-18 and some soil arthropods, but it provides little control of fungi and weeds, whereas Met-Na controls weeds, nematodes, and some fungi. CP Soil Mobility of Allyl Isothiocyanate controls insects and fungi, but it has less activity against nematodes and weeds (Ajwa and Trout, and Chloropicrin as Influenced by 2004). The most promising MeBr alternatives are chloropicrin and Met-Na (Gao et al., 2012; Surfactants and Soil Texture Jacoby, 2016; Klose et al., 2008; Yates et al., 2002); therefore, more than 7000 tons of chlo- Feras Almasri ropicrin were used in 2011 (Nelson et al., 2013) Department of Plant Sciences, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA in California. 95616 Although Met-Na is an effective fumigant (Nelson et al., 2002), the use of Met-Na is Husein A. Ajwa strongly regulated due to the excessive soil fu- Department of Plant Sciences, University of California at Davis, 1636 East migant release into the atmosphere (Goodhue et al., 2016; Saeed et al., 1997). Because of Alisal Street, Salinas, CA 93905 this excessive release into the atmosphere, Sanjai J. Parikh Met-Na, Met-K, and DMTT labels require wide buffer zones and specific measures to University of California at Davis, Department of Land, Air and Water protect people from off-target movement Resources, Davis, CA 95616 (Guthman and Brown, 2016). Furthermore, 1 Met-Na, Met-K, and DMTT degrade in soil Kassim Al-Khatib to MITC, which is classified as a toxicity I Department of Plant Sciences, University of California at Davis, Davis, CA category pesticide (Gao et al., 2012; Klose 95616 et al., 2008). Recently, the United States Environmen- Additional index words. methyl bromide alternatives, allyl isothiocyanate, chloropicrin, tal Protection Agency (EPA) approved the surfactant, drip fumigation, fumigant alternatives registration of synthetic AITC as a preplant Abstract. Methyl bromide (MeBr) was identified as a stratospheric ozone depletory; soil bio-fumigant (Isagro, 2016). AITC is a therefore, the use of MeBr was phased out in the United States in 2005. Chloropicrin (CP) natural product produced by Brassica plants and allyl isothiocyanate (AITC) are MeBr replacements. A mixture of CP and AITC is to defend against insects and diseases (Ahuja commonly applied to broaden the pest control spectrum. These two fumigants have low et al., 2010). Brassica plants naturally pro- soil mobility; however, their efficacy could be improved if their soil mobility were duce glucosinolate, which is converted to enhanced. This research was conducted to study the effects of surfactants applied at 5% AITC by the enzyme myrosinase when plants (v/v) for CP mobility and AITC mobility in soils. Mobility of the CP/AITC mixture are attacked or mechanically damaged. Sev- applied with a nonionic surfactant comprising oleic, linoleic, and palmitic acids eral reports showed that AITC performed as (nonionic-1) and mobility of the CP/AITC mixture applied with a nonionic surfactant well as MeBr and Met-Na when applied as a comprising C9 hydrocarbon aromatics and calcium alkylarylsuphonate (nonionic-2) preplant soil treatment (Bangarwa et al., 2011; were compared with mobility of the CP/AITC mixture applied without surfactants in Devkota and Norsworthy, 2014). Moreover, re- three soils (Elder sandy loam, Chualar loam, and Blanco clay loam) during a laboratory search showed that AITC is effective for con- study. Nonionic-1 surfactant increased the concentration of total leachate collected for trolling select weeds (Bangarwa et al., 2011; AITC by five and CP by 11 compared with CP/AITC applied alone. Surfactants may Devkota and Norsworthy, 2014), nematodes influence the fumigant mobility in soil by affecting the sorption/desorption equilibrium. (Wu et al., 2011), insects (Noble et al., 2002), Our research suggested that increased AITC mobility and CP mobility in soil with the and plant soil pathogens (Gilardi et al., 2000). addition of adding nonionic-1 surfactant may be due to the adsorption behavior of the Synthetic AITC is not considered a re- surfactant in the soil and the solubilizing capability of the surfactant with pesticides. stricted use pesticide; therefore, it differs from all other fumigant alternatives. AITC can be applied to all crops during the preplant During the past 55 years, methyl bromide and Rodriguez, 1996; Downing, 2016; Jacoby, period, has a maximum buffer zone of 7.5 m, (MeBr) has been the most effective soil 2016; Johnson et al., 2012). Although MeBr has no limit regarding the number of hectares fumigant for controlling soil pests in Califor- was used on many crops, California straw- that can be treated per day, and has no nia high-value crops (Johnson et al., 2012). berries were the most economically impacted restrictions regarding the type of covering MeBr is a highly effective biocide that has a by the phase-out, and this helped strawberry film used with it (Isagro, 2016). AITC is consistent and broad pest control spectrum farmers win a critical use exemption that considered generally regarded as safe (GRAS) and short