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VOCAL The Australian Journal of Vocational Education and Training in Schools
Volume 6, 2006–2007
Editorial committee Dr Bobby Harreveld Professor Stephen Crump Senior Lecturer Pro Vice-Chancellor and Director Central Queensland University Central Coast Campuses University of Associate Professor Patrick Newcastle, TAFE NSW - Hunter Institute Danaher Ms Raelene Fysh Associate Professor (Education Research) Chair, VETnetwork Australia University of Southern Queensland Principal, Bundaberg State High School Ms Sandra Harrington VET Consultant Copy editor University Lecturer Mr Kevin George Mr Mike Frost Tasmanian Qualifications Authority Tasmania Production, design and printing Ms Sandra Kenman Executive Officer CQU Publishing Unit VETnetwork Australia Central Queensland University
Sponsor
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 The content and opinions expressed in the articles in VOCAL are those of the individual authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the editorial committee or of VETnetwork Australia. While reasonable checks have been made to ensure the accuracy of content and referencing, no responsibility can be accepted for accuracy or for errors and omissions, however caused. No responsibility for any loss occasioned to any person acting on or refraining from action as a result of material in this publication can be accepted by the authors, the editorial committee or VETnetwork Australia.
© VETnetwork Australia 2006
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Contents
Message from the Chair Back to the future? Girls, and young women, working futures, VET and VET in Schools. A snapshot Raeleen Fysh ...... 5 Elaine Butler with Robyn Woolley...... 56 Editorial Vocational interests of Greek senior secondary school Bobby Harreveld and Patrick Danaher...... 6 students and factors that can affect them A student’s learning journey Grigoris Mouladoudis...... 64 Christopher Jeffery ...... 10 Quality assurance in the Nigerian VET sector VETnetworker 1995 – 2005 Muhammad S. Abubakar...... 70 Sandra Harrington...... 12 The coexistence of unemployment and the shortage of skilled workers in Hungary: What can vocational The impact of VET in schools on new certification of education do? post-compulsory education and training in Australia Eva Berde...... 78 Mike Frost...... 17
Work-integrated learning options in Botswana Down the track: TAFE outcome for young people two years on Martin Kapfumvuti...... 84 Rebecca Sherman...... 24 Career and technical education in the United States Tasmania is guaranteeing futures for young people Katherine Hughes and Melinda Karp...... 90 Nick Evans...... 30 Community-based senior high schools in Taiwan Queensland Skills Plan: securing a better future for Hsu, Kuo-Shu and Chuang, Chien-Pen...... 96 Queenslanders Department of Employment and Training...... 36 The journey from school to workplace: a snapshot of the Canadian perspective Where VET in Schools has come from in Western Jo-Anne H Willment...... 102 Australia Louise Morrison...... 42 Evaluation of the UK’s increased flexibility program for 14 to 16 year-olds New directions for local community partnerships in Peter Rudd, Sarah Golden, Australia Lisa O’Donnell and Tom Benton...... 106 Michael Taylor...... 46 Australia’s role in reforming Vocational Education and Getting research around VET in Schools on the agenda Training (VET) in China Antoine Barnaart...... 112 Leanne Dalley-Trim and Angela Hill ...... 52
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Message from Raelene Fysh Chair VETnetwork Australia
As you are now in receipt of It is reassuring to read of the research VETnetwork Australia’s 4th academic conducted nationally and in the States journal VOCAL The Australian Journal and Territories to guide future planning of Vocational Education & Training in for vocational and technical education Schools, and have read the interesting in Australia. articles, you will be aware of the I am pleased to note that previous Raelene Fysh diversity and growth of vocational editions of VOCAL have been used Chair, VETnetwork Australia education programs both in Australia by lecturers at universities to prepare and worldwide. teachers to deliver VET in Schools This VOCAL illustrates the challenges programs. We are very grateful to the and successes when communities contributing authors and the members work with governments to provide of the editorial committee. opportunities for young people moving I believe the common thread for all from school-to-work. articles is the passion inherent in all As well, the case studies that reflect programs and the keenness to make a the journeys made by young people difference in young people’s lives. to be successful and productive citizens are inspiring. It is pleasing to see the difference that schools, training providers, and local community groups make to ensure that our future workforce is well-skilled and employable.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Editorial: Transitions in senior phase learning
Throughout the world, practices and professional support and a national policies of technical training, career focus to facilitate vocational education and vocational education are enacted and training in schools’. This mission in many and different types of senior was later extended to encompass secondary schooling environments. career and enterprise education. The Bobby Harreveld Within these differences, there articles from around Australia that follow are many similarities (European in this journal are testament to the Commission, 2006). There is much to successful achievement of that mission. be learned through sharing the stories Mike Frost is a well-known advocate of senior phase education and training of VET in Schools. He reports on reform, the relationships among people its considerable impact on the new involved, and the ways in which young certification of post-compulsory people’s resilience may be fostered education and training in Australia. during the critical transition period from The robustness of VET certification school-to-work and life in a civil society. processes is reflected in its recognition Reform is occurring at system levels for tertiary entrance throughout the as well as in curriculum planning and country. Patrick Danaher pedagogical practices. Relationships among young people, their teachers, Rebecca Sherman presents results parents/guardians and employers are from an analysis of outcomes for a as important as they ever were. The cohort of students two years after resilience of students, school staff and they completed their training at a systems to cope with ever changing Technical and Further Education challenges to education and training in (TAFE) institute. Down the track, the a globalised knowledge economy is to transition processes experienced by be celebrated and cherished. this group of young people show that the years immediately after training are This edition of VOCAL examines the particularly important for future work issue of transitions in the senior phase success. of learning, from initial education to the world of work. It begins with two stories An overview of policies and research- VET in Schools about in Australia. based findings from around Australia The first article is a personal story of a strengthens the call for meaningful student’s learning journey. Chris Jeffery transitions that lead to real life- reminds us that Vocational Education work options for young people. and Training (VET) in schools is about This is reflected in the Tasmanian young people wanting to learn and government’s efforts to develop do interesting work with teachers comprehensive strategies to progress dedicated to sharing with them their lifelong learning for all. Nick Evans’ knowledge and experience of the world. article investigates that State’s integrated systemic approach to the The second article by Sandra development of young people in Harrington is a story of the Tasmania: A State of Learning. VETnetwork journey and its magazine, VETnetworker, over the last decade. From Queensland, the Department VETnetwork’s mission at its inception in of Education Training and the Arts 1995 was ‘to provide quality leadership,
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Queensland Skills Plan provides a should assist young people to make blueprint for that State’s VET sector as informed career choices. it seeks to meet the skills challenges of In Greece, it was not only gender the future. differences, but also school Louise Morrison’s story of VET in achievement, grades and the Western Australia illustrates the occupations/jobs of their parents that challenges faced by both schools and influenced the vocational interests of the system as they grapple with the young people. Grigoris Mouladoudis new paradigms for post-compulsory provides these outcomes from curriculum and enhancement of research with boys and girls aged Successful pathways to post-school destinations. between 16 and 17 years in an urban area of northern Greece. Implications pathways from Successful pathways from one emerging from this research highlight learning and/or earning environment one learning the capacity for school counsellors to: to another require successful minimise stereotyping work as either partnerships between individuals and and/or earning ‘male’ or ‘female’; contribute to students organisations. Michael Taylor reports resilience in the face of economic and environment to on new directions for Local Community social disadvantages; and facilitate Partnerships (LCP) in Australia. He positive relationships between students another require identifies three core roles for successful and teachers. LCPs: coordination of Structured successful Workplace Learning; provision of career Internationally, VET in Schools comes partnerships and transition support; and expansion in many guises. Some countries of industry-led Adopt a School have a comprehensive secondary between initiatives. Such challenges to VET schools system while others have provision are evident at local, national separate schools for specific learning individuals and and global levels. purposes (OECD, 2000). Colleagues from Africa, Asia, Europe and North organisations. Leanne Dalley-Trim and Angela Hill America provide valuable insights into interrogate research findings presented the different ways in which VET in at a recent conference of the Australian Schools is named and enacted in their Vocational Education Training Research countries. As you read their articles, Association (AVETRA). Here the the similarities between the transition mind-boggling complexity of systems issues faced will become evident. It controlled, socio-economically and is still the case that the ‘gritty realities culturally framed technical training, in the economy and the state’ (Apple, professional and vocational education, 1996, p. xii) are shaping young people’s is never more evident than at the responses to their changing worlds of compulsory/post-compulsory interface. learning and work. In the transition from school-to- In the Nigerian VET sector, Muhammad work, gender issues do not feature S. Abubakar reports on various prominently in research. Elaine Butler quality assurance initiatives that will and Robyn Woolley found that despite enhance the perception of technical the rhetoric of the last twenty years, the and vocational education and enable it data show the potential for gendered to play a key role in modern industrial inequalities to be perpetuated in the development in that country. education, training and labour market opportunities for young people. They Éva Berde’s analysis found that argue that VET in Schools policies, practical vocational training has had pedagogies and curriculum practices to face many problems since the
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 political and economic transformation secondary or internship students within in Hungary in recent years. She too VET systems. recounts her country’s moves to Peter Rudd, Sarah Golden, Lisa improve the prestige of vocational O’Donnell and Tom Benton evaluate training and stimulate the labour market the United Kingdom’s Increased supply of qualified blue-collar workers Flexibility Program which aims to in Hungary. provide enhanced vocational and Botswana is a country in which work- work-related learning opportunities for integrated learning options are also 14 to 16 year-olds. They identify two being positively supported with both common denominators of generally policy and legislative commitment from successful changes to the senior the government. Martin Kapfumvuti phase of learning: more flexibility in explores the potential for a cooperative choice of vocational pathways; and training model that incorporates both encouragement of partnerships among academic and experiential learning schools, colleges and other institutions components, to deliver a quality involved in the provision of VET. outcomes-focused learning for technical Australia’s contribution to VET reform college students in Botswana. in the People’s Republic of China is Katherine Hughes and Melinda Karp explained in the final article by Antoine engage with the issue of transition Barnaart. He reports on two projects from initial secondary-level studies to that illustrate the ways in which local postsecondary community colleges in and national VET policies, practices the United States. In their article, issues and pedagogies can also be use to of career pathways and dual enrolment ‘build and enhance economic and in career and technical education are cultural ties between countries’. examined through federal and state level jurisdictions. Conclusion Throughout these articles, VET, From Taiwan, Kuo-Shu and Chien-Pen career and enterprise education are report on their country’s promotion framed within a socio-cultural view of quality postsecondary school of learning that, while encompassing education through community-based economic imperatives, is inclusive of senior high schools. They present an both individual and collective needs. overview of the rationale and structure From an OECD sponsored evaluation of these community-based senior high of countries’ educational and social schools, then analyse findings from an policies aimed at limiting social evaluation of the initial implementation exclusion and facilitating the impact phase. of social policies at later stages of A Canadian perspective on school-to- individuals’ life trajectories, Mechin work transitions is provided by Jo-Anne (2006, p. 8) noted that: Willment who argues for a personal tool-box of skills that will prepare young In addition to economic returns (in people for their transitions among the form of labour market advantage), future work environments. At this learning experiences – both in and critical period in young people’s lives, outside school setting – bring other she argues that online communication types of benefits. Some of these benefits opportunities, currently utilised by accrue to individuals, as in the case of adults, could usefully be employed with better health conditions; others may affect the broader community in which
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 individuals live, as in the case of better References parenting practices, greater involvement Apple, M. (1996). Cultural politics and in community life and lower crime. education. Buckingham: Open University Press. Young people’s school-to-work Australian Government, House of transitions have changed structurally as Representatives Standing Committee on they are forced to adapt to the changing Education and Training. (2004). Learning to demands of their work and learning work. Report on the inquiry into Vocational Education in Schools. Canberra: Author. environments (OECD, 2000; Barabasch Retrieved September 6, 2004, from http:// & Lakes, 2005; Australian Government, www.aph.gov.au/house/committee/edt/ves/ House of Representatives, 2004). report/front.pdf Changes in local and global labour Barabasch, A., & Lakes, R. D. (2005). markets, and in the nature of work itself, School-to-work transition in East Germany: have posed a threat to the welfare and challenges of a market society. Career and Technical Education Research, 30(1). http:// livelihood of young people, especially scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/CTER/v30n1/ those alienated from school-based barabasch.html#beck learning (Bauman, 2004). Bauman, Z. (2004). Wasted Lives: Modernity and Its Outcasts The notion of transitions now . Cambridge: Polity Press. encompasses a range of elements such as education, employment, training, Christmas-Best, V. E., & Schmitt- Rodermund, E. (2001). Adolescents’ career housing, family, income, consumption, choices in East and West Germany after relationships and the management reunification. American Behavioral Scientist, of risk (Thomson, Bell, Holland, 44(11), 1879-1898. Henderson, McGrellis, & Sharpe, European Commission. (2006). Education 2002). Transition from school-to-work and training 2010. Retrieved August 16, and/or further education and training is 2006, from http://europa_eu_int often the crucial point in young people’s Machin, S. (2006). Social disadvantage lives when decisions have to be made and education experiences. OECD Social, that involve risk, or that are perceived Employment and Migration Working Papers No. 32. Paris: Directorate for Employment, as risky, because it is believed that Labour and Social Affairs Employment, they have long lasting effects on Labour and Social Affairs Committee, employment opportunities, lifestyle, OECD. social and professional mobility. Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). (2000). From initial In high risk societies of the twenty-first education to working life: making transitions century, individuals may have greater work. Paris: Author. freedom of choice, but they are also Thomson, R., Bell, R., Holland, J., held accountable for the consequences Henderson, S., McGrellis, S., & Sharpe, S. of those choices (Christmas-Best & (2002). Critical moments: Choice, chance and opportunity in young people’s narratives Schmitt-Rodermund, 2001). Helping of transition. Sociology, 36(2), 335-354. young people manage these complex transitions is the work of teachers, parents/guardians, employers, youth workers and so on. All participate with the goodwill and intent of engaging young people in worthwhile learning – and eventual earning – as knowledge workers of the twenty-first century.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 A student’s learning journey
I have had an interest in computers responsibility to install, set up, upgrade, for as long as I can recall. In a troubleshoot and maintain hardware different sense to my peers at school and software, undertake inventory of and university, I was almost certain equipment and provide staff training. I wanted to study and work in the Information Technology (IT) field, even In Year 10, my interest in website from my earliest years. However, I design continued and I was awarded Christopher took a different pathway to my peers first place in the Intel Australia On-line Jeffery to achieve this. Following some Awards Web-Site Competition for the development of a Nudgee College Christopher Jeffery, challenges at school while completing interactive website. who was a student of St senior, I undertook a school-based Joseph’s Nudgee College, traineeship in multimedia. I attended My senior years were ones of both university the following year. It was recently graduated with success and disappointment. I through the advice and guidance of a a Bachelor of Business/ was successful in achieving high teacher who identified this pathway, Bachelor of Information grades in most of my subjects, in and encouragement from my family Systems dual-degree particular in Business Communication and friends, that I am fortunate today to at Australian Catholic and Technologies, and Business have that opportunity. I gained valuable Organisation and Management. I University. Christopher is experiences while studying and was given the opportunity to prepare currently employed as a operating my own computer solutions and receive numerous industry Business Systems graduate business. Working with clients and qualifications, namely Certificate II at CITEC and manages colleagues enabled me to succeed at in Business (Office Administration), CyberGuru, his computer full-time work. and Certificate III in Business solutions business. During my junior years of secondary (Administration). These provided me school, I was taking two computer with a strong basis for completing subjects a semester as I enjoyed it further Vocational Education and very much. Whether it was creating Training (VET) qualifications over the databases or designing PowerPoint following years. presentations, I was constantly building However during the end of Year 11 and my knowledge. I was involved in the the beginning of Year 12, difficulties multimedia club from my first days at arose in Information Processing secondary school, where I assisted in and Technology (IPT) which I was the design development of the school’s undertaking. Many of my experiences website. To this date, some elements at this time were not positive. I needed are still present on the website. to make a difficult decision by dropping In 1997, I was in year nine. I was out of the subject. However I was fixing computers and designing concerned that I would miss out on websites and a range of publications keeping up to date and building on for several organisations, which led my knowledge within IT to prepare for to the commencement of CyberGuru. university. I was also invited to participate in the It was fortunate that one of my teachers Brisbane Internet Games, where I recognised my talent and informed me placed in the semi-finals. By the end of of the possibility of taking a different the year, I had a number of clients for pathway into university. I was unaware whom I completed a range of IT tasks. at the time of such a possibility, and she I worked at a nearby school performing suggested I undertake a traineeship a range of computer maintenance tasks where I was able to learn and earn at across approximately 40 computers the same time. Taking on her advice, throughout the school. It was my
10 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 I decided to unenrol from IPT and and not-for-profit organisations. commence a multimedia traineeship. Through CyberGuru, I also develop and maintain businesses’ IT infrastructure, Throughout Year 12, I studied four such as computers and websites. The days at week at school and one day success of my business has been partly a week at QANTM College, where due to the valuable skills I learned while I studied various industry programs studying. I would like to recognise the such as 3D Studio Max, Dreamweaver, contribution of the teacher who helped Flash and Director. In addition to me develop valuable networks among these studies, I worked part-time a range of educational institutions and for the school within the Public associates, assisting me to develop Relations Office until completion of a strong base of contacts, several of my traineeship in September 2001. In whom are clients today. addition to completing the traineeship A teacher and being awarded the Certificate II in Earlier this year, I commenced a Arts (Multimedia), I was successful in position as a business systems helped me attaining Certificate III in Information graduate at CITEC, a Queensland Technology (Software Applications) government owned provider of ICT develop valuable and Certificate IV in Assessment and services. networks Workplace Training. My learning hasn’t stopped there. In the following year, I commenced I am currently preparing to sit the among a range at the Australian Catholic University, Microsoft Desktop Support Technician of educational where I studied for the Bachelor of exams to become a Microsoft Certified Business/ Bachelor of Information Professional and eventually a Microsoft institutions and Systems dual-degree. During this time, Certified Systems Engineer. I completed a Cisco Certified Network associates, Associate 1 and 2 within the Cisco My future career goal is to manage an Network Academy Program. ICT team or department, whether that assisting me to is in CITEC, CyberGuru or another Throughout my university studies, I organisation. Wherever my interest develop a strong was involved with a range of student may lead me, I am looking to use the committees and activities. My final year valuable skills I have gained through base of contacts, of university was particularly hectic. my studies and my work experience. I In addition to completing my subjects, am grateful and indebted to my family, several of whom and applying for graduate recruitment particularly my parents and girlfriend opportunities, I became involved in Jessie for their support and motivation are clients today. the student association as editor and throughout. designer of the association’s newsletter. I was also appointed Database I am mindful too of the teachers who Application Developer and Database have provided me with their knowledge Coordinator for the Australian Student and guidance. In doing so, I would also Christian Movement. like to recognise the contribution of teachers who provided their valuable One of my most significant insight and are dedicated to assisting achievements is setting up my own their students to aspire and achieve business while at school and continuing their goals. I was fortunate to have with the business to this day. I have had such a teacher and I was able been operating and managing my to acquire a substantial amount of own computer solutions business, knowledge and skills while gaining CyberGuru as ‘proprietor/chief guru’ for valuable qualifications. the past nine years. I provide services in consulting, design, support and It is due to the support of both my training to individuals, small businesses teachers and family that I have been fortunate to have this success.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 11 VETnetworker 1995–2005
Introduction 2000 students, 2 500 businesses and This article is a compilation of some of 200 schools. the items appearing in the magazine Industry and enterprise studies were VETnetworker over the past ten years; introduced in Victoria. featuring people, schools, organisations and events that made the news. The MAATS/AVTS Teacher Support Kit was developed to promote the new VETnetwork Modern Australian Apprenticeship and A national coordinating conference Traineeship System (MAATS) and Sandra was held in July 1995 in Canberra Australian Vocational Training System Harrington to initiate an effective national (AVTS). Sandra Harrington is network for secondary vocational Online initiatives included OZJAC, to currently a casual lecturer education teachers. An interim assist students to access information at the Australian Catholic steering committee was established on courses and jobs and Voc Ed University (Brisbane at the conference to oversee the Coordinators Online (VECO), an email campus), a VET consultant establishment of a national network discussion list for VET coordinators. to schools, and a regular made possible through the National writer for VETnetworker. Professional Development Program. VETnetworker 1997 Sandra attended the original VETnetwork became an incorporated By 1997, VETnetwork had 700 conference in Canberra association on October 9, 1995. The members and Jim Maguire (WA) was in 1995 and is a past mission of the association was to the national chairperson. Queensland representative facilitate Vocational Education and on the VETnetwork Commonwealth government initiatives Training (VET) in schools by providing committee, past president included the introduction of: quality leadership, professional support, of the Association of Post and a national focus. • key competencies Compulsory Educators, • job pathway programs Queensland (APCEQ), and The chairperson was Jenny Haddrell • regional skill centres past president of Sunvet (an from Queensland and the following organisation for workplace people represented the states and • group training companies learning coordinators). territories – Pam Peelgrane (NSW), • VET curriculum Sandra was made a life Pam Glover (Vic.), Ros Rangott (ACT), • a national commitment to enterprise member of APCEQ in 2003. Paul Wilson and Janette Scott (SA), education. She is probably the only Stuart Harvey (Tas.), Jim Maguire (WA), person in Australia who has Cathy Pickering (NT). Wendy McDowell State Training Authorities were filed, in a spare bedroom was the project officer. funded to develop school-based cupboard, a complete set of apprenticeships and traineeships and ten years of VETnetworker. VETnetworker 1996 the Australian Student Traineeship Foundation (ASTF), which had been The May 1996 edition of VETnetworker established in 1994, continued to play introduced the executive officer, Mike a vital role in developing school and Frost, who ran the national office from enterprise partnerships. Rosny College in Hobart, Tasmania. A web address and home page were VETnetworker 1998 established. The first national journal, VOCAL, was TRAC (NSW) was awarded the Global printed. VETnetwork membership was Best Award for education-industry $20 for individuals and the inaugural partnerships. The parnerships involved VETnetwork Conference was held in
12 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Adelaide with 600 people attending. • learn to say ‘no’ to requests outside Jenny Haddrell was made a life defined parameters. member. VETnetworker 2000 Visionworks (Qld) was established with VETnetwork launched the GST Start the late Joanne Nolan coordinating Up project. The VETnetwork National the cluster. Janine Bowes was project Conference was held in Victoria, officer for VECO, which had 400 and Mike Frost was farewelled as subscribers. The South Coast Industry VETnetwork executive officer. Schools’ Co-ordinating Organisation (SCISCO) (Qld) won the Learning The Ministerial Council on Education, Community Award for their exemplary Employment, Training and Youth Affairs school-industry program. ASTF (MCEETYA) VET in Schools taskforce, developed the ‘quality achievement recommended a national framework to matrix’ to be used by workplace improve the transition of young people learning clusters. from school-to-work and further study. The framework had six key elements – 1999 The editorial, in the March 1998 VET; enterprise and vocational learning; magazine, focused on introducing student support services; community VET coordinators vocational education to Years 9 and 10 and business partnerships; effective students. were facing institutional and funding arrangements; VETnetworker 1999 monitoring and evaluation. unique Jim Maguire farewelled some long- The Multimedia Pathways project challenges. standing members of the VETnetwork was launched in South Australia with steering committee – Bernie Fitzsimons seven clusters of schools (37 schools). (SA), Kathy Melsom (WA), Ron The project aimed to integrate the 2000 Miles (NSW), Sandra Harrington and vocational certificate with the Certificate Leah Richards (Qld), Stuart Harvey of Education. MCEETYA and Robyn Storey (Tas.), and Helen The Certificate II in Workplace Boardman (NT). taskforce Practices (30064QLD) was accredited The Curriculum Corporation published in December 1999 and made available recommended training package resources to support to schools in 2000. VET in Schools. a national VETnetworker 2001 A report from Andrea Meredith at framework to The VETnetwork national office moved SCISCO warned that VET coordinators to Canberra and Julie Samuels- improve the were facing unique challenges. She Green became the executive officer. listed some tips, gained from VECO, to Jim Maguire stayed on as national transition of assist coordinators cope with their work chairperson until mid-year when load. They were: young people Margaret Stewart took over. Both Mike • develop a good support network Frost and Jim Maguire were awarded from school-to- • don’t try to keep everything in your life membership for their contribution head to VETnetwork. During this year the work and further • set aside half a day per week for format of the magazine changed. study. reading The Quality Teacher Initiative was • keep focused on your role – don’t funded by the Commonwealth add to your responsibilities government and the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) provided
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 13 schools with a resource, Take Off, to VETnetworker 2005 help teachers give advice on vocational ANTA was abolished in July and education and training options. functions transferred to DEST. The Australian Recognition Framework ANTA was formed in 1992 and was VETnetworker (ARF) was revised and renamed the responsible for establishing a national magazine Australian Quality Training Framework VET system based on a large number (AQTF). of national training packages. continues to DEST launched The Australian Career VETnetworker 2002 report rich Development Studies package and The 3rd biennial VETnetwork Australia established the Australian Network of and diverse National Conference was held at the Industry Career Advisers. Brisbane Convention Centre. The VET activities Enterprise and Career Education AQTF standards were revised and Foundation (ECEF), previously ASTF, the new Certificate IV in Training undertaken sponsored excellence awards to be and Assessment was released. The presented at the conference. successful applicants for the 24 by school Australian Technical Colleges were communities Bill Healey was appointed as the CEO announced. of ECEF. Dr Brendan Nelson became across Australia. Minister for Education, Science and VETnetwork Australia commissioned Training (DEST) and Raelene Fysh the development of a business plan (Qld) became national vice-chairperson to investigate the future management of VETnetwork. structures of the association and to ensure its sustainability. The Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and the Business Council Schools in the news of Australia completed a project to Over the past ten years, the following identify employability skills. The House schools were reported in VETnetworker. of Representatives Standing Committee They reflect the rich and diverse on Education and Training conducted VET activities undertaken by school an inquiry into vocational education in communities across Australia. schools.
Myfuture was released and Manufacturing Learning Centres were established in South Australia.
VETnetworker 2003–2004 Raelene Fysh (Qld) became the new chairperson of VETnetwork. Sandra Kenman became the Australian manager and the national office moved to Brisbane. VETnetworker was redesigned.
In 2004, The VETnetwork Conference was held in Hobart and Judi Buckley (Qld) was named a Fulbright Scholar.
14 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Schools Activities
Willunga High School (SA) Viticulture Swinburne University of Technology and Hospitality partnership with Novotel hotel Elwood College (Vic.) Dickson College (ACT) Girls only automotive class Range of vocational courses and its computer-based student competency Nudgee College (Qld) mapping package Illawarra Senior College (NSW) Embedding competencies across the curriculum and school-based trainees
Golden Grove High School (SA) Workplace learning program and on-the-job assessment AVTS programs in engineering, retail, office skills, hospitality and work Hellyer College (Tas.) education Katherine High School (NT) Pathways program for 16-18 year-old Indigenous students
Phillip College (ACT) Building and Contruction-Fitout and Finish course
North Lake Senior Campus (WA) Seven vocational programs offered across three subject areas
Methodist Ladies College (Vic.) Hospitality program combining on- and off-the-job activities and links with TAFE
Urrbrae Agricultural High School (SA) Certificate III in Horticulture
Upwey High School (Vic.) Certificate I in Basic Electronics
Marsden State High School (Qld) Jobs Pathways Program
Rosny College (Tas.) Building and Construction program
Claremont College (Tas.) Best practice as a Tasmanian training provider
Toolooa State High School (Qld) Part-time apprenticeships
Salisbury High School (SA) Enterprising activities
Launceston College (Tas.) Photographic Services Certificate II
Box Hill Senior Secondary College (Vic.) School-based apprenticeships
Pine Rivers State High School (Qld) Part-time traineeships in Office Administration
Helensvale State High School (Qld) Boat Building apprenticeships
Hobart College (Tas.) Aquaculture program School-based traineeships in Hospitality, Engineering, Retail and Plant St Edmund’s and St Mary’s (Qld) Operation Partnership between local government and non-government schools, the The Ballarat VET in Schools cluster (Vic.) Ballarat Community Education Centre, Group Training, the University and the local TAFE Mabel Park High School (Qld) Community-based learning for students in Years 9 and 10
Margaret River Senior High School (WA) Community ownership model
CASILS (Qld) Skills Centre Berkeley Vale Community High School School-to-work-plans for students in Years 9 and 10 (NSW)
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 15 Bradfield College (NSW) Design Fundamentals Certificate II
Rosny College (Tas.) Schools Excellence Award
Nhulunbuy High School (NT) Links with Nabalco Pty Ltd The South West Independent Schools cluster Automotive scholarships (WA) Elizabeth College (Tas.) Aged Care Certificate III
Lilydale DHS (Tas.) Links with local wineries
The Woden School (ACT) Special education and hospitality entry units of competency
Deniliquin School Education Area (NSW) Strong partnerships and links with industry
Dickson College (ACT) Performing Arts skill centre
St James College (Qld) ‘Adopt a School’ partnerships Warnbro Community High School (WA) and Curriculum organisation Casino High School (NSW) Lake Ginninderra College (ACT) Marine studies
Heathfield High School (SA) Murraylands Commercial Kitchen
Conclusion If you, or your school, or your VETnetwork Australia has managed organisation, have been mentioned in to achieve the objectives stated in its this article, I would like to hear from mission statement in 1995, and also you. I will endeavour to write a series broaden its goals to include career and of articles for VETnetworker on ‘Where enterprise education. Links between are they now’. Please forward details to the national executive and the various my email: [email protected] state bodies have been instrumental in achieving a national focus and a national understanding of VET in Schools.
This article has highlighted some of the key people who have led the association and the committed VET teachers, school communities and organisations within the association. May VETnetwork Australia respond to the challenges of the future and continue to support VET teachers in schools, and act as a national spokesperson on issues of importance to VET teachers and students.
