"Zero Tolerance" memo to all employees from Secretary of Agriculture Dan Glickman and Secretary of the Interior Bruce Babbitt.

" <- WASHINGTON ->:. '-".. ---.'1. S-.• THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE THE SECRETARY OF THE INTERIOA

TO ALLEMPLOYEES

1994 was a tragic year for wildland fire. Even more sobering is that without the judgment and commitment to safety demonstrated by fuefighting personnel throughout the Nation, our losses could have been even greater. Important lessons were learned, including an affinnation thar agency personnel at all levels. and not just those directly involved in fire suppression, must demonstrate a commitmentto safety.

We are committed to "Zero Tolerance" ofcarelessness and unsafe actions. The commitment to and accountability for safety is a joint responsibility of firefighters. managers and administrators. No resource or property values are worth endangering people. All land management plans and all Dan Glickman suppression plans and actions must reflect this commitment. Individuals must be personally committed and responsible for their own performance and accountability.

Please join us in adopting firefighting's code of safe practices:

Safety Comes First on Every Fire, Every Time.

The Ten Standard Fire Orders are Firm. We Don't Break Them; We Don't Bend Them.

An Firefighters have the Right to a Safe Assignment

Every Firefighter, Every Pireline Supervisor, Every Fire Manager, and Every Agency Administrator has the Responsibility to Ensure Compliance with Established Safe Firefighting Practices.

?!Z~ secretary of the Interior

BruceBabbitt

This issue of Fire ManagementNotes is Fire Management Notes is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department ofAgriculture, Washington, DC. the first of two focusing on the safety and The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department. health of wildland firefighters. Readers may also wish to read back issues of this Subscriptions ($7.50 per year domestic, $9.40 per year foreign) may be obtained from New Orders. Superintendent of publication for other discussions of these Documents, P.O. Box371954, Pittsburgh, PA 15250-7954. A subscription order form is available on the back cover. important topics-in particular, volume Dan Glickman, Secretary Francis R.Russ 51, no. 2. Many thanks to all who contrib­ U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager uted information and shared their experiences with the fire community. Jack Ward Thomas, Chief Donna M. Paananen Special thanks goes to David "Shag" Forest Service Editor Aldrich, safety and training officer on the Mary Jo Lavin, Ph.D., Director Rod Kindlund WO Fire and Aviation Management Staff, Fire and Aviation Management Submissions Editor for his advice and help during the production of these issues. lean L. Satterthwaite Contributing Editor

The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) prohibits discrimination in its programs on the basis of race. color, national origin, sex, religion, age, disability, political beliefs, and marital or familial status. (Not all prohibited bases apply to all programs.j Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication of program information (braille, large print, audiotape, etc.) should contact the USDAOffice of Communications at (202j 720·2791,

To file a complaint, write the Secretary of Agriculture, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC20250, or call (202) 720-7327 (voice) or (202) 720-1127 (TDD).USDAis an equal employment opportunity employer.

Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Notes. VolumeSS·No.3·1995

CONTENTS

Establishing an Effective Safety and Health Program for Firefighters 4 Stephen 1. Yellstrom Firefighter Safety in Changing Forest Ecosystems 6 Jerry Williams Personal Protective Equipment in Wildfire Entrapments 9 RichardJ. Mangan A Potential Life Saver-Training With a Practice Fire Shelter ...... 12 Kevin Lee Human Decisionmaking in the Fire Environment 14 Curt C. Braun andBuck Latapie Attitude Check 19 Bill Fish Does Firetighting Pose Reproductive Risks? 21 Entrapped firefighters deptoy their Brian 1. Sharkey fireshelters in a survivalzone during the Shelly incident in 1989 Yellowjackets: The Little Danger Under Your Feet 23 on the GilaNational Forestin New Billy J. Terry Mexico. Photo:Mark Erickson, Sitver City, NM, ©1995. 1 994 Wildfire Prevention Awards Presented 26 Rod Kindlund Fire Camps on the Boise National Forest Recycle 28 Darrel Van Buren

SHORT FEATURES "Zero Tolerance" Memo 2 Dan Glickman and Bruce Babbitt Dear Firefighters 5 James R. Lyons Safety First-Every Fire, Every Time 8 Jack Ward Thomas Warning! Some Fire Shelter Training Techniques Are Dangerous 20 Richard1. Mangan NWCG Adopts Flagging Standard 22 Guidelines for Contributors 22 Aviation Management Triangle 25 John Chambers "It a Tree Falls"-Safety Video Now Available 27 Regional Analysis of Haines' LASI 30 Brian E. Potter We Are Each Responsible 31 Mary Jo Lavin ESTABLISHING AN EFFECTIVE SAFETY AND HEALTH PROGRAM FOR FIREFIGHTERS