plant-back periods (Jacoby, 2016). allowed small quantities of MeBr to be used by the Food and Drug Administration, and it is a food additive approved for direct human MeBr is a gas that has a low boiling point and until 2016 (Downing, 2016). consumption as a synthetic flavoring substance high vapor pressure; such properties allow Research showed that the soil fumigants and adjuvant (FDA, 2018). MeBr to move through soil unimpeded, that are alternatives to MeBr are generally It is difficult to find a chemical with resulting in high pest control efficacy. How- less effective pest control agents. These biological, chemical, and physical properties ever, in the early 1990s, MeBr was identified alternatives to MeBr include chloropicrin as a stratospheric ozone depletor (Butler and similar to those of MeBr that will pass (CP), 1,3-dichloropropene (1,3-D), methyl regulations and that is relatively easy to Rodriguez, 1996); therefore, the use of MeBr isothiocyanate (MITC) generators such as was phased out in the United States (Butler transport and apply. MeBr has a boiling point metam sodium (Met-Na), metam potassium of 4.5 °C and a vapor pressure of 218.6 kPa; (Met-K), and dimethylformocarbothialdine however, for MITC, CP, and AITC, the boil- (DMTT), and synthetic allyl isothiocyanate ing points are 119, 112, and 150 °C, respec- Received for publication 20 Dec. 2018. Accepted (AITC) (Gao et al., 2012; Klose et al., 2008). tively, and vapor pressures are 1.73, 2.44, and for publication 31 Jan. 2019. Additionally, research has shown that to We thank Isagro USA for partially funding the 0.49 kPa, respectively (Downing, 2016; Jacoby study. No conflicts of interest have been declared. obtain acceptable pest control levels, a com- 2016; Nelson et al., 2013). The high boiling 1Corresponding author. E-mail: kalkhatib@ucdavis. bination of more than one fumigant must be point and relatively low vapor pressure of edu. applied. For example, 1,3-D controls nematodes MeBr alternatives do not allow these fumigants 706 HORTSCIENCE VOL. 54(4) APRIL 2019 to exist in a gas phase in their original state. Multiple reports have shown that the how surfactants can be used to remediate soils Liquid fumigants need to convert to a volatile efficacy of isothiocyanate generators could by influencing the solubility of pesticide residue or semi-volatile state to control soil-borne be improved by increasing the residence time in soil. However, all reports agree that the ability pests; therefore, the dispersal rate and the of the fumigant in soil (Nelson et al., 2013). to enhance fumigant efficacy with surfactants ability of a fumigant to move in soil at high As a result, several researchers investigated depends on the type of surfactant (anionic, concentrations will determine the effectiveness different application methods that could pro- nonionic, or cationic) used and soil properties of the fumigant (Nelson et al., 2013). vide better fumigant soil distribution by because soil surfactant generally alters the In California, MeBr alternatives are usu- physical means such as multiple drip lines, bonding properties of soil–water interactions. ally applied to the soil through drip irrigation using totally impermeable film, and adjusting Although the effects of soil surfactants on (also known as chemigation); however, in water application rates and volumes (Nelson the pest control efficacy of Met-Na have many other places, shank applications are et al., 2013; Papiernik et al., 2004; Yates been well-studied, questions remain regard- still a common application method for fumi- et al., 2002). Such methods have indirectly ing whether the type of surfactant affects the gants. During drip irrigation, polyethylene led to improving molecular diffusion of pest control efficacy of other fumigants such plastic mulch is installed before the applica- fumigants and their persistence in soils as AITC and CP. Therefore, the objective of tion of the fumigants, and this application (Lopez-Fern andez et al., 2016). this study was to characterize and quantify method is gaining popularity with growers It has been reported that the efficacy of the effects of different surfactants on AITC due to limited worker exposure (Jacoby, Met-Na was improved when applied with the mobility and CP mobility and their distribu- 2016; Nelson et al., 2013). Although Met- soil surfactant Integrate (triblock co-polymer tions in different soils. Na and other isothiocyanate generators are and glucoethers) (Santos et al., 2013). Fur- popular and widely used as MeBr alternatives, thermore, Santos et al. (2013) observed a Materials and Methods previous research suggested that soil-borne significant reduction in the number of prop- pest control with Met-Na is inconsistent be- agules of purple nutsedge when a soil surfac- Soil preparation. Soils were collected cause application methods seldom achieve tant was added to Met-K compared with Met-K from strawberry fields in Watsonville and optimum distribution of Met-Na (Gilreath applied alone.
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