16 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 The impact of VET in Schools on new certification of post-compulsory education and training in Australia
Introduction increasing willingness on the part of The development of VET in Schools state Boards of Study and qualifications programs, beginning in the early 1990s, authorities to move to recognise VET has contributed to a range of changes within state certification systems. There across education. While expansion of have, however, been some significant school curriculum has been a major challenges, not least those associated outcome, there have been shifts in with reconciling the competency-based Mike Frost approaches to teaching (pedagogy), assessment system that characterises Mike is currently heading to school organisation (timetabling, VET with the assessment regimes of up a project with the class arrangements) and to formal the Australian Curriculum Assessment Tasmanian Qualifications recognition of learning that frequently and Certification Authorities (ACACA). Authority (TQA) to develop occurs outside school. a new Tasmanian Senior Impact of school-based VET Secondary Graduation The formal recognition of this learning Beginning in the early 1990s a diverse Certificate. A former has been at the heart of major changes range of school-based vocational teacher, head of department to senior secondary certification programs was developed around and assistant principal in in most states. Senior secondary the country. These ranged from the senior secondary colleges certification, historically constrained by carefully-structured TRAC programs in Tasmania, he has been the predominance of tertiary entrance that began in NSW, and expanded directly involved in the requirements, has begun to respond to rapidly in other states, particularly development, promotion the demands to recognise Vocational Tasmania, to the JSSST programs and establishment of Education and Training (VET), including in NSW, and the dual accreditation VET in Schools programs recognition of VET for the purposes programs of Victoria. Most of these both within the state of university entrance. In most states involved some notion of learning and nationally. At award- in the last few years, there have been in the workplace, later termed winning Rosny College serious efforts to modify certification Structured Workplace Learning, with during the 1990s he led so that VET-related learning is both assessment of this learning increasingly the establishment of over recognised, and in some cases, being recognised in school-based 20 industry-based VET embraced to contribute to tertiary certification. State accreditation programs. In 1996 he entrance scores. bodies at this stage were reluctant took on the national role Up to a point, this has been an outcome to move quickly to incorporate such of Executive Officer for of Commonwealth driven efforts to learning in their credentials. By 1999, VETnetwork Australia. establish a national training system. at the Commonwealth’s instigation, In more recent times he With the creation of the Australian the ACACA group released a set of has been the principal Quality Training Framework (AQTF), principles for the ‘integrity, quality and adviser on legislation to with its responsibility for overseeing the long-term credibility of certificates of establish the Tasmanian delivery of training under the Australian achievement’. These had implications Qualifications Authority Qualifications Framework, a nationally for the recognition of both key and in the development recognised VET qualifications system competencies and the integration of of the Youth Participation was in place. The progressive adoption VET into senior secondary certificates in Education and Training of school-based VET programs, (ACACA, 1999, p. 4). This was likely (Guaranteeing Futures) Bill recognised under the National an outcome of uncertainty about the 2005 for the Department of VET in Training Framework as legitimate, long-term sustainability of Education. Schools has undoubtedly contributed to an ; the challenge to recognise it
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 17 within certification; and, the enduring the end of the 1990s whose aim was to dominance of tertiary entrance as the improve participation and achievement primary purpose of certification. and successful transition from school to adult life. The Kirby report (2000) of There was also a growing recognition post-compulsory education and training The perceived that for many young people existing pathways in Victoria included a range of senior secondary certification did not success of VET ambitious recommendations designed adequately or appropriately recognise to: in Schools what learning had actually been • increase participation in education achieved. In most states significant and training almost certainly proportions of young people were influenced leaving school, often without any • improve the skills base of the kind of qualification. The Kirby report workforce some of the (DEET, 2000) into post-compulsory • enhance local community education and training in Victoria responsibility for effective transition major initiatives estimated that over 20% of young • improved educational participation. people left school without any kind towards the end of formal qualification. Pitman (2002, The Eldridge report (Prime Minister’s of the 1990s p. 24), in his comprehensive review Taskforce 2001) Footprints to the and recommendations for a new deal Future, provided a national review that whose aim in senior certification in Queensland, highlighted significant weaknesses estimated a similar proportion were in youth transition and support, with was to improve seriously at risk of not completing recommendations for Commonwealth participation and senior schooling. government intervention. VET in Schools showed a remarkable Among a number of states achievement growth through the 1990s, from complementary policy developments and successful 60 000 in 1996 to 211 000 in 2004, as occurred. The Tasmania: A State young people showed a willingness of Learning policy released in 2003 transition from to continue with senior schooling recommended a range of strategies when VET programs were provided to improve participation and outcomes school to adult (MCEETYA, 2004, p. 4). There is now in senior secondary education and life. convincing evidence of how significant training, including the development of VET programs have been in improving a new senior secondary completion or student participation and achievement. graduation certificate. Queensland’s For example, the report, Strategic Education and Training Reforms Evaluation of Vocational Education and for the Future, released in 2002, Training in Schools in NSW, released in recommended a new Queensland 2005, strongly signaled the success of Certificate of Education (QCE). It VET by noting that: also recommended a broadening of a ‘senior phase of learning’ to include The hard evidence is now there for all to a much wider array of recognised see. VET in schools is clearly making a learning, including learning through difference to NSW students, adding value VET programs, Structured Workplace to their school participation, their HSC Learning and individualised programs achievement and their preparation for of learning. the transition to post school education, training and work (DET, 2005, p. 3). However, the Australian government also responded to the growth in VET VET Thus the perceived success of in Schools. Through its Ministerial in Schools almost certainly influenced Council on Education, Employment, some of the major initiatives towards
18 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Training and Youth Affairs (MCEETYA) confirmed the relatively bleak prospects it released National Goals for Schooling for young people leaving school without in 1999, identifying vocational learning qualifications (Teese et al., 2000, 2002, among its goals. It also released its 2003). National Framework for VET in Schools The research suggested that for a which intended to further expand significant proportion of young people vocational learning in schools in ways aged 15-24: that were more direct and responsive to industry needs. • disengagement from education and training was frequent New certification to support • the successful transition-to-work participation was fragmented The need for changes in existing senior • poverty was a reality secondary certification emerged as • there was a significant social and school-based VET programs grew, economic cost to the community. demanding more formal recognition of achievement. In NSW the McGaw It was against this background that (1997) review of the Higher School most states began to review senior Certificate led to a new standards- secondary curriculum provision. The based assessment system as well as opportunities were expanded to include VET related curriculum development, VET, school-based apprenticeships including recognition for VET in meeting and traineeships, and with it reforms requirements for tertiary entrance. In to certification that would recognised Victoria, the Kirby recommendations such ‘new’ learning. Significant reform led the government to establish, of support structures also occurred with among other things, a new Victorian a greater focus on pathway planning Qualifications Authority (VQA) aimed and support for successful transition. The need for at improving access to qualifications In Tasmania the significant overhaul of and breaking down barriers particularly post-compulsory education and training changes in Tasmania: A between VET and senior secondary. was reflected in the policy State of Learning. existing senior By 2003 Tasmania had established It was implemented a qualifications authority with similar immediately and in full. Like wise, the secondary Queensland the Smart State: aims. release of Education and Training Reforms for the certification Other states adapted to the challenges Future (2002) focused attention on: provided by both the needs to emerged as • pathway planning recognise VET within senior school qualifications and to broaden the range • support for young people through school-based of studies which could contribute to the senior phase of learning with VET programs certification. In the process participation systemic overhaul and achievement were improved. • a new qualification grew, demanding • significant legislative change Concern about retention in the senior supporting required participation more formal secondary years was also a motivating in education, training or full-time factor, driven in part by research by the recognition of employment immediately concluding Dusseldorp Skills Forum’s Australia’s the compulsory years of schooling. Youth: Reality and Risk (1998) and achievement. How Young People are Faring (2003, The new certificates 2004). The work of Richard Teese and others at Melbourne University also New certificates in various stages of development and implementation
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 19 in five states share a number of will require successful completion of common features which confirm the studies involving negotiated workplace, place for VET related study and the community or self-directed project importance of vocational learning. All based activities: community, cultural While the new share a central and important capacity and sporting activities: and/or advanced to formally recognise both nationally studies in university: and/or VET certificates all endorsed training qualifications as diploma and advanced diploma. The well as more generic work-related new South Australian Certificate of involve notions and industry-based programs for Education (SACE) will require both of levels of certification. In all cases there is personal learning plans and extended clear provision for learning through learning initiatives as part of the achievement, structured workplacement and on- certificate’s core learning units (State the-job experience, as well as for of SA, 2006). The Tasmanian certificate they vary in undertaking school-based traineeships is also likely to include a personal terms of how this and apprenticeships. In the case of pathway planning requirement that Tasmania’s proposed Senior Secondary derives from a legislated mandate will be attained. Graduation Certificate, full-time that all Year 10 students beginning in apprenticeship studies are likely to 2007 will lodge a pathway plan with contribute substantially to meeting the Tasmanian Qualifications Authority the requirements for obtaining the (TQA). certificate. The proposed Tasmanian certificate, All the proposed certificates will impose however, is the only one that will specify requirements related to literacy and minimum requirements in information numeracy skills, although all are and communication technology (ICT). characterised by flexibility in what can In other jurisdictions this may well be used to meet these requirements. be addressed within the prescribed The Queensland Certificate of learning areas, or as they are described Education (QCE), for example, will in the new SACE ‘learning spaces’. recognise: There is also a trend toward making • literacy and numeracy achievement computer literacy part of the general from conventional English and literacies. mathematics subjects Of course all certificates retain, as • specifically developed courses which a central feature, the recognition of will deliver against the required what might be termed ‘conventional’ standards, from school-developed or ‘traditional’ study with entrance and Queensland Studies Authority to university study still an important (QSA) approved short courses consideration. Even the VCAL makes • VET based literacy and numeracy clear provision for students to change • literacy and numeracy in Year 9. to the Victorian Certificate of Education (VCE) if university emerges as a Most include requirements that relate preference. to the development of personal effectiveness. The Victorian Certificate While the new certificates all involve of Applied Learning (VCAL) includes notions of levels of achievement, personal development which involves they vary in terms of how this will be school and community-based activities attained. Queensland, South Australia that will help develop teamwork and Tasmania propose credit points skills, self-confidence and other life systems which allow a wide range and work relevant skills. The QCE of learning to be counted within
20 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 particular requirement frameworks. in a climate of significant and major Tasmania is likely to use a credit matrix education and training reform system which is built on measures intended to improve participation and for course size, complexity, and achievement as well as completion robustness (an estimate of reliability). and the smooth transition to further The VCAL actually specifies three education and working life, the ACE is grades – foundation, intermediate and probably badly timed. However, it also senior – reflecting skill levels from represents a conservative, traditional basic to reasonably challenging Year and somewhat elitist approach which 12 programs. The WACE proposes is sharply at odds with the states’ 50 courses of study progressively initiatives aimed at greater inclusivity developed, within them semester units, and enabling more students to succeed. with different levels of achievement. Nevertheless, it has as something All systems will retain some notion of a precedent, the national training of external assessment, including framework which has successfully examinations. Some will use general broken down significant barriers, mainly standardised tests, like the General in the recognition of VET qualifications, Achievement Test or GAT in Victoria. across state boundaries. From this An Australian Certificate of there are many similarities which on Education any count would make the notion of a national certificate appealing. In 2006, the Australian Council for The new Educational Research released Conclusion its report, Australian Certificate of approaches to While the evidence for VET in Education: Exploring a Way Forward Schools having some real influence which proposes a single national certification, on curriculum and pedagogical reform certificate for the senior years of school. and with it, perhaps inevitably, some however well Responding to concerns expressed by direct influence on the emergence of the then Federal Minister, Dr Brendan intentioned, new certification efforts is obvious, the Nelson, to inconsistencies and a extent to which all of this is positively lack of comparability between senior may be limited changing the experience of senior secondary qualifications across state schooling for young people is doubtful. in the extent to jurisdictions, the report recommended There is growing evidence that VET a single national certificate, issued in Schools has had a minimal impact which they can by existing state authorities, and on improving retention, and has not awarded on the basis that candidates effectively work provided clearly aligned pathways from successfully meet a set of nationally school-to-work (Anlezark, Karmel & consistent standards (ACER, to encourage Ong, 2006). This is in part compounded 2006, p. iii). In addition, ‘curriculum by the continuing challenge for policy- participation and essentials’ would spell out a core of makers and managers to implement curriculum content with appropriate achievement sustainable and robust programs national achievement standards that are adequately resourced and fit set against them. Interestingly, the in a more comfortably within school programs. report recommends a national testing diverse range of of ‘employability skills’ under a key In this context, the new approaches to capabilities assessment regime. certification, however well intentioned, programs. may be limited in the extent to which In the current climate of states- they can effectively work to encourage developed senior secondary participation and achievement in a qualifications, in most cases developed more diverse range of programs. The
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 21 ambitious efforts to encourage personal References development or improve pathway Anlezark, A., Karmel, T., & Ong, K. (2006). planning will always be constrained Have school vocational education and training programs been successful?. by the practicalities associated with Adelaide: NCVER. There is gathering and validating evidence. The default may be to continue to Australian Curriculum Assessment and Certification Authorities (ACACA). (1999). emerging recognise traditional learning assessed Principles for the Integrity, Quality and in conventional ways, with tertiary Long-term Credibility of Certificates of evidence that entrance scores still the primary Achievement. Brisbane, Qld: Author. ‘skill sets’ are objective of senior schooling. Australian Council for Educational Research (ACER). (2006). Australian Certificate becoming more If this view is bleak, it is worth of Education: Exploring a Way Forward. considering the likely place of Victoria: Author. valuable than qualifications in the future, where Department of Education, Employment research evidence is already and Training (DEET). (2000). Ministerial qualifications suggesting that employers give Review of Post Compulsory Education and Training Pathways in Victoria. greater weight to factors other than (Kirby report). Melbourne, Victoria: Author. themselves. qualifications in recruitment (McDonald & Roberts, 2005, p. 2). As well, there Dusseldorp Skills Forum. (1998). Australia’s Youth: Reality and Risk. Sydney: Author. is emerging evidence that ‘skill sets’ are becoming more valuable than Dusseldorp Skills Forum. (2000, 2003, How Young People are Faring qualifications themselves, particularly 2004). . Sydney: Author. where they are accumulated from a number of different industry or Ministerial Council on Education, Employment, Training and Youth Affairs enterprise areas. (MCEETYA). (2004). National Data on Participation in VET in Schools Programs & School-based New Apprenticeships for the 2004 School Year. Retrieved from http:// www.mceetya.edu.au/verve/_resources/ vetdata2004.pdf
McDonald, R., & Roberts, A. (2005). From ‘product’ to ‘purpose’: Some speculations on the Qualifications Landscape of the future. Melbourne: VQA.
McGaw, B. (1997). Shaping Their Future: Recommendations for the Reform of the Higher School Certificate. Department of Training and Education Coordination: NSW.
NSW Department of Education of Education and Training (DET). (2005). Strategic Evaluation of Vocational Education and Training in Schools in NSW. Sydney, NSW: Author.
Pitman, J. et al. (2002). The Senior Certificate: A New Deal. Brisbane, Qld: Queensland Department of Education.
Prime Minister’s Youth Pathways Action Plan Taskforce. (2001). Footprints to the Future: report from the Prime Minister’s Youth Pathways Action Plan Taskforce. (Eldridge report). Canberra. Retrieved from http://www.dest.gov.au/sectors/career_ development/publications_resources/ profiles/footprints_to_the_future.htm
22 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Tasmanian Department of Education. (2003). Tasmania: A State of Learning – A Strategy for Post-year 10 Education and Training. Hobart, Tasmania: Author.
Tasmanian Qualifications Authority (TQA). (2005). Minimum requirements and ways of meeting these requirements for the award of the Tasmanian Senior Secondary Graduation/Completion Certificate. Hobart, Tasmania. Retrieved from http://www.tqa. tas.gov.au/1697
Teese, R., Polesel, J., O’Brien, K., Jones, B., Davies, M., Walstab, A., & Maughan, A. (2000). Early School Leaving: A review of the literature. Retrieved from http:// www.edfac.unimelb.edu.au/EPM/CPET/ documents/early.pdf
Teese, R. (2002). Cultural Benefits of VET for Early School Leavers. Australian National Training Authority. Melbourne, Victoria: University of Melbourne.
Teese, R., Davies, M., & Lamb, S. (2003) Why do kids leave school when they do and what happens to them. Melbourne, Victoria: University of Melbourne.
The State of Queensland. (2002). Queensland the Smart State: Education and Training Reforms for the Future. Brisbane, Qld: Author
The State of South Australia. (2006). Success for all: SACE Review at a glance. Adelaide, South Australia: Author.
The State of Western Australia. (2005). Report of the Ministerial Taskforce on Issues Surrounding Proposed Changes to Post- Compulsory Education. Perth, WA: Author.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 23 Down the track: TAFE outcomes for young people two years on
Introduction in wages and skill level, and pathways We know in broad terms the labour to further study. market benefits of education and Findings training (see for example, the Australian Change in labour force status Bureau of Statistics (ABS) Survey of Rebecca Education and Training). However, we Given that approximately three-quarters Sherman have little information on the process of 15 to 24 year-old TAFE graduates of transition to the labour market other stated their main reason for training Rebecca Sherman is a than NCVER’s student outcomes was employment related, employment Senior Research Officer survey. This survey obtains information outcomes is a key indicator of how well within the Surveys Branch on the transition six months after TAFE serves its clients. at the National Centre completion of training, but this time Overall, there was a 20% increase in for Vocational Education period is too short to fully measure employment from before training to Research (NCVER). the outcomes of training and gives September 2004 for 15 to 24 year-old Rebecca is a member an incomplete picture of the transition graduates. Table 1 provides the labour of the Australian Market process. and Social Research force status at the three time points. It Society (AMSRS) and To gain information on outcomes is evident that 15 to 19 year-olds made holds Qualified Practising over a longer period of time, NCVER the largest employment gains. In all Market Researcher (QPMR) conducted a survey known as Down likelihood this is due to this group being accreditation. Recent the Track, in 2004. The survey was new entrants into the labour force, as work at NCVER includes: a follow up of 15 to 24 year-olds (as many were school leavers with lower developmental work and at May 2002) who participated in the levels of employment prior to training. project management for 2002 Student Outcomes Survey and It follows that the older age group were the Student Outcomes completed training through a TAFE more likely to be employed prior to Survey; longitudinal analysis institute in 2001. The survey was training. of outcomes for young funded by the Australian government. On the whole, the proportion of those people in TAFE, as well as employed full-time had increased where feasibility studies into the Method the proportion of those employed part- development of measures The Down the Track survey collected time had decreased. This is particularly to monitor progress against information in September 2004, evident for 15 to 19 year-olds. the 2004-2010 national approximately two and a half years after strategy for Vocational training. The 2002 Student Outcomes Employment differences between Education and Training Survey collected information relating the sexes are also evident. Males (VET). to employment six months prior to the were more likely than females to be training (no specific date as students employed full-time at all time points, start training at different times and with females more likely than males to years) and approximately six months be employed part-time. after training in May 2002. What students were doing in 2004, The two surveys combined provide compared with immediately after information on a cohort of students that training in 2002, was examined. While allow an examination of employment it is not clear whether the changes in at these three time points. Other labour force status were a direct result outcomes examined included changes of the training, around two-thirds of those unemployed and over half of
24 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 those not in the labour force Table 1: The labour force status of graduates, aged 15-24, prior to training (not working and not actively and after training in 2002 and 2004 looking for work) in May 2002 After were employed in September Six months After training Labour force training 2004. Around nine in ten Age before May 2002 status Sept. 2004 who were employed in May training (%) (%) (%) 2002 were also employed in September 2004. This was Employed 66 76 86 similar for 15 to 19 and 20 to Full-time 28 50 63 24 year-olds. Part-time 7 25 23 15-24 Table 2 highlights the Unemployed 6 6 change in labour force status Not in the labour from 2002 to September 7 0 7 force 2004. Of the 15 to 24 year- olds employed full-time Total 00 00 00 at May 2002, 83% were Employed 57 71 88 also employed full-time in September 2004, and around Full-time 4 41 63 one in ten moved to part-time Part-time 42 29 26 15-19 employment. Of those who Unemployed 9 6 7 were employed part-time in Not in the labour May 2002, 44% moved to 24 2 5 force full-time employment, with 45% remaining in part-time Total 00 00 00 employment. Around a third of Employed 72 79 85 those who were unemployed and looking for full-time work Full-time 6 56 64 in 2002 were employed full- Part-time 4 22 20 20-24 time by 2004, with another Unemployed 5 6 quarter working part-time. Not in the labour Around half of those who were 9 9 force unemployed and looking for part-time work in 2002 were Total 00 00 00 working part-time in 2004, with around a quarter working Source: NCVER. (2004). Down the Track survey; NCVER. (2002). Student full-time. Outcomes Survey. In Sherman 2006, p. 13.
Overall there were positive those of the 15 to 19 year-olds, in all changes in the labour force status from likelihood due to their having been in before training to 2002 and from 2002 the labour market longer. In addition, to 2004. A high proportion of those not many of the 15 to 19 year-olds may employed in 2002 were employed in have been on youth wages, as they had 2004, along with movements from part- not reached the age required to obtain time to full-time employment. adult wages. Due to lower starting salaries, wages had increased more Change in wages for 15 to 19 year-olds than for 20 to 24 For full-time workers, wages of year-olds over the two and a half years. graduates increased substantially from 2002 to 2004 (Table 3). In 2004, the 20 In 2004, male graduates had higher wages than female graduates. This to 24 year-olds had wages higher than
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 25 administration, and Table 2: Change in labour force status of graduates, aged 15-24, between 2002 and 2004 health and community services. These areas Labour force status – September 2004 may lead to jobs in industries such as Labour force status Employed Employed Not in the Unemployed Total –May 2002 full-time part-time labour force accommodation, cafes and restaurants Employed full-time 83 10 2 4 100 (population average Employed part-time 44 45 5 6 100 weekly earnings $694.70: ABS, 2004), Unemployed (looking 35 27 27 100 and health and for full-time) community services Unemployed (looking 27 49 8* 6 100 (population average for part-time) weekly earnings Not in labour force 32 24 5 27 100 $879.50: ABS, 2004). Males were Notes: * indicates the estimate has a relative standard error greater than 25% and more likely to chose should be used with caution. training in architecture Source: NCVER. (2004). Down the Track survey; NCVER. (2002). Student Outcomes and building, and Survey. In Sherman 2006, p. 17. engineering and surveying, which pattern is consistent with Ryan’s (2002) may lead to jobs findings that Vocational Education and in industries such as mining and Training (VET) qualifications provide construction (population average better wage outcomes for males weekly earnings $1 527.50 and than females. The choice of training $1 084.30 respectively, ABS: 2004). influences salary. Females were more likely to undertake training in services, Change in occupation and skill level hospitality and transportation, business Around a third of graduates were employed prior to training. For these graduates, training is not about getting Table 3: Full-time average annual income at 2002 and 2004, and into the labour market, but about percent growth, of graduates aged 15-24 improving their position within the Percent labour market. To complete the picture Age and gender 2002 ($) 2004 ($) growth (%) on employment outcomes, changes in occupation and skill level were 15-24 years 27 577 36 479 32.3 examined. The definition of skill level Male 28 606 39 496 38.1 is based on the five categories of skill Female 25 633 31 820 24.1 as outlined in the Australian Standard Classification of Occupations (ABS, 15-19 years 21 495 31 082 44.6 1997). Male 22 375 32 314 44.4 Movements to higher skill levels can Female 20 189 29 761 47.4 be seen immediately after training, and 20-24 years 30 410 40 500 33.2 then again approximately two and a Male 31 155 43 600 39.9 half years after training (Table 4). While many factors, such as further study Female 28 824 34 091 18.3 affect these outcomes, by 2004 nearly half the graduates had moved to a Source: NCVER. (2004). Down the Track survey; NCVER. (2002). higher skill level, compared with prior to Student Outcomes Survey. In Sherman 2006, p. 19. training. The pattern was similar for 15
26 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 to 19 year-olds and 20 to 24 year-olds. Table 4: Change in skill of graduates, aged 15-24, from before training to 2002,as further and to 2004,study affect these outcomes, by 2004 nearly half the graduates had moved The upward mobility of to a higher skill level, compared with prior to training. The pattern was similar for 15 to 19-year-olds and 20 to 24-year-olds.Before training to Before training to graduates is further illustrated Change in skill 2002 (%) 2004 (%) by Figure 1. It is evident there were large movements from MovementTable 4: to Change a higher inskill skill level of graduates, 4aged 15-24, from 48before training to 2002, lower-skilled to higher-skilled Movementand to 2004, to a lower skill level 8 occupations. The pattern of No change in skill level Before59 training Before 8 training ‘upskilling’ was more distinct Change in skill to 2002 (%) to 2004 (%) for 15 to 19 year-olds, who Total 00 00 were more likely to have lower Movement to a higher skill level 34 48 Source: NCVER. (2004). Down the Track survey; NCVER. (2002). Student skilled jobs prior to training, Movement to a lower skill level 8 13 possibly due to part-time Outcomes Survey. In Sherman 2006, p. 21. employment while completing No change in skill level 59 38 school. Totalto have completed an additional 100 100 qualification at a higher level. As well as training enabling studentsSource: to NCVER. (2004). Down the Track survey; NCVER. (2002). Student Outcomes move into the labour market, trainingSurvey. The In upwardSherman movement 2006, p. in 21. the level of can provide employment benefits for qualifications completed is illustrated The upward mobility of graduates is further illustrated by Figure 1. It is evident there those already in the labour market, were largefurther movements in Figure 2, from which lower-skilled shows the to higher-skilled occupations. The pattern of namely by ‘upskilling’. ‘upskilling’distribution is more of highest distinct qualification for 15 to 19-year-olds, who were more likely to have lower skilledcompleted jobs at priorMay 2002to training, and September possibly due to part-time employment while Further study outcomes completing2004. school. By September 2004, 76% of graduates As wellSummary as training and enabling conclusions students to move into the labour market, training can had undertaken some form of furtherprovide employment benefits for those already in the labour market, namely by education or training that may or ‘upskilling’.This article looked at outcomes from may not have led to a completed training over time in relation to labour qualification. This included Figure 1: Distribution of occupation of graduates, aged 15-24, six months prior training at university or TAFE, toFigure training 1: Distribution and at September of occupation 2004 of (%) graduates, aged 15-24, six and training provided by months prior to training and at September 2004 (%) employers or other providers. Further, 43% of all graduates Managers completed an additional Professionals qualification. Associate Professionals Table 6 shows the proportion Trades of graduates who completed a qualification at a higher Advanced service level than that completed in Intermediate services 2001. Twenty-one percent Intermediate production of all graduates completed a qualification at a higher level Elementary service than the training completed Labourers in 2001, indicating that for some, training is being used 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 as a pathway to further study. Graduates who completed Job before training Current job a Certificate II in 2001 were Source: NCVER. (2004). Down the Track survey; NCVER. (2002). Student more likely than those who Source: NCVER. (2004). Down the Track survey; NCVER. (2002). Student Outcomes Outcomes Survey. In Sherman 2006, p. 23 completed other qualifications Survey. In Sherman 2006, p. 23.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 27
NCVER DMS 9710_V5 5 Caution needs to be taken Table 6: Proportion of graduates, aged 15-24 who completed an additional in attributing the changes qualification at a higher level than that completed in 2001 in outcomes directly to the Proportion who completed a training completed in 2001. Qualification completed in 2001 qualification at a higher level by Without data on a control September 2004 (%) group, it is not possible to know if the changes in Diploma or associate diploma 11 employment status, wages Certificate IV 18 and occupation are any larger than what would have Certificate III 18 occurred had the student not Certificate II 37 undertaking any training. On Certificate I 18 the other hand, graduates tend to do better than those Total 21 who leave before completing Source: NCVER. (2004). Down the Track survey; NCVER. (2002). Student a full qualification, and this Outcomes Survey. In Sherman 2006, p. 26. provides direct evidence of the impact of training.
force status, wages, skill level and There are steady increases further study. One conclusion is that in employment from before training to the period after training is a period six months after training, and again up of transition, with the labour market to two and a half years after training. outcomes of individuals improving as This trend is strongest for full-time they find better jobs. In addition, the employment. There had been large number of people undertaking further shifts, both within the labour market, qualifications is substantial. Certainly, and moving into the labour market. outcomes six months after training understate how well people do after While an increase in the proportion of their training. students employed is important, many Figure 2: Distribution of highest qualification of graduates, agedstudents 15-24, were already employed prior completed at May 2002 and September 2004 (%) to training. For these students Figure 2: Distribution of highest qualification of graduates, aged 15-24, training is not necessarily completed at May 2002 and September 2004 (%) about getting a job, and other measures of success Diploma or higher are needed. Such measures are changes in wages and Certificate IV occupation, and further study. Young graduates received Certificate III substantial increases in wages Certificate II from 2002 to 2004, and there were considerable upward Certificate I movements in occupation from
Other before training to 2004. The majority of 15 to 24 year- 0 10 20 30 40 50 olds went on to some kind of 2002 2004 further training and just under half went on to complete an Source:Source:NCVER. NCVER. (2004).(2004). Down Down the the Track Track survey; survey; NCVER. NCVER. (2002). (2002). Student Student Outcomesadditional qualification. About Survey.Outcomes In ShermanSurvey. In 2006,Sherman p. 23. 2006, p. 23. one-fifth of all graduates
Summary and conclusions 28 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 This article looked at outcomes from training over time in relation to labour force status, wages, skill level and further study. The conclusion is that the period after training is a period of transition, with the labour market outcomes of individuals improving as they find better jobs. In addition, the number of people undertaking further qualifications is substantial. Certainly, outcomes six months after training understate how well people do after their training. Caution needs to be taken in attributing the changes in outcomes directly to the training completed in 2001. Without data on a control group, it is not possible to know if the changes in employment status, wages and occupation are any larger than what would have occurred had the student not undertaking any training. On the other hand, graduates tend to do better than those who leave before completing a full qualification, and this provides direct evidence of the impact of training. There are steady increases in employment from before training to 6 months after training, and again up to two and a half years after training. This trend is strongest for full-time employment. There has been large shifts, both within the labour market, and moving into the labour market. While an increase in the proportion of students employed is important, many students were already employed prior to training. For these students training is not necessarily about getting a job, and other measures of success are needed. Such measures are changes in wages and occupation and further study. Young graduates received substantial increases in wages from 2002 to 2004, and there were considerable upward movements in occupation from before training to 2004. The majority of 15 to 24-year-olds went on to some kind of further training and just under half went on to complete an additional qualification. About one-fifth of all graduates completed an additional qualification at a higher level, especially those with lower level qualifications to begin with.
NCVER DMS 9710_V5 7 completed an additional qualification References at a higher level, especially those with Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). lower level qualifications to begin with. (1997), Australian standard classification of occupations. (2nd ed., Cat.No.1220.0). The importance of life cycle factors is Canberra, ACT: Author. evident in the differences observed Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS). (2004, between the 15 to 19 year-olds and May).Employee earnings and hours, (Cat. 20 to 24 year-olds. The former tend to No. 6303.0). Canberra, ACT: Author. be new entrants into the labour market Dumbrell, T. (2000). Review of research: and so the years immediately after Measuring the outcomes of vocational education and training. Adelaide: NCVER. completing training are particularly important. The Down the Track survey Ryan, C. (2002). Individual Returns is able to describe the transition to vocational eduction and training qualifications: Their implications for lifelong process for this group. learning. Adelaide: NCVER.
A copy of the report, Down the track: Sherman, R. (2006). Down the track: TAFE TAFE outcomes for young people outcomes for young people two years. two years on, is available from From NCVER’s website: www.ncver.edu. au/publications/1694.html NCVER’s website. www.ncver.edu. au/publications/1694.html
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 29 Tasmania is guaranteeing futures for young people
Tasmania: A State of Learning training needs and to create outcomes Tasmania provides an example of a that match these needs. The Tasmanian state that has developed comprehensive government has committed more than strategies to progress lifelong learning $20 million to fund the implementation for all, aligned with overall planning of ‘state of learning’, beginning with $3.6 Nick Evans for the development of the state. The million in 2004-05 and increasing to $7.9 Nick is an experienced centre-piece of this integrated systemic million in 2007-08. public policy maker, and has approach to the development of young Importantly, the strategy aims to Tasmania: A State of Learning held senior management people is . strengthen relationships between positions with the Developed during 2003, Tasmania: learners, providers, business Tasmanian Department of A State of Learning is the state’s first and industry, governments, and Education. He has been an long-term strategic framework for post communities, as well as to build bridges adviser to the Minister for Year 10 education and training. The across all fields of learning – including Education and worked with strategy is also the primary vehicle school, senior secondary education, the Australian Education for innovation in the process of skills Vocational Education and Training Union in both the ACT and development. It aims to encourage (VET), adult and community education, Tasmania for ten years. He more Tasmanians to learn throughout higher education and informal learning. is now a Director of Policy life; to ensure the Tasmanian workforce and Services, Office of Why Tasmania needed a systemic has the capacity to support business Post-Compulsory Education strategy and industry in a growing economy; to and Training, Department of drive and support social, cultural and The bad news is that Tasmania has Education in Tasmania. economic development; and to shape a the lowest uptake of post-compulsory fairer, more prosperous and sustainable education in the country. In 2004, only Tasmania. It contains many tangible 68.6% of Tasmanian students completed initiatives to address the learning needs Year 12 or the equivalent. The good of both young and adult Tasmanians. news is that a number of important indicators of retention, participation and The strategy is an innovative blueprint attainment suggest that Tasmania has to better guide education and training in made progress, and it is now building Tasmania. Overall, the strategy seeks on these to fully realise the benefits of to: education and training and to create a • improve young Tasmanians’ more competitive business environment participation in education and training and quality of life for all Tasmanians. For beyond Year 10 example: • build a skilled workforce with the • Tasmania’s apparent retention rate capacity to support Tasmanian of full-time school students from Year business and industry 10 to Year 12 is 75%, compared with • enable second chance learning 77% nationally. Tasmania’s retention opportunities for people of all ages rate has improved by 23.6% since • create communities that value life- 1997, compared to 3.4% nationally long learning. (ABS, 2002). • While 17% of 2001 Year 10 leavers Tasmania: A State of Learning has did not go on to Year 11 in a school allowed the State government to look at or college, results of the 2001 Year the ‘big picture’, Tasmania’s skills and 10 Destination Survey show that one
30 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 in every two early leavers was either and longer term learning needs are undertaking VET, or was in some met and that the education and training form of employment (Department of environment supports these needs. Education, 2002). These initiatives are encompassed • VET participation rates increased by in four key elements: guaranteeing 7.4% from 1999 to 2002, compared futures, ensuring essential literacies, with 3.5% nationally. In 2002, 10.1% enhancing adult learning, and building of Tasmania’s 15-64 year-olds learning communities. The remainder participated in VET, compared with of this article provides an overview of a national average of 11.8% (ANTA, guaranteeing futures initiatives. ‘Young 2003). people in transition need a rich variety of pathways and the right kinds of support.’ In some areas, though, poor (Parent) participation in education and training beyond Year 10 has resulted in an Guaranteeing futures for overall performance for Tasmania that young people in transition remains below the national average. For from compulsory education to example: independent young adulthood • Tasmania has the second lowest Guaranteeing futures initiatives proportion of all people participating provide for the phased development in formal education and training of an integrated support system for (17.6% compared with a national young people, parents, schools and average of 19.7%) (ABS, 2001). communities. The Office of Post- • The state has the lowest proportion compulsory Education and Training of all people who have attained has responsibility for implementing post Year 10 qualifications (52.2% Guaranteeing Futures initiatives, compared with a national average of consistent with government policy. 67.3%) (ABS, 2001). Work is well underway on a range • Participation in education by 20-24 of Guaranteeing Futures initiatives year-olds remains well below the including: ‘Young People in national average — 28% compared Guaranteeing futures teams Transition need with 37.2% (ABS, 2003). Guaranteeing futures initiatives are • Only 37.9% of Tasmania’s 24 a rich variety of supported by guaranteeing futures year-olds have obtained a skilled teams in three regional areas across pathways and vocational qualification or higher, the state. The teams comprise a compared with a national average of manager, vocational educational and the right kinds 49.2% (MCEETYA, 2002). learning development officers, youth of support.’ • Tasmania has by far the lowest learning officers and pathway planning proportion of its population with a officers. The guaranteeing futures (Parent) bachelor degree or higher — 11.4% teams will increase staffing in 2007 to compared to a national average of approximately 60 staff. They will be 17.8% (ABS, 2003). working with students, parents and teachers in all Tasmanian government Tasmania: A State of Learning is a very schools by February 2007. important step forward as it guides all education and training after Year Vocational Education and Learning 10 and contains many initiatives to Development Officers (VELDOs) address the learning needs of both new The team of VELDOs provide leadership and experienced Tasmanian workers. and support to schools, colleges and It aims to ensure that both immediate
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 31 communities, in the development Stakeholders who contributed to and implementation of programs and the report’s contents indicated that services which support the Vocational the effectiveness of the model was Guaranteeing Education and Learning (VEL) associated with the skills and attributes Framework and the Guaranteeing of the YLOs employed; the way the futures Futures element of Tasmania: A State YLOs formed relationships with selected of Learning. VELDOs also help schools participants; the intensive way they initiatives and colleges to develop and implement support the transition of Year 10 at- new initiatives that facilitate vocational risk students; their networks; and their provide for education and learning opportunities. breadth of experience. Eight VELDOs have been employed and the phased The comprehensive report details the are operational state-wide. development of main destinations of the cohort at the Youth Learning Officers (YLOs) end of the YLO caseload cycle (June an integrated network 2005). Nearly 40% of the cohort (106 students) was studying Year 11 or support system The YLOs network is a vital component equivalent. The main destinations of the guaranteeing futures initiative. include: for young The YLOs work with students who • 6% in training (including apprentices have disengaged, or are at-risk of and trainees) people, parents, disengaging from education. Their role schools and is to assist these students to participate • 8% employed in a suitable education or training • 7% in study (other education) communities. program or employment. Seven YLOs • 9% in study (college/school/ are employed and are operational state- alternative Year 11); wide. YLOs work to a single service • 9% unemployed delivery model in which each YLO works • 2% parenting intensively with a case load of 50 Year 10 students. YLOs will continue to work • % not in study and not in the labour with Year 10 students who experience force ongoing challenges/barriers in making a • 8% uncontactable and/or withdrawn. successful transition. The report highlights three case studies The November 2005 Youth Learning that provide enlightening transcript Officers Model Evaluation report, about the challenges facing YLOs. compiled by the University of Some of the comments include: Melbourne, Centre for Post-Compulsory …her skills are so outstanding that she Education and Lifelong Learning, really needs to train other people in what highlights strong agreement across she does…you need to be able to make the broad range of stakeholders. The sure that those skills are transferred or program of intensive case management at least viewed by a whole lot of other by YLOs, implemented during 2004-05, people, not just YLOs but school staff. has been highly effective in meeting (High School Principal) the needs of the selected at-risk young people. The model delivers significant I think it’s really good for that group of outcomes for young people. There are students to have that ongoing support significant gains, not only in retention, and for it to be outside of the school, not but also in the value-added areas of self coming from teachers as such. I guess esteem and confidence. they feel they can relate better and they’re not going to get into trouble for anything
32 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Graph 1 Graph 1 Tasmania: Statewide YLO caseload destinations 2005/06
180 162 160 College/Yr 11 in District High School Employment 140 TAFE 120 Start @ TAFE 100 General Education Program
80 Actively Seeking Employment Pregnant/Parenting No. of Students 60 41 Moved Interstate/overseas 40 27 Unable to Contact 18 18 18 20 7 10 Ashley Youth Detention Centre 3 1 0
Destination
that Thethey sayYLO or do. model (Employment and approach Agency is •aimed 6% uncontactableat those young and/or people withdrawn at risk, whereas the pathway Staffplanning Member) model and approach providesor in something a detention for centre. every student.
InsteadPathway of having planningtwo administrative staff Graph 1 shows the state-wide YLO to call on them, I would go looking for caseload destinations 2005-06. them,Pathway these kids planning were ready andis also all in a central part of the Guaranteeing Futures initiatives. Pathway The YLO model and approach is aimed bunch,planning to see me, is first about thing, assisting as soon as youngI people to begin to develop, over an extended period of at those young people at risk, whereas walkedtime, in through the skills that door. and I feelunderstandings really that will enable them to access the fullest range of the pathway planning model and privilegededucation, to have thistraining role, given and the employment options, and to make informed and realisticThis choices work is approach provides something for every opportunitiesabout their I experience future every pathways. single day. It’s particularly an initiative that I student. strongly linked feel Resourcesreally proud to forbe involved Years in. 8 (Youthand 9 (My Plan for My Future) are available in all Tasmanian Pathway planning Learninggovernment Officer) schools. The Year 10 resource will be implemented in 2007. Theto resource the classroom folder includes curriculum materials designed within the Essential Learnings Framework; a Pathway planning is also a central part through The mainlearning destinations pathway of theplan; cohort and an additionalof the guaranteeing resource section futures which initiatives. provides resources (305 students)(programs, at the activities, end of the services YLO and support, as well as reports and policies that have Pathway planning is about assisting curriculum caseloadinformed for 2005-06 national include: and state strategiesyoung and people frameworks) to begin to for develop, schools over and others supporting young people planning their future pathways and transitions. • 53% in study (college/school/ an extended period of time, the skills which has been alternative Year 11) and understandings that will enable specifically • 6%Importantly in training (including this work apprentices is strongly themlinked to toaccess the classroom the fullest throurangegh of curriculum which has andbeen trainees) specifically developed to supporteducation, pathway training planning. and employment Designed within thedeveloped Essential to • 6%Learnings in training (StartFramework, @ TAFE) the learningoptions, sequences and to have make been informed developed and as a resource for realistic choices about their future support pathway • %teachers employed to support the development of the skills, concepts and understandings necessary pathways. • 9%for actively students seeking to effectively employment engage with their learning pathway plan. The learningplanning. sequences encourage students to understand more about themselves as a learner and as a person. • 2% in study (other education, e.g. Resources for Years 8 and 9 (My Teachers help students make connections between school and community learning General Education program) Plan for My Future) are available in all experiences and the learning pathwayTasmanian plan by government incorporating schools. the planThe in their teaching and • % parenting learning programs. Year 10 resource will be implemented • % moved interstate/overseas in 2007. The resource folder includes curriculum materials designed within 5
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 33 the Essential Learnings Framework; a Years 9 and 10. By 2007 all students in learning pathway plan; and an additional Years 8, 9 and 10 will be participating in resource section which provides the pathway planning process. Young resources (programs, activities, services Tasmanians will therefore complete Year By 2007 all and support, as well as reports and 10 with a well considered, informed policies that have informed national and and resilient plan for their life after high students in Years state strategies and frameworks) for school. schools and others supporting young The University of Tasmania has 8, 9 and 10 will people planning their future pathways currently been contracted to provide and transitions. be participating an action research evaluation of the in the pathway Importantly this work is strongly linked pathway planning model and this to the classroom through curriculum evaluation report will be completed by planning which has been specifically developed the end of 2006. to support pathway planning. Designed Nowhere in Australia or internationally process. within the Essential Learnings does this intensive approach to engage Framework, the learning sequences all Years 8, 9 and 10 students, one-on- have been developed as a resource for one, over a three year period, occur. teachers to support the development of the skills, concepts and understandings Guaranteeing futures legislation necessary for students to effectively engage with their learning pathway plan. The Youth Participation in Education The learning sequences encourage and Training (Guaranteeing Futures) students to understand more about Act 2005 is one of the cornerstones themselves as a learner and as a of the policy framework provided by person. Teachers help students make Tasmania: A State of Learning. This new connections between school and legislation is making it easier for young community learning experiences, Tasmanians to move from school to and the learning pathway plan, by independent young adulthood. incorporating the plan in their teaching Young people who have completed and learning programs. Year 10 or have turned 16 will be Students work with a pathway planning required to continue with some form of officer to develop a learning pathway education and training by choosing from plan that lays out their education, a range of ‘eligible options’. These will training and career goals. Over a three include senior secondary studies, VET year period, the pathway planning programs, and other approved activities, program gets young people to think delivered in schools or colleges, at and reflect on their social situation, TAFE, or on-the-job. Participation in as well as what they think about their ‘eligible options’ will be required for at future. Pathway planning officers least one year, or until the completion of assist students in understanding a Certificate III vocational qualification, more about themselves and linking or until the age of 17. Young people these understandings to their future in full-time employment can seek post-school choices. They do this by exemption. conducting one-on-one conversations The legislation is an important part with students each year. of the new framework supporting Year 8 students from 2005 have begun youth services that is set to go a the pathway planning process and long way towards guaranteeing the students will build on their plans in futures of all young Tasmanians. By
34 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 providing extensive pathway planning, to be no reason why that will not be intensive support for young people maintained through to 2008 and beyond. at-risk of disengaging from education, The Department of Education is working a completely overhauled senior to ensure that young people are given secondary curriculum, and a new senior greater support in their transitions from secondary graduation certificate, young school to employment; that there is Tasmanians will be better positioned learning support for those Tasmanians to make the right choices about their that need it; and that businesses in the careers. These initiatives will also state are committed to continuous skill give them every opportunity to build a improvement. positive future for themselves.
Summary References Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2001). Overall, Tasmania: A State of Learning Education and Training Experience, and initiatives contained within Australia. (ABS Catalogue 6278.0), Guaranteeing Futures illustrate a Canberra: Author. systemic, integrated, comprehensive Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2002). approach to fostering lifelong learning Schools. (ABS Catalogue 4221.0), Canberra: Author. New legislation opportunities with clear linkages to overall planning for development of the Australian Bureau of Statistics, (2003) part of a new Australian Social Trends state. . (ABS Catalogue 4102.0), Canberra: Author. framework: Young people need to position Australian National Training Authority themselves in a rapidly changing and (ANTA). (2003). Annual National Report • extensive competitive world; so policy-makers of the Australian Vocational Education and Training System. Brisbane, Qld: Author. pathway must continually adapt, improve and make connections between school and Department of Education. (2002, 2001). Year 10 Destination Survey: Report on the 2002 planning community learning. Destinations of the full Cohort of 2001 Year 10 Students in Tasmanian Schools • intensive Guaranteeing Futures will take time and . Hobart, Tasmania: Author. it is no quick fix; but it’s an approach support for where its central concern is the student. Department of Education. (2003). Tasmania: A State of Learning. Hobart: Author. As this system evolves and matures, those at-risk of the community is likely to gain in value Department of Treasury and Finance. (2002). The Competition Index 2002: A State-by- disengaging added outcomes from the wider benefits State Comparison. Hobart: Author. of learning for individuals, enterprises, • overhauled and businesses. University of Melbourne, Centre for Post- compulsory Education and Lifelong Learning. senior secondary Tasmania is, through guaranteeing (2005, November). Youth Learning Officers Model Evaluation: Final Report prepared future initiatives, being proactive in for the Department of Education, OPCET. curriculum addressing retention through education Melbourne: Author. and training. Other states and territories, • new senior and even other Asian countries (e.g. secondary Singapore), are now asking questions about our policy framework. graduation On present preliminary research certificate. findings, there is broad acceptance and support for all the work involved with guaranteeing futures and it appears to be working very well. There appears
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 35 Queensland Skills Plan – securing a better future for Queenslanders
Queensland Introduction compared to an increase of 2.9% Department Australia’s economy is facing nationally (NCVER, July 2006). of Education, major challenges over the coming Another recent NCVER report shows Training and the decades. It must remain competitive 10.9% of Queensland’s apprentice in an increasingly technological Arts and trainee commencements in and international environment while the December 2005 quarter were responding to its ageing population and school-based apprenticeships and skills shortage issues. Implementing traineeships, compared to only 5.5% strategies to increase the skills and job nationally (NCVER, June 2006). readiness of young people is vital to solving these problems. One of the most significant increases was for students aged between 15 and In March 2006 the Queensland 19. In Queensland, from 2004 to 2005, Queensland government launched the student numbers in this age group Skills Plan. It is a comprehensive $1 jumped by 6.4% compared to a national billion blueprint to ensure the state’s increase of 4.5% (NCVER, July 2006). Vocational Education and Training (VET) sector meets the skills challenges Relevant VET undertaken by school of the 21st century. The Queensland students is a key area to be targeted by Department of Education, Training and the Queensland Skills Plan. the Arts is leading the implementation of the plan, which provides a fresh Preparing young people for work approach to skills development and The Queensland government is building recognises the current and future needs on the success of recognised VET of the labour market. initiatives with a range of new programs designed to prepare young people for While some of these needs are work. critical and require immediate action, others are long-term issues requiring The new Queensland Certificate of incremental shifts in training strategies Education provides young people with and workplace culture. more opportunities to select programs that include a broader range of Queensland school-based education and training options – apprenticeships and traineeships particularly VET pathways. Under these Queensland leads Australia in providing new arrangements, a Queensland opportunities for young people to Certificate of Education will be issued undertake part-time apprenticeships if a student has gained 20 credits and traineeships as part of their school during their Senior Phase of Learning program. According to the latest (usually Years 11 and 12). There is statistics from the National Centre no limit to the amount of VET that will for Vocational Education Research count towards the achievement of a (NCVER), Queenslanders are Queensland Certificate of Education. undertaking VET at an increasing rate. Schools will be encouraged to Queensland experienced a 4.2% continue delivering enhanced school- increase, from 2004 to 2005, in the based programs that will allow young number of public VET students, people to earn credit towards VET
36 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 qualifications. The VET system will In accordance with identified local complement these school-based and state priorities and within budget programs by giving young people constraints, the department will fund the access to higher-level qualifications following programs. at the Certificate III level and above. • apprenticeships and traineeships, School students, This ensures young people have the including school-based best possible chance to move into the or other young apprenticeships and traineeships economy’s highest priority jobs. identified in User Choice contracts people, who Within training and employment priority • the first Certificate III or higher level areas TAFE will grant entry to high qualification undertake a school students for Certificate I and II • Certificate I or II level qualification, government- training that offers pathways to higher- or selected competencies identified level training, and to disadvantaged in a student’s Senior Education and funded nationally youth who need greater opportunities Training Plan, or equivalent, that to engage with education and training. recognised VET counts towards the achievement of a Schools will also gain access to TAFE Queensland Certificate of Education facilities and resources, where possible, qualification at (or Senior Statement) to help them deliver a broader range of • a range of new and enhanced pre- TAFE as part training to their students. vocational and pre-apprenticeship of their senior From 2006, young people enrolling programs. at TAFE institutes full-time will have Significant work has been undertaken studies, will access to concession arrangements. by the Department of Education, School students, or other young people, Training and the Arts and other key pay no tuition who undertake a government-funded stakeholders to maximise the efficient fees where the nationally recognised VET qualification use of public funding for the Senior at TAFE as part of their senior studies, Phase of Learning by ensuring schools qualification will pay no tuition fees where the and approved training providers qualification is part of, or progresses are working together in delivering is part of, or towards, a Certificate III or higher level appropriate programs. qualification. progresses Since December 2000, the number of Regardless of whether a young person Queenslanders in apprenticeships and towards, a is studying nationally recognised VET traineeships has sky-rocketed by 52% Certificate III competencies at school, at TAFE, or —from 49 200 to 74 600 (NCVER, June combining these arrangements, access 2006), as at the end of December 2005. or higher level to learning will be on equal terms and in as broad a range of offerings as The 2006-07 State budget allocates qualification. possible. $7.1 million for employer incentives to expand school-based apprenticeship Incentives for youth training and traineeship opportunities under the Education and Training Reforms Access to VET has been expanded Pathways Program – Youth Training for young people in Queensland in Incentive. The expanded Youth Training the Senior Phase of Learning. The Incentives program replaces the Department of Education, Training and Strategic Employment Development the Arts has developed a resourcing Program. From July 1 2006, employers framework which provides all young across Queensland became eligible people with access to their first VET for a $4000 government-funded wage qualification at TAFE. subsidy for employing additional school-
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 37 based apprentices or trainees in skill- Success stories shortage areas. Expanded hospitality opportunities for Gladstone students This will provide 2100 school-based Gladstone high school students are now apprenticeship and traineeship able to study higher-level hospitality A major concern places with Queensland public sector courses at TAFE for school-based agencies, including local government that employers apprenticeships and traineeships. The authorities, and with private sector expansion of hospitality training at have expressed employers in rural and remote areas. Gladstone followed an assessment of Specific trades areas include panel the future use of the Horizon’s training is that allowing beating, mechanics, diesel fitting, restaurant at the Gladstone campus of electrical fitting, plumbing, painting and only one day Central Queensland TAFE. decorating, carpentry, cabinet making, a week on- sheet metal working and fitting and In semester one 2006, 55 students from turning. Gladstone high schools were enrolled site generally in the Certificate I in Hospitality (Kitchen The 2006-07 State budget also includes Operations). From semester two, the does not give $9.8 million to provide 2230 places in Certificate II in Hospitality (Kitchen the Education and Training Reforms for apprentices the Future Pathways Program – Get Operations) will be offered to senior students at Gladstone TAFE. Beginning Set for Work. The Get Set for Work enough semester one 2007, Certificate II in program makes employment skills Hospitality (Kitchen Operations) will work-based development programs available for 15 be available to all students who have to 17 year-olds who have left school completed Certificate I. experience to before completing Year 12 or are at risk consolidate their of leaving without engaging in further Training will be provided at the education, training and employment. Horizon’s facility with staff from both skills. TAFE and local high schools involved in Reviewing workplace time for partnership with Gladstone TAFE and school-based apprentices Education Queensland. It is an initiative A major concern that employers have of Education and Training Reforms for expressed is that allowing only one the Future. The initiative is increasing day a week on-site generally does training opportunities for high school not give apprentices enough work- students in Gladstone, and will also based experience to consolidate their provide the hospitality industry in skills. To address this concern the Gladstone with a greater pool of trained Department of Education, Training and workers in the future. the Arts is working with the Department The facility is a valuable asset for the of Education and the Arts to ensure local community. More than 14 000 that school-based apprentices have hours of training have been delivered in sufficient workplace access to develop 2005-06 in areas such as bar attendant, their skills. The review aims to give and responsible service of alcohol and school-based apprentices and their gaming. An additional 8733 hours were employers the option of increasing the delivered in kitchen operations. number of days spent on-the-job. The partnership will ensure that use of the Horizon’s training facility will be maximised, and that the general community can continue to access training.
38 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Bricklaying program delivers for are able to gain exposure to bricklaying construction industry as a potential career. Increasing numbers of Queensland Following this, the Intensive Skills secondary school students are Pre-Employment course provides selecting and remaining in bricklaying training for 128 people to lay 200 bricks apprenticeships. This shows that per day as part of a Certificate I in the Building Better Skills program, Construction (Bricklaying). The pre- conducted by Construction Training employment course provides students Queensland in partnership with the with a productivity level that is attractive Australian Brick and Blocklaying to employers and streamlines their Training Foundation, is paying entry into apprenticeships. As a result dividends. The building and of the Intensive Skills course and the construction industry developed the flexible training approach, apprentices Building Better Skills program to generally will graduate in around three address critical trade skills shortages years. and the Queensland government has backed the program with $680 000. The Building Better Skills program is part of a larger government drive to A major concern about the skills develop a broad pre-vocational program shortages has been the lack of new to give prospective apprentices apprentices – particularly bricklayers. trades experience before signing an Many school students have not apprentice contract. By better informing considered bricklaying as a desirable youth of career choices, it will increase career option, and those who do their chances of completing their begin often don’t complete their qualifications. apprenticeships. But Construction Training Queensland, the Australian The students are receiving training Brick and Blocklaying Training through the Metropolitan South and Foundation, and the Building and Barrier Reef Institutes of TAFE as Construction Industry Training Fund, well as the BIGA Academy and the are working together to turn those Australian Institute of Technology. attitudes around. Gaining from diversity: Sunnybank By better The Building Better Skills bricklaying State High School program gives students a more hands- Over the past 20 years Sunnybank informing on approach to bricklaying so they can State High School has experienced make a more informed decision about a growing multicultural student youth of career their apprenticeship. population. This has necessitated the choices, their need for a fresh school vision and Before the program started, plan. The school motto ‘Many Kinds there was a 57% attrition rate for chances of of Excellence’ has spearheaded a bricklaying apprenticeships. Now complete reassessment of the school’s completing their 18 months into the program, 90% of values, processes and VET programs. students commencing a bricklaying qualifications apprenticeship are expected to The overhaul started in 2002 when a complete it. Forty-six people are major school review highlighted the will be currently enrolled in the program. serious issues of poor exit results, increased. low tertiary entrance scores, and Through the Step Out program high truancy and local youth crime component of the initiative, students are rates. Today, the statistics from their given the opportunity to ‘try a trade’ and revamped VET program paint a very
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 39 different picture. Involvement in their future employment skills. Sourcing school-based apprenticeship and best-practice documents from around traineeship program has jumped from the state and country has also allowed eight students in 2002, to an estimated the staff to refine and standardise their The Queensland 100 students in 2006. VET program policies, procedures and content. Skills Plan VET participation by senior students has lifted from 55% in 2002 to over In 2004, Sunnybank student, outlines a policy 65% this year, and enrolment levels Michael Edmondson, was named in ‘two or more’ and ‘three or more’ the Queensland School-Based framework that VET subjects have risen by almost Trainee/Apprentice of the Year at the will better match 15%. A core part of this change has Queensland Training Awards. been helping students connect their Sunnybank State High School was schoolwork to the ‘real’ world and the supply of recognised for its VET achievement presenting modern study pathways that as a state finalist in the McDonald’s skilled labour students feel are directly related to their Australia Vocational Education and career plans. to industry’s Training in Schools Excellence Award VET offerings are now heavily in both the 2004 and 2005 Queensland needs and the promoted in the school community Training Awards. In 2005, another economy’s through a Student Vocational Sunnybank student, Brian Luckins, was Education Handbook that presents awarded the Education Queensland/ demands. vocational subjects as an equally Teen Challenge Vocational Student of valued alternative for future and current the Year Award. He also received the studies. Inaugural Federal Vocational Student Prize. This year, Sunnybank State High Students considered to be ‘at risk’ of School was selected as one of the three disengaging from learning are given state finalists for the 2006 Education access to individual counselling and Queensland’s Showcase Award for courses, as well as specialist work Excellence in the Senior Phase of experience programs and traineeships Learning. one day a week. Each VET student’s preferred learning style is matched to Further information an appropriate delivery mode such as The Queensland Skills Plan outlines one-on-one, classroom-based, distance a policy framework that will better education, online learning and industry match the supply of skilled labour to placement. industry’s needs and the economy’s By networking with group training demands. It sets out a range of actions companies and employers, the school the Queensland government will take has also become increasingly involved to implement these policies. The new in their local community, creating a framework has four key elements: shared model where the school and • a training system that works for nearby industries support each other. Queensland All teaching staff has received • training that works for industry and professional development to improve employers their understanding and delivery of • training that works for the trades VET subjects while the school has • training that works for individuals. organised successful Years 10, 11 and 12 student leadership conferences For more information visit the and careers conferences focused on Queensland Department of Education,
40 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Training and the Arts website at www. trainandemploy.qld.gov.au/skillsplan or call 1300 369 935.
References Department of Employment and Training. (2006, March). Queensland Skills Plan. Brisbane, Qld: Author.
Department of Employment and Training, Epartment of Industrial Relations. (2006, June). State Budget 2006–07 Budget Highlights. Brisbane, Qld: Author.
National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). (2006, June). Australian vocational education and training statistics: apprentices and trainees – December Quarter 2005, Summary (Revised). Adelaide, SA: Author.
National Centre for Vocational Education Research (NCVER). (2006, July). Australian vocational education and training statistics: students and courses 2005. Adelaide, SA: Author.
School-based apprenticeships and traineeships give young people a career head start
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 41 Where VET in Schools has come from in Western Australia
Introduction of substantial work experiences for In 1996 as VET in Schools was students in a vocational context. emerging at the national level from Structured Workplace Learning a concept into a reality, the time was (SWL), a subject in its own right, was right in Western Australian schools for developed by the Curriculum Council change within the vocational education (the Western Australian Board of Louise Morrison area. Prior to this, vocational education Studies) for a range of industry areas as a means of capturing the significant Louise began her career had begun to be acknowledged in a skills students developed during work as a Home Economics more formal way for students on their placements. If students completed the teacher, then evolved into senior secondary certificate – Western established minimum number of hours a Hospitality and Tourism Australian Certificate of Education in work placement, and had the set of teacher. She was seconded, (WACE). But there were still aspects skills required signed off by employers in 1997, into the Western of what students were doing that was (based on the key competencies), then Australian Department of not being acknowledged and recorded, SWL contributed to their WACE. Education and Training as even though the outcomes for students a Senior Policy Officer for in gaining employment and further This was the environment in which VET VET in Schools. She is training were often very good. in Schools in WA began. Baseline data currently the Principal Policy In the 1980s, and into the early ’90s, collected from public schools in 1996 Officer. Louise also has VET in schools had developed alternative indicated that 36 schools had had short stints working on Schools courses for students who were not programs, involving 683 Years other projects, e.g. a 15-19 university bound. These courses were 11 and 12 students. This was only 2.8% year-old project, and in based around the trades. They were of the cohort. Nearly ten years on, 129 Fiji, on an AusAID funded VET in Schools very practical and hands-on in their schools are offering project relating to enterprise approach with a significant component programs to a total of 13 272 Year 11 education. of work experience, and were often on and 12 students. This represents just the periphery of a school’s offerings. under 50% of the cohort. In addition, VET in Schools Students doing these courses tended programs are being not to achieve their secondary offered to Year 8, 9 and 10 students, certificate. The aim of many courses often as an engagement strategy to was to get students into employment or keep these students within the school TAFE as soon as possible. There were system (DET, 2006). local arrangements with TAFEs with Where is VET in Schools going? students doing TAFE courses, which did not appear on the WACE. So what is the future for VET in Schools in WA? How can the successes be VET in Schools, The emergence of built on? How can the changes to nationally, came at a time in Western the system over the past years be Australia (WA) when change had used as the foundation, so that young commenced in this area. In the early people can continue to use Vocational 1990s a range of vocationally based Education and Training (VET) as a subjects had been developed on a successful pathway to further training state-wide basis with some links being and employment? made to national training packages. In WA the development of the vision WA also had in place accredited and mission for VET in Schools has subjects acknowledging the place
42 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 groups that are difficult to reach and/or service or example, improving access for students in rural and remote areas and for educationally disadvantaged students including Indigenous students and students with a disability • developing strategies to maintain quality standards in VET in Schools, including professional development • increasing participation in school-based new apprenticeships or other trades- related vocational courses which seen a re-focusing on where the respond to skills shortages program is going, in particular, for public • addressing areas of skills shortage. schools. With a vision to promote the implementation of VET in a school’s Within the context of VET in Schools context, through the development in WA public schools, this means the of policies, programs and resources focus is on: and the mission relating to improving • supporting a collaborative approach quality delivery, being evidence based to VET in Schools delivery across in decision making and innovative in schools, districts and systems the approach to delivery and programs, • further enhancing strategic VET in Schools is well placed to grow partnerships with industry and further. schools Linked to this way forward are the • reporting and monitoring VET in delivery principles, that states have Schools programs. agreed on with the Department of Education and Training (DEST) to As well as the policy directions from the undertake in terms of VET in Schools. Australian government, within WA there These include: have been changes taking place in relation to curriculum, with a move to an • the establishment of VET in Schools outcomes based approach for courses by schools not previously involved in of study in Years 11 and 12. Students the delivery of VET in Schools have the opportunity to undertake • expanding the range and spread VET within the new courses, as well of VET in Schools courses offered as separately, and this VET study will across industry sectors by schools be recognised as part of the WACE. already involved in the delivery of This has allowed student programs VET in Schools which have significant VET, such as • the establishment of VET in Schools school based traineeships (SBT), to courses in new industry areas and have greater recognition. in industry areas currently not well subscribed in VET in Schools Another significant policy shift has been in relation to schools • increasing participation in VET operating as Registered Training in Schools by particular student Organisations (RTOs). Prior to
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 43 2006, schools could be Registered with additional funding support from Training Providers with restrictions the Department of Employment and being placed on their ability to Workplace Relations (DEWR), to certificate student results. This pay for the wages component for the was carried out by the Curriculum students. Council. Schools, as Regional • SBTs in the trades have been Training Providers (RTPs), were piloted during 2006, in an attempt also restricted to Certificate II, but to alleviate skills shortages in some this has also been lifted. key trade areas. With additional support from DEST, a number of Currently there are 14 schools and places were targeted for Year 12 five Agricultural Colleges operating students to convert their existing as RTOs with scope to operate in VET in Schools programs into a one a range of industry areas. Being year school based traineeship. a RTO school does not preclude schools having partnerships with • A partnership between schools and other RTOs for VET delivery, in two industry based organisations, areas outside their scope. College of Electrical Training (CET) and Electrical Group Training (EGT), On the ground – how policy has resulted in the development translates to actual programs in schools of a unique program for Year 11 and Year 12 school students who Districts, schools and teachers have can now complete a Certificate I in been innovative in their approaches to Electrotechnology, plus substantial programs that improve the outcomes work placements. Students who for students. During the era of VET successfully complete the two in Schools, this has also been the year program are guaranteed an case. Below are highlighted several electrical apprenticeship with EGT. successful programs that have • Innovative use of technology to succeeded by keeping their focus on deliver instruction. Busselton Senior how to get students onto post-school High School is using the online pathways to future employment and/or services offered by WestOne the training. Western Australian Department of • School-based traineeship (new Education and Training (operated apprenticeships) numbers have by DET) to deliver to students been small in comparison to the total competencies at Certificate I and II VET in Schools figures, which has level in the Metals Training Package. been growing steadily. A significant By changing delivery methods, innovation has been the successful student completion rates have implementation of the Certificate I in increased dramatically, and access Workplace Readiness – Aboriginal for students with special learning School-Based Traineeship. This has seen growth in the numbers of young Indigenous students engaging in school programs and returning to school in the senior secondary years, often to undertake VET programs. • Over 50% of all SBTs are part of a specific program for Indigenous students which is being developed,
44 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 needs has improved significantly References (DET, 2005). Western Australian Department of Education Busselton SHS • A district-based VET coordinator, and Training (DET). (2005). Case Study Blended Learning Program. in a district on the coast in the Retrieved from www.vetinfonet.det.wa.edu. Perth metropolitan area, could au
potentially, given the strong local Western Australian Department of Education links to the maritime and transport and Training (DET). (2006). VET for School industries, lead to the development Students 2005 Western Australian Statistics. of a program encapsulated as the Retrieved from www.vetinfonet.det.wa.edu. au Ocean to the Plate program. The aim has been to work with the industries and employers to give students opportunities, through work placements and SBTs, to experience a range of occupations within these industries. This has evolved into a very strong partnership with industry, in particular with transport and logistics partners.
Conclusion As schools in WA grapple with the new paradigms for the post-compulsory curriculum and on-going changes to training packages, the challenge for both schools and the system is to ensure the outcomes and pathways for students to post-school destinations is enhanced. By focusing on quality, innovation, and ensuring decisions are based on sound evidence, VET in Schools will continue to grow and be a vibrant part of the education and training sector. The outcomes students are achieving and the pathways they are traveling, give the system the confidence that it is on the right path.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 45 New directions for local community partnerships in Australia
Introduction within a real or simulated workplace, A national project ‘to develop strategies providing supervised learning activities for the Australian Government contributing to an assessment of funded network of Local Community competency and achievement of Partnerships (LCPs) to better meet outcomes relevant to the requirements the needs of students, community and of a particular Training Package or Michael Taylor industry’ was commissioned by the other AQF VET qualification.’ (DEST, Department of Education, Science 2005a) Michael Taylor Consulting and Training (DEST) during 2005. specialises in the interface As Table 1 shows, despite a dip in The aim was to establish how LCPs between schools and activity in 2003, program growth can better understand skills shortages VET. Michael was part of continued and by 2004 over 114 000 and areas of employment growth to PhillipsKPA Consulting students were participating in SWL. provide a closer alignment between the which undertook this This represents 54% of all VET in coordination of Structured Workplace research. Previously Schools students participating in Learning (SWL) and the needs of he was the Manager of that year. Student exposure to the industry. A sample of LCPs was studied Youth Transition within the workplace continued to fall in terms to examine the ways in which they are Australian National Training of average student hours of SWL developing strategies for working with Authority and statewide per year and this remains a concern. local industry and employer groups manager of Vocational (MCEETYA, 2005) to address local skills shortages and Education in Schools with employment needs. It is instructive to consider the the Victorian Department of distribution of VET in Schools Education and Training. The role of Structured Workplace enrolments by industry groupings (this Learning is not available for SWL). The picture that emerges from the recent data The primary role of LCPs, especially confirms the highly skewed pattern at the time of this research, was to established over a number of years. coordinate the provision of SWL. The The overwhelming bulk of enrolments, importance of SWL to skill formation is almost 60%, are confined to four well known. Australian National Training Authority ‘Structured Workplace Learning is (ANTA) industry areas: tourism and considered to be a VET in Schools hospitality; business and clerical; programme/course component situated computing; and general education
Table 1: Key Structured Workplace Learning data
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Number of students 81.0 01.2 2.4 06.2 4.8 (000) Total hours 6.470 7.113 7.399 6.250 6.711 (000) Average hours/ 79.8 70.3 65.8 59 58.4 student
Source: MCEETYA, 2005
46 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Table 1: Key Structured Workplace Learning data
2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 Number students (000) 81.0 101.2 112.4 106.2 114.8 Total hours (000) 6.470 7.113 7.399 6.250 6.711 Average hours/ student 79.8 70.3 65.8 59 58.4 Source: (MCEETYA, 2005)
It is instructive to consider the distribution of VET in Schools enrolments by industry groupings (this is not available for SWL). The picture that emerges from the recent data confirms the highly skewed pattern established over a number of years. The overwhelming bulk of enrolments, almost 60%, are confined to four Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) industry areas: tourism and hospitality; business and clerical; computing; and general education and training. Much lower levels of participation are found in all other industry areas, including many that are experiencing skill shortages such as automotive (2.3%), community services and health (2.8%), building and construction (4.8%) and engineering and mining (5.4%) (MCEETYA, 2005). This means that the supply of work placements may not align with areas of skills shortages or emerging employment growth.
An illustration of this misalignment was sourced from the Liverpool region of New South Wales (Table 2). and training. Much lower levels Table 2: LiverpoolTable economic 2: Liverpool profile economic 2004 and profileLiverpool 2004 workplace and Liverpool of participation are found in all learning participationworkplace data (2004) learning participation data (2004) other industry areas, including many that are experiencing skill 40.0 shortages such as automotive 35.0 (2.3%), community services 30.0 and health (2.8%), building 25.0 and construction (4.8%) and SWL 2004 20.0 engineering and mining (5.4%) Businesses 2001 15.0 Percentage (MCEETYA, 2005). This 10.0 means that the supply of work 5.0 placements may not align with 0.0 areas of skills shortages or nt gy ion e ring sm ing ct olo uri ur emerging employment growth. ru inm n ee Retail o ct spitality in T ta o ch g fa onst ter H te nu C n a E ion ls en M An illustration of this ta at e Business services rm M misalignment was sourced from fo In the Liverpool region of New Industry area South Wales (Table 2).
The data shows that participation Sources:Sources: InformationInformation gained gained through through the the research research process process from from Liverpool economic in SWL aligned closely with the profileLiverpool 2004 economic and Liverpool profile 2004 workplace and Liverpool learning workplace participation learning data (2004). number of local businesses in participation data (2004). some industry areas but not 2 in others. Although caution is as these are often confused. The needed in drawing conclusions from research project drew on the following this kind of data, especially given the key Department of Employment time differences, it is illustrative of and Workplace Relations (DEWR) some imbalance in provision. There is a definitions. relatively close alignment between the proportion of SWL and the proportion DEWR definitions relating to skills of employment in the business shortages services and retail sectors. There is a ‘Skills shortages exist when employers mismatch in hospitality and information are unable to fill, or have considerable technology, as the percentage difficulty filling, vacancies for an of SWL participation significantly occupation (or specialised skill needs The supply of exceeds the local percentage of in the occupation) at current levels employment available in these work placements of remuneration and conditions of industries. The reverse is the case for employment, and reasonable location. the manufacturing and construction may not align Shortages are typically for specialised industries, where the proportion of and experienced workers, and can with areas of employment available significantly coexist with relatively high overall exceeds the proportion of SWL unemployment in the occupation. skills shortages provided. It would seem appropriate in An occupation may be assessed such circumstances to use these data or emerging as in shortage even though not as the basis of a review of the pattern all specialisations are in shortage. employment of SWL provision. Occupations may be in shortage in some regions and not in others. growth. VET in Schools and skills shortages It is important to clarify the meaning of ‘Recruitment difficulties occur when skills shortages and related concepts employers have some difficulty filling
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 47 vacancies for an occupation. There were apparent in some jurisdictions may be an adequate supply of skilled where LCPs undertake other student workers but employers are still unable transition services, or where state to attract and recruit sufficient suitable education and training authorities employees. These difficulties may be supplement Commonwealth funding for due to characteristics of the industry, the purpose of broadening the role and occupation or employer, such as: functions of LCPs. relatively low remuneration, poor Many LCPs face challenges in working conditions or image of the balancing supply and demand drivers industry, unsatisfactory working hours, for the provision of SWL. In many location hard to commute to, ineffective instances the supply side predominates, recruitment or firm-specific and highly- with provision being largely driven specialised skill needs. by student choice according to the Skill gaps occur where existing courses offered by schools. However, in In relation to VET employees lack the required other instances LCPs are making use qualifications, experience and/or of information about skills shortages in Schools, it is specialised skills to meet the firm’s skill and projected employment growth to needs for an occupation. Skill gaps inform the planning and provision of more likely that may apply to new employees, where SWL. Currently there are four broad the key labour employers are unable to find suitable strategies that reflect better practice in applicants for an occupation and recruit operation: market issue workers who need further training and/or 1. Strategies to influence supply experience to meet the firm’s skill needs side arrangements. LCPs have is recruitment for the occupation. DEWR (2004, p.12) responded to demonstrated industry needs in a variety of ways, including difficulties. In relation to VET in Schools, it is organising industry tours for school more likely that the key labour market career advisers, developing VET in issue is recruitment difficulties, as Schools program packages based skill shortages and skill gaps are on local need and ‘reverse mapping’ more typically issues for higher level where a LCP determines industry skills than entry level and for existing vacancies and then matches workers, rather than new entrants to students to them. This has been the workforce. While it is unrealistic combined with a greater allocation to expect LCPs to develop specialist of SWL to skills shortage industry knowledge of labour markets and areas than other areas. economic indicators, a general understanding of various concepts and 2. Influence exerted by external major information sources will assist agencies. These external agencies LCPs in making informed planning include local government, Area decisions. Consultative Committees, Chambers of Commerce and other networks. The labour market and LCPs LCPs are linking with these to drive industry needs. It needs to be understood that at the time of this research there was a broad 3. Relationships, partnerships and diversity in the size, areas of focus alliances. There are examples where and operations of LCPs throughout LCPs form particular relationships to Australia. Not surprisingly, the most meet industry needs. Examples of common model is working with schools these include a major construction and employers to coordinate SWL for company in the ACT, the commercial local students. Variations on this model vehicle industry in Brisbane, and
48 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 local government, local Chamber of Commerce or equivalent, or an industry organisation such as the Australian Industry Group). LCPs rarely have the capacity to undertake data gathering and analysis with the current level of resourcing and skills base. Through the relationships with intermediary agencies, LCPs are able to access information that has been contextualised to provide insights into the trends, issues and opportunities which exist within their local area.
Figure 1 illustrates the relationships among location, information and timeframes as they connect to the provision of VET in Schools, SWL and the sphere of influence of LCPs. It shows that ‘knowledge’ that is based on contextualised information sourced from national/statewide information and referenced against local experience plays a critical role in positioning VET in Schools and SWL in relation to prevailing labour market an electro-technology conditions. Figure 1: ‘Positioning’ Structured Workplace Learning initiative in Adelaide Figure 1: ‘Positioning’ Structured Workplace Learning through the state industry training board. Location 4. Direct influence by Information industry and industry State/national Broad State/national bodies. LCPs have data facilitated industry needs in situations where industry is prepared to play a lead role such as the engineering traineeship in Western Australia and the Rural Careers and Education project through the Knowledge LCPs - Tasmanian Farmers and Sphere of influence Graziers Association. Local A key finding of the research Immediate Long term was that LCPs do not have projected Time the capacity to gather and analyse labour market data Source:Source: The aboveThe abovediagram diagram was developed was developed as a visual as a visualaid during aid durithe research.ng the research. but have a keen interest in making greater use of these It is through the process of transforming ‘data’ to ‘information’ to ‘knowledge’ that SWL data to inform their work and can be aligned to the needs of labour markets. Data on their own will not lead to any current level of resourcing and skills dialogue with industry and schools.change, but when they are analysed according to specific criteria and brought to bear on a base. Through the relationships with While it is recognised that informationspecific geographic area the information that they yield can provide the evidence to intermediary agencies, LCPs are able derived from the Department of inform decision making. to access information that has been Employment and Workplace Relations contextualised to provide insights into (DEWR) and the Department of the trends, issues and opportunities Education, Science and Technology which exist within their local area. (DEST), for example, provides a useful background to planning and decision- Figure 1 illustrates the relationships making within LCPs, it is not until this among location, information and 5 material is contextualised to impart a timeframes as they connect to the local flavour that it becomes a valued provision of VET in Schools, SWL tool within the day-to-day operation of and the sphere of influence of LCPs. LCPs. It shows that knowledge that is based on contextualised information sourced In circumstances where LCPs from national/statewide information, and are making use of labour market referenced against local experience, information, it is very often sourced plays a critical role in positioning VET from an intermediary agency (such in Schools and SWL in relation to as an Area Consultative Committee, prevailing labour market conditions. local government, local Chamber of Commerce or equivalent, or an It is through the process of transforming industry organisation such as the data to information to knowledge that Australian Industry Group). LCPs SWL can be aligned to the needs rarely have the capacity to undertake of labour markets. Data on their data gathering and analysis with the own will not lead to any change, but
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 49 when they are analysed according to be managed in a systematic way. specific criteria, and brought to bear Advice will need to be provided to key on a specific geographic area, the information sources such as DEWR information that they yield can provide and industry bodies regarding the the evidence to inform decision-making. information needs of LCPs. At the same time, LCPs will require, in the New directions short-term, training and support to During the course of this research, make optimum use of the information DEST (2004) released the Australian which is made available. The Regional Network of Industry Careers Advisers Industry Careers Advisers (RICAs), (ANICA) directions paper. The purpose introduced as part of the ANICA of the ANICA initiative, subsequently initiative, will play a critical role in this named Career Advice Australia, area. Their objectives include improving is complementary with existing ‘the quality and availability of regional arrangements and provided clarity industry career information, advice and in relation to the intended role for resources, particularly in skill needs LCPs beyond 2005. Based on these areas, for LCPs, schools, employers, directions, and combined with the businesses and young people’ (DEST, outputs of three national workshops 2005b, p. 3). of LCPs conducted as part of this research, a new model to guide the So what are the key research operations of LCPs has emerged. The messages? model draws on the ANICA initiative 1. Beyond LCP expertise: Information and better practices evident across a and data on current labour demand, range of LCPs to identify three core including skill shortages, are roles: produced by a range of agencies • coordination of SWL and can be complex and of variable quality. A systematic and A new model • career and transition support sophisticated local assessment of • expanding Adopt a School projects. to guide the job prospects and skill shortages is operations The research indicated that outside LCP expertise and beyond underpinning these core roles are a their core business. of LCPs has number of functions which include 2. LCPs are receptive to labour accessing and utilising labour market market information: This will guide emerged. information to inform planning, decision- planning and decision-making at making and stakeholder relationships. the local level and inform a dialogue Through this process it is expected that between LCPs and industry, schools LCPs will continue to build and sustain and students to achieve a greater relationships with industry, schools and alignment between the provision other entities. of SWL and the emerging needs of industry. The key point of differentiation in the 3. Need for local contextualisation new model centres on bringing labour of data: This is needed for the market and economic development information to be useful to LCPs at information to the forefront of planning, the local area and some of this is organisation and service delivery within sourced from intermediary agencies LCPs. with strong local links to employers. For this to be achieved, the flow of information into LCPs needs to
50 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 4. New LCP operational model for core Next steps roles: To perform these roles LCPs Since this project has been completed, need: DEST has taken a number of steps • access to and use of labour to clarify the situation in relation to market information to inform LCPs. The three major roles of LCPs planning, decision-making and have been identified; there has been stakeholder relationships a national tender process to select • to build and sustain relationships LCPs for service regions based on ABS with industry, schools, other statistical sub-divisions; and funding training providers and other has been allocated for a three year stakeholders within the local period. In addition, a national network community and with students and of 57 RICAs and 10 National Industry parents through the identification Career Specialists have been appointed of post-school pathways and and are now in place. The centrality promotion of careers resources of the issue of the provision of labour • to build and sustain relationships market information to assist LCPs to with other service providers deal with skill shortages issues has not through collaboration and, where yet been addressed. The capacity of possible, co-location. LCPs to make a concerted difference in this area remains untested until this is 5. Relevant and customised data: done. Advice needs to be provided to agencies such as DEWR, and to References industry bodies, to ensure that Department of Education, Science and valid and reliable information flows Training (DEST). (2004). The Australian Network of Industry Careers Advisers to LCPs in a manner that enables directions paper. Canberra, ACT: Author. optimum use at the local level. Department of Education, Science and 6. Critical role of RICAs: They Training (DEST). (2005a, May). Quality of have a critical role in supporting Structured Workplace Learning. Canberra, and guiding LCPs in the use of ACT: Author. information to inform the dialogue Department of Education, Science and with stakeholders and enhance the Training (DEST). (2005b). Regional Industry delivery of SWL. Career Advisers (RICA) network guidelines 2005–2008. Canberra, ACT: Author. 7. Systematic documentation and dissemination of better practices: Department of Employment and Workplace Relations (DEWR). (2004, June). Job The researchers gathered some outlook: Youth edition. Canberra, ACT: documentation on Indigenous Author. students and students with a Ministerial Council on Education, disability participating in SWL, which Employment, Training and Youth Affairs needs to be distributed. (MCEETYA). Taskforce on Transition from School (2005). National data on 8. Increased certainty: The efficacy of participation in VET in Schools programs LCPs will be enhanced by surety and School-Based New Apprenticeships and equity in resourcing, training for the 2004 school year (unpublished). in governance, and maximising Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia. the alignment between the Commonwealth transitions agenda and that which exists in each state and territory.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 51 Getting research around VET in Schools on the agenda
Introduction VET in Schools: where next for In April this year, the Australian research? symposium Vocational Education Training Research The VET in Schools: Where next for Angela Hill Association (AVETRA) held its 9th research? symposium comprised of annual conference – Global VET: three presentations: ‘Secondary teacher Dr Angela Hill is a senior Challenges at the Global, National education and VET in Schools: Is it lecturer at James Cook and Local Levels – at the University that difficult?’, presented by Angela Hill University’s School of of Wollongong. Endeavouring to from the School of Education, James Education in Townsville. explore questions pertaining to the Cook University; ‘Voicing views of VET She is involved in research international, national and local context in Schools: sound bites from a national and teaching in VET in of Vocational Education and Training study’, presented by Leanne Dalley- Schools and is an active (VET), the conference had three Trim from the School of Education, member of the VET themes: global VET research, reform James Cook University; and ‘Have community in Townsville. and change in Australian VET and their school vocational education and training She has also worked as a implications for VET research, and programs been successful?’, presented teacher in the TAFE system. VET at the local level. The conference by Tom Karmel, the Managing Director program included keynote addresses of the National Centre for Vocational by Professor Michael Singh from Education Research (NCVER). The the University of Western Sydney; symposium sought to showcase recent Aurora Andruska, representing the research and in addition pose questions Department of Education, Science and that need further exploration. Training (DEST); and Barry Peddle, the The first of the presentations, president of TAFE Directors Australia ‘Secondary teacher education and VET and the Institute Director of the Illawarra in Schools: Is it that difficult?’, examined Institute of TAFE. It also included panel issues associated with the preparation presentations chaired by Michael Singh, Leanne Dalley- of secondary teachers for a school Fran Ferrier and Jenny Ferber; and environment rapidly embracing VET. Trim a number of individual presentations, The paper drew on research completed Dr Leanne Dalley-Trim is workshops and three symposia. a lecturer at the School of for a doctoral study, and commissioned Education at James Cook The three symposia, ‘introduced to research relating to the implementation University, Townsville. She complement the development of special of VET in Schools for Indigenous is involved in teaching and interest groups as well as some of the Students (Hill and Helme, 2005). research in Language and key research themes and groups that Since 1996, a range of research and Literacies Education and exist in VET research’ (AVETRA, 2006) VET in Schools policy reviews has noted the need Secondary School English included: : Where next for teacher education faculties to Curriculum. She has also for research?, coordinated by Angela incorporate preparation of teachers undertaken research Hill; research to support VET providers for VET. The Cumming report (1996), build capacity, conducted by Berwyn pertaining to VET in Schools Coordinating diversity: directions for Clayton and Roger Harris; and National (VETiS), and Gender post-compulsory school education and Education – with a Skill Formation through apprenticeships in Queensland, recommended the particular focus upon boys and traineeships, coordinated by Erica preparation of teachers to implement and literacy. She has Smith. It is to the first of these symposia VET in Schools competency based curriculum and also worked in secondary – : Where next for incorporate learning theories associated schools. research? – that this article will now with adult learning. Bell’s research turn its focus.
52 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 on the implementation of VET in reforms to teacher education are long Queensland in 1999 noted the lack of overdue. systematic support for the introduction The second presentation, ‘Voicing of new VET curriculum. Teachers in views of VET in Schools: sound bites Bell’s study noted their concerns about from a national study’, reported on the ability to assess students using the findings of the national study competency. They stated the need for School Students Making Education specialist skills to teach and embed the and Career Decisions: Aspirations, literacy demands of the new curriculum, Attitudes and Influences (Alloway, and expressed concern at the poor Dalley, Patterson, Walker & Lenoy, resource levels to support high needs 2004). More specifically, it focused on students. They expressed concerns the VET in Schools theme explored in Students associated with the high level of work this research. involved in developing motivation enrolled in VET strategies for students who had a long This presentation explicated that the history of disengagement with learning formalised language or terminology of because they and school structures. In addition, VET was not commonly used in schools were ‘the good teachers expressed alarm at school – that career advisers and principals practices of ‘dumping’ students in VET tended to employ largely informal subjects’, and subjects if they were not succeeding in language practices when making the academic curriculum. reference to VET, and that students and they provided a parents had a limited understanding Despite these clearly raised issues, ‘head start’ – of the term per se. Furthermore, this teacher education faculties have practice of not employing formalised responded slowly. Four key concerns functioning ‘like language, of not differentiating are highlighted in recent research between VET and non-VET subjects stepping stones associated with teachers’ work in VET, within schools, served to broaden the each identified as needing urgent curriculum base and range of options for the rest of attention. These are the increasing available to students while fostering the diversity of learners in the senior your life’. spirit of student choice. years of school; the rapid take-up of VET curriculum and related support The reasons for enrolling, or not required for teachers; increased use enrolling, in VET – as given by of varying delivery locations and students, school principals, career access to resources; and the complex advisers and parents – were also governance systems associated examined. As reported in the research, with VET. Despite these significant students suggested that they enrolled challenges, VET related teacher in VET subjects because they were ‘the education programs are mostly elective good subjects’, and that they provided a subjects. Acknowledging the need for ‘head start’ – functioning ‘like stepping action, in late 2005, a joint workshop, stones for the rest of your life’. Students facilitated by the Queensland Studies generally saw VET subjects as less Authority and the then Board of intellectually demanding and less Teacher Registration, called for teacher emotionally stressful in that they were education faculties to ‘consider how more likely taken for enjoyment and VET could be included in preservice as a break from a more rigorous work preparation of teachers for secondary load than for any other reason. Career schools/senior phase of learning’. Given advisers, principals and many parents VET in Schools that in Queensland, has also shared this perception of VET rapidly expanded for over a decade, subjects as being less academically
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 53 demanding than other ‘harder’, ‘heavier’ • Participation in school VET programs was school studies. Students – and parents found to have a positive impact on Year – also suggested a number of reasons 10 to Year 11 retention but a negative for not enrolling in VET subjects such impact on retention from Year 11 to Year 12. Overall, these programs had a small as: VET subjects being detrimental negative impact on retention from Year 10 to university entrance scores, VET to Year 12. subjects being a dumping ground for troublemakers, and the negative • The overall negative effect on retention attitudes held by those students who from Year 10 to Year 12 is larger for boys VET is viewed did enrol in VET subjects. than girls, for which it is close to zero. The negative impact is too small to be of any within a binary The presentation also reported on real policy significance. This conclusion is institutional and similar issues which not altered if the vocational equivalent to framework: VET were identified in research as having a Year 12 is included. significant and detractive impact upon • There is a clear positive impact on was for the non- VET in studies. These issues pertained school-outcomes for students who to the constitution of the school site academic ‘doers’ participate in school VET programs in itself; the strained and frustrating Year 11 but do not go on to complete Year of physical and relationships that exist between TAFE 12. These gains are more sizeable for colleges and schools; the inflexibility girls than boys. Over time, however, the undervalued of cross-institutional timetabling; positive effect is diluted. These gains are transportation difficulties; and a lack of not seen for those who complete Year 12. work while, in resourcing within schools. • School VET programs provide a clear opposition, non- Finally, the presentation highlighted vocational pathway for some students, particularly for boys studying in the areas VET subjects the way in which VET is viewed within a binary framework: VET was for the of building and engineering. However, non-academic ‘doers’ of physical and for most students the pathway is not so were for the direct. Further, when comparing students undervalued work while, in opposition, of similar ages, we see different types academic ‘doers’ non-VET subjects were for the of vocational education and training academic ‘doers’ of mentally rigorous of mentally studied in and outside the school and valued work. environment. For most students, there is a poor alignment between the types rigorous and The third presentation, ‘Have school of VET programs studied at school and vocational education and training valued work. the requirements of the world of work or programs been successful?’, drew upon further study. (Anlezark et al., 2006, p. 6) research conducted by the National Centre for Vocational Educational Posing the questions: Where to Research (NCVER) – and published from here for research? as a report of the same name in 2006. In light of this research, it was The first presentation, ‘Secondary VET in Schools signalled that: ‘We define ‘success’ teacher education and : in the school context as retention to Is it that difficult?’ prompts a number of Year 12, and outside school in terms of questions. full-time engagement with employment • How can all secondary teachers or learning, or part-time employment be adequately prepared for the combined with part-time study’ VET curriculum and associated (Anlezark, Karmel and Ong, 2006, p. governance requirements? 6). From this position, the presentation • Is there still resistance within teacher reported on the following emergent key education faculties to incorporate messages.
54 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 VET in Schools as part of secondary References preservice preparation? Alloway, N., Dalley, L., Patterson, A., Walker, K., & Lenoy, M. (2004). School students • What do school leaders now making education and career decisions: understand about the VET in Aspirations, attitudes and influences. Schools agenda? How do they Retreived from http://www.dest.gov.au/
support teachers’ work? Anlezark, A., Karmel, T., & Ong, K. (2006). Have school vocational and training The second presentation, ‘Voicing programs been successful? Adelaide: views of VET in Schools: sound bites National Centre for Vocational Education from a national study’, also gives rise to Research. a number of questions. These include: Bell, E. (1999). What learners need for the future • What are the effects of using non- . Paper presented at the Fourth Queensland State Conference of the differentiated, informal language National Association of Post-Compulsory practices upon the take-up rate by Educators Qld Inc. Brisbane, Australia. students of VET in Schools? Are Hill, A., & Helme, S. (2005). VET in Schools these effects positive in the way for Indigenous students. Hands on, default the research seems to suggest? or promising? International Journal of Training Research What detrimental effects might such , 3(1), 1-22. practices also have? Post-Compulsory Task Group, (A. Cumming, Coordinating diversity. • How can school staff (and others) Chair). (1996). Directions for post-compulsory school more effectively ‘tap into’ positive education in Queensland. Brisbane, Qld: student views of VET and harness Queensland Government. their efforts to promote VET within schools? Promote VET in what ways, for which students? • Is it important in order for the VET agenda to move forward that the binary construct of VET as non- academic, physical and undervalued work/non-VET as academic, mentally rigorous and valued work, be challenged and/or disrupted? If so, how can this be done?
The third presentation, ‘Have school vocational education and training programs been successful?’, gives rise to two questions in particular. These, which are relevant to policy issues and are identified in the NCVER (Anlezark et al. 2006, p. 6) report, include: • Should school VET programs be offered at Year 10 rather than being concentrated at Year 11 and Year 12, given that many students leave before Year 11?
• Should school VET programs be better aligned with the world of work or, alternatively, concentrate on broad pre- vocational skills?
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 55 Back to the future? Girls, and young women, working futures, VET and VET in Schools. A snapshot 1
Elaine Butler with Robyn Woolley
Introduction
Females are more likely to experience a troubled transition Elaine Butler Robyn Woolley from school than male school leavers despite a higher rate Elaine Butler is a Senior of completing Year 12 and higher participation rates in post- Robyn is National Lecturer in Education, at the school education. (Long, 2005) Coconvenor of Women University of South Australia in Adult and Vocational (UniSA), where she has Recent longitudinal research shows that in general young Education Inc (WAVE), a worked since 1984, with people have high levels of life satisfaction consistent member of the national the exception of 1996-1998 with previous generations of young Australians. But their women’s secretariat incl., when she lectured satisfaction in life is intimately related to what they are doing Security4 Women, in work-related courses at as students or workers, to whether they have a full-time job vocational education the University of Adelaide, or not, or a course or a career plan that provides direction. representative on Females in Labour Studies/Social To whether they are part of Australia’s economic ‘insiders’ or in Information Technology Inquiry. Elaine is a member ‘outsiders’. and Telecommunications of Research Centre for (FITT), and steering It may surprise but there are currently more than 560,000 Gender Studies at UniSA, committee member of the young Australians not in full-time work or study, people and associated with both community grass roots who are predominantly on the ‘outside’ of the Australian the Hawke Research women’s organisation Lane economic success story. Most of them – about 330,000 Institute (UniSA) and Cove Women’s Action and – are women (Spierings, 2006). EuroVET. Information Group. Robyn Initial engagement with the VET system – whether at is the Women’s Strategy Central to her research and school, or in entry level VET – is a critical juncture for Officer for Northern Sydney teaching are the dynamic girls and young women. The issues … to address include Institute of TAFE, NSW. inter-relationships between barriers to considering VET as a viable option, together with the changing nature, the occupational segregation that occurs once girls and organisation and distribution young women engage with VET. (Quay Connection, 2003, of work and work-related p. 53) learning, including the In Australia, as in other industrialised countries, global/local policy logics and vocational learning for ‘youth’ is both a hot topic frameworks in this broad and a complex contemporary policy issue of high field. significance. This is especially so for ‘youth in transition’ – a term utilised to capture and indeed influence the movements of young people from compulsory education to the world of work. It is here in this contested space that boundaries between education sectors, and the institutional divides of employment and education are blurring and evolving.
Perhaps more importantly this is also a significant period in the formation of young people’s subjectivities, and their life chances. The choices made by and for young persons at this time are inter- related with the quality and quantity of opportunities
56 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 available to them. Such opportunities, often low-skilled jobs for young women and so choices, are also shaped by who have left education. It is true that young people’s biographies, their young women have lower levels of geographical location, gender, race, absolute unemployment than young men and they participate in education more socio-economic status, family history, readily and for longer, but they are also educational attainment and aspirations considerably more prone to precarious (Beavis, Murphy, Bryce & Corrigan, employment and to underemployment. 2004; Dwyer & Wynn, 2001; Teese & Polesel, 2003). Perhaps it’s part of our social condition. The outward signs of distress (at school) The movement to link vocational – aggression, bullying, misbehaviour learning with compulsory education as – attract parents, communities and a (funded and policy driven) pathway policy-makers. Meanwhile the piecemeal to employability and employment for nature of serial part-time work tends to young people continues to grow at be endured as an individual experience, Female school unprecedented rates (DEST, 2006; stoicism rather rebellion being a favoured House of Representatives, 2004). means of coping. leavers continue Within this field, a generic concept of By foregrounding data collected to face greater youth collapses the perceived life/ specifically from girls and young education/work experiences and needs women, we sought to redress this disadvantages of the diverse range of young people relative silencing, albeit in a small way. than males into the one category, most often We also aimed to provide a window regardless of differentiating factors into some experiences and issues of during this mentioned above, and including that Australian girls and young women, of gender. There is a dearth of work in relation to their thoughts about period of that focuses on experiences and needs their working futures, and their early of girls and young women engaged engagement with VET. transition from in Vocational Education and Training (VET) and/or VET in Schools (VETiS), So – what was the project, and more school-to-work. especially within their socio-cultural, importantly, what did we learn? economic and political contexts. The research: The girls project The focus of this article, and of the While we are all too aware of the research findings reported herein, dangers of homogenising girls and is one that seems to be less than young women, this project sought to fashionable in these current times: that provide some early data, to understand of girls and young women. We strongly what three cohorts of girls in different endorse the comments of Spierings parts of urban Australia were doing, (2006, p.1), who recently posited that: saying and thinking, in relation to their It’s a curious thing that there has been working futures, and especially VETiS2. such a passionate focus in recent times The intent of this small-scale research on boys’ participation in schooling – and project was to provide snapshots of the rightly so – but relative indifference to the perceptions of girls and young women labour market opportunities for teenage in three states (New South Wales, girls and young adult women. Queensland and South Australia) While full-time jobs for young men engaged in VET activities, as part of are gradually recovering and trade their school-based activities as they apprenticeships have grown, little approach transition from school-to-work attention has been focused on the and/or further study. predominance of casual, part-time and
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 57 Overview of the research State-based case studies explored The growth of vocational education future work aspirations, information has been rapid, including the delivery patterns of career guidance, and of vocational education in schools, the linkages girls are making with The students by schools, or TAFE, or by private training and life plans. Was their providers. During this process it has VET (in Schools) and/or early post- were highly been observed, anecdotally and in a school experience a positive learning very few studies available, that the experience, and one that they anticipate positive about gendered pattern of course selection, they will return to? What were the trends? The issues? The possibilities? work experience and/or field of study is being repeated with school students’ choices. This We wanted to understand more about programs, mirrors those patterns well entrenched how girls think and talk about their in the wider VET system and Australian work aspirations and the complex VET and its working lives. The results of labour set of factors leading to subject and market gender segregation have relevance, occupation/industry related choices been of little benefit to women and by girls who participate in VET in and that the are of particular relevance to a study Schools. We also wished to ascertain examining linkages between education, if workplace application of their chosen knowledge and work and economic security. subject was a motivator for their VET in Schools course selection, as well skills gained Dwyer & Wyn (2001) are among those researchers who warn of the as investigate whether the learning from VET would gender blind approach currently experience was a positive educational informing VET in Schools and school- experience that might encourage them be useful at to-work transitions. In addition, and to consider VET educational pathways as reconfirmed by Spierings (2006), post-school some time in the recent reports (Long, 2004, 2005) Methodology included a critical future. looking into the lives of Australia’s literature review, interviews, a young people found that female questionnaire, and targeted focus school leavers continue to face greater groups. disadvantages than males during this period of transition from school-to-work, The findings with an increasing number of girls not in school, or work. This points to differing The following sections draw on and outcomes from education based on highlight findings documented in gender, which can have serious life various sections of the report (Butler & consequences. Woolley, 2005). Given the limitations of this article, not all findings are This concern is not new and is discussed. However, it should be noted supported by numerous earlier reports that overall, students were positive identifying the gendered constructions about their futures, with many of them of cultural, social and domestic barriers intending to undertake further study, to equality of access and outcomes mostly through VET or, for some, at (Collins, Kenway & McLeod, 2000). university. The students were highly Further, concern over career choices, positive about work experience and also concern regarding the programs, VET and its relevance, and transition period from school to training that the knowledge and skills gained or work, were each described as ‘a from VET would be useful at some time critical juncture for girls and young in the future. women’ (Quay Connection, 2003). However, studies and initiatives with a Work experience followed similar choice focus on girls are all too few. patterns to courses, with personal
58 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 interest being the main influence for promotes the current gender-blind the majority. Comments also indicated focus and masculinist framework of that some girls could see skills vocational training transferability from work experience, • a political trend with potential to their own casual employment, school diminish rather than enhance the study, and VET study, to future study role of women and steer women and and work application. girls into traditional roles.
Literature review (Daniels, 2005) The review concluded that discussion of these issues in the literature provides The wide-ranging literature review only a partial and simplistic critique found disturbingly little to suggest that of the current situation for girls; that opportunities and outcomes in relation research agendas in the area of VET to working futures and VET will improve in Schools and transitions to work for girls and young women in the near carry (in large part) assumptions that future. girls’ gendered issues have been dealt This review identified a number of major with. The focal areas have shifted, characteristics within the literature. It leaving girls and young women out identified: of focus. This clouding of girls’ issues within research has been documented, • a narrow research and policy with some literature indicating that, agenda set within the current for girls and young women, both the economically-driven climate current models of transition education of vocationalism in education, and school-linked VET, and the which prevails in Australia and framework of paid work into which they Both the internationally expect and are expected to move, • continued growth of VET in Schools limit opportunities and operate to current models and transition-to-work programs disadvantage them. of transition • a gender-neutral or gender-blind Interviews: Overview of findings approach has subsumed the strong education and focus on girls’ career and vocational The interviews found that: needs, evident in the literature of the • VET subjects provide an additional school-linked previous decade opportunity to school organised work VET and the • major funded research operates experience to learn about work. within a masculinist VET framework. • The majority of the girls are still framework of From these findings, a number of choosing traditional (feminised) paid work into relevant topics were identified, of which courses and career paths into the four were discussed further in the workplace. which they review. The topics referred to: • Nearly all the girls told us they felt familiar with the type of work are expected • entrenched gendered social involved in their career choice, but conditioning that affects the ways to move, limit then demonstrated they did not girls and young women approach know about job availability or pay their future career and life choices opportunities rates, or how these factors impact • the current situation for women on their career choices or outcomes. and operate to already in the workplace, that is far from satisfactory, and which • School-based career advisers disadvantage young girls are being expected to are seen as a major source of perpetuate information about courses and them. careers. • the narrow research base informing VET and VET in Schools, that
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 59 • Family and friends rate as a most had no relevant information on significant influence in career job availability or rates of pay in their decisions. selected VET area.
• The majority of girls felt they were Many girls participating in VET If the information already on a career track – the vast while at school are electing industry majority stated they planned to do areas where they are at risk of low and guidance more study in the career area of remuneration and casualised insecure they receive at their choice – demonstrating a high working futures. This knowledge is relevance of education for work. highly relevant to young women and school about • The majority of the students were in may in fact assist them to assess if a VET courses of their choice and had potential career route can provide them work, part- a high level of satisfaction with VET. with the future lifestyle they want – or can afford. time work • Participants overwhelmingly perceived the skills and knowledge Moving from the individual, this has placements, VET from VET as useful for their futures long-term considerations due to the – either as a career or for everyday disproportionate burden of casualisation subject choice life. borne by Australian women. The and careers, • VET for many was seen as more traditional female orientation of their relevant than school. work experience and future career is neither aspirations gives support to the finding Working futures: early career noted in the literature review that accurate nor choices entrenched social conditioning that broad enough • The young women tended to base affects the way girls and young women their career decisions on what they approach their future career and life to encourage enjoy and what they are good at. choices. • In the main, girls’ career choices Access to information students to think seem unconnected to employment trends and job availability, and are • Students’ main source of information ‘out of the box’ based on personal preferences about the type of work involved for their career without supporting information on in their career of choice was their the sustainability of this choice. school. This was augmented by aspirations, • While the young women surveyed family, friends, and employers. had strong ideas of what career • Career information appears to fall then the gender they wanted, overwhelmingly, the short and leave invisible the differing blind focus majority of girls had identified future labour market experiences of careers in feminised occupations. Australian women and girls. Girls are continuing to select and resultant • Students wanted more information traditional/feminised areas of work about how to succeed in their disadvantages where they are at risk of high rates chosen career, and about how to of casualisation and low rates of apply their VET course to maximise will continue. pay. outcomes for their future. • The data indicate that young women think less about economic security If the information and guidance they when making decisions about their receive at school about work, part-time careers and more about a preferred work placements, VET subject choice occupation. and careers, is neither accurate nor • While most students tended to have broad enough to encourage students a strong idea of the nature of the to think ‘out of the box’ for their career work involved in their chosen career, aspirations, then the gender blind
60 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 focus – and the resultant disadvantage will continue to carry most of the identified in the literature review – will responsibilities related to home and continue. family (Pocock, 2003).
This has significant implications for both The high potential for the existing the quality and integrity of information, global and national/local gendered advice and guidance provided at inequalities to be perpetuated through school, and for the professional the choices and pathways that the development and support necessary majority of the girls are selecting is for staff to enable them to make a also of high concern. This trend will not difference to the lives and aspirations of enhance opportunities for the economic young women studying VET. well-being for such girls. Whether these girld continue studies through A high priority: Of utmost relevance is the lack of VET, in workplaces or as students, information on job availability and pay or if they continue on to university • complementary rates in the girls’ chosen industry areas. study, seemingly entrenched gendered national, state/ There was little demonstration that the patterns of selection are being repeated girls received any guidance of how (or – as ever. local policy if) the industry area of personal interest This brings us to ask the question, initiatives and would or could provide economic posed by Fenwick (2004) in Canada, security. There was no evidence of any in similar circumstances, about similar resources to understandings of the implications of cohorts and issues. gender in relation to field of study or investigate work-force patterns and what this would The important question here is: mean to them as individuals. how is it that girls can enjoy higher and support overall educational achievement but Connections were not made as to have significantly lower economic engagement whether pursuing areas of personal achievement than boys? What happens interest would provide them with a job, or doesn’t happen in girls’ career and with VETiS and or what the conditions of that job would vocational education to address this ensuing career be like. Moreover, there is no evidence disparity? (Fenwick, 2004, p. 178) of proactive use of employment Our research findings, précised above, paths. forecasts or job growth data to inform go a long way to answer the latter girls’ choices. While the girls perceive query. themselves to be on a career path, A basic there appears to be widespread failure We argue that appropriate to support them by ensuring their complementary national and state/ necessity: choices are fully informed, as they local policy initiatives and resources to move towards independent futures. investigate and support girls and young • collection women in their engagement with VET In summary in Schools and ensuing career paths of gender The above findings have much is a matter of high priority. Similarly, disaggregated in common with the international the collection of gender disaggregated VET in research that does focus on girls, national and state data for national and Schools and their experiences of VET, work, programs and associated and work-related aspirations. For activities is a basic necessity. state data for example, the motivation for pursuing Such initiatives must engage with VETiS programs careers is similar to that identified in the realities and future projections Canadian research (Fenwick, 2004), of young women’s lives, within the and related as is a recognition by young women socio-cultural, economic and political in the twenty first century, that they contexts that shape their lives. These activities.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 61 gender-sensitive initiatives are required an opportunity to inform girls and young throughout national and state policies, women of the long-term gendered data collection, implementation, structural norms in occupations, monitoring and on-going evaluation of industries and workplaces, including It is time that relevant VET programs for girls and the implications of early decisions to young women. Further, longitudinal move into feminised work areas may girls and young studies to track and link the pathways well have on their future careers and of girls and women from school though economic potential. Proactive gender women are freed further studies and on into their labour specific policy initiatives and career market outcomes are critical. education should be foundational to from the jail of the planning and delivery of VET in At school and local levels, gender Schools. ‘generic youth’. sensitive labour market training and further professional development are From a Canadian perspective, Fenwick of central importance for all educators (2004, p. 169) posits four directions for or counsellors involved in career change, for girls. These are: (and subject selection) advice, work experience placements for girls, • more gender sensitive career and/or the development and offering education for girls of vocational courses in schools. This • sponsored vocational education for extends to industry and employer women representatives, given their increasing • management education in gendered involvement in VET in Schools and issues arising in the changing work experience programs. In-service economy training is a priority for those who give • critical vocational education in both career advice and must include relevant schools and workplaces. workplace information. We support similar initiatives for Moreover, it is essential that in the development and implementation in framing of such initiatives, critical Australia. This is especially important, cognisance of historical global/local given the current well-publicised gendered inequalities that continue skills shortages in the traditional to be reproduced must be addressed. masculinist trade areas, along with This is doubly important, given the the establishment of a new brand of push for girls and young women to technical colleges, and the lack of make choices around occupations and success in either attracting or retaining careers at ever earlier ages without a critical mass of girls or young women understanding the implications of to such trade areas over the last two such choices in relation to their future decades. economic well-being. This research project, although It would appear that, despite the rapid described as small-scale, resonates changes of the last two decades, and strongly with issues that are much the rhetoric based on assumptions wider, for the economic well-being of that ‘girls have done/are doing well’, girls and young women. It is now urgent old employment and labour market that wider and deeper gender-sensitive patterns could well be perpetuated and research be conducted in this area. It re/produced. This study highlights a is time that girls and young women are (worrying) insight that more rigorous freed from the jail of ‘generic youth’. efforts to broaden and inform girls’ career choices are still required. It We argue that girls and young women could be argued that the gender neutral should be active recipients of policy delivery of mainstream VET is erasing making and implementation that
62 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 support them. Rather than being the Fenwick, T. (2004). What happens to recipients of policy and practices that the girls? Gender, work and learning in Canada’s ‘new economy’. In Gender and position young women in scenarios Education. Vol. 16, No. 2, June 2004, 169- of contradictions and ambivalence 185. relating to their vocational futures, House of Representatives. (House of VET in Schools must assist them in Representatives Standing Committee on their ambitions to ‘get real’, ensuring Education and Training). (2004). Learning that the choices made by girls and to work: report on the inquiry into vocational education in schools young women are fully informed . Commonwealth of Australia. Retrieved September 2, 2004 choices. Implicit in this statement is the from http://aph.gov.au/house/committee/edt/ requirement that the VET system also ves/report/report.pdf needs to ‘gets real’ – girls and women Long, M., & Dusseldorp Skills Forum. comprise over half of its constituency. (2004). How Young People are Faring: Key Indicators 2004. An update about What is needed are policies, the learning and work situation of young pedagogies and practices that support Australians. Retrieved October 20, 2004 girls and young women to fulfil their from http://www.dsf.org.au/papers/169/ dreams, rather than setting them HYPAF_2004_FINAL_0.pdf. unknowingly on pathways that may well Long, M. (n.d.). How Young People are compromise their future economic well Faring 2005. Retrieved July 14, 2006 from being. http://www.dsf.org.au/papers/180.htm Pocock, B. (2003) The work/life collision: References what work is doing to Australians and what to do about it. Beavis, A., Murphy, M., Bryce, J., Sydney: Federation Press. Post-school & Corrigan, M. (2004). Choice, plans: aspirations, expectations and Quay Connection. (2003, March). participation, outcomes. Women in VET implementation. Sydney: The Smith Family. 2003: Consultation report. Butler E., & Woolley R. (Eds.). (2005). Getting real? Girls and young women, Spierings, J. (2006). Letter to the Editor. Professional Educator. Vol. 5, No. 1, March working futures, VET and VET in schools. 2006, 2-3. Melbourne: Security4Women website: www. security4women.com Teese, R., & Polesel J. (2003). Undemocratic schooling. Equity and Collins, C., Kenway, J., & McLeod, Julie. mass secondary education in Australia. (2000). Factors influencing the education performance of males and females in school Melbourne: Melbourne University Press. and their initial destinations after leaving school. Canberra: Department of Education, Endnotes Training and Youth Affairs. 1 This article is a précis of findings from Youth, Butler, E. & Woolley, R. (Eds.) (2005). Dwyer, P., & Wyn, J. (2001). Getting real? Girls and young women, education and risk: facing the future . working futures, VET and VET in London: RoutledgeFalmer. schools. Melbourne: Security4Women, Daniels, J. (2005). A critical review of the the report of research conducted by literature. In Butler E. & Woolley R. (Eds.), WAVE and commissioned in 2004 Getting real? Girls and young women, by Security4Women (S4W), one of working futures, VET and VET in schools. four secretariats funded through the (pp. 21-38). Melbourne: Security4Women Australian Government Office for website: www.security4women.com Women (OFW). The full report can be located on the websites of WAVE (www. Department of Education, Science and converse.com.au) and Security4Women Training (DEST) (2006). Other important (www.security4women.com). issues. More option – VET in Schools. 2 The project was also a sub section of a Taking Schools to the next level. The larger Investigation in relation to lifelong national education framework for schools. work-related learning for women and Author. Retrieved June 9, 2006 from http:// girls. See the above websites for details. nefs.dest.gov.au/VETinSchools.htm
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 63 Vocational interests of Greek senior secondary school students and factors that can affect them
Introduction Method Vocational interests have been Participants identified as an important aspect of The sample consisted of 155 boys and career counselling for adolescent girls aged between 16 and 17 in an Grigoris students. The vocational preferences urban area of northern Greece. From Mouladoudis of an individual are subject to constant first grade, there were 41 boys and 40 changes, and they are in a continuous girls who participated in the research; Grigoris Mouladoudis, PhD, process. This article studies the from second grade, there were 32 boys is Associate Professor of vocational interests of Greek senior and 42 girls who participated. (First Education at the School high school students and the factors and second grade equate respectively of Pedagogical and that can affect them, such as their with Year 11/fifth form and Year 12/sixth Technological Education, school achievement, gender, grades, form.) Greece. He received and the job of their parents. Lapan his bachelor’s degree in (2004, p. 113) argued that ‘academic General school achievement Psychology and his masters’ achievement plays a pivotal gatekeeper Students were allotted to one of four degrees in Education and in role in the selection of career paths groups according to their general Counselling and Vocational leading out of adolescence and into achievement. Greek senior high school Orientation. He serves as adulthood’. A number of research students’ achievement is graded from an editorial board member studies have supported the assertion 1 to 20, with 20 being the highest for scientific journals and on that economically poorer students achievement level and 10 being a pass. the international committee have lower academic achievement of the American Counseling and vocational expectations (Cook et One group was formed by two students Association. al., 1996; Wilson, 1996), and female (2.5%) in the first grade with low students tend to make traditional achievement scores that ranged from female vocational choices (Warrington 10 to 13.4. & Younger, 2000). Also, research has A second group was formed by 20 shown that parents play an extremely students (24.7%) in the first grade, significant role in the vocational career and 17 (23%) in the second grade, of their children (Turner et al., 2003; with medium achievement scores that Turner & Lapan, 2002; Wentzel & ranged from 13.5 and 16.4. Feldman, 1993). A third group was formed by 24 Purpose students (29.6%) in the first grade, and The two-fold purpose of the study was 28 students (38%) in the second grade to determine if differences existed in with high achievement scores that vocational interests of the students ranged from16.5 and 18.4. depending on: The final group was formed by 35 • their achievement, gender and (43.2%) students in the first grade, grades and 29 (39%) in the second grade • their parent’s occupation. with excellent achievement scores that ranged from 18.5 and 20.
64 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Current parental occupation • jobs with medium specialisation, The jobs of fathers were catagorised as higher or secondary education, such follows. as nurses, secretaries and cashiers • jobs without training or low training, • jobs with high specialisation and such as construction workers university studies, such as civil engineers, economists, chemists • jobs with medium or higher technical and doctors training • artistic jobs, such as designer and • jobs with high specialisation and musician university studies; public sector, industry, services jobs, such as • the ‘learned’ professions without doctors, electrician/mechanical higher educational level, such as a engineers, architects and teachers business ownership • military jobs, such as those in the • housekeeping, unemployed or other. armed forces Table 2 shows the mean scores • artistic jobs, such as painters and according to mother’s job. musicians Instruments • the ‘learned’ professions without higher educational level, such as Two questionnaires were used. One tradesmans and contractors questionnaire was concerned with the • the unemployed demographic data of students (place and time of birth, place of residence, • retired/deceased/other. gender, parents’ education, current Table 1 shows the mean scores parents’ occupation and achievements according to father’s job. from the previous school year).
The jobs of mothers were catorgorised For the assessment of students’ as follows. vocational interests, the Rothwell-Miller • jobs without training or low training, Interest Blank (RMIB) questionnaire such as office cleaners was used (Miller, Rothwell, Tyler, 1994). The RMIB was originally developed as • jobs with medium technical an interview aid in career counselling training, such as dressmakers and and examines a subject’s interest hairdressers in 12 work fields (outdoor activities,
Table 1: Mean scores in the first and second grade according to father’s job
Senior high Father’s current job school
Jobs with Jobs with high Jobs medium/ specialisation & without higher university studies/ Total others
training/low Artistic Military Retired/ technical public sector/ Learned deceased/
training Unemployed training industry/services
1st and 2nd 24.2 3.9 37.3 12.4 0.7 13.1 1.3 7.2 100 grade - 37.0 6.0 57.0 19.0 1.0 20.0 2.0 11.0 153
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 65 Table 2: Mean scores in the first and second grade according to mother’s job
Senior high Mother’s current job school
Jobs with Jobs Jobs with medium Jobs with high without Housekeeping/ medium specialisation/ specialisation/ training/ unemployed/ Total
technical higher/ university Artistic low Learned other training secondary studies training education 1st & 2nd 2.6 3.2 18.7 14.8 1.9 9.7 49 100 grade - 4.0 5.0 29.0 23.0 3.0 15.0 76 155
mechanical, computational, scientific, categories: low (10-13.4), middle (13.5- persuasive-personal contact, aesthetic, 16.4), high (16.5-18.4), and excellent literary, musical, social service, clerical, (18.5-20). Students’ assessments in the practical, medical). It is structured in 12 fields of vocational interests, were nine sets of 12 jobs, representing the considered the dependent variable. previously mentioned 12 work fields. In The following statistically important each set, there is a representative job differences were observed. from every one of the 12 work fields. 1. The students with excellent general The participants rank the jobs in each achievement (M = 70.48) tended to set from 1 to 12, the 12th preference reject the jobs in the field outdoor being their least preferred. Guidelines activities more than the students explain that a job’s classification in with medium general achievement each set should be done according (M = 63.29) [F(3.151) = 4.59; p = to the preference for the type of work. 0.0042]. The student is not supposed to co- 2. Students with low general examine questions having to do with achievement (M = 67) tended to salary, possibilities of success, or choose jobs in the field outdoor required qualifications and training. The activities more than students with sequence of the sets is the same in the high (M = 48.26) and excellent 12 work fields. In set A, first is the field achievement (M = 48.1), who tend outdoor activities; in set B, first is the to reject them [F (3.154) = 3.07; p = field mechanical, and so on. Students’ 0.0294]. assessment took place in groups. 3. Students with medium general Results achievement (M = 78.08) tended School achievement to choose jobs in the practical field more than students with high To determine if the differences in achievement, who tend to reject general school achievement can them (M = 86.73) [F(3.154) = 3.97; p influence the vocational interests = 0.0093]. of the students, an Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used. School achievement was considered to be an independent variable with four
66 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Gender interests of students, ANOVA was ANOVA was used to determine if there used. The independent variable were any differences between the was the eight categories of fathers’ two genders in relation to vocational occupation, and the dependent variable interests. Gender was considered the was the students’ assessments for independent variable with two levels, the various work fields. The control boys and girls; whereas students’ of individual differences between assessments for the 12 fields of the groups was done using Tukey’s vocational interests were considered as method (it considers all possible the dependent variable. The following pairwise differences of means at the statistically important differences were same time). The jobs in the outdoor observed. activities field were chosen more by the group of students whose parents 1. Boys (M = 42.05) tended to choose were unemployed than the groups – in The vocational more jobs in the mechanical field order of priority – whose parents were than girls (M = 61.32), who tended interests of retired/deceased/other, in the military, to reject them [F(1.154) = 40.42; p = in jobs with no or low specialisation, in students are 0.0000]. ‘learned’ jobs without high educative 2. Girls tended to reject jobs in the level ,in jobs with medium or higher affected to computational field, whereas boys specialisation/technical training. The F an important tended to choose them [ (1.154) = group of students whose parents p 13.35; = 0.0004]. had jobs with high specialisation and degree by their 3. Girls tended to choose jobs in the university studies; had jobs in the public aesthetic field and boys tended to sector; in industry; in services; tended achievement, reject them [F (1.154) = 19.21; p < to reject jobs in the outdoor activities 0.0001]. field. It should be noted that the gender and 4. Boys tended to choose jobs in difference is marginal F(7.152) = 2.06; grade level the literary field more than girls p = 0.0509. Using ANOVA to determine [F(1.154) = 25.23; p = 0.0001]. the effect of mother’s occupation and to a minor established no statistically important 5. Girls tended to select jobs in the degree by their social service field more than boys, differences. who tended to reject those types of Discussion parent’s job. jobs [F(1.154) = 46.35; p < 0.0001]. The results show that the vocational Grades interests of students are affected to an Using ANOVA, it was determined that important degree by their achievement, the students of two senior high school gender and grade level and to a minor grades were differentiated regarding the degree by their parent’s job. choice of outdoor activities [F(1.154) = • The influence of achievement 9.95; p = 0.0019]. Students in the first in school affects the work fields grade tended to reject outdoor activities outdoor activities and practical. (M = 64.24; SD = 10.42) whereas The students with excellent general students in the second grade tended to achievement reject the outdoor choose outdoor activities (M = 69.7; SD activities more than the students = 11.11). with medium general achievement. In addition, students with medium Parental occupation achievement tend to choose the practical field more than their To ascertain if the occupation of classmates with high achievement, parents can affect the vocational which may be attributed to the fact
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 67 that the other job fields require high interests (reinforcing teaching, study in intellectual skills. colleges and abroad). More systematic • The influence of gender is work by school counsellors is needed statistically significant. The boys with teachers and the students and The influence tended to choose jobs in the parents who come from economically mechanical and calculating fields, poorer families. This work should be of gender is whereas the girls tended to reject focused on the advancement of these statistically them. The girls tended to choose the students’ learning and academic aesthetic field more than the boys. achievement. significant. • The students in the first grade In the process of growing up from tended to reject jobs in the outdoor adolescence to adulthood, young activities field, whereas the students people need rules, limits and emotional in the second grade tended to control, but at the same time they choose them. Greek adolescents also need caring and understanding. appear to not have shaped constant Research has shown that teachers vocational preferences and seem to can improve students’ achievement be in an initial stage of their career (Darling-Hammond, 2000), but there is development. low affective involvement of students • The influence of parent’s occupation and teachers in school (Freiberg, 1999). was marginal. Students of Teachers communicate their attitudes, unemployed parents tended to practices and expectations through choose jobs in the field outdoor their daily interaction with students, but activities, rather than any in the in many cases, their relationships are other work fields, which tended to be not good. In these difficult situations, rejected by the parents. the task of the school counsellors should be to create the appropriate Implications for school counsellors conditions in which both teachers and In Greece, despite the progress that students can develop and evaluate their has been noticed during the last few feelings for themselves. In addition, the years, prejudices by both parents and counsellors may organise, on a regular Prejudices by teachers seem to prevail, and through basis, meetings between students and both parents generations influence which professions their teachers where they can freely are ‘male’ and which are ‘female’. The communicate. The aims should be to and teachers vocational career of every student is a limit social inequalities by encouraging matter for careful planning, and school and providing reinforcement for low- seem to prevail, counsellors have a critical role to play in achievement students, and improve restricting career stereotyping. students’ relationships with their and through teachers. It is worthwhile mentioning the changes generations that have been observed in Greek The study was conducted in an urban influence which society during the last two decades. area of Greece. Based on the data Well-off citizens seem to have better analysis, and in order to gain more professions are social status and recognition in understanding of this issue, more comparison with educated but lowly- research is needed replicating this ‘male’ and which paid citizens. The more affluent study. This new research should involve students in rural and islander regions are ‘female’. group has high expectations for their children’s school and career goal as well as pupils from private senior achievement. They support their secondary schools. children’s academic endeavours and provide more choices according to their
68 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 References Cook, T.D., Church, M.B., Ajanaku, S., Shadish, W.R. Jr., Kim, J., & Cohen, R. (1996). The development of occupational aspirations and expectations among inner- city boys. Child Development, 67(6), 3368- 3385.
Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 8(1). Retrieved from http://olam.ed.asu.edu/epaa/ v8n1/
Freiberg, H.J. (Ed.).(1999). School climate: Measuring, improving and sustaining healthy learning environments. Philadelphia: Falmer Press.
Lapan, R. (2004). Career development across the K-16 years. Alexandria, VA: American Counseling Association.
Miller, K., Rothwell, J., & Tyler, B. (1994). Rothwell-Miller Interest Blank (Revised). British Edition, Manual. London: Miller & Tyler.
Turner, S.L., & Lapan, R.T. (2002). Career self-efficacy and perceptions of parent support in adolescent career development. Career Development Quarterly, 51, 44-55.
Turner, S.L., Alliman-Brissett, A., Lapan, R.T., Udipi, S., & Ergun, D. (2003). Career- related Parent Support Scale. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development, 56, 44-55.
Warrington, M., & Younger, M. (2000). The other side of the gender gap. Gender and education, 12 (4), 493-508.
Wentzel, K.R., & Feldman, S.S. (1993). Parental predictors of boys‘ self-restraint and motivation to achieve at school: A longitudinal study. Journal of Early Adolescence, 13, 183-203.
Wilson, W.J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York: Knopf.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 69 Quality assurance in the Nigerian VET sector
Introduction as the technician, technologist and An observer of the Nigerian vocational professional training in polytechnics and training scene will see a diversity of monotechnics. This article will tend to skills training arrangements without a use the acronym TVE, which is more common standard-setting body. Several popular in earlier Nigerian publications, agencies of government are involved in even though TVET is now gaining wider non-formal training for skills acquisition usage. Muhammad S. or development, but none of these National Board for Technical programs are based on any nationally Abubakar Education and its quality assurance recognised occupational standards. Muhammad holds a National standards only exist in the case roles doctorate in Physics and of Vocational Education and Training The National Board for Technical taught in a university (VET) in Technical Colleges (TCs) and Education (NBTE) is the Federal before taking a nine-year polytechnics. This absence of common government agency mandated by appointment as a college standards is seen by many as a major law to coordinate all aspects of TVE director under the Kaduna shortcoming of the entire vocational falling outside the universities. NBTE’s Polytechnic, Nigeria. training system. establishment law (Act No. 9 1977) Since October 1999, empowers the Board to ‘lay down he has been Director of This is especially so because there is standards of skill to be attained (in TVE) Programs, National Board a wide consensus that the non-formal and to continually review such standards for Technical Education in sector is the dominant component of as necessitated by technological Nigeria. His main work is the economy. The National Master and national needs’. This wide remit, curriculum development and Plan for Development of Technical & combined with the reinforcement of maintenance of minimum Vocational Education (TVE), prepared Act No. 16 1985, which clearly spells academic standards in by the Federal Ministry of Education, out the power to accredit programs for Polytechnics and Technical admits that ‘in Nigeria, the non-formal national certification, engages the Board Colleges (secondary mode of TVE has the larger share of the in three major areas: coordinating the schools). He has a special training market. It consists of the various development of curricula for TCs and interest in the utilisation of forms of apprenticeship schemes and polytechnics; accreditation of programs ICTs for curriculum delivery custom and tailor-made programs meant in these institutions; coordinating in Nigerian institutions. to impart occupational skills for gainful government policies regarding TVE. employment.’ (Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education, 2000, p. 23). The absence Although the law does not expressly of national vocational qualifications bar it from the non-formal TVE, NBTE (NVQs) and a national apprenticeship has hitherto operated almost exclusively scheme, precludes any recognition in the formal educational sector. But or progression pathways for the non- non-formal TVE is now receiving more formal sector. Needless to say, this is attention. a major hindrance to effective skills development. Major constraints The greatest challenge for the Board As commonly applied in Nigeria, the comes from the general low regard Technical and Vocational Education towards TVE discernible in the and Training (TVET) sector covers the attitudes of bureaucracy and general artisan training in vocational centres, public. Two serious consequences the crafts training in TCs as well are low enrolment in TVE institutions
70 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 and limited employment and services. In particular, the highly skilled progression opportunities for TVE manpower needed by the oil sector is graduates. Candidates entering or largely not available locally. leaving secondary schools generally Furthermore, as the vast majority of aspire to university education where Nigerians live in rural communities, social sciences, arts, management, they were critically affected by the poor sciences and professional disciplines quality of the TVE sector, coupled with dominate. Rarely would candidates or past government policies which failed their parents consider TVE as a first to promote appropriate technology and choice. This situation is a result of a cooperative ventures. These combined societal attitude that sees the ultimate to rule out any significant modernisation objective of education as acquisition of of the traditional subsistence forms a degree certificate as a ‘meal ticket’ of agriculture, making the small-scale into government work. Historically, farmers (about 60% of the labour force) jobs were easily available in the early the least empowered segment of the post-independence era, when there population. Other constraints affecting were numerous vacancies in the public the sector include poor infrastructure service. However, with time and the and shortages of qualified staff and explosion in the number of job-seekers, instructional materials. public service vacancies naturally dwindled. Unfortunately, the organised The result of neglecting TVE is a poorly private sector did not grow fast enough developed skill base. This, with the non to accommodate the growing hordes availability of white-collar jobs, leads to of graduates, most of whom could only high levels of graduate unemployment boast of a paper qualification, rather and low productivity. These twin than practical skills. negatives in turn breed extraordinarily high level of poverty, with 70% of the On the other hand, those who braved 126 million Nigerians living below US$1 the odds to study in vocational per day (UNDP, 2006). centres, TCs or even polytechnics, were subjected to various forms of Scope of this article discrimination in respect to salary scales, professional recognition, and The main objective of this article opportunities for career progression. is to describe NBTE’s attempt to Moreover, there was no good facilitate quality assurance through articulation of their qualifications with program accreditation. Although this The result of those from other sectors of education evaluation system is more established and they often found themselves in a for polytechnics, the focus here will neglecting cul-de-sac. As a result, the TVE sector be on TCs. These colleges, like their could not grow to the critical mass name-sakes in other Commonwealth TVE is a poorly necessary to establish high national countries, are secondary schools developed skill standards for regulating practice. dedicated to the education and training This in turn caused severe shortage of craftsmen/women. base. in qualified artisans and craftsmen, The article casts a cursory glance on especially in areas such as plumbing, the Nigerian educational system and masonry, building construction, the place it allots to TVE; provides electrical installations, appliance a brief description of the concept of maintenance, machining, welding and accreditation in the Nigerian TVE fabrication, with serious consequence sector, pointing out the standards for the effective delivery of such and criteria applicable to Technical
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 71 program (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004). Primary education usually begins at the age of six. This is the first contact with school for the vast majority of children as only a few parents can afford early childhood education.
According to the NPE, junior secondary is supposed to include Integrated Science and Introductory Technology (popularly known as Introtech), among its core subjects. Introtech was designed to achieve three main goals: provide pre-vocational orientation for further training in technology; ensure basic technological literacy for everyday living; and stimulate creativity. Unfortunately, Colleges; discusses the attempt to due to resource constraints, only a few implement accreditation in Nigerian TCs; schools could effectively implement this and highlights the different initiatives important subject. being taken to move the Nigerian TVE The expectation of the NPE is that sector forward. students completing junior secondary Students Nigerian educational system and the would have four possible options: place of TVE senior secondary school; technical completing college; vocational training center; At independence, in 1960, Nigeria an apprenticeship scheme. But in junior secondary had a federation of three regions, practice most parents usually prefer each with its own educational law the senior secondary option, and have four inherited from colonial administration. only allow their children to go to a possible options: Six years later, ethnic and political technical college if they miss out on differences culminated in a military this option. This excessive emphasis senior secondary coup, which led to a 30 month civil war. on ‘grammar school’ education explains To ensure national unity, integration and why the vocational training centres school; technical technological development, and above and apprenticeship schemes have not all fashion out an indigenous education college; been developed to the level of providing policy, with unified structure, a special viable alternatives to the academic vocational national curriculum conference was option. convened in 1969. This forum produced training far-reaching resolutions leading to a But in spite of the above limitations National Policy on Education (NPE), first of vocational training, and because center; an issued in 1977. senior secondary is supposed to be comprehensive, the NPE has made apprenticeship National Policy on Education adequate provision for some VET in Schools. Along with the core subjects scheme. The main characteristic of the NPE is such as English, Mathematics, a the 6-3-3-4 scheme, providing for a Nigerian language, a basic science six-year primary and six-year secondary and a social science, each student is education. The secondary phase required to take one or two vocational consists of junior and senior segments, electives such as Agriculture, each lasting three years. The scheme Applied Electricity, Auto-mechanics, ends with a four-year undergraduate
72 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Bookkeeping and Accounting, Building Examination Board (NABTEB) in Construction, Woodwork, Metalwork, 1992, to take over the certification of Food and Nutrition, Home Management. all technical and business disciplines. However, limited teaching staff NABTEB commenced the testing for the and facilities preclude the practical National Technical Certificate (NTC) and realisation of these vocational electives the National Business Certificate (NBC) in most schools. based on the craft curricula developed Limited by the NBTE. Today, according to Act teaching staff Technical Colleges No. 16 1985, only candidates from As indicated above, some vocational duly accredited programs would have and facilities qualified for such national examination. courses are available at the senior preclude secondary school-level. However, the But as you will see below, this specific types of secondary schools requirement could not be immediately the practical dedicated exclusively to TVE are the enforced. TCs. Curiously, the most peculiar realisation feature of these TVE secondary schools National diploma programs is their small number: about 150 from a The Nigerian polytechnics are tertiary of vocational total of over 10 000 secondary schools institutions that offer a two-tier national electives in (SchoolNet Africa, 2003). Equally program. The first is the National disturbing is that they constitute less Diploma (ND), which admits secondary most [senior than 5% of total senior secondary or technical college students with a enrolment (Yakubu, 2003, p. 11). credit level pass in SSCE or NTC/NBC. secondary] National Diploma programs have a two- Whereas the conventional secondary schools. year duration, and generally produce school prepares students for technicians for junior or intermediate senior secondary school certificate supervisory roles. Candidates who pass examinations, which are nominally ND at a minimum of lower credit level equivalent to an Australian Senior are eligible for admission into the Higher Secondary Certificate of Education National Diploma (HND) program. (SSCE), the TCs offer various technical or commercial trades in their three-year National Board for Technical program. The most common disciplines Education’s accreditation system are: Mechanical Engineering trades, Building/Wood trades, and Electrical In Nigeria, accreditation is always trades. Many TCs also offer Business, based on individual programs. The Catering, Garment-making, Textiles, Printing, and other popular crafts.