Stephen J. Yellstrom

year has passed since the =-- = are likely to be greeted with hand­ South Canyon Fire took the "OSHA remains shakes, pats on the back, and con­ Alives of 14 firefighters in the committed to assisting gratulations for a job well done. . mountains of.Colorado. Since wildfire fighting Would the same team be so warmly then, members of the firefighting received if they abandoned a fire community, including the United agencies In any way that they perceived to be unaccept­ States Department of Agriculture possible to reach our ably risky? If the answer is no, than Forest Service, Department of the mutual goal-to reduce the unmistakable message that is Interior Bureau of Land Manage­ the risk to our sent to firefighters is that putting ment, and Department of Labor firefighters. " out the fire is the highest priority Occupational Safety and Health and that safety, although impor­ Administration (OSHA) have asked tant, is secondary. Ifsafety truly is two very important questions: Why the firefighters' most important the human factors or attitudes in did this tragedy happen, and how mission, then wildfire managers the direction of positive change can we prevent a similar tragedy in must reinforce this message might include these parts: man­ the future? The first question has through their actions every day. agement commitment, employee been answered as a result of the ex­ involvement, and periodic audits. cellent work done by all those in­ Employee Involvement volved in the South Canyon Fire Employees are the primary benefi­ Investigation. There was no one Manaaement Commitment ciaries of any successful safety and cause of this accident but rather a health program, but all too often, combination of poor communica­ Everyone agrees that firefighting is their only role in the development tion, a breakdown in management an inherently dangerous activity of the program is to implement oversight, and lack of hazard rec­ and that it is the responsibility of policies that are already cast in all involved to reduce the risk to ognition, which was catalyzed by stone. Who knows better than the adverse environmental conditions the lowest possible level. Managers front-line firefighters what really into a disaster. associated with wildfire suppres­ happens on the fires that are sion attempt to reduce this inher­ fought each day of the fire season? ent risk through training, written Obviously, dry fuels, steep terrain, Employees are an often overlooked and strong winds are some of the procedures, personal protective resource in the development and uncontrollable factors that many equipment, and changes brought evaluation of safety programs. of the existing firefighting safety about through accident investiga­ Front-line firefighters should be guidelines are designed to address. tion. These are all necessary com­ included as members of local safety What we need to examine now are ponents of a successful safet» and and health committees, as mem­ health program, but what are the the human factors, or the control­ bers of planning and policy-setting lable variables, that we must subtle messages given to groups, and as members of any ac­ change if we are to avoid another firefighters on a day-to-day basis cident investigation team. "South Canyon" in years to come. regarding safety's place in the over­ One blueprint that would channel all mission? For example, when an Periodic Audits initial attack Incident Commander Stephen J. Yellslrom is an indus/rial Firefighting safety is a dynamic hygienist. u.s. DepartmentofLabor, and crew return from a Type 4 fire Occupational Safety and HealthAdminis­ that had been quickly and effi­ process that requires adjustment, tration, Denver, CO. ciently extinguished, the members

Fire Management Notes fine tuning, and maintenance. An assignment-safety. Incident Com- There is no one simple or correct auditing process is essential to en- manders who fight fires safely method to develop and implement sure that the desired safety policies, should be recognized appropri- an effective safety and health pro- procedures, and attitudes are trans- ately; necessary corrective action gram. Any framework, including lated into reality in the field. An ef- should also be promptly taken. this one, must be customized to fective audit should consist of more reflect the unique working condi- than employee interviews, question- A question often asked of OSHA is, tions and people involved. Fire naires, reviews of training records, "How often should a safety and managers who regard management or putting check marks on a post- health program be audited?" Ifwe commitment, employee involve- fire evaluation form. On-site evalua- were to think of safety and health ment, and periodic audits as essen- tions of firefighters' performance on goals as an item produced by a tial components to consider in all types of fires are essential to de- manufacturing plant, then the an- fulfilling their commitment to termine the effectiveness of the swer would be easy. Conduct on- firefighting safety will be headed in overall safety and health program. site audits as often as necessary to the right direction. OSHAremains Knowledgeable and technically assure a quality product (safety) is committed to assisting wildfire qualified individuals should conduct the ultimate outcome. The number fighting agencies in any way pos- on-site evaluations, and their focus and frequency of the audits should sible to reach our mutual goal- should be on how Incident Com- depend on what is found on the to reduce the risk to our manders accomplish their primary front lines. firefighters. 0

!Dear firefighters: deal with fire management and The 1994 fire season started early suppression in the wildland-urban and ran late-requiring 6 months interface. of extremely active firefighting, It We must help the American people was a year of great success and understand that fire management deep tragedy. The memory of and forest health are issues with- those firefighters and friends we out boundaries, involving all pub- lost is deep in our hearts. lic and private lands-urban, rural, JamesR.Lyons These are "defining" times. Con- and wildland. Together we have to gress and the public are challeng- find solutions. I have no new words of wisdom to ing all Federal agencies to pare Most important as we look toward convey the importance of down their operations and scruti- the future is to keep in mind firefighter safety. All the words nize all policies that affect the firefighter safety. The safety of ev- have been said and, sadly, so have economy and the environment. eryone in fire management opera- the eulogies. Aswe do this at the USDA Forest tions must continue to be our Firefighting is a high-risk calling. Service, I want to share with you paramount concern. This concern Let's dedicate our future efforts to some of the key issues we are fac- must be there at all times-as we honor those who so bravely have ing in the fire management make our plans, carry them out, served on the Nation's firelines in arena. The 1994 fire season really and evaluate them. We must the past and in memory of those drove home the challenges we clearly and repeatedly communi- we lost in 1994. In fact, in the fu- face and the directions in which cate the responsibility that each in- ture, let us redouble our efforts to we need to be heading. dividual firefighter and line make the work of fighting wild- manager holds. This issue of Fire fires as safe as it can be. As partners, we must come to Management Notes, devoted to terms with the tough decisions safety and disseminated to wild- Best personal regards. that we have to make regarding land firefighters across America, is how we'll use our limited re- • one of the ways we are facing the sources, what role forest manage- challenge of communicating this ~ ment can and should play in JamesR.Lyons concern. Under Secretary reducing wildfire risk, and how to NaturalResources and Environment Volume 55 • NO.3· 1995 I FIREFIGHTER SAFETY IN CHANGING FOREST ECOSYSTEMS

Jerry Williams

ollowing the magnitude of hu­ = man loss that we experienced in Unless we accept that the costs and risks involved F1994 and the severity of wild­ in using prescribed fire to treat fuels are far less fires that we have witnessed since than the consequences of inaction, we will leave 1985, the USDA Forest Service is re­ examining the factors that predis­ the next generation of firefighters at more serