UDC 711.4 (497.11) 711.4 (560.118)

CHASING THE LIMELIGHT: AND IN THE GLOBAL COMPETITION

Aleksandra Stupar, Cenk Hamamcioglu

The purpose of this paper is to analyze and compare main changes of contemporary Belgrade and Istanbul - two urban nodes at the crossroads of different and multileveled flows. Following the same pattern of global activation, inevitable competition and networking, these cities are trying to synchronize their multidimensional background, establish new patterns of global behavior and adjust them to the dynamism of modern life. Consequently, their historical role has been modified, urban tissue has been developed, recreated and regenerated, and the output of this process represents an attractive testimony of their global initiation. Revealing the ambiguous nature of strong economic forces as well as a new fusion of urban cultures, Belgrade and Istanbul are structuring the globalized image with the new key-elements. However, their true potential and the real efficiency of this process should be re-evaluated - the changed physiognomy of the city could improve its position in the global hierarchy and facilitate its integration into the global community, but, sometimes, local limitations are too complex and too strong to be ignored.

INTRODUCTION Belgrade and Istanbul, two interesting exam- for the Austrians and the Turks, and both ples interlinked by specific historical circum- conquerors 'molded' the city according to their Although the process of globalization repre- stances, have decided to apply this logic for own cultural and military needs. From the 19th sents an ambiguous spin which integrates and the future development. Although different in century, (1867) Belgrade expanded rapidly and segregates different space and time scales, their size, structure, organization and cultural finally (after 1918) became the capital of the levels and nodes, it could also be conceived as context, these cities share the similar position - newly founded Kingdom of the Serbs, Croats a unique mode of urban development, adjusted placed at the crossroads of multiple inherited and Slovenians. However, during the Second to the contemporary needs and the speed of and newly created flows, but mostly conside- World War, the city of Belgrade suffered uncountable flows. red as a global periphery. Facing the difficul- inestimable damage caused by German Following the main course imposed by the top- ties caused by specific political and economi- occupying forces, being also a target of the global cities, urban-scapes all over the world cal situation, they are trying to establish an Allies' bombing that destroyed all the bridges alluring image for the future using their own on the Sava and , and demolished are trying to achieve globally acceptable image as a new testimony of their economical spin- potentials and guidelines of the city branding. many residential areas. off. Twisting between newfangled global REPOSITIONING THE CROSSROADS Although Belgrade lost in this war more than esthetic and inherited patterns of local 50000 citizens and faced great poverty, it cultures, virtual openness and real limitations, As one of the oldest cities in Europe, Belgrade slowly started to recover becoming the cities are struggling for the best position in the shared the history of Thracian-Cimmerian and important international political, economic, global hierarchy that should facilitate their Scythian tribes, as well as Celts and Romans. It cultural and sports center in Europe. For more initiation in the worldwide city networks. was the target of Ostrogodos, Avars and Slavs, than 30 years (especially between 1960s and However, this cruel but inevitable competition and an important frontier stronghold of 1990s), it had been the place of important could bring to the urban surface an amazing, Byzantium (during the 11th and 12th century). international meetings. Just to mention the creative and vivid patchwork of hidden It became a Serbian town in 1284, its capital in most important like: the First Conference of the symbols, signs and forgotten meanings that the beginning of the 15th century (under Heads and Governments of the Non-aligned represent a starting point for the reinvention of Despot Stefan Lazarevic) but Turks captured it Countries in 1961, the Conference on Security urban attractiveness. in the 16th century. During the next two and Cooperation in Europe /OSCE/, the centuries it was of great strategic importance UNESCO Conference, annual meetings of the

spatium 27

World Bank and the International Monetary After the transfer of national administration to Both cities were candidates for the Olympic Fund, the 6th UNCTAD. Belgrade was the Ankara, the situation slightly changed, but, Games: Belgrade (before its stagnation, for organizer of various cultural, sport, and other after 1950s, the new economical policies 1992 and 1996 Olympics) and Istanbul (for events. Today, after numerous political influenced an impetus with a dramatic change 2000 and 2008), but although their location changes and NATO bombing in 1999, in size, density and facilities due to the and sport facilities were considered as their Belgrade, now the capital of the Republic of increasing activities of industrialization and advantages, they did not get this chance for modifies its urban essence. Trying to international trade. Since 1990s Istanbul has economical and media spin-off. For example, regain its lost position in the global networks become the host town of the international although Istanbul's motto for 2008 Olympics and to recreate its international spirit, the city economic and political meetings such as the was "The Meeting of Continents", its and its local government emphasize its advan- Black Sea Economic Cooperation (KEİ) symbolical position of the crossroads of Asia tages as symbols of the future development. meeting in 1992, the United Nations Confe- and Europe was not sufficient for election. As rence on Human Settlements-II (Habitat-II) in the main 'contra' argument the political and Similarly, Istanbul has a very attractive geo- 1996, the 17th meeting of North Atlantic Treaty seismic instability were stated, but the main politic position at the junction of two Organization (NATO) in 2004, as well as reason actually was the important competitive continents. Because of its distinctive situation numerous sports competitions (Class 1 World advantage(s) of Beijing - the financial and its preserved topography and harbor, the Offshore Championship in 1999, the 32nd guarantees from the government and the city had been settled by different tribes and European Basketball Championship for Men in commercial potential of the huge Chinese colonies since the 7th century B.C. In this 2001, Istanbul Formula Grand-prix in 2005). market that will be entered by the international, century, Megara tribe, which had escaped from globalized capital. Dorian attacks from Greece, established the Today, Istanbul has different problems first settlement - a city named Byzantion. The generated from the contradictions of urban life THE GLOBAL ACTIVATION VS. city was captured by Persians, Macedonians but, at the same time, it is trying to achieve the LOCAL LIMITATIONS and Romans became the capital of East Roman best possible position on the global platform Empire (in 395 A.C.) and changed the name integrating the fundamental history with the The Belgrade metropolitan region, with its 1,6 from Byzantion to . It had a needs of contemporary urban life. million residents, has always been considered status of the capital city of two world empires as the gate to the East and the door to the in the Mediterranean Basin - The Byzantine Obviously, the inherited/historical role of West. Therefore, it is now trying to benefit from (East Roman) and Ottoman - until the establi- Belgrade and Istanbul are transposed into a its position of the communication hub of the shment of Turkish Republic in 1923. In the new system of values and their positions are SE Europe and its new connectivity is based meantime, when conquered by Ottomans in now (re)questioned in accordance with upon two international rivers (Danube, as the 1453, Constantinople finally became Istanbul. different empirical data that could illustrate European corridor VII, and Sava) and a section diversity among them. Measuring and of the European corridor X (highway network). As a unique coastal city with the location on analyzing their power and connectivity and Belgrade is also plugged into the European the trade routes, Istanbul was a strong political, categorizing them into the new hierarchical network by an international airport, the interna- administrative, trade, religious, scientific and system(s) these two urban nodes have to tional railway system, two ports and four cultural center and the most populated 'insert' themselves into a new geography of railway stations. Additionally, its integration is European and Middle-East city in the 17th globalization that only 'identifies' cities with oriented towards other important urban nodes century, with 800.000 inhabitants (Ana evidence of world city processes. Therefore, it in SEE (Bucharest, Sofia, Thessalonica, Sara- Britannica, 1993). During these centuries, city is not surprising that Istanbul found its place jevo, Zagreb) and Central Europe (Ljubljana, expanded in glory with the long-lasting peace among high connectivity gateways (Taylor at al, Budapest). and richness. During the Ottoman hegemony, 2002), as a node of principal component the city gained a very lively urban society in clusters in Europe (Taylor, 2001) and/or as a At the same time, Belgrade is recognized as a which various social groups, as well as diverse cluster nucleus (type I) of band II Arenas promising node for locating the business – the activities, spaces and monumental buildings of (Derudder et al. 2003). Belgrade, owing to its idea supported by the Serbian government and different areas integrated. However, in the 19th decade long political and economical isolation, Belgrade Authorities. Therefore, the commit- century Istanbul was overthrown from its still has to be 'registered' as a globally ment to the integrity and security of foreign pedestal by some western European cities with accepted urban node. However, a new political investments has been emphasized, as well as flourishing industrialization and its decay was atmosphere has influenced its presence on the the new tax incentives and the lowest income also influenced by the policies of incapable global scene and now it is also included in tax rates in the region. Consequently, Belgrade administrators and regression process of the numerous databases dealing with global civil was awarded the name “City of the future in Ottoman Empire. However, Istanbul’s popula- society/global governance (Taylor, 2004), Southern Europe”, which is the outcome of the tion continued to increase because of the media networks (Kratke, 2003), advertising, competition organized by the specialized immigration flow from the caused by accountancy, NGOs and international banking edition of the Financial Times for foreign and the collapse of the Empire. systems. direct investments, FDI Magazine. This title has

28 spatium

a great importance for the future development an urban environment attractive for the new Istanbul with Ankara. On the other hand, the and investments because it represents the re- techno-elite. In the meantime, 13 sites have city has rail connection to Europe (“Sirkeci” sult of the evaluation based on various criteria - been leased (for construction up to 99 years) station) and to Anatolia and Middle East economic potential, cost effectiveness, human to the foreign investors - Merkator (Slovenia), (“Haydarpaşa” station) but this network is not resources, IT and telecommunications, trans- Airport City (Israel), Meshulam Levinstein in a good condition because of the govern- port, quality of life and FDI promotion. (Israel), GTC (Netherlands), Durst (Austria), mental policies supporting the road and air Cappoto Build (Lichtenstein), Expo center transportation since 1950s. Being aware of the inherited infrastructure Eastern Europe Ltd (Great Britain, Cyprus), problems, during the last 5 years Belgrade National brands (Russia), Veropulos (Greece), Approximately half of the industrial corpora- improved its road and telecommunication ABD (Israel) and Montmontaza (Croatia). tions (45%) in are based in Istanbul. network and renewed its infrastructure. At the Therefore, it is important to emphasize that same time, the reconstruction and extension of The globally recognizable urban face was also Istanbul is the economic center of Turkey (and the Belgrade International Airport (with a future made-over by several new public facilities - its 70 million habitants) comprising the most cargo center and a railroad connection) has the Belgrade Arena (hall 'Limes'), Sveti Sava of the national-international financial and started in order to achieve the level of temple, the business center "Usce", the new banking associations (Istanbul Government, alternative sub-regional UAC (according to the Drama theatre and numerous projects of 2005). Istanbul also provides a linkage Air Traffic Infrastructure regional Study for SEE reconstruction (old theatres, parks, residential between the whole country and the interna- by Nordic Aviation Resources AS). There are buildings, museums etc.). The Gallery "Zoran tional trade sector. Consequently intensive also four important projects facilitating Djindjic", a new Opera, the Belgrade Marina, a activities of production and distribution shape Belgrade's inner connectivity and efficiency - new Aqua park and the tower on Avala will Istanbul and recognize it as a candidate for the Belgrade light rail system, the Interior City round a new phase of transformation and one of the global business and management Ring Road, the new cable car route that will activities and all of them should become nodes rather than a peripheral one. connect two parts of the city across the river new/renewed landmarks. Sava and island and, finally, a During the last 10 years, Istanbul has been new bridge over the river Sava which should In the case of Istanbul, the political changes in reinforcing its infrastructure and connectivity in solve traffic problems in the central city area. the national government in 1980s, oriented order to make it compatible for the towards the global comprehension of trade and contemporary global needs. Unfortunately, the In accordance with the Master plan of Belgrade market, were indicated in the urban life of spreading of the road network and the (2003) and the new Regional spatial plan citizens and urban landscape. The GaWC construction of the second Bosporus Bridge in (2004), the activation of urban potentials is inventory of world cities also noticed this 1990 encouraged the north part of the city to using a global recipe that favors images of progress and pointed out Istanbul as a grow endangering the vital elements (forests open, dynamic, vibrant cities. Therefore, the “gamma” city according to the most prevalent and fresh water supplies). At the same time, urban development has accepted the environ- firms taking place worldwide (Beaverstock, V. Istanbul is trying to overcome its topographical mental protection and sustainable development J., Smith, R. G, 1999). obstacles and to manage its complicated as a global goal, aiming at: internal communication with the metropolitan Today, Istanbul has more then 12 million network/transportation master plan. Therefore, • the old city center as a place of cultural inhabitants living in its metropolitan region identity; this plan highlights the importance of the light located just at the water/land/air transportation rail system and its synchronization with other • as a new alternative city center crossroads of Europe, Asia and Africa suitable for business and commercial transportation networks. Besides, there are two comprising a huge hinterland beyond other projects: activities; (Southeast Europe, Black Sea Region and • the riverbanks (with existing industrial and Middle East). Beside its excellent position and • Bosporus Tube Gate/Corridor Project (to be railroad structures which should be significant labor force, it also profits from its Marmaray) – under construction since 2004 removed) - as a future multipurpose centers effective historical, cultural and business - which will connect with a light rail system with marinas, recreation and leisure connections. Simultaneously, Istanbul metro- both sides of Istanbul under Bosporus and activities; politan area is directly attached to the main will have a capacity of 75 thousand citizens • the city suburbs - as a new industrial and global networks by two international airports per hour in one direction; commercial areas. (Atatürk International Airport with a capacity of • Third Bosporus Bridge Project (not approved yet) which could jeopardize the natural Following the basic guidelines and strategies 20 million person/year and Sabiha Gökcen landscape in northern side of Bosporus. given by its Master plan, Belgrade metropolitan International Airport with a capacity of 3.5 area and its local government intend to million person/year with 90 thousand tone However, Istanbul has to take into account the stimulate future urban development, which cargo), two main seaports (Haydarpaşa - benefits of being a waterfront and it should have to reveal new perspectives for our society, Karaköy seaports) and two international activate completely its water networks in order to revive its cosmopolitan spirit and to create motorways (E5 - TEM) connecting Europe and to unite its two sides more effectively.

spatium 29

Istanbul's Master Plan (1995) also underpinned and/or various marketing strategies. At the Consequently, Belgrade and Istanbul started to its present/future role of intensive center for same time, one of the most important issues of use the same set of five basic marketing services, business, tourism, culture-art, enter- urban marketing represents activation of campaigns identified by Ward (1996): tainment and recreation while the industrial and cultural potentials, their development and • selling the frontier and early town promotion; manufacturing facilities are decentralized and adjustment to the new urban needs. Therefore, • selling the resort; moved to the outskirts. At the same time, the it is obvious that culture and spectacle have • selling the suburb; main directions of its development are: become two pivotal points of the new city • selling the industrial city; • preservation of the old city “Istanbul penin- attractiveness, as well as stimulators of urban • selling the post-industrial city. regeneration and urban economy (Bassett, sula-Galata” and other historical districts on They have been adjusting it to the local condi- 1993, Zukin, 1995). both sides of Bosporus respecting their tions, applying the same logic and channeling cultural identity and historical morphology of Istanbul and Belgrade, as cities with rich them to the similar audience - mainly inves- housing; historical and multi-ethnical background, tors, business firms, corporate headquarters, • introduction of new corridors and districts for started to use these elements as well. new elite, sports teams, tourists or new resi- the global business activities (such as Completely in accordance with the myths of dents, but sometimes also to the local commu- “Zincirlikuyu-Levent-Maslak” districts on the the global order, the advantages of nities - as the future voters. At the same time, European side, “Kozyatağı” district on Asian multicultural context have been launched these two urban nodes (although with different side, projects for "Haydarpaşa World Trade together with numerous identities and starting positions in the 'wannabe world cities' Center" and "Cruise Harbor") which should connections between tradition and new flows. race) are caught into the complex competition become globally recognizable areas with The city space has been marked as a for different levels of command functions, spe- high business towers, hotels, halls, shop- democratic, open, tolerant, advanced and ctacular world events and, above all, (un)ex- ping malls and other facilities; cosmopolitan and the symbioses of culture, pected urban boosterism. However, these • revitalization of the old trade harbor and the esthetic and symbolic became an inseparable images of the future are often limited just to a railway station on Asian side; part of economy, which was clearly visible at ravishing rhetoric and political manipulation, • rehabilitation of old and devastated industrial the field of consumption. The symbolic spatial offering the utopian scenario of the urban waterfronts into cultural, entertainment and images influenced the appearance of new development, with questionable outcomes. leisure complexes like “ Cultu- urban frames and their economical importance Evidently, the sustainability of the urban deve- ral Valley Project”; increased. Consequently, cultural and histo- lopment today is based upon a powerful • rehabilitation/reconstruction and transforma- rical values became the basic generators of combination of politics, media, international tion of unhygienic neighborhoods according urban economics directed towards the corporate capital and economical competitive- to the Istanbul Earthquake Master Plan contemporary tourism, and their role has been ness. Therefore, the local elite becomes clo- (2004); additionally reinforced by cultural industry, sely involved it the process of local governance • decentralization of industry and manufac- introduction of mass events and spreading of and has strong impact on the city image tories to the peripheral areas on both sides. symbolic cityscapes. Therefore, it is noticeable promoting its own vision of urban growth which that the cultural symbolism has derived from BRANDING THE CITY often clashes with the public good. The the economical and social power of new elite pressure of deadlines (i.e. important dates and In the competitive world, every city has to use simulating the act of ritual giving and estab- events) also changes the planning procedures a strategic manipulation focused on competi- lishing the complex mixture of art, politics and – adjustments are made according to the 'event tive advantages and local potentials. Therefore, market. Finally, both cities gradually transfor- schedules', covering the needs of different they become the essence of urban marketing med themselves into a new commercial international sports, cultural, political and which has several phases (Ashworth and system of values implemented through a scientific gatherings. Unfortunately, as the Voogd, 1990; Haider, 1992): redefined set of tokens and symbols. triggers of the further global promotion they • analysis of opportunities and market; In order to become globally acceptable, become more valuable for the city image then • formulation of goals and strategies; Belgrade and Istanbul emphasize their own well-balanced co-existence of different local • planning of marketing programs; easily recognizable uniqueness. Therefore, communities. • organization and implementation; adopting the globally imposed 'urban menu' - • final elaboration and evaluation. with new office buildings, gentrified areas, LAUNCHING THE NEW GLOBAL Consequently, whenever a city wants to attract regenerated river/sea fronts and old industrial IMAGE investments and 'improve' its total image it areas, attractive museums, galleries, theaters, should include the logic of marketing process modern sport arenas, theme/leisure parks and Legging behind the mainstream of globaliza- in the urban development - addressing the ethnic restaurants, these two cities are also tion, Serbia and its capital became a black hole global and local level of place promotion and trying to complete their 'homework' in order to of the global networks. During the decade-long perceiving it in a context of political economy enhance their appearance. isolation Belgrade lost its position of the