National certificates In the colonial period, and first few decades after independence, the main TVE qualification was the City and Guilds for technical crafts, and Pitman’s, or RSA, for commercial students. Subsequently, the West African Examinations Council (WAEC) took over the testing of crafts for many years before the Nigerian government established a special examination body, the National Business and Technical
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 73 issue of establishment of an institution it becomes the national minimum is a different matter. The Nigerian standard, and can be used by any Constitution has placed education under institution that is properly established. the concurrent legislative list, which But such institutions must be assessed means that both the Federal and State to confirm the availability of minimum governments can legislate and establish requirements before commencement. schools and enable them with laws or The entire TVE edicts as the case may be. However, Evaluation procedure educational standards fall under Accreditation panels undertake physical sector needs the exclusive power of the Federal inspection of staffing, instructional revitalisation government; hence the establishment resources and facilities of the technical of various supervisory agencies such as college. Two evaluation documents through the the National Universities Commission, are administered. The first of these is for the universities, and NBTE for concerned with the establishment of introduction TVE outside the universities. The the institution as a whole, and covers accreditation procedure for polytechnic evaluation of the institution, that is: of modern programs is described elsewhere • establishment (Abubakar, 2002), and it is not intended instructional • available structures that it be repeated. The technical college • utilities process, which is similar, is discussed techniques, • funding next. updating of • school management Standards and criteria for • goals and philosophy • library curricula and accreditation in technical colleges • general education. Accreditation is defined as: extensive The other evaluation is concerned with The recognition granted by a national individual trades, and assesses the incorporation agency to an institution or its programme provision made for curriculum delivery. It that has met the minimum national of ICT into covers program evaluation, that is: standard laid down for that level of curriculum institution or programme. It is a process by Academic matters: Goals and objectives which an institution periodically evaluates of programs; curriculum structure and delivery. its educational activities in whole or in part content; students’ performance. and seeks an independent judgment to Physical facilities: Classrooms/studios; confirm that it is substantially achieving its workshops; tools/equipment/training philosophy and objectives, and there are materials; staff office accommodation; indications that it will continue to maintain student’s industrial attachment. or improve on the standard existing at the time of accreditation. (NBTE, 1992, p.1) Staffing: Teaching staff; technical support staff. Accreditation is primarily a peer assessment process. Its starting point Implementation of accreditation in is a curriculum that is based on the technical colleges national minimum standards. NBTE develops minimum guide curricula by Implementation of accreditation in convening critique workshops involving TCs proved far more difficult than first the major stakeholders, including the expected. Although the NABTEB started concerned institutions, professional its NTC and NBC examinations in 1995, institutes, registration bodies, and the first accreditation visits could only employers. When a national critique be undertaken in 1998. The delay was adapts a curriculum for any program, brought about by repeated requests to
74 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 the National Council on Education (roughly TABLE I: Summary of programs visited for accreditation in equivalent to former Australian Education technical colleges (NBTE, 2004)
Council) for deferment of the commencement Programs Number of % Granted of accreditation by the State Ministries of S/N Programs granted programs accreditation Education, who owned most of the TCs. Again, accreditation even after take-off, the exercise moved very Agricultural 1 Implement 16 5 .3 slowly as only a few states at the beginning Mechanics were ready to present their institutions for Blocklaying & 2 69 41 59.4 accreditation. But by the end of 2004, NBTE Concreting had managed to visit most institutions in all but 3 Carpentry & Joinery 54 26 48.1 Electrical two of the 36 states. Table I shows the general 4 95 50 52.6 Installations outcome of the exercise. Fabrication and 5 53 12 22.6 A total of 113, out of 154 registered TCs, were Welding involved in the exercise. Only three of these 6 Furniture Craft 34 20 58.8 Mechanical Eng. institutions are privately owned. The Federal 7 45 22 48.9 Craft government also owns 19 of the colleges. Motor Vehicle 8 77 31 40.3 These Federal institutions have recently been Mechanic renamed Federal Science and Technical Painting & 9 25 7 28 Colleges, to make their programs more Decorating comprehensive. Plumbing 10 24 7 29.2 & Pipe-fitting Discussion on the performance of the 11 Radio and Television 38 19 50 trades 12 Refrigeration and A/C 19 6 .6 13 Business Studies 46 21 45.7 The results show that out of 655 trades visited, Catering Craft 14 21 8 8.1 only 284 could secure accreditation in the Practice first instance. This translates to only 43% 15 Foundry Craft 3 2 66.7 success rate, and in actual fact reveals a result 16 Ceramics 1 1 00 that is not much different from expectations, 17 Garment Making 8 1 2.5 judging from the candidates’ achievements 18 Graphic Arts 4 0 0 in the NTC/NBC examinations. Inadequate 19 Auto Electric Works 1 1 00 numbers of qualified staff, and non-availablity 20 Leather Trades 2 0 0 of or ill-equipped workshops and laboratories, Vehicle Body as well as gross deficits in required tools, 21 6 1 6.7 Building equipment and instructional materials, Instrument 22 3 1 .3 accounted for most of the reasons trades failed Mechanics to attain accreditation. The table also shows 23 Printing Craft 7 0 0 that the hard-core technical crafts are the 24 Textile Trades 2 1 50 most common, if not the most popular in the Machine Wood 25 1 1 00 institutions. Working 26 Marine Engineering 1 0 0 It would also appear that crafts such as TOTAL 655 284 43.4 garment-making, leather and textiles works, that could be expected to enjoy wide patronage, are rather few in number. However, this is perhaps compensated by the active engagement of the non-formal sector in these areas. This also further underscores the need to find some means of accommodating the non-formal sector in the national TVE system. On the whole, the programs in TCs are rather too traditional, and pedagogical techniques tend to be very conservative. Indeed, the entire TVE sector needs revitalisation through the introduction of modern
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 75 instructional techniques, updating of to it in the budget – a budget that curricula, and extensive incorporation of can barely meet all the competing ICT into curriculum delivery. A number requirements in health, water supply, of initiatives have been embarked upon agriculture, access roads, and countless along this direction, as will be seen in other social services. This is also a the conclusion. budget that is quite often a victim of mismanagement. The demand to meet Funding problem accreditation requirements is often seen as a nuisance which could explain With the return School managers and staff would the endless postponement of the always tend to attribute all problems accreditation process. of civil rule, to inadequate funding. Funding is It is however delightful to see that a indeed a problem. But so is lack of the nation is number of initiatives are being put motivation, poor management culture, forward to address the human and lack of training opportunities, poor making a great material resources problems in the TVE quality of students, and a host of sector. These planned and ongoing effort to regain other characteristics of a distressed interventions include the following. educational system. her bearing and • Nigeria Project to Revitalize TVE forge ahead. Conclusion (UNESCO) A running theme throughout this article This program commenced in 2001, is the striking contrast between the lofty and has since established seven ideals of the NPE and the unpalatable special staff development centres; realities on the ground. This sadly is a organised train-the-trainer workshops common feature of the entire Nigerian in TVE management; initiated review education system. Arguably, the distress of TVE curricula; and currently plans had its origin in the long and barren era to undertake study to fully characterise of military rule. With the return of civil the non-formal sector, preparatory to rule, the nation is making a great effort introducing NVQs. This is one area to regain her bearing and forge ahead. where the more developed countries The focus on accreditation, which is now of the Commonwealth, like Australia, noticeable in all sub-sectors of higher can assist with their high expertise education, is a manifestation of greater in national training and workplace awareness for progress and quality. assessment.
The first nationwide accreditation • The Educational Trust Fund exercise to evaluate the ordinary This special intervention agency for trades in Nigerian TCs has revealed educational funding has just rolled out serious deficiencies in infrastructure, a three-year action plan to strengthen teaching staff and working tools, for TVE. The activities planned aim to: a large number of programs. The - upgrade workshop and laboratory performances of individual colleges equipment are largely reflections of the qualities - introduce modern instructional of their management, as well as the methods support of their proprietors (Ministries - facilitate the review of existing of Education). But the proprietor’s role curricula and the development of is critical in respect to funding, as these new ones schools depend almost entirely on government subventions for their day-to- - accelerate certification of untrained day running. teachers. A similar intervention is the Petroleum Funding is quite often not based on Technology Development Fund, which what the college requires to achieve focuses on training high-level manpower its objectives, but what is allocated
76 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 for the oil and gas sectors. Ironically, References this fund lays the strongest emphasis Abubakar, M. S. (2002). Physica Scripta, Vol. on university graduates, rather than T97: Physics-with-Electronics as a Viable craftsmen and technicians. Qualification for Laboratory Technologists, Proceedings of 3rd Conference on Physics • Supervisory agencies for education & Industrial Development, Durban, South Africa, 2000, September 4-7. Oxford. The These are considering institutional Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. accreditation rather than the limited program accreditation. There is also Federal Republic of Nigeria. (2004). National Policy on Education. Lagos: NERDC Press. more interest in institutionalizing internal quality assurance, rather than expecting National Board for Technical Education to enforce quality assurance exclusively (NBTE). (1992). Standards and Criteria for Institutional and Program Accreditation in from without. Technical Colleges and Similar Institutions in Nigeria. These various initiatives, coupled with Kaduna: F. Abdulrahman Printers and Publishers. the new spirit of value re-orientation and reform, now pervading the country, National Board for Technical Education The societal and the government’s anti-corruption (NBTE). (2004). Directory of Programs Visited for Accreditation: National Technical perception of posture, are expected to bring about Certificate (NTC) and National Business a change of attitude in public sector Certificate (NBC), Kaduna: Espee Printing TVE is also management. More and more Nigerians and Advertising. are now confident that education will changing. take its rightful place as the driving force Nigerian Federal Ministry of Education. (2000). The National Master Plan for TVE for national development, and that the Development in Nigeria in the 21st Century, TVE sector has a key role to play in Blue-print for Decade 2001-2010. National modern industry. In particular, the oil and seminar on TVE. Abuja, 31 October — 2 gas industry, which accounts for 95% November. of Nigeria’s foreign exchange earnings, SchoolNet Africa. (2003). Pesentation and 25% of GDP, should benefit from a by Olaolu Sasore in SNA Gaborone strengthened TVE sector. 2003. Retrieved July 2006 from, www. schoolnetafrica.net/fileadmin/resources/ The newly introduce Universal Basic SNNG Education is also likely to strengthen the United Nations Development Program quality of basic education (primary and (UNDP). Human Development Index. junior secondary), the essential building Retrieved June 2, 2006 from, www.http:hdr. block for TVE. Moreover, there is now undp.org/statistics/data/cty/cty_f_NGA.html greater emphasis on entrepreneurship Yakubu, N.A. (2003). Technical and development to help alleviate extreme Vocational Education & Training (TVET) poverty, and the concept of technology in Nigeria: Issues and Strategies. Nigeria incubation has started to gain ground. country report, presented at the regional More significantly, the societal seminar on implementing UNESCO perception of TVE is also changing, recommendations concerning TVE. Kaduna: 8 -11 December. judging from the recent presidential directive to remove the ceiling on the career progression of HND holders in the public service. Therefore, the general prospects for the TVE sector are likely to be brighter.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 77 The coexistence of unemployment and the shortage of skilled workers in Hungary. What can vocational education do?
Introduction of the regime change, 70% of the 14-17 Hungary, in Central Europe, is a country age group took part in some kind of with slightly more than 10 million secondary education (HCSO, 1998c). inhabitants and an area of 93 000 sq At present, this figure is more than 10% kms. It took the road towards a market higher. Éva Berde economy from a planned (communist) The increase in participation in Éva is a Senior economy in 1989, together with (or just education is the most spectacular Associate Professor of a little sooner than) other Central and in higher education. Here, despite Microeconomics and Eastern European countries. During this the demographic decline of the age presently coordinator more than 15-year period, its economy group concerned, in the years after of Market Analysis has transformed, both in terms of the transformations, the number of Specialisation at the ownership and structure. The technical students enrolling in universities has Corvinus University of conditions for production have improved increased four fold. However, the Budapest in Hungary. From and private property has become general increase in participation did not 2001 to the present, she dominant. With regards to the economic mean an improvement in knowledge has been a moderator for sectoral distribution of employees, the or professional skills in all cases. In a PhD research forum in service sector employs almost 60% Hungary, a tendency similar to that of Economics. Éva researches of the workers, industry takes a little older EU members is prevalent. The in the areas of labour more than 34%, and a little more than period of adolescence has expanded markets, education, game 6% work in agriculture. In 2004, the and the requirements within a given per capita GDP on purchasing power theory and information school-level have been lowered. parity at current price was 15 960 USD economics. (HCSO, 2006a). In the following, I am going to demonstrate which elements of the The transformation of the economic Hungarian educational structure offer structure was not painless. It is still professional qualifications. I shall being felt. The employment rate also call attention to the fact that has dropped from the earlier full the increase in the general level of employment. Compared to the qualifications, at all costs, does not 15 older EU member states, the necessarily mean better professional employment rate between ages 15 and grounding. Finally, I am going to 64 is on average 10% higher than the elaborate on those currently introduced approximately 57% in Hungary (HCSO, measures in Hungary which aim to 2005b). Even so, Hungary is not in increase the prestige of secondary the worst situation among the new EU professional training. members.
In 1989 the qualifications of the The structure of Hungarian Hungarian population were satisfactory. vocational training This was also true for other ex- In Hungary, professional qualifications communist countries. Although the can be obtained both within and ratio of those with a degree was behind outside the school system. Acquiring those in the most developed countries, the first profession is usually provided the general qualifications, especially of by training within the school system. the young, were acceptable. In the year In Figure 1, you can see the structure
78 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 DTP
Figure 1: The sturcture of the Hungarian public education and higher educaton Figure 1: The sturcture of thesystem Hungarian by age, publicgrade and education by ISCED and level higher1 educaton system by age, grade and by ISCED level1
PHD, 25 DLA ISC6 24 Further 23 training8 22 21 University basic and ISC5A College basic and supplementary Higher education 20 supplementary programs7 19 7 ISC5B programs 18
19 14 ISC5B, 18 13 ISC4 17 Secondary vocational 12 Secondary general school Vocational Special school 3; 5 16 6 3; 6 programs 11 school vocational programs 15 4 10 ISC3
2 school 14 9 13 8 12 7 ISC2 11 6 10 5 Primary general school programs3 Public education 9 4 8 3 ISC1
Compulsory education 7 2 6 1 5 4 Pre-primary education3 ISC0 3 Grade Age ISCED 1 Ministry of Education (2005, p. 7). The figure shows the typical age and typical length of programs in full-time education. 1 Ministry of Education (2005. p. 7). The figure shows the typical age and typical length of 2 From programmes1998/99 academic in full-time year compulsoryeducation. education lasts until the age of 18. 3 Pre-primary,2 From primary1998/99 general, academic secondary year compulsory general educationand secondary lasts untilvocational the age school of 18. programs also include the programs for pupils with special3 Pre-primary, educational primary needs. general, secondary general and secondary vocational school programmes also 4 Specialinclude vocational the programmes programs mean for pupils vocational with special school educationalprograms delivered needs. to students with special educational needs at ISCED2 level, 4vocational Special vocational programs programmes contain programs mean vocationalwithout requirement school programmes of graduation delivered examination. to students with 5 Secondaryspecial general educational school needs programs at ISCED2 include level, the programsvocational with programmes 4 (5), 6 and contain 8 grades. programmes without requirement of graduation examination. 6 Vocational and secondary vocational school programs contain programs with requirement and without requirement of graduation 5 Secondary general school programmes include the programmes with 4 (5), 6 and 8 grades. examination. 6 Vocational and secondary vocational school programmes contain programmes with requirement and 7 Collegewithout and university requirement basic of andgraduation supplementary examination. programs. 8 Postgraduate7 College specialisation and university programs: basic and programs supplementary in ISCED5A programmes. level with requirement of graduation in college or university and with requirement8 Postgraduate of specialspecialisation attainments. programmes: These programsprogrammes do innot ISCED give a 5Ahigher level attainment with requirement level, but of give a special qualification. graduation in college or university and with requirement of special attainments. These programmes do not give a higher attainment level, but give a special qualification. of Hungarian education, with shading special vocational school programs. highlightingWith those regards areas to where the categories basedSpecial on ISCED-97 vocational in Figureprograms 1, vocational ensure the training can professionaltake qualifications place at levels can 3, 4,be 5 and 6. Onvocational the third level,training those of the leaving mentally with or official obtained.qualifications can take part in vocationalphysically school disadvantaged. programmes, orThe special number vocational of these students is considerably lower With regards to the categories based in comparison with the other vocational on ISCED-97 in Figure 1, vocational programs. 3 training can take place at levels 3, 4, 5 and 6. On the third level, those leaving The vast majority of those obtaining a with official qualifications can take qualification on the third level of ISCED part in vocational school programs, or
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 79 come from vocational schools, which in official professional qualification in four fact means apprenticeship training. The years, so during this time, students duration of the training is four years. acquired both general and professional The first two years are spent acquiring qualifications. general knowledge. Vocational training In many cases, the fifith and sixth year The entry of takes place in the third and fourth years. In the previous system, training of vocational programs are already young people in vocational schools only took three accepted as tertiary vocational training. years, and vocational training began Tertiary vocational training provides into the labour in the first year, in line with general credit points that students can use subjects. in case they wish to obtain a college market is degree. In tertiary education, Hungary Vocational training also takes place in is currently changing over to the unified delayed. secondary vocational schools on the EU structure of bachelor and master third level of ISCED. However, these training. Earlier, there was college and schools, apart from a few special university education, which meant that subjects for professional orientation, colleges provided what counts in the teach general subjects during the new system as a bachelor’s degree, first four years, in the same way as whereas universities did not offer a secondary general schools. At the bachelor’s degree, but after five or six end of the fourth year, students take years of training they gave a master’s a graduation exam. (In the Hungarian degree straightaway. In the new system it is called a matriculation exam, system, having a bachelor’s degree is but in the following, I will only refer to it a prerequisite to obtaining a master’s as a graduation exam.) Success in the degree. Master’s level does not mean graduation exam is the pre-condition for leaving the school system for everyone, entering tertiary education. as PhD and DLA training offers high- standard learning opportunities for more On ISCED3 level, neither secondary students than earlier. These students vocational, nor secondary general usually do not have work experience. programs give official professional qualifications. To gain professional You can see that all elements of qualifications, students have to spend, Hungarian vocational training within the depending on the profession and the school system provide longer training kind of secondary education, one, than formerly, and therefore, the entry two, or three years at the ISCED4 or of young people into the labour market ISCED5B level of secondary vocational is delayed. There are debates, not school training. They can also apply to only in Hungary, but in the European colleges, or universities, where they can Union, about the advantages and get their qualification and a degree. disadvantages of this approach.
Secondary vocational and secondary The 11% participation rate of the 25-64 general programs, besides the year old population in lifelong learning advantage of providing general compared to the 30-40% participation programs, only differ in that vocational rate of top countries (HCSO, 2004), programs provide professional shows that Hungary still has to improve orientation training as well. Also they in this field. A certain part of education offer their students a professional outside the school system, similarly to qualification in a shorter period than the one within, but leaving out elements they do to those coming from other of general knowledge from the training, secondary schools. In the previous provides professional qualifications system, vocational programs ensured that are listed on the State Training both the graduation exam and an Register.
80 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 In Hungary, a whole branch Table 1: Persons in employment by highest education obtained (%) of industry has emerged for teaching trades that are Educational attainment 1980 1990 2001 listed on the State Training Register. Among school Primary school less than 8th grade completed 18.5 5.2 0.8 system training institutions, Primary school 8th grade completed 35.4 33.4 19.6 state-owned ones constitute the majority. Together 53.9 38.6 20.4 In training outside the Secondary school without graduation certificate, with school system, the main 16.9 24.4 28.8 professional qualification completed role is played by privately owned institutions. Owing Secondary school with graduation certificate completed 21.1 24.8 32.5 to their direct interest in (matriculation) profit, these institutions Together 38.0 49.2 61.3 quickly react to changes in economic conditions University college completed 8.1 12.3 18.3 and strive to offer the Total 100.0 100.0 100.0 most useful knowledge with respect to the labour (Source: Census) market. Nevertheless, paradoxically, one of the main contracting parties Table 1 shows that those with of these educational institutions on the a maximum of a primary school market is the state itself, which finances qualification constitute an ever all or most retraining costs of the decreasing percentage of the unemployed. employees. On the other hand, the number of employees with degrees General qualifications and and with a professional qualification, vocational training but without a graduation certificate, has increased. These are the ones who Whether The evaluation of vocational training is have participated in the programs of very difficult as its ultimate success is vocational schools or special vocational vocational measured by the participants’ success schools on ISCED3 level. The growth in the labour market. However, apart in the percentage of those with a schools with from the efficiency of participants’ graduation certificate has also been training, success in the labour market higher. Even so, this is where one of a graduation depends on the degree of economic the most critical areas of secondary certificate are development and the employment vocational training in Hungary is found. opportunities present in the economy. better in all Owing to the natural ambition to One basic indicator of success is improve the educational level of the cases than ‘persons in employment by highest population, which is in accordance education obtained’. As Table 1 shows, with the Lisbon Orientations of the vocational in Hungary, similarly to developed European Union, at the beginning of countries, the basic education the 1990s, schools offering vocational schools without qualification of those in the workforce training programs with a graduation has risen over time. Whether vocational certificate were given more and more a graduation schools with a graduation certificate emphasis. At the same time, as a certificate is (the exam traditionally referred to as result of the Vocational Training Law the matriculation exam) are better in all of 1993, the formerly three-year-long highly debated in cases than vocational schools without a training became a year longer, and graduation certificate is highly debated the first two years were devoted to Hungary. in Hungary. general education, apart from a few
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 81 increase their Figure 2: Number of students in secondary education (1990-91 to 2004-05) revenue based on the principle of normative financing. This is also how private institutions, which constitute the minority, can raise more income from tuition fees. The fluctuation in the number of students at the secondary level is shown in Figure 2.
The employment rate of those with a professional qualification, but without a graduation certificates has increased, while the number of those finishing this kind of training has decreased considerably. Source: Ministry of Education (2005) This indicates that the growth special orientation subjects. Actual in the number of professional training and practice only students taking part in the programs of occurred in the third and fourth year. vocational schools with a graduation This triggered the natural reaction from exam cannot be considered an entirely students willing to learn a profession, positive trend. that they preferred vocational schools with a graduation certificate, even if Those young people, who show talent they could only obtain a professional in completing practical tasks, often qualification after an additional year or find it difficult to meet the general two. The opportunity of a graduation knowledge demands of vocational certificate was also attractive in itself, schools with a graduation certificate. because with the help of this they They might have to repeat a year, or could also enter tertiary education, they might drop out. On the whole, where the demands of both admission they lower the standard of vocational and graduation lowered during the schools with graduation certificates. 1990s. On the other hand, state- However, if they could do what they owned vocational schools with actually would like to do by attending graduation certificates were also practical training at the beginning of strongly interested in increasing student secondary school, they could become numbers, since this way they could well qualified workers.
82 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Practical training has had to face a bonus that is equal to the 20% of the many problems since the political compulsory monthly minimal wage. transformations. With the extinction of large state-owned firms (out-of-school Programs supporting places offering practical training are also increasing training places), which provided an With the important provider of vocational training the prestige of vocational training. ceased. The establishment of new Employers who organise practical extinction of places for practical training is a gradual vocational training courses get various process. At present, the vast majority of allowances. Hopefully, this will promote large state- practical vocational training is carried vocational training to a level that meets out in the workshops of schools, not at the demands of the economy, and owned firms provides young people with jobs. actual enterprises. which provided Conclusion The consequences of the situation out-of-school facing vocational training are Although increasing the general level of unemployment and labour shortages in qualifications is a desirable objective, training places, certain regions of the country (G. Tóth, it is not always in accordance with real 2006). Approximately eighty to one needs. The number of years spent an important hundred thousand qualified blue-collar in school education have increased workers are needed by the Hungarian considerably, yet, neither this, nor provider of labour market, while about two hundred the increase, in the level of average vocational and thirty thousand unemployed people qualification means success in the are in search of job opportunities labour market. To achieve this, you training ceased. (HCSO, 2006b). As a consequence it also have to take into consideration has been necessary to increase the the demands of the labour market, and prestige of vocational training without the individual abilities and ambitions of graduation. the workforce. In secondary vocational From the autumn of 2006, measures training, practical training has to play an increasing the weight of practical important role in all grades. orientation in the first two years of vocational schools without a graduation References certificate are going to take effect. Central Hungarian Statistical Office (HCSO). (1998). Education, Training (1988-1997). Thus professional training is going to Budapest: Author. become the central task of the training. In addition to this, an element of the Central Hungarian Statistical Office (HCSO). Lifelong Learning. government’s program called ‘One (2004). Budapest: Author. step forward’, and sources from the Central Hungarian Statistical Office (HCSO). European Union, will support training in (2005). Labour Report, January –December 2005. those trades experiencing shortages. Budapest: Author. Those who have a professional Central Hungarian Statistical Office (HCSO). qualification, but undertake learning (2006a). National Accounts, Hungary 2003- 2004. a trade experiencing shortages, can Budapest: Author. get their qualification free of charge. Central Hungarian Statistical Office (HCSO). (Currently in Hungary, obtaining the (2006b). Labour Force Survey (1992-2005). first qualification is free of charge, Budapest: Author. but students are obliged to pay for G. Tóth Ilda. (2006, April 9). Justified mastering other trades.) From January absence. Heti világgazdaság (Weekly World Economy). 1, 2006, in order to encourage young Budapest: HVG Rt. people to choose those trades Ministry of Education. (2005). Statistical experiencing shortages, those attending Yearbook of Education, 2004/2005. such training after primary school get Budapest: Author.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 83 Work-integrated learning options in Botswana
Introduction of technical colleges falls under DVET. The policy and legislative commitment Technical colleges have become a of the Botswana government is route to upgrade JC leavers. They evidenced by the Revised National provide technical education through Policy on Education (1994), the vocational and academic modules National Policy on Vocational Education which enables students to gain and Training (1997), the Vocational competences that could enable them to Training Act No. 22 1998 get employment and further training. Martin Kapfumvuti , and the establishment of the Tertiary Education Relevance Martin is currently employed Council and Botswana Training by the Department of Authority. They have articulated the In Botswana, technical colleges have, Vocational Education purpose of Vocational Education and since their inception about 18 years and Training, Ministry of Training (VET) as being able to meet ago, been on a development and Education, as the Head of the learning needs and aspirations growth trajectory towards being career Department (Hairdressing of individuals and the economy at and VET focused. This responsiveness and Beauty Therapy) large. This includes the higher level shows an appreciation of the changing at Gaborone Technical knowledge and skills needed for growth requirements in knowledge, skills and College in Botswana. His and prosperity through economic competencies in the world of work, specialisation is training and development. There have been and the implications for, and their curriculum development in repeated calls for VET to be more application in, VET. Technical colleges hairdressing. He is currently responsive, accountable, relevant and also embrace a more overarching a member of the Curriculum accessible. focus on societal goals and a critical Development Group citizenry that recognises and engages – Botswana Technical Botswana education system with a range of key stakeholders from Education Programme The school system in Botswana is a government, labour, the private sector (BTEP) for hairdressing three-tier system of primary, secondary and social and community partnerships. and beauty therapy; the and tertiary levels. The Department Hairdressing Task Force for Curriculum development of Primary Education looks after the development of BOTA primary education; the Department Curriculum development that standards in hairdressing; of Secondary Education looks incorporates prescribed work the Programme Advisory after secondary education; and the experience units, should be informed Committee for the Botswana Department of Vocational Education by, and developed in partnership with Technical Education and Training (DVET) is responsible for commerce and industry. The decision Programme (BTEP), technical and vocational education. to prescribe a block of experiential problem solving (key skills learning time in industry should be unit); and a task force Students at secondary level complete informed by the assessment criteria member of the Southern two exit examinations – the Junior of the structured learning outcome African Development Certificate in Education (JC), and the components. Community: Regional Co- Botswana Government School Leaving operation on Hairdressing Certificate (BGSE), which is equivalent Work experience learning must be Qualifications. to O levels. Students are introduced understood to be a learning and to VET as a subject but it is usually development experience that focuses not examined. The bulk of students on student needs. The experiential complete JC, and proceed to BGSE, learning in the workplace must be while some are not absorbed by senior carefully planned to accommodate secondary schools. The management the particular workplace environment
84 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 and its integration with the academic clustered into flexible modules for ease learning at the institution. Managing of progression and articulation. the learning process effectively, The most positive aspect of OBE in preparation for, and during the for work experience learning is that experiential learning, needs to enjoy those specific outcomes within the similar priority in terms of infrastructure qualification, which can be best and resource allocation, as is the case achieved in the workplace, can be for the academic learning environment. identified. The accumulation of these This approach supports career specific outcomes, along with the paths that include the recognition of associated credits, and notional prior learning (RPL), and different hours, should inform structured combinations of education and learning programs and timeframes for training, as the basis for progression experiential learning. At the same time through recognised levels and across level descriptors, as currency for staged educational bands. levels of complexity, can be infused into The Outcomes Based Education (OBE) critical cross-field benchmarks as the approach places the primary focus and basis for generic assessment criteria in emphasis on the outcomes of learning any program discipline. and moves away from traditional, The above scenario presents many content driven, objectives. The result challenges and opportunities, and is a student centered approach that can only be realised if supported encourages self-confidence, reflections by adequate funding and dedicated on learning, and the enhancement of resources for curriculum development. critical outcomes (soft skills), as a direct At the same time the core business link to the successful integration and activities of teaching and learning have application of contextual or discipline to be maintained. The most specific learning. positive aspect The implications of OBE for curriculum Quality assurance development creates opportunities The integrity of the programs is of OBE for work for the re-design of curricula, that achieved through the auditing and should promote new paradigms and review of quality learning provision. experience approaches to teaching, learning, Quality assurance of service and learning is that assessment, and service delivery program delivery represents an facilitation. The role of the lecturer ongoing cycle of continual growth those specific changes from provider of knowledge and development. Quality should be content to manager of the learning viewed as a transformational process outcomes within process. This facilitation starts with of implementation, accountability, the qualification, exit level outcomes and the associated and the pursuit of excellence. A clear assessment criteria. These outcomes understanding of the definition of quality which can be cascade down to smaller enabling should underpin approaches to quality or sub-outcomes, each with its own delivery mechanisms. The following best achieved in assessment criteria that could evolve definitions should be noted: down to a unit standard as the smallest the workplace, unit of learning. Quality assurance: The sum of activities/elements that assure the can be identified. Academic credit allocation now quality of products and services. relates to notional hours of learning. Accumulation of credits can be
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 85 FigureFigure 1 1 Do the program outcomes ensure WhatWhat isis cooperativeCo-operative training? Training that the learner is able to integrate the
Co-operativeCooperative Training training isis anan intintegratedegrated modelmodel consistingconsisting ofof knowledge theory through work-based provider linkages? Academic learning and Experiential learning Componentcomponent Ccomponentomponent Cooperative training At the technicalTechnical college college In industry Cooperative Teaching and Mentoring and training provides Theoretical learning Laboratory Structured mastering Vocational Studiesstudies work Learninglearning eExperiencesxperiences an overarching framework for learning integration between the OUTCOMEOutcomes colleges and Assessed •Knowledge Knowledge Evaluated industry. Figure Tests/assignments/ projects/ exams •Skills Skills Reports/assignments/ projects/orals 1 shows the •A Attitudesttitudes components of cooperative training. Quality audit: Activities undertaken to It is generally measure the quality of products and recognised that academic learning at services. the institution is planned, resourced and Quality control: Undertaken by the structured to ensure an environment persons who make the product or that supports the student experience of deliver the service. learning.
Quality management system: A Examples would include orientation, combination of processes to ensure subject syllabi guidelines, assessment that the degree of excellence specified methods, timetables, lectures and is achieved. teaching methodology, support intervention for access, bridging Transformation at the level of program programs, libraries, laboratories, delivery has become necessary for tutorship and extended programs. implementers to demonstrate program delivery in line with the new principles. As the workplace is not a learning The following questions specifically institution, but rather a place for relate to work-integrated experiential productivity and profit, it stands to learning and form part of the co- reason that for work-based learning to operative training partnership model. be successful the obligation would rest on the establishment to ensure that a What are the learning components similar emphasis is placed on ensuring (modules) that make up the program? processes that track the student’s development, learning and transition How is learner-centedness ensured in from the institution into the workplace, the delivery? until the return to the institution at the How are learners given feedback on end of the experiential period. their performance?
86 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Orientation: Work preparedness and experience. This placement learning life skills program process also has specific outcomes and assessment criteria along with Students receive instruction to prepare credits to measure success. They have them for the world of work. Policy to meet minimum criteria, apply for the and ground rules clarify roles and the placement, and experience the short obligations of the students, colleges listing and interview process, which and industry in the cooperative training should lead to securing a placement. partnership. Students acquire job- Mock interviews are part of the learning, seeking skills such as curriculum vitae which must be assessed formatively. writing, application procedures and interview and presentation skills. Other The acquisition of industry support life skills such as time management, to participate in the program requires team building and communication are resources, which must not be also introduced. Students have to be underestimated. The often-heard prepared for the workplace over a remark – ‘there is insufficient availability period of time. of workstations’ – is more often than not a reflection on the inability of institutions Outcomes Based Education provides to provide sufficient and competent staff the opportunity to identify specific to market, and negotiate good quality learning outcomes and assessment workstations to meet the learning needs criteria that will generate activities of the program. Once the company and tasks which will allow students agrees to participate, competent staff to demonstrate knowledge and is needed to facilitate the placement of competence across a range of learning the students into industry. areas. This learning process should attract notional hour credits when done Learning program correctly. Learning criteria and specific outcomes The placement process are documented to give guidance to the students and mentors on the work- The colleges market and promote based training and learning areas for cooperative education to commerce, the specific disciplines. Learners are industry and government, and secure accredited workstation placement Students are guided on how the introduced opportunities. Learners are introduced work learning experiences should be to a range of to a range of companies and have to integrated and recorded. Assessment apply and secure their own placements. criteria and evaluation timeframes are companies and documented and clarified. Colleges facilitate the application have to apply and interview process as required, The structured learning begins to and students are selected by the unfold once the student has been and secure their companies after short-listing and placed. Although the learning program interview processes. Placement is and obligations are clarified during own placements. not an administrative exercise of orientations, the student has to allocating students to companies. It be supported once in the learning must be understood to be a learning environment. The relationship between experience for the students where workplace supervisor and mentor they have to acquire knowledge, skills has to be monitored by technical and competencies to prepare for, and staff. Problems associated with secure, their own placement, as an interpretations of the learning program, outcome of the placement learning student and industry expectations, and
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 87 actual workstation conditions, need to Each element has its own resource be supported so that valuable time is demands and accountability for outputs. not lost, or morale dampened, both of This approach can now meaningfully which could negatively impact on the address funding provision linked to Interrelationship learning progress. specific learning outcomes. between Visitation and monitoring Assessment is fundamental to the design of any curriculum. Assessment College staff visit students to ensure the parallel is a process of collecting and that their learning experience meets interpreting evidence in order to make the expectations of all parties. The processes of: judgments on the outcomes of pre- students, mentors and academic staff determined processes or procedures in • work meet to discuss progress. Logbook a system. Evidence can be generated entries, presentations, or any other and collected at different times and experience agreed evidence portfolios or artifacts, places with the use of various methods, might be used to assess student assessment of instruments, modes and even media. progress. the learner’s A significant point of departure in Visits to students at the workplace are presenting notions of assessment planned carefully and by appointment. performance in this article is the interrelationship Frequency of visits will depend on between the parallel processes of: • quality geographical location, costs and related • work experience assessment of the factors. assurance of learner’s performance the educational Assessment • quality assurance of the educational management of the work-based Interim and continuous assessment learning operations and service management occurs throughout the experiential delivery environment. of the work- learning period. The outcome of the above assessment Assessment and evaluation is based learning strategies will be dependent on performed by mentors, college staff the many stakeholders who have or external examiners. Logbooks, operations and an interest and involvement in the assignment reports, projects, successful performance of the students. service delivery presentations, or any other agreed These include the students themselves, evidence portfolios, might be used parents, sponsors, employers, mentors, environment. to assess and evaluate student supervisors and lecturers. learning. Marks, credits or records of OBE competence may be used The nature of such assessment does to reflect student success and not seek to measure the actual quality learning outcomes. Structured and of outputs in relation to teaching and recorded feedback by students and learning performance, but rather to: employers in industry can serve as a • establish the nature and extent of quality assurance tool for review and the quality management systems in improvement. place In OBE, learning outcomes and • determine what policies, systems, assessment criteria relate to the available resources, strategies and nature of the knowledge, skills and targets exist for the development competencies for the progressive and enhancement of quality. development of the student as they The effectiveness of such systems move through the experiential work- should be evaluated on the basis of based experience. evidence produced by the institution
88 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 that will provide indicators of success developments and to economic and and effectiveness. social development needs.
When work experience learning forms Work-integrated experiential learning part of, and is integral to, the exit level programs are a specific learning outcomes of the qualification, then it is intervention strategy that has significant incumbent on the colleges to ensure benefits for students, academic staff that the assessment and evaluation and industry. The challenge is to ensure of the student’s learning experience that quality and adequate resource are managed and measured with the provision will underpin service delivery same rigour and credits that apply and implementation so that the students to the theoretical component of the can be guaranteed a vertical, value curriculum. added, knowledge learning progression through the work-based learning It is commonly the case that work- program as part of the curriculum. based learning is very often not well structured or meaningfully integrated Work-based learning must be viewed as into the curriculum. The quality and a learning program experience whereby quantity of workplace provision are at the classroom is transferred to the times inadequate and the opportunities workplace. Therefore the colleges and for maximising student learning and the Department of Education have an development are compromised. obligation to ensure that the necessary infrastructure and support to underpin Models for assessment of work successful learning outcomes are given placements the same priority and financial support The complexity of work-based as is done in a more controlled and assessment has to be acknowledged managed environment for the academic and any attempt to propose that a programs at the colleges. Similarly simple pass/fail system would work work-integrated curriculum design must would be in conflict with the spirit ensure that the assessment criteria and and objective of an outcomes based instruments can match the intellectual approach to assessment. A multi-model and pedagogical rigours of ‘pure’ arrangement has to be negotiated academic programs. among stakeholders and could include: • employers’ views of the quality and competence of student performance • the student records of reflective Work-based understanding and the integration learning must of work experience with academic learning be viewed as a • the preparation of assignments and portfolio profiles. learning program experience. Conclusion Technical colleges in Botswana face many challenges as they strive to position themselves as a major player in the development of human capital through qualifications that are responsive to technological
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 89 Career and technical education in the United States Introduction In the United States there is now common agreement that all youth need some education beyond high school to be economically self- sufficient. Thus, students completing secondary-level Katherine Hughes Melinda Karp Career and Technical Education (CTE) programs should look to continue their studies, and often Dr Katherine Hughes is Dr Melinda Mechur Karp the nation’s two-year community colleges are the Assistant Director for is a Senior Research the most appropriate place. There is increased Work and Education Reform Associate at the Institute on attention, therefore, to the ways that policy and Research at the Institute on Education and the Economy practice can help CTE students enter and succeed Education and the Economy (IEE), Teachers College, in postsecondary education. This article explores (IEE), Teachers College, Columbia University. She current efforts to do so, describing the federal role in Columbia University. She received her doctorate in CTE and emphasizing the ways that, in the United received her doctorate in sociology and education States, state policy plays a prominent and integral sociology from Columbia from Columbia University. role in developing and supporting pathways to University in 1995. At IEE, At IEE, Dr Karp conducts postsecondary credentials. Dr Hughes has led and research on the transition from high school-to- conducted research on Although the importance of postsecondary work and postsecondary such topics as the national education for all students is clear, and most high training, with a focus on school-to-work initiative, school graduates do enrol in college at some point, disadvantaged youth. work-based learning, persisting in college and earning a credential is and the restructuring of difficult for many US students (Bailey, Alfonso, vocational education. She Scott, & Leinbach, 2004; Deil-Amen & Rosenbaum, also currently serves on 2002; National Center for Education Statistics, the New York City Advisory 2004). Yet research shows that it is the credential Council for Career and that yields long-term and significant wage gains Technical Education. (Marcotte, Bailey, Borkoski and Kienzl, 2005). Hence the emphasis in CTE policy and programming on creating clear pathways from secondary to postsecondary studies with the goal of easing the transition and supporting the acquisition of a degree or other credential.
Federal involvement in career and technical education The Federal government has long supported CTE programs, starting with the Smith-Hughes Act 1917. Currently in effect is the Carl D Perkins Vocational and Applied Technology Act, which provides over one billion dollars per year for CTE. Since the 1980s, funding from this Act has been used by states and localities to support CTE at the secondary and postsecondary levels. Each state can decide how
90 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 to divide its allocation between the two National Longitudinal Survey of Youth sectors. (NLSY) showed that participation in Tech Prep programs had a negative A specific CTE program, Tech Prep, effect on college attendance (Neumark was set into motion in 1990 when it & Rothstein, 2003), while another was given its own funding stream as Consortia of analysis of the same dataset found part of the Perkins legislation. The that Tech Prep increased the likelihood high schools, intent was for Tech Prep to serve as a that students attended a two-year vehicle for the integration of academic college and decreased the likelihood of colleges, and and occupational education, and to attending a four-year college (Cellini, provide pathways from high school to employers in press). One study did find that college CTE programs. The federal Tech Prep students who remained together create resources are provided to consortia of in the program, and continued at high schools, colleges, and employers the partnering community college, occupational who together create occupational graduated faster than similar non-Tech programs that encompass the last two programs that Prep students (Sweat & Fenster, 2006). years of high school and two years of postsecondary studies (‘2+2’). The With these mostly discouraging results encompass the partners identify opportunities for from the Tech Prep investment, and last two years aligning courses and curricula across the current federal focus on higher the secondary and postsecondary academic standards and accountability, of high school institutions so that the programs policymakers have been reevaluating usually provide the opportunity for the federal role in CTE, and the Tech and two years of high school students to earn some Prep program in particular. President postsecondary college credit for their high school Bush has proposed eliminating the courses, if they continue in the program entire Perkins funding stream, while studies (‘2+2’). at the partnering college. Currently still supporting some CTE funding approximately 7400 high schools offer for community college programs, in at least one Tech Prep program and particular industry sectors. Some the vast majority of community colleges policymakers don’t advocate such participate. a drastic a step as doing away with Perkins, but want to abolish the Tech Unfortunately, recent research on Tech Prep stream specifically. Applying the Prep has not been entirely positive. current federal priorities to CTE means The US Department of Education increasing its academic rigor in order has reported that only an estimated to prepare students for success in 10% of Tech Prep consortia offer the postsecondary education, while making comprehensive two-plus-two model stronger connections to high-wage, envisioned by proponents (Office high-growth occupations. of Vocational and Adult Education, 2003). A national evaluation of eight Since 2002, in selected programs in consortia found that students tended fifteen states, a new federal funding not to earn college credits through stream, the College and Careers Tech Prep, sometimes because student Transition Initiative (CCTI), has participants were unaware that they been building upon Tech Prep to could do so. In some of the consortia, link secondary and postsecondary Tech Prep students were more likely career and technical education. The than the comparison group to transition goal of CCTI is to help community directly to work after high school colleges, working with high schools graduation and not enrol in college and business partners, to create career (Bragg, 2001). Analysis of the 1997 pathways that lead from high school
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 91 to two- and four-year degrees and the work in creating an integrated technical careers. While some have educational system that encourages questioned whether CCTI represents postsecondary access and completion a real improvement over Tech Prep, falls to individual states. The Federal States have the initiative’s focus and specific goals government provides some funding for do more clearly emphasize success CTE, but aside from broad parameters begun to rethink in college. The five specific long-term and goals, provides little guidance as outcomes are: decreased need for to program models or implementation. the structure remediation at the postsecondary level; Directing practice and developing and focus of increased enrolment and persistence mechanisms to smooth CTE students’ in postsecondary education; increased paths into postsecondary education the education academic and skill achievement at the are the job of the states. States have secondary and postsecondary levels; begun to rethink the structure and focus pipeline. increased attainment of postsecondary of the education pipeline, including the degrees, certificates, or other relationships between high schools recognized credentials; and increased and colleges, academic and applied entry into employment or further courses, and educational credentials education. and the labour market.
CCTI focuses on career pathways In most states, the secondary and as the main strategy for pursuing its postsecondary education sectors goals. Career pathways have therefore exist as two separate systems. The become a model for connecting 50 states show a diversity of policies secondary and postsecondary studies, with regard to the level of centralization as well as engaging employers in CTE. of education systems and the extent While there are varying definitions with of coordination of systems. Efforts different emphases on youth transitions to smooth student transitions into versus adult learners, the federally postsecondary education have led to a funded CCTI defines a career pathway rethinking of these state systems. Thirty as a ‘coherent, articulated sequence of states have created P–16 (preschool rigorous academic and career courses, through postsecondary) commissions commencing in the ninth grade and that focus on the continuum of leading to an associate degree, an education in which students engage industry-recognized certificate or (National Governors’ Association, licensure, or a baccalaureate degree n.d.). Rather than viewing each step in and beyond. A career pathway isolation, the goal is to reconceptualize is developed, implemented, and education as a pathway spanning high maintained in partnership among schools, colleges, and workplaces. secondary and postsecondary Policymakers expect that connecting education, business, and employers. formerly separate facets of the Career pathways are available to all education system will facilitate students’ students, including adult learners, transitions into college and careers. In and are designed to lead to rewarding addition, states have sought reforms careers.’ (CCTI, 2005). that will better prepare students for postsecondary education. Such reforms State CTE trends include the adoption of more stringent Perkins and other federal funding may high school graduation requirements be an impetus for reform, but the United and graduation exit exams, and States’ long history of decentralized increasing the availability of rigorous, education means that much of potentially college-credit-yielding
92 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 programs such as Advanced Placement Department of Education) and career and dual enrolment. pathways in curriculum and educational programming. North Carolina has Career pathways divided occupational groupings Although career pathways are created into ten career pathways, and has through institutional partnerships, and outlined fifty-three career maps within may receive some federal assistance, those ten pathways that outline high state policies can help or hinder their school course sequences, as well as implementation. For CCTI states, as postsecondary and career options. well as other states seeking to create smooth secondary-to-postsecondary Dual enrolment transitions for CTE students, state Another reform in which many states policy has become a focus of reform are engaged is the switch from an efforts. Often unintentionally, state articulated Tech Prep model of CTE policies may inhibit the creation pathway, to a dual enrolment model. of career pathways by creating In the former model, high schools disconnects among high schools, and colleges work together to create community colleges, 4-year colleges articulated sequences of courses. and universities, and the labor market. For example, a college offering an However, states also can encourage associate degree in culinary arts may career pathways. collaborate with a high school creating a culinary arts program. In looking At least seven states explicitly use the at syllabi, the two institutions may term ‘career pathways’, but the extent determine that two semesters of high to which they span the secondary and school culinary arts courses could be postsecondary sectors, or emphasize based on the college curriculum, so that one or the other, varies. In Delaware the high school students would gain the and West Virginia, high school students same competencies that they would must select a career pathway and if they took Culinary Arts 101 at the take sequences of courses in that college. The two institutions may come pathway. The Missouri Department of to an agreement that any high school Elementary and Secondary Education student who completes the two courses has implemented six career paths to and matriculates into the college may provide context for career exploration enrol directly in Culinary Arts 102. in elementary and middle school; the creation of a career plan in high Because research indicates that school; and a plan of postsecondary Tech Prep has not uniformly study that includes articulation or dual encouraged postsecondary access credit. Kentucky characterizes its and success, many programs are career pathways initiatives as a new replacing articulated Tech Prep with systemic framework, not a program, dual enrolment opportunities for CTE to improve workforce development. students. In dual enrolment programs, While the state has outlined career high school students enrol directly in State policy has pathways starting in the 9th grade, college courses, either on a college become a focus the initiative is overseen by the office campus or in college-sponsored of the chancellor of the community programs at the high school. The of reform efforts. and technical college system. The courses are college-level, usually using State of Maryland advocates the use the college syllabi and textbooks, so of career clusters (broad groupings high schools and colleges do not need of occupations developed by the US to engage in a process of matching
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 93 competencies. The college credit State policies can also encourage earned through dual enrolment courses technical dual enrolment, however. is immediately placed on students’ Some states have policies that support college transcripts. Participating the inclusion of a broad range of Technically students do not have to later students in dual enrolment. Other matriculate at the sponsoring college to states have implemented eligibility oriented dual gain the credit. requirements that provide for the inclusion of students who do not Traditionally, dual enrolment programs enrolment have strong grade point averages in have focused on academic courses, academic coursework. Still other states programs such as English composition or have policies creating, supporting, statistics, for advanced students. But can address and funding dual enrolment programs the programs are being increasingly expressly for CTE students. For seen as a useful model for offering both types of example, Iowa has provided special technical coursework. Many high funding for career academies, which coursework by schools do not have up-to-date are essentially CTE dual enrolment equipment for CTE; college partners programs. State legislation defines a building program often do. Moreover, many high-wage, career academy as a program of study high-growth technical fields require high pathways that that: levels of academic skills. Technically • combines a minimum of two years include college- oriented dual enrolment programs can of secondary education with a address both types of coursework by postsecondary career preparatory level academic building program pathways that include program in a nonduplicative, college-level academic and college- and college- sequential course of study that is level technical classes. level technical standards-based As with the creation of career pathways, • integrates academic and technical classes. state policies play an important role instruction in the expansion of dual enrolment • incorporates work-based and to CTE students. As many states worksite learning where appropriate raise their graduation standards, for and available example, students may find that they • uses an individualised career have less room in their schedules planning process that involves for electives, including CTE dual parents enrolment courses. In addition, a number of states have policies clearly • leads to an associate degree or delineating student eligibility for dual postsecondary diploma or certificate enrolment; many require students to be in a rewarding, high-skill career field. relatively academically advanced (Karp, Hughes, Fermin, and Bailey, 2005). Conclusion These requirements are particularly It is positive that some current federal troublesome when dual enrolment and state reforms—rigorous curricula, is targeted at CTE students. CTE the creation of pathways—mirror each students are sometimes disengaged other. Dual enrolment is certainly one from traditional academic work, or program that is receiving great interest learn better when academics are at the national and state levels. But the placed in context, and therefore could fate of Perkins, and of Tech Prep, is still benefit mightily from technical dual undecided. Certainly many are fighting enrolment—and yet their previous the possible loss of federal support for academic performance may prevent CTE. Yet the new models—CCTI and them from participating. technically-oriented dual enrolment—so
94 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 far lack research on their effectiveness. References Studies have begun that should Bragg, D. D. (2001). Promising Outcomes show whether participation in these for Tech-Prep participants in eight local consortia: A summary of initial results. programs improves college-going and National Research Center for Career and college credential completion. We at Technical Education: St. Paul, MN. the Community College Research Cellini, S. R. (in press). Smoothing the Center will soon begin analyses of data transition to college? The effect of Tech- from Florida and New York that will Prep programs on educational attainment. compare outcomes for CTE students Economics of Education Review. who do, and do not, participate in dual College and Career Transitions Initiative. enrolment. What seems clear is that the (2005). A career pathway. Retrieved from only viable CTE programs are those www.league.org/league/projects/ccti. that are shown to prepare students for, Karp, M.M., Bailey, T.R., Hughes, K.L., and lead to, postsecondary credentials. & Fermin, B.J. (2005, April). State dual enrolment policies: Addressing access and quality. Community College Research Center CCRE Brief, no 26. New York: Columbia University.
Neumark, D., & Rothstein, D. (2003, April). School-to-Career Programs and Transitions to Employment and Higher Education. The Public Policy Institute of California. Manuscript: San Francisco, CA.
National Governors’ Association. (n.d.). A profile of state action to improve America’s high schools. Washington, DC: Author.
Marcotte, D., Bailey, T., Borkoski, C., & Kienzl, G. (2005). The returns to education at community colleges: Evidence from the National Education Longitudinal Survey. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 27(2), 157-175.
Office of Vocational and Adult Education. (2003). Charting a new course for career and technical education. High School Leadership Summit Issue Paper. US Department of Education: Washington, DC.
Sweat, J., & Fenster, M. (2006, February). The effect of Tech Prep on students’ speed toward graduation. Techniques, 81(2).
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 95 Community-based senior high schools in Taiwan
Introduction the educational system in Taiwan, the Taiwan started to promote community- differentiation of general education and based senior high school in 2001. It career and technical education begins involved a variety of public and private too early. It begins at the start of senior vocational high schools and some high school, and there is no academic Hsu, Kuo-Shu other high schools. The promotional interchange between these two types Kuo-Shu, the principal of period is divided into three stages: of education. Besides, elective courses National Guansi Senior the preparation time (2001-2002), the are generally lacking in our high school High School, is a doctorial medium range plan (2003-2008), and curriculum. student at the Department the long-term vision (2009 and later). These factors not only make it difficult of Industrial Education, for schools to provide adaptive National Taiwan Normal The goals of the community-based environments for the growth of University in Taiwan, R.O.C. senior high school are to: a broader range of students, but His research is about • fully combine community educational also stifle students’ ability to think educational policy and resources creatively. Moreover, due to the uneven vocational education. He’s • construct multiple suitable geographical distribution of senior high also a member of the team educational environments for schools, overlapping or inadequate researching into community- students educational resources have become based senior high school. • equip students with various a serious problem. This leaves the aptitudes, minds and abilities. educational system unable to meet the needs of adjacent communities and Taiwan hopes to: thus it forces many students to go to • promote quality postsecondary a school outside their school districts. education all over the country As a result, there has been a waste of • reach the goal – ‘school community, time, energy, as well as social costs. community school’ Therefore, there is an urgent need to • develop study communities popularise community-based senior • put a lifelong learning society into high schools throughout the country. practice According to the statistics of the Chuang, Chien- • establish the base for a twelve-year Department of Technological and Pen elementary education of the future. Vocational Education, as well as the Ministry of Education, there are 487 Chien-Pen, was a former Background public and private senior high schools director of the Educational Entering the 21st century, the world participating in the 45 ability-adaptive Research Center, National has undergone fast and tremendous learning communities throughout the Taiwan Normal University. changes in politics, economy, and country. All the public senior high He is currently a professor culture. It is a highly competitive era, schools throughout the country are at the Department of full of opportunities and challenges. The ordered by the Ministry of Education to Industrial Education, more one can integrate resources and join the project. National Taiwan Normal seek cooperation, instead of opposition, University, Taipei. He is also the more competitive one is. What are community-based senior an adviser for enhancing high schools? the functions of community- Education is the foundation of social The goals of community-based senior based senior high school in reform, and educational objectives must high schools are to: Taiwan. meet social needs. Nevertheless, in
96 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 • establish ability-adaptive learning • Uneven geographical distribution Ability-adaptive communities of senior high schools has been a • equalise educational environments serious problem causing overlapping learning and resources or inadequate educational resources. communities • allow senior high schools in the community to develop specialisation • Overextending of enrolment include: general capacity in senior high schools • raise the competitiveness of senior is becoming a serious problem education, high schools. rendering school education unable career and To realise these goals, communities to meet the educational needs of are encouraged to pay attention to adjacent communities and causing technical school education and take part; and tremendous social costs. schools are encouraged to open up • To respond to the impact from education, gifted their educational facility to create a the outside, efforts to promote education, community environment for lifelong community-based schools are learning. To achieve these goals, four badly needed in order to enhance special important tasks are involved. These educational competitiveness. are: education Implementation results and • Clearly delineating the area of problems study communities. for students • Creating ability-adaptive learning Community-based senior high schools with mental communities, including general have been implemented and promoted education, career and technical for four years since the preparation and physical education, gifted education, and period in the school year of 2001. By special education for students with accumulating experience over the disabilities. mental and physical disabilities. years, the idea of community-based senior high schools has taken root • Promoting equal-quality and started growing. To promote communities, including curricula; the policy, the Ministry of Education tackling the differences between did a satisfaction study, throughout public and private senior high the country, that surveyed junior schools; enrolment capacity; and and senior high school employees, enrolment needs assessment. teachers, students and their parents. • Strengthening the interaction In the survey, stratified sampling was between schools and communities, taken in proportion to the number of for example, providing further students in the ability-adaptive learning education, continuing education, and communities. The survey results are recurrent education. shown in Table 1. Why promote community-based senior high schools? • There is no academic interchange Table 1: Results of satisfaction with the policy of ‘enrolment in a between general education and nearby school’ (%) career and technical education, and Variable 2003 2004 2005 differentiation of both begins too Satisfaction with the policy of ‘enrolment early. Consequently, students are 72 77 78 not provided with opportunities for in a nearby school’ adaptive development and flexible Source: “80% of Parents say Yes to Community-based Senior High connection to prepare for higher Schools” 2005. United Daily News. education.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 97 Table 2: Satisfaction with variables related to governmental policy of • The myth of ‘star senior promoting community-based schools (%) high schools’ is gradually being broken. For example, Satisfaction in Tao-Yuan County, it has Variables School teachers become less frequent for Parents Students and employees gifted students to leave the county to study in a Being able to shorten the time of going 92 88 84 ‘star senior high school’ to school and going home in Taipei. Instead, most Being able to provide diversified of them go to the nearby 65 75 67 curricula National Wu-Ling Senior Being able to help students choose High School. According fields of study that are in line with their 63 76 67 to statistics over the aptitudes years, this practice has not only saved a lot of Being able to lower learning pressure 61 75 70 commuting time, energy, for junior high school students and expenses, but has also Being able to help senior high schools produced better all-around 72 70 54 develop their specialties students. Being able to help enforcement of the • Thoughtful plans and 66 67 54 12-year compulsory education matching procedures, ahead of time, have Source: “80% of Parents say Yes to Community-based Senior High Schools” enabled the cooperating 2005. United Daily News. schools to complement one another. The Ministry of Education has • It has facilitated positive interaction authorised National Ping-Tung among cooperating schools, University of Science and Technology enabling each to contribute its best to survey employees, parents, and and support one another. students throughout the country on satisfaction with variables related to • For schools of different natures, the governmental policy of promoting regional cooperation of curricula community-based schools. Table 2 has been able to meet the learning shows the most recent results that were needs of students with special released by the Ministry of Education. talents or different aptitudes. • It has gradually integrated the After consulting the above statistics educational resources in the and the contents of The Definition of community and established a Community-based Senior High School positive interactive relationship. and ‘Why Promote Community-based • Through rewarding private schools Senior High School?, an assessment and supporting public schools, of the achievements, and a problems the policy has increased the study of the community-based senior competitiveness of the schools and high schools can be analysed. significantly enhanced the quality Achievements of implementation of secondary education in the community. Since the policy of community-based • The results of the policy senior high school was implemented, implementation have gradually laid several achievements have been a good foundation for the 12-year recognised. compulsory education.
98 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 Problems study main consideration. However, Based on the practical aspects implementation regarding the and responses from the schools area between two communities is interviewed, implementation of still faced with controversies over community-based senior high schools how the communities should be is facing the following problems (Ming- divided and whether or not some Hua, 2005). overlapping is allowed. These are issues that require more study. • Plan-making procedures are too complicated and forms to be filled • Some far-off areas have too few out are too many, wearing out the schools, as well as an uneven authorised persons. distribution of senior high schools, making planning an ability- • No schools have assigned special adaptive learning system difficult. personnel to handle the task. Most If the number of schools is used schools only reduce the classes as the criterion, the learning for the participating teachers. As a community will be too big in area, result, the turnover of authorised the distance between schools will persons is too frequent, making the be too far to travel, and regional transfer of experience very difficult. cooperation of curricula will be • Budget appropriation is too slow. difficult to implement. When the A number of times the budget learning community is too small, appropriation has not come in until the number of junior high school the projects have been halfway graduates will be too small, and the through. number of senior high schools will • The budget has been decreased not be enough to include general annually, and some projects that had education, career and technical been doing well were forced to stop education, gifted education, and also because of this decrease. special education for the physically • There should be flexible and mentally handicapped. accompanying measures to • The definition of ‘enrolment in promote community-based senior a nearby school’ is unclear and high schools. There should be has incurred some doubts and more specific policy goals and criticisms from parents from implementation measures stated in outside the community. Besides, order to dissipate the anxiety and a guaranteed number of students doubt surrounding the policy, and to for the community is difficult to There are consolidate a common ground for implement and is against schools’ better promotion of the policy. developmental objectives. problems in
Planning of community geographical Problems of ability-adaptive implementing areas, and ability-adaptive learning curricula and turned comprehensive community- systems, is faced with multiple senior high schools problems (Kun-Chung, 2003). • Every senior high school is asked based senior • Planning of community geographical to simplify its personnel. Under the high schools. areas is based on the principles of circumstances, a comprehensive separation and connection of each community-based senior high school community’s geographical area, must have ability-adaptive teachers with the integrity of geographical as well as flexible teachers, but a area and living circle as the
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 99 balance between them is hard to difficult to recruit well-qualified strike. teachers. • The crowding-out effect that • Scheduling of new classes has been adjustment of core curricula of difficult, causing some courses to postsecondary education has on stop as a result. recruitment of teachers in a turned comprehensive senior high school Strategies for improvement should be resolved. • Step up marketing and promotion. Actively promulgate the idea of Regional cooperation on curricula community-based senior high school has problems to all the students, parents, and • To schedule time and place for teachers in a school, as well as interschool common classes is residents of the community. Make difficult. them fully understand the purpose • Cooperative courses in a community of a community-based senior high are hard to negotiate, and school and why the idea should be management of students is tough. promoted. • Integration of community resources, • Encourage each learning community inter-library cooperation, and to make the most of its speciality management of sharing teaching and to pursue excellence. Use the facilities among community schools achievements in diversification, is not easy. equal quality, and good quality, to persuade parents to accept the idea • Opening (attending) classes in other and make them willing to let their schools takes time and energy and children enrol in a nearby school. costs more money, especially for the handicapped students. • Increase interschool cooperation in the community. By taking and • Limited by time, teacher availability opening classes at other schools and other related factors, and distance learning, a learning some courses don’t have much community can make the most out independence, and recruitment of of the human and material resources teachers and scheduling of classes in the community, in an effort to is not easy. As a result, some offer as many diverse courses as classes cannot be offered as many necessary to students and create times as necessary. an environment conduit to ability- • Under the framework of existing adaptive learning. curriculum, weekly class schedules • Moderately adjust the ability- are already busy. Therefore, there adaptive learning system to make is hardly time to devise any creative good planning for delineation of the courses. communities’ geographical areas. Promotion of foreign languages is Allow some overlapping in the area There are also difficult between two communities. • Currently, there are no laws allowing • A more generous budget and stragegies for public schools to hire native prompt appropriation in accordance improvement. speaking teachers. with annual plans. Rewards from • Limitation on hourly teaching pay, government should also be given to NT$400 per hour, has made it well-executed areas.