30 spatium

recognizable regional center of SE Europe and the city center (bohemian quarter , encouraged economic reforms and positive its well know cosmopolitanism diminished by pedestrian area, Dorcol - as a zone of changes in the region. the increased nationalism. The global and local fashionable cafes, numerous clubs, etc.) and media, although using completely different along the riverbanks. The role of rivers in the However, the most interesting story about the perspectives, created an atmosphere of fear, city life has been also used as an element of connection between the urban essence and the isolation and threats, emphasized by the every- global identification, as well as the position city economy represents the case of New day reality - thousands of refugees from and activities on the river island Ada Ciganlija Belgrade. Born on the deserted marshlands Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina and Kosovo, representing a unique oasis close to the city between the historical cores of Belgrade and poverty and dictatorship. However, the 21st center, with excellent sports facilities (inclu- Zemun, New Belgrade represented a clear century has brought new political scenery, and ding water and extreme sports) and various political statement of the new post-war one of the first signs of globalization was entertainment and cultural events. Yugoslav society. Following a ritual pattern appearance of the famous brand names, as well known for centuries, this offspring of the well as an increase of the production and However, Belgrade's potential for sports Athens Charter and the huge political consumption of symbolic goods - especially manifestations is not limited just to one area - ambitions of President Tito, played an clothes, food, popular culture and sport. At the different sport complexes are scattered across important role in a symbolical initiation of the same time, this 'imported' global esthetic had a the city - in the city center or close to it. newly established communist system. Apart tendency to become a new, ideologically Consequently, different sports evens are used from its comparative advantages over other acceptable image of the new society, oriented in promotions of its new international open- parts of Belgrade metropolitan area, it was, towards European and global integration. ness. As a result, Belgrade was selected the from the beginning of its construction, the Fortunately, the local identity of Belgrade host of the 2005 European basketball, pivotal point of regime propaganda accepted during 1970s and 1980s has also been volleyball and shooting championships with a great enthusiasm by the masses. It was a rediscovered, and its key elements now (basketball - with Rome; volleyball - with Novi symbol of modern state, completely directed represent the main guidelines for the new Sad, Vrsac and Podgorica), the World hockey towards its progress. Unfortunately, during the urban attractiveness. championship for the II division (2005), the years to follow, it played a role of a huge European water-polo championship (2006). It dormitory, without the necessary concentration Although exposed to the numerous internal and will also host the European table tennis of urban activities for creation of the planned external influences Belgrade government championship (2007), The 9th European Youth alternative center of Belgrade. decided to support three main potentials of the Olympic Festival (2007) and the 25th Summer city - its entertainment/cultural, sports and Universiade (2009). Surprisingly, from the 1990s situation has business capacities. Simultaneously, the motto been rapidly changing - due to its excellent "Belgrade always wins" (reflecting Belgrade Its multiple layers of history and culture have connectivity, good infrastructure and available spirit and its long history of struggles with dif- also been used for the tourist promotion - sites for large development projects, New ferent conquerors) and the slogan "The city of primarily, Kalemegdan - the Belgrade has become a very attractive area for good vibrations" underline its main advantages: with the 600 years long history, and the story local and foreign investors. Residential, of Despot Stefan Lazarevic and his medieval commercial and business sites have been • central location and proximity to the impor- capital Belgrade that was the 14th and 15th offered by the Marketing Department of the tant regional nodes; century tourist town for passengers and Agency for Building Land and Construction of • connectivity; merchants traveling by the river. The Belgrade Belgrade. Together with important facilities • business-assistance programs; cultural and historical heritage is also (such as the most luxurious hotels • low costs of living; emphasized as a part of city attractions - "Intercontinental" and "Hyatt Regency", "Sava" • young and educated labor force; beside numerous museums and theatres, Vinca Congress Center, the sports hall "Limes", the • concentration of sports and entertainment archeological site and the Botanical Garden new railway station, business center "Usce") facilities; , the cultural manifestations such they created the new City - a symbol of urban • natural amenities; as BITEF, BELEF and BEMUS have become the development and the important regional • traditional hospitality. important representatives of Belgrade's cultural business node. The new tokens are implanted At the same time, several sectors identified as international networking. in the Modern urban tissue and one of the most the most prominent tourist potentials - transit, significant and meaningful transformations is At the same time, Belgrade again activates its business/congress, river and cultural tourism the 'resurrection' of the building of the Central congress and expo facilities - "Sava" Congress have the same aim to attract different Euro- Committee, which was, due to its height, one Center, which is the largest congress and pean/world markets. of Belgrade landmarks and a symbol of concert building in the Balkans with 14 halls, communist power. Recently, Belgrade also became a 'city break' and the Belgrade fair complex. Finally, in 2005 destination which is the result of its new Belgrade hosted the annual EBRD summit that During the 1990s, this building lost its political atmosphere and the interesting nightlife - in significance and role becoming an office

spatium 31

building with one of the regime's TV stations. never sleeps". Therefore, Istanbul represents an cosmopolitan and multi-religious background Therefore, as a 'legitimate target' it was unique mixture of shopping and entertainment of Istanbul as an important tourist potential. damaged during the NATO bombing. However, areas focused around characteristic streets like The peninsula’s hills crowned by mosques the tallest building on Balkan (134m) was not “İstiklal Caddesi”, “Nişantaşı” and “Bağdat (Süleymaniye, Sultanahmet ect.), “Hagia completely destroyed, but 'rebuilt' by the firm Caddesi” or shopping malls like “Akmerkez”, Sofia” serving as a museum, “Topkapı Palace” "European construction" which organized the “Metrocity”, Carreffour”, “Carosel” where all of the sultans and the atmosphere of the spectacular grand opening in July 2005, under global brand names could be found. “Grand Bazaar” with the surrounding from the title "From communism to capitalism". Ottoman period are just some of many This event actually represented an initiation of Istanbul, with its facilities, is also a suitable attractions. In contrast, “Galata” and “Taxim” a new power (power of profit), a new/old place for international meetings/congresses districts with modern buildings from the 19th landmark and a new role New Belgrade is and cultural activities. “Lütfü Kırdar Interna- century represent the new, cosmopolite spirit taking in the future. tional Congress and Concert Hall”, where the of the city; while the historical Bosporus recent XXII Union of International Architects villages-mansions, museums and art galleries Following the same worldwide marketing pat- 2005 Congress was held, and “Atatürk Cultural reveal quite different urban identity also used tern, Istanbul’s government promotes a vision Center” are the most famous, but there are also as a recognizable city brand. Finally, with the of a regional center of the Middle East, Balkan two more centers under construction - “Istan- application of “The Golden Horn Cultural Valley and SE Europe with a potential for a future bul” and “Sütlüce” (Fuarplus, 2005). However, Project” which will reinforce the social and global city. Decided to be a creative-intel- beside the contemporary buildings, there are a urban life of “Halic” and its historical surroun- ligent-production node and to compete with few historical spaces, such as “Yerebatan ding (peninsula-Galata) will increase the other world cities, the Istanbul Metropolitan Sarayı”, “Aya İrini” and “Esma Sultan Yalısı“, number of visitors and create a new urban Municipality (İBB), OECD and National Plan- which reflect a distinctive and mystical atmos- landmark. ning Association (DPT) underlined the impor- phere of the city. The specific cultural and tance of sector strategies (concerning the de- environmental milieu is also used for the Istan- CONCLUSION centralization of industry), space management bul’s candidacy for the European Capital of and further development promoting it as a: Culture 2010, under the motto “The City of 4 Using the aggressive campaigns or transfor- • regional service center; Elements”. ming the space and economy of a city it is • regional finance center; possible to create a new urban outlook that • tourism and cultural city; At the same time, Istanbul, as a trade and could hide or totally deny negative and unat- • science and technology city (Istanbul Metro- industrial city, has already taken steps to tractive images. The new urban flexibility, politan Municipality, 2005). become a regional center of financial activities. revitalized or reconstructed downtown areas, Therefore, its open economy policies enforce business opportunities, advanced IC and tech- In addition, Istanbul government proclaimed the construction of the global and national nological development, excellent connectivity entertainment, international meetings/congress commerce offices and numerous computing and accessibility, healthy and ecologically and international cultural activities as the main business towers at “Zincirlikuyu-Levent- sustainable surrounding, as well as a great potentials for boosting city economy but it also Maslak” and “Kozyatağı” districts. These areas number of cultural and sports spectacles are (re)discovered the importance of international also host the international hotels ("Four announced as qualities which should be sport competitions. Therefore, during the Seasons", "Hilton", "Princess Hotel", "Hyatt (re)considered, but, at the same time, they competition for the host of the Olympic Games, Regency", "Intercontinental" etc.) which are the should transmit important messages to their an Olympic village including “Atatürk Stadium” inevitable inventory of all cities exposed to the potential users - attractive, cosmopolitan, (with capacity of 80.000 people) was global capital. These globalized spaces also dynamic and hospitable urban background. constructed and it is now in use for different redefine the city skyline offering a unique Relying on this logic, Belgrade and Istanbul, international events. However, Istanbul still has image made of high reflective facades of each in its own way, have included these ele- to resolve numerous social and infrastructure “Türkiye İşbankası”, “Sabancı Holding”, “Süzer ments into the wishful images and adverti- problems that present a serious drawback for Plaza”, “Elit Residence”, “Metrocity” and other sements deliberately promoting new urban the implementation of every plan and project. business and residential towers taking their symbols. place beside huge religious monumental buil- Simultaneously, the huge number of citizens dings (mosques-churches-synagogues). Bearing their fatum of the millennia crossroads, and the cosmopolitan life style of people they could only try to reconcile their layers of necessitate multi-functional spaces with Nowadays, while the discussions continue, the history, present and future in order to enhance cultural, recreational, shopping, entertainment effort to build the World Trade Center also their position. Therefore, they are creating a and leisure facilities adjusted to the needs of emphasizes the support of Istanbul government new skyline that displays new centers of power, different groups. However, its present 24-hours to attract the global corporations. and their urban development is channeled and active urban life, full of various excitements, shaped to attract the attention of important caused the specific image of the city "which However, the historical districts and monu- mental buildings also reflect the magnificent investors. However, it is not possible to follow

32 spatium

just one direction - in the world of globalization Regional Patterns in the World City Network: Taylor, P. J. (2004), New Political Geographies: every city has to achieve its 'omnipotence' as A Global Urban Analysis of 234 Cities, Regional Global Civil Society and Global Governance the only guarantee of its survival. Studies, No. 37 (9), pp. 875-886 through World City Networks, Fuarplus(2005), http://fuarplus.com http://www.lboro.ac.uk/gawc/rb/rb149.html Balancing between tradition and innovation, the Haider, D. (1992), Place wars: new realities of Taylor, Peter J., D. R. F Walker, G. Catalano and city branding of Belgrade and Istanbul could the 1990s, Economic Development Quarterly, M. Hoyler (2002) "Diversity and Power in the solve some problems, but one question No. 6 (2), pp. 127-134 World City Network", Cities, No. 19 (4), pp. 231-241 remains - are we capable to continue their Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (1995), urban (hi)story or will they become just one of Master Plan of Istanbul, Istanbul, Planning and Urbanisticki zavod Beograda /Town planning institute of Belgrade/(2003) "Generalni plan the Orient-Express mysteries? Zoning Control and Construction General Departement, City Planing Directorate Beograda 2021"/The Master plan of Belgrade 2021/, Sluzbeni list grada Beograda, XLVII, 27, Istanbul Metropolitan Municipality (2005), References Belgrade: Sluzbeni list grada Beograda “Istanbul’un Geleceği Planlanıyor”, AnaBritannica (1993), ‘İstanbul’, Ana Yayınclık http://www.ibb.gov.tr Urbanisticki zavod Beograda /Town planning and Encyclopaedia Britannica Inc., c.17, pp. 61 institute of Belgrade/(2004) Regionalni Istanbul Valiliği /Istanbul Government/ (2005), prostorni plan administrativnog podrucja Appadurai, A. (1996), Modernity at Large: http://www.istanbul.gov.tr Cultural Dimensions of Globalization, Beograda/The regional spatial plan of Belgrade Kratke, S. (2003), Global Media Cities in a Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press administrative area/, Belgrade: Town planning Worldwide Urban Network, European Planning institute of Belgrade Ashworth, G. J. and H. Voogd (1990), Selling the Studies, No. 11 (6), pp. 605-628 City: Marketing Approaches in Public Sector Ward, Stephen V (1996) "Rereading urban Short, J. R., C. Breitbach , S. Buckman, J. Essex Urban planning, London, Belhaven Press regime theory: a sympathetic critique", J. (2000), From world cities to gateway cities, Geoforum, 27, pp. 427-438 Basset, K. (1993), Urban cultural strategies and City, No. 4, pp. 317-340 urban regeneration, Environment and Planning Zukin, Sharon (1995) The Culture of Cities, Taylor, P. J. (2001), Regionality within Globa- A, No. 25, pp. 1773-1788 Oxford: Blackwell lization: What Does it Mean for Europe?, in

Beaverstock, V. J., Smith, R.G. (1999), A Roster Zimmermann, F. M. and S. Janschitz (eds) of World Cities, Cities, No. 16 (6), pp. 445-458 Regional Policies in Europe: Key Opportunities Derudder B, P.J. Taylor, F. Witlox and G. for Regions in the 21st Century, Graz, Leykam, Catalano (2003), Hierarchical Tendencies and pp. 49-64

spatium 33