100 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 • Set up a standing unit of References In order for the ‘community-based senior high Ming-Hua. (2005). A Study of Policy and school study groups’ to: Implementation of Community-based community- Senior High School—Taking Taipei District - collect related problems for Example. Retrieved July 2, 2006 from based senior - find out solutions to problems http://210.70.60.122/klcivs01/tdoc43.html through empirical research Kun-Chung. (2003). Thinking in the high schools to Planning of Community-based Senior High - devise appropriate self- School. Retrieved July 2, 2006 from http:// operate smoothly assessment and review www.edujournal.com.tw/menu/107/048.pdf mechanisms in the future, 80% of Parents Say Yes to Community- - establish various models to based Senior High Schools. (2005, promote the idea of community- September, 20). United Daily News. school teachers, based senior high school. employees Conclusion and parents, As a result of the promotional efforts of the Ministry of Education, the policy of should all be community-based senior high school responsible; has gradually gained the support and recognition from senior and junior but no one high school teachers and parents. The implementation results have also been should be more recognised. responsible than However, the participating senior the educational high schools have encountered some difficulties that require speedy attention policy-makers. and assistance from the education authority. In order for the community- based senior high schools to operate smoothly in the future, school teachers, employees and parents, should all be responsible; but no one should be more responsible than the educational policy- makers. In this regard, the government, while planning implementation strategies, should listen to a variety of suggestions in an attempt to come up with the best and most practical policy. During the implementation process, constant reviews of problems and difficulties should be done, and those identified immediately improved and resolved, so that the policy of community-based senior high school has a better chance of success.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 101 The journey from school to workplace: A snapshot of the Canadian perspective
Introduction recommendations that would help It is predicted that with continual global, them to learn how to adapt, cope and economic, educational and workplace respond to the potential impact of changes, Canadians will experience employability skills at this time in their multiple career transitions across their lives. These include a need to ‘learn by working lives (Moses, 1997). While doing, not by being told what to do – a Jo-Anne H. parents do have a role to play in helping common principle in adult education which seems to have been overlooked Willment young people to make a successful adult transition, secondary schools are in many classrooms’ (p. 239). Further, A specialist in learner key in preparing the next generation career education needs to be taught transitions, Dr Willment for their future employment years. Of from richer on-the-job training specialises in online particular concern are those learners opportunities and by offering expanded learning, learning at who wish to pursue an alternative or high school co-operative education work and midlife career non-traditional vocational stream in programs. Left unresolved, the progressions. Her the high school years (Schuetze & personal, economic and societal effects research involves both the Sweet, 2003). This article presents may result in lengthy periods of youth development and facilitation a snapshot of Canadian research on unemployment and multiple personal of informal learning the transition between school and difficulties. opportunities enabling work, and concludes by offering two universities and workplaces Donaldson, Hiebert, Pyryt & Arthur key suggestions for readers interested to work together for the (1998) provide a comprehensive review in supporting teachers and learners development of active of the literature on the transition from through this transitional process. learning communities. school-to-work. They reaffirm that new career development messages The school-workplace transition need to be given to youth as they Cairns, Woodward & Hashizume prepare for work. Careers might (1992) asked employment counsellors better be addressed through a life and young people about their views perspective referred to as the (High on the transition-to-work. Interview 5!) career philosophy for young people results found each group reported (Redekopp, Day & Robb, 1995). on the importance of developing This philosophy states that change is employment skills, the benefits of constant. Emphasis is placed on the gaining employer perspectives on experience of a career ‘journey’ rather diverse workplace environments and than a specific occupation. Following the critical importance that family, a personal interest often leads to friends, and professionals can have on enjoyable job opportunities. Preserving employment futures. The researchers learning is a desirable event over the noted, however, that youth reported course of a lifespan. Building a strong they received little information to help set of allies and personal networks and them in their personal transitions from maintaining contact with them over school-to-work. Even though school time can offer tremendous advantages counsellors had ‘tried to tell us at to youth in today’s marketplace. By school … they attempt to prepare you developing and working with positive for this’ (p. 235), learners said they role models; engaging in enjoyable did not find these effective or useful and diverse activities; seeking safe and strategies. Youth did offer several personally rewarding environments;
102 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 youth can begin to identify with an beyond a surface level to a deeper employment approach that is more than approach that offers opportunities to just a job, and offers a strong learning reflect, describe, compare, differentiate, perspective that can be explored and self-assess their learning through within the secondary school years. exchange with others. As well, the From these types of messages, young process of learning at work often people are able to bring a sense of occurs for students at a different pace, self-confidence and self-esteem to their scope and depth than that of traditional workplace, while developing more self- classroom environments. Missed knowledge, learning and competence at learning opportunities can occur in a their work. work environment because students are often individually-placed, are integrated Expanded directions with workplace details, do not have Vocational education needs to access to peers, and do not have a incorporate their practical experiences teacher or facilitator present to readily with these research findings. The two engage in a learning episode. The suggestions mentioned below are results are gaps between what students currently used in Canada with adults know, what they are expected to learn, but could offer tremendous benefits to and what this learning experience Transition means to them. secondary or internship students within students Vocational Education and Training If an online communication system systems. were established in the form of a simple present at least listserv, students, teachers and others Online communication two learning could engage each other on a daily opportunities basis. They would have the opportunity requirements: Vocational education teaching and to engage in feedback about their learning environments might explore workplace learning experiences outside • a need to the addition of an online communication work hours. This could be done as an component for students as part of any informal learning experience, three or participate in internship experience. In Canada, four times a week from home or the a structured there are an increasing number of high office, if computers could be made schools, colleges and universities which available to learners. By relating their learning offer asynchronous computer-mediated experiences and exchanging stories courses that provide open discussions with a purposeful approach, students experience and peer learning via computer at develop a sense of what work means • time to anytime in any location. for them, what the strengths and limitations of different types of work Closer examination of this type of identify, reflect, are, and the ways that work can serve learning indicates that transition personal and professional goals. They and discuss students, like adult learners, present at have the opportunity to participate in least two learning requirements. On the the work experience while reflecting on their learning one hand, they need to participate in a how work can serve as an important structured learning experience which is experiences with function within their life experience. All often accomplished by just being in a of these are benefits over-and-above workplace environment and responding peers from other earning school credits. to work demands. But, they also require workplaces. time to identify, reflect, and discuss their In 2002, the Vancouver School Board, learning experiences with peers from British Columbia, Canada, completed other workplaces. By exchanging their a needs assessment of adult students, stories with one another, learners move teachers and administrators. One of
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 103 the recommendations from this study Personal ability to demonstrate was that an online system for high positive attitudes and behaviours, to school learners would enable support be responsible, and to be able to be between students as they completed adaptable and learn continuously are their secondary school requirements identified as personal management while maintaining employment. This skills. They offer learners future form of adult peer communication was opportunities and growth within seen as an effective way to promote the workplace. Teamwork skills are excellent student learning patterns. described as competencies needed The Master of Teaching Program, when working with others on projects University of Calgary, Canada, has and tasks. Collectively, these three sets international teaching students who of skills are excellent guidelines for frequently exchange their informal learners to think about as they establish learning experiences with peers in their workplace interests, needs and …the reality other countries. The graduate-level development. More information about exists that young Workplace and Adult Learning Program, this inventory is available through the Faculty of Education, University of Conference Board of Canada’s website Canadians Calgary, Canada, is built around the at: www.conferenceboard.ca/education notion of online communication and the All schools, including VET institutions, must develop a tremendous effect this has in achieving need to reinforce these skills by online teaching and learning goals for portfolio of skills exploring how such an employability learners and the faculty. In each case, skill set can be used for local, national to remain current a central component for the success and global economies. While further of these programs is that each has guidelines for tailoring this skill set to in the workplace. a community of learners built upon learners are provided on the website patterns of formal or informal virtual of the Conference Board of Canada, communication among learner groups the importance of emphasising of any age. these skills with students can not Employability skills be overemphasized. It would be especially useful if teachers could Although education remains a provincial invite students to explore these skills jurisdiction in Canada, the reality and ask students to create their own exists that young Canadians must inventory of employability skills from develop a portfolio of skills to remain school to the work environment. This current in the workplace. In 2000, the type of workplace preparation is critical Conference Board of Canada defined to students as they build a personal a skill inventory necessary for present toolbox of skills to prepare for their and future national workplace market future work environments. needs. These workplace skills fall into three categories – fundamental skills, Summary personal management skills, teamwork This article has provided a snapshot skills. of research on transitions in Canada Fundamental skills are required to from the perspective of youth preparing prepare for the world. They include for the school-to-work transition. essential communication skills, While this is a critical period in the life knowledge about how to manage of young people, there are ways to information, the use of numbers for address this issue that are very different decision-making purposes, and an from traditional educational methods. ability to think and solve problems. Online communication programs and
104 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 employability skills identified by the Conference Board of Canada are two recommendations that might be considered, in light of research findings, by VET facilities interested in new approaches.
References Cairns, K.V., Woodward, J. B., & Hashizume, L. G. (1992). Employment counselors’ and youths’ views of the transition to work: Preparing to develop a work skill simulation. Canadian Journal of Counselling. Vol.26 (4), 222-239.
Donaldson, E.L., Hiebert, B., Pyryt, M., & Arthur, N. (1998). Making Transitions Work. Calgary, AB: Detselig Enterprises Ltd.
Moses, B. (1997). Career Intelligence. Toronto: Stoddart.
Redekopp, D.E., Day, B., & Robb, M. (1995). The ‘high five’ of career development. In B. Hiebert (Ed.). Exemplary career development programs and practices: The best from Canada. Greensboro, NC: ERIC/CASS.
Schuetze, H. G., & Sweet, R. (Eds.). (2003). Integrating School and Workplace Learning in Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 105 Evaluation of the UK’s Increased Flexibility Program for 14 to 16 year olds
Introduction In the United Kingdom, over the last few years, a considerable number of important changes have been Peter Rudd Lisa O’Donnell taking place in relation to the provision of vocational Peter Rudd is a Principal Lisa O’Donnell is a Senior education for the 14-19 age group. The key changes Research Officer at the Research Officer at the have included the following. National Foundation for NFER. Her main areas • The introduction, in September 2002, of an Educational Research of research are social Increased Flexibility Program, to create enhanced (NFER). He leads the inclusion/disaffection, vocational learning opportunities for 14-16 year- NFER’s work on school work-related learning, and olds, with flexibility in the curriculum, in qualification improvement, school environmental education. types, and in location of study. effectiveness, and raising • The introduction, also in September 2002, of standards. ‘applied’ or Vocational GCSEs (General Certificate of Secondary Education), which are intended to have ‘parity of esteem’ alongside the more traditional academic GCSE examinations. • The publication in 2004 of the Tomlinson report which recommended a ’strengthening of the vocational offer’ and called for ’rationalised vocational pathways’ for 14-19 year-olds (Working Group on 14-19 Reform, 2004, p. 8). • The publication of the 2005 White Paper: 14-19 Education and Skills, which sets out the future development of 14-19 provision (GB. Parliament. Sarah Golden Tom Benton House of Commons, 2005). Sarah Golden is a Senior Tom Benton has a PhD • The publication, in 2005, of the 14-19 Research Officer at the in Statistics from Imperial Implementation Plan which sets out a timetable NFER. Her main areas College London. Since for every local area to develop a system in which of interest are mentoring, joining the NFER in 2001, schools and colleges can offer more to young vocational learning and he has worked a number of people through working in partnership (DfES, social inclusion. She projects which have largely 2005). has led the national involved multilevel modelling • The planned introduction, from September 2008, of evaluation of the Increased of attainment data, and specialised diplomas for 14-19 year-olds which will Flexibility Program since it linking results to detailed combine practical skill development with theoretical commenced in 2002. information collected in pupil and technical understanding and knowledge (QCA, and school surveys. 2006).
It can be argued that the two common denominators behind these changes are, firstly, a drive for more flexibility for young people in terms of their choices of vocational pathways, and, secondly, the encouragement of partnership working among schools,
106 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 colleges and other institutions involved going out of partner schools, for one in the provision of Vocational Education or two half days, to participate in a and Training (VET) for the 14-19 age vocational course at an FE college site, group. where the college population consists predominantly of post-16 learners. This article sets out details of the key Often the teaching of the vocational findings from an evaluation of the course is shared between the school longest-standing of these reforms, the and the college. These partnerships Increased Flexibility Program (IFP) for aim to meet the broad objectives of the 14-16 year olds. The evaluation was IFP which are to: carried out by a research team based at • raise the attainment in national the National Foundation for Education qualifications of participating Common Research (NFER) in Slough, England, students with funding from the Department for denominators Education and Skills (DfES). • increase retention in education and training after 16 behind the The Increased Flexibility Program • increase the skills and knowledge of changes: The IFP aims to create enhanced young people. vocational and work-related learning • more flexibility opportunities for 14-16 year-olds (this The NFER evaluation age range is often referred to as Key This summary presents selected key in choice of Stage 4 in the United Kingdom context) findings relating to the attainment, vocational of all abilities, including through the progression and attitudes of the first provision of eight new GCSEs in cohort of IFP students (2002-2004), pathways vocational subjects. and sets out some of the possible policy implications, which may have • encouragement The first cohort of 14 year-old students an international relevance for VET embarked on their program in 2002 programs of this sort. The evaluation of partnership and this was followed by a second drew on a range of research methods, cohort in 2003, and subsequent cohorts working among including the following. in the following years. Around 300 • A baseline data collection exercise schools, colleges partnerships have been established which identified the schools and since the introduction of the IFP, individual students who were and other each of which has a ‘lead partner’. participating in the first cohort of the The majority of ‘lead partners’ are institutions. IFP. Further Education (FE) colleges. The partnerships involve links with schools • Baseline and follow-up questionnaire and, in some instances, other colleges, surveys of a representative sample training providers and employers. of around 11 500 students and their Funding to support these partnerships associated 450 schools and 130 is channelled through Local Learning providers of vocational courses, and Skills Councils (LLSCs) that also including ‘lead partners’. have responsibility for monitoring the • A further follow-up questionnaire process. survey of a sample of participants in the IFP in the autumn after leaving Through the IFP, partnerships have Year 11. been established between colleges and • Data on the achievements and training providers and around 2 000 post-16 destinations of the student schools. Partnerships have taken many sample, collected from their schools. forms. One common format involves one or two 14-16 year-old classes
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 107 • A program of case studies in types which were available from the nine partnerships which entailed Qualifications and Curriculum Authority interviews with ’lead partners’, (QCA). It should be noted that the tutors, school staff and students. number of points assigned to the qualifications varied according to the Key findings: achievement of qualification type, level achieved and qualifications subject studied (QCA, 2005). Once One of the difficulties in assessing these scores were calculated, it was the attainment of the first cohort of possible to conduct a multilevel model IFP students is that, in the period analysis. This allowed the researchers 2002-2004, such students could take to control for factors such as the prior a considerable range of qualification attainment levels of students for both types. These included the vocational IFP groups and, where possible, GCSEs already mentioned, along comparison among groups of students. with General National Vocational It was found that the GNVQs and Qualifications (GNVQs), National NVQs achieved by the young people Vocational Qualifications (NVQs) on the IFP contributed to their gaining and a number of other vocational higher total point scores than would qualifications. have been expected given their There were variations in achievement prior attainment and background rates according to qualification type, characteristics. However, those who but the overall general finding was took GCSEs in vocational subjects that the majority of young people attained levels commensurate with their who took these courses within the prior attainment, and those who took IFP did achieve their qualifications. other vocational qualifications achieved For example, the percentage of fewer points than might be expected young people who took new GCSEs compared to similar students who did and GNVQs, and attained their not participate. qualifications, was 91% and 80% respectively. In addition, the majority of Key findings: retention and post-16 the sample of young people who had destinations undertaken NVQs and other vocational The target for the IFP was to achieve The majority of qualifications had achieved the a retention rate, in education and qualification by the end of Key Stage 4 training, for post-16, of at least 75%. young people (66% and 67% respectively). In fact, the retention rate of the first cohort of IFP students was much better The next question to consider was who took these than 75%. The majority (90%) of the whether the young people taking sample of young people were reported IFP courses had better examination courses within by their schools to have continued achievements than their peers who into further education or training after the IFP did took the same qualifications at school finishing Key Stage 4. Analysis of the only and not through IFP provision. In achieve their cohort as a whole, across all schools, other words, was the IFP ‘adding any using matched participation and value’ in terms of student attainment? qualifications. attainment datasets, indicated a post-16 In order to answer this question it was participation rate of 80%. necessary to work out a total points score for each student. This was done Most of those in the IFP sample had using a standard set of points scores embarked on a course-based route (in covering a range of qualification a school sixth form or at FE college
108 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 or training provider), while a notable to do after the end of Key Stage 4, minority were following a work-based particularly in relation to exploring route, in an apprenticeship, or other which careers might suit their skills, occupation with training. Students who abilities and interests. Just over a third had taken their IFP course away from of young people stated that they were More than school, and those who had undertaken considering continuing into higher a NVQ pre-16, were significantly more education. Although students who were half of these likely to have continued into further taking NVQs, GNVQs and other VQs education at a FE college or training post-16, were less likely to state that young people provider than elsewhere. they were intending to continue into would have higher education, a notable minority Two-thirds (66%) of young people were considering this option. liked more help undertaking a course post-16 were pursuing a qualification that was at a Key findings: skills and attitudes and guidance higher level than the level of the course The evaluation also aimed to assess they had undertaken through the IFP. …particularly the impact of the IFP on participants’ Some young people appeared to attitudes and skills. Young people who have a continuing commitment to the in relation to participated in the IFP, and who were vocational area they studied through surveyed in each year of the program, exploring which the IFP. This is reflected in the finding were significantly more positive about that around two-fifths (41%) of those careers might school and its usefulness for their future taking a qualification post-16 were in the second year of the program. taking a course that was in the same suit their skills, subject area as their IFP course. Having a positive attitude was abilities and associated with gaining higher total Eight per cent of respondents felt that points at Key Stage 4, while poor they would have been employed, rather interests. punctuality and truancy was associated than in further education and training, with gaining lower points. Evidence if they had not participated in the IFP. from the surveys of IFP participants This suggests that the IFP may have indicated that IFP students’ attitudes encouraged these young people to improved between 2003 and 2004, and consider further education, rather than around half said that participation in employment, post-16. the IFP had made them more aware A range of variables emerged as of the importance of qualifications and influencing these young peoples’ learning. This may have contributed to post-16 destination, including their this improved outcome at Key Stage 4. experience pre-16 through the IFP. These findings, together with the Just over two-fifths (42%) of young findings reported previously in the people reported that the IFP had been evaluation (Golden, O’Donnell & Rudd, an influence on their choice of post-16 2005; Golden, O’Donnell, Benton & destination and, indeed, 8% felt that Rudd, 2005) which indicated that there their IFP course had been the most was evidence that IFP participants influential factor in their post-16 choice. had developed their social skills and The majority of young people, confidence in their employability skills, particularly those who had continued including interpersonal, communication into further education or training, were and problem solving skills, and their positive about what they were doing attitude towards school, suggest that, post-16. However, nearly half of these on the whole, the IFP made a valuable young people would have liked more contribution to the education of the first help and guidance in deciding what cohort of participants.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 109 Conclusion Policy implications Overall in the evaluation of the first The experience of the first cohort of IFP cohort IFP found that the majority participants may be helpful for informing of students who participated had the future development of similar There was some benefited. The majority achieved their programs, both in the United Kingdom qualifications at the end of the program and in an international context. The indication that and nearly all had progressed onto findings point to a number of possible this transition further education and training. implications for policy. into further Attainment levels varied according Targeting students to qualification type. It was found The selection of students had important education and that the young people taking GNVQs implications for course outcomes. and NVQs through the IFP gained The evidence indicates that there training would higher total point scores than would were particular outcome benefits for have been expected given their students with particular characteristics be sustained. prior attainment and background – for example, those with lower prior characteristics. However, those who attainment at age 14. While the took GCSEs in vocational subjects program is aimed at, and could be attained levels commensurate with their beneficial for, all ability groups in a prior attainment. Those who took other school, it might be worth considering vocational qualifications achieved fewer targeting particular students who points than might have been expected would potentially benefit more from the compared to similar students who did experience. not participate in the IFP.
The IFP had been an influence on Further guidance the post-16 choice of two in five IFP Around half of the IFP participants participants. For 80%, the IFP had surveyed indicated that they would been the most influential factor in their have liked more information and post-16 destination. There appeared guidance about their post-16 choices. In to be some continuity of routes from particular, it appears that young people pre-16 to post-16, as students who had who wished or chose to pursue a work- taken NVQs or other VQs through the based route post-16, had a particular IFP were more likely to be taking these need for guidance. This suggests that, types of qualifications post-16. This while many students would benefit suggests therefore that participation from enhanced information, advice and in the IFP may have given young guidance relating to their destinations people the opportunity to find out after age 16, those who intend to more about the qualification pathways pursue a work-based route post-16 they could follow post-16. There was would particularly benefit from guidance some indication that this transition about that route. into further education and training would be sustained, as most young Engagement of students people planned to remain in education Higher attainment at Key Stage 4 was and training for two years or more, associated with students having a and around a third were considering positive attitude towards school. Finding continuing on to higher education. the course interesting, and having helpful discussions with teachers and tutors about progress on the course, were associated with having a
110 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 positive attitude towards school. There References would therefore be value in ensuring Department for Education and Skills that teachers and tutors are able to (DfES). (2005). 14-19 Education and Skills Implementation Plan. London: The incorporate these discussions into their Stationery Office. delivery of the program, and to ensure that their delivery is engaging for Golden, S., O’Donnell, L., & Rudd, P. (2005). Evaluation of Increased Flexibility for participants. 14 to 16 Year Olds Programme: The second year (DfES research report 609). London: Partnership organisation and Department for Education and Skills. communication Golden, S., O’Donnell, L., Benton, T., & Evaluation of Increased The majority of the schools (86%) and Rudd, P. (2005). Flexibility for 14 to 16 Year Olds Programme: the colleges and training providers Outcomes for the first cohort (DfES (92%) surveyed, indicated that their research report 689). London: Department involvement in the IFP had led to for Education and Skills. more effective working partnerships Great Britain. Parliament. House of between their organisations. In Commons (2005). 14-19 Education and Skills (Cm.6476 addition, it appeared that contact ). London: The Stationery Office. among organisations had become more frequent and more informal, as Qualifications and Curriculum Authority FAQs about figures for the the partnerships matured. In addition (QCA). (2005). school and college performance indicators. to this informal contact, partnerships Retrieved June 2, 2006 from http://www. appear to have increasingly introduced qca.org.uk/14-19/developments/downloads/ formal mechanisms for sharing FAQs_school_and_college.pdf information about the progress of Qualifications and Curriculum Authority individual students. The experience (QCA). (2006). QCA fact sheet [QCA/06/2332], The Specialised Diploma, of IFP partnerships has been useful London: Author. for schools and colleges, and will help them develop further towards the Working Group on 14-19 Reform (Tomlinson report). (2004). 14-19 Curriculum and working partnership that is required by Qualifications Reform: Report of the the 14-19 Implementation Plan for 2008 Working Group on 14-19 Reform. London: and beyond. Department for Education and Skills.
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 111 Australia’s role in reforming Vocational Education and Training (VET) in China
VET development in China technical talent and lifelong learning Since the early 1980s, in order to (Ministry of Education, 2006, p. 2). respond to economic reform, China At the beginning of 2004, the State has undergone major changes in Council approved the 2003-2007 its education system. In particular it National Education Rejuvenation Action has adopted a policy of large-scale Plan, inclusive of the VET Innovation development of its VET system. After project. Also in 2004, the Ministry over twenty years of reforms and of Education (MOE) and the related Antoine Barnaart development, China has been able to departments of the State Council held establish a VET system with unique the National Vocational Education Antoine has been the characteristics. This system consists of Conference and formulated the Several Australian Team Leader, three levels of education: elementary, Opinions Concerning Further Improving Australia China (Chongqing) secondary and tertiary. Although Vocational Education (Ministry of Vocational Education and there is a special focus on the senior Education, 2006, p. 3). Training Project (ACCVETP) secondary school level, there are since March 2004, living linkages between all three levels of VET China will continue with its VET reform and working full-time in (Misko, Yufend, He, Li & Phan, 2002, as its economy continues to grow and Chongqing, China. Prior to p. 15). evolve. China also actively pursues the ACCVETP he was a international VET linkages to ensure Pro Vice-Chancellor at the The education system of the People’s this reform not only meets the needs Northern Territory University Republic of China (PRC) is the largest of modern China, but is also consistent with various portfolio in the world. In 2004, there were 697 with other global reforms in VET. responsibilities for TAFE, junior vocational schools with 525 100 Extensive exchange and cooperation International and Regional total enrolments; 14 500 secondary has occurred with a large number Center Management over a vocational schools with 13 678 900 of countries from around the world, period of seven years. total enrolments; and 1047 tertiary level including a number of substantial vocational education institutions with activities with Germany and Australia. just under 6 000 000 total enrolments (Ministry of Education, 2006, p. 7). VET linkages between China and Australia During the 1990s the Central government made significant Australia has developed an effective, decisions and promulgated new laws industry-led national VET system which to strengthen high school education, is internationally recognised and well including regular education and placed to respond to Australia’s strong vocational education, as well as economic performance and changing vocational education at the tertiary demographics. level. Entering into the 21st century, the China is also experiencing strong Central government continued with this economic growth and substantial strong focus on vocational education. demographic change. This growth and At the16th Communist Party of China change provides substantial challenges (CPC) Party Congress in 2002, the to the Chinese VET system. Many of government made a commitment to these challenges are similar to those develop a modern national education facing Australia, although the scope and system boosting senior secondary size may differ. Therefore, the reforms education, vocational education,
112 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 that both countries need to put in place Association for International Exchange to meet the challenges are similar. (CEAIE) VET Mentoring Project.
A 2005 study on the promotion of the Australia China Chongqing VET Australian VET Framework in the PRC Project found that Australia currently is highly regarded for the structure and operation ACCVETP is a bilateral project, funded of its VET system, with elements by the government of the People’s directly relevant to the Chinese context Republic of China, and the Australian and needs (Simmons & Polger, 2006). government, through the Australian China, therefore, has developed a keen Agency for International Development interest and good understanding of (AusAID). The project’s purpose is Australia’s VET system and its modern to reform and expand China’s VET reforms. system. Its goal is to contribute to the economic development and poverty For Australia, China continues to be alleviation of both Chongqing and China one of the most significant countries through the development of a VET in terms of international education. In system that is responsive to the needs 2005, there were 66 000 international of industry (AusAID, 2004). VET students studying in Australia, with over 12 000 students coming from The ACCVETP, which commenced China (AEI, 2006). China is also a key in early 2002, is being piloted in the market as Australian public providers municipality of Chongqing over a expand their transnational delivery five-and-a-half-year period. It has of VET. Over two-thirds of Australia’s a combined project budget of A$25 offshore VET students study in China. million, with Australia contributing nearly A$20 million. The project is divided into Although the end point of many two major phases and uses a ‘vertical transnational VET programs is slice approach’ as a major feature of its increased numbers of Chinese VET design. In phase one this ‘vertical slice’ students completing higher level encompassed activities within school, studies in Australia, these types of municipal and national components Australia programs also provide significant (AusAID, 2001). In phase two an currently has a capacity building for Chinese teachers. additional international component was This includes the transfer of flexible added to the model. high reputation teaching methods, competency based curriculum, high level technical skills ACCVETP phase one for the structure and teaching materials, as well as This three year demonstration phase and operation of enhancing English language proficiency began in March 2002. Five pilot schools for both teachers and students representing automotive, business its VET system, (Barnaart, 2006). services, electronics, hospitality and with elements Current cooperation between China tourism, and construction industry and Australia in VET is also occurring sectors, were selected to implement directly relevant in many other ways, with two activities that would strengthen their projects currently making significant capacity and provide outcomes that to the Chinese contributions. They are the Australia could be replicated as part of MOE’s China (Chongqing) Vocational national VET reform program. These context and activities included school-based Education and Training Project needs. (ACCVETP), and the TAFE Directors planning, developing and piloting Australia (TDA)/China Education competency-based curriculum, teaching and learning material development,
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 113 professional development of school VET; and to be more innovative in the staff and equipment procurement to design of VET policy. assist pilot activities. Three secondary VET schools and two tertiary VET ACCVETP phase two institutions were selected as the pilot The two-and-a-half year replication schools. phase is focusing on replicating successful outcomes achieved in phase Municipal initiatives included the one, and includes four key components. establishment of five Industry It began in March 2004 and will Coordination Committees (ICCs) in conclude in August 2007. the automotive, business services, electronics, hospitality and tourism, and The objective of the school component construction industries. These ICCs is to replicate phase one outcomes were modelled on Australia’s Industry within and between each of the five pilot Training Advisory Boards (ITABs), schools, and between the pilot schools now called Industry Skills Councils and thirty-seven VET partner schools/ (ISCs). Their key tasks were to act as colleges. The latter are made up of a catalyst to encourage the five target twenty-four secondary VET schools industries to make significant input into and thirteen tertiary VET institutions. VET training standards, curriculum, Competency-based courses developed and delivery. They were originally in the industry areas during phase one established within the pilot schools with were expanded from five to twenty- the respective Australian school-based one, and now range from entry level adviser providing executive support for certificate to diploma programs. their early development. These ICCs were relocated, both physically and In addition, schools are establishing a operationally, to the relevant municipal significant number of strong industry ministries at the end of phase one. linkages with a number of key Chongqing industry enterprises. For Another key municipal activity was VET example, the Tourism Pilot School teacher reform, focusing on flexible is developing separate customised delivery of VET and student centered and specialist classes for each of the learning. The Chongqing Normal In phase 1, Intercontinental, Marriott and Holiday University (CQNU) was chosen as the Inn hotels in Chongqing, with shared five Industry lead institution because of its status delivery between the schools and as one of China’s fifty National Key hotels. Coordination Vocational Education Teacher Training Centres. CQNU teacher-trainers Within the municipal component, Committees worked with the project advisers three additional municipal ICCs have to develop skills and knowledge in been established, representing the (ICCs) were VET pedagogy and train the trainer agriculture and health industries, modelled on programs. as well as rural migrant training associated with the Three Gorges Australia’s During phase one, national based area. All of the eight municipal ICCs initiatives enabled the MOE and the lead the development and review of Industry Skills Central Institute of Vocational and new competency standards which Technical Education (CIVTE) to observe were approved before the successful Councils (ISCs). and review municipal school-based development of the new competency- activities; to choose those outcomes based courses by the project schools. which would assist China to better incorporate industry participation in
114 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 The VET teacher reform activities A significant number of Chongqing VET are being expanded by CQNU in organisations, including the Chongqing partnership with the Chongqing Education Commission (CQMEC), University of Arts and Science and the Chongqing Research Institute (CUAS). Twenty-five ACCVETP (CQRI), are leading the development of In Phase 2: participants completed training for the draft municipal VET teacher standards Australian Certificate IV in Training and which will be reviewed by MOE and national level Assessment which was delivered by a CIVTE. Once approved by a national full-time teacher development adviser panel of experts, CQMEC will then activities for engaged through Holmesglen TAFE in develop a set of implementation improvement Victoria. policies for trialling by ACCVETP pilot and partner schools. Overall, this is and innovation in The objective of the phase two national a comprehensive activity occurring at component is to continue to strengthen three levels within the project’s vertical VET. the basis from which MOE can slice. implement national policy improvement and innovation of VET in China. The objective of the international component, which was added for phase A number of key activities have been two, is to establish and strengthen undertaken including the establishment international VET linkages between of a national ICC made up of national China and Australia. This is to ensure ministry representatives from the there are sustainable, ongoing VET agriculture, health, automotive, links between the two countries when information technology, e-business, the ACCVETP concludes in August hospitality and tourism, and building 2007. construction industries. This national ICC is working with the eight municipal A Sino Australia VET Network was first ICCs, observing and reviewing the established in 2005 linking Chongqing reforms they are putting in place. It is schools to Australian Registered also focusing on the role of national Training Organisations (RTOs) in each industry standards in a reformed VET state. This network has now expanded sector. to include linkages between ISCs in Australia and Chongqing ICCs. Another major activity that is being A linkage between CQMEC and an coordinated at the national level is Australian state training authority is also the development of draft national being considered. VET teacher competency standards and an associated quality framework. During 2005 and 2006, the two This is consistent with national policy ACCVETP pilot tertiary colleges were where the Chinese government selected to be developed as Sino wants to reform the appointment and Australia Cooperative Model TAFE management of VET teachers to ensure colleges. Swan TAFE in Western they have both theoretical and practical Australia was linked with the automotive qualities (Ministry of Education, 2006, tertiary pilot college, and the Illawarra p. 15). In general, teachers in China TAFE Institute in New South Wales was are developed first, as teachers, and linked with the electronics tertiary pilot then later as technical specialists. The college. College principals travelled reverse occurs in Australia where VET to Australia for a two-week mentoring teachers usually develop the required program with their respective TAFE vocational competence first, and then director colleagues. A return visit was become qualified to be a VET teacher. then made by the TAFE directors to
VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 115 Chongqing. The focus of this was These five elements align closely with for the Chinese principals to learn the current priorities of VET reform in from Australia’s holistic approach to China, are reflected in the key design managing a large quality assured components in the ACCVETP, and RTO in a reformed VET environment. match the current areas of world class MOE and CQMEC are now studying expertise within the Australian VET the outcomes of this activity and will system. develop a framework for the replication of model TAFE colleges in other parts Conclusion of China. China and Australia face significant labour market challenges, relative to It is evident that the ACCVETP is a the size of each country. VET in both large, complex and significant AusAID countries will be an essential contributor sponsored project. Over forty different The approach to meeting these challenges. The Australian advisers have made short- focus of Australia’s reforms is similar, of the project and long- term inputs into the project. although Australia is well advanced with Each individual has been critical to the the implementation of these reforms. has been not to project’s success. However, to fully transplant the realise the project’s goal, the ACCVETP Australia has developed a world needs to have made some impact on class VET system which it is willing Australian VET China’s reforms at a national level. to share with other countries. The ACCVETP is a significant medium- In late 2005, ACCVETP funded a system in China term project where this sharing is study on municipal and national VET occurring in an appropriate way. The but to share our reform, involving a detailed study of project does not aim to transplant the existing national and municipal VET Australian VET system into China, experience of policies in Beijing and Chongqing, as but rather to share its experience well as VET delivery in Chongqing. of developing VET reforms over 20 developing VET The study identified the following five years. Our counterparts select the key elements of a comprehensive VET reforms over 20 parts of our current system which are system for China. They were formally applicable to China, and contextualise years. recommended to Vice Education them to ensure they are relevant and Minister Wu, MOE and the CQMEC sustainable (Barnaart, 2006). (Byrne 2005, p. 31). The key elements are: Other international VET activities such as Australian China translational 1. Unified national leadership of a programs and the TDA/CEAIE VET discrete VET sector. mentoring project, as well as VET 2. Clear specific roles of industry in student mobility between the two setting outcomes for delivery by the countries, will also provide important system. short-, medium- and long-term 3. A national VET quality framework opportunities for ongoing VET linkages. including provider standards and registration. VET is an essential service in any country and education has always been 4. A single national qualifications a solid foundation on which to build and framework linking school, VET and enhance economic and cultural ties university. between countries. Australia’s role in 5. VET teachers who are competent reforming VET in China will contribute industry practitioners. to a strong and sustainable bilateral relationship in the future.
116 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007 References Australian Education International (2006) 2005 International Student Data in Vocational and Technical Education. Retrieved August 12 from http://aei.dest. gov.au/AEI/PublicationsAndResearch/ Snapshots/09SS06_pdf.pdf
AusAID (2001), ACCVETP Project Design Document (unpublished).Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia.
AusAID (2004), ACCVETP Phase 2Project Design Document (unpublished).Canberra, ACT: Commonwealth of Australia.
Barnaart, A. (2006). ‘Education’, Proceedings of the Australia-China Services Trade: Opportunities and Challenges of a Free Trade Agreement Conference, Beijing China. Retrieved August 12, 2006 from http://www.dfat.gov.au/geo/china/ fta/060424_beijing_speeches.html
Byrne, P. (2005). Developing a Comprehensive VET System, ACCVETP (unpublished)
Misko, J., Yufeng, L., He, O., Li, J. & Phan, O. (2002). Linkages between secondary and post-secondary vocational education and training in China and Australia. Adelaide: National Centre for Vocational Education Research.
PRC Ministry of Education (2006), Vocational Education in China, Beijing: Author.
Simmons, V. & Polger, S. (2006). Report to the International Finance Corporation:TVET in China. Melbourne: State of Victoria
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Membership will be in the name of: ❏ the individual ❏ the organisation
First Name...... Last Name...... Mr/Mrs/Ms
Position ......
Organisation ...... (Is this part of the mailing address? Yes ❏ No ❏)
Postal Address...... Postcode......
Email ......
Phone...... Fax......
Signature...... Date ...... /...... /......
Cheques should be made payable to VETnetwork Australia and mailed with the application to:
VETnetwork Australia, PO Box 1029, NEW FARM QLD 4005
Bankcard ❏ Mastercard ❏ Visa ❏
Card Number Expiry Date
Cardholder’s Name......
Signature......
Please include a stamped, self-addressed envelope if a receipt is required. ✃
120 VOCAL Volume 6 ~ 2006–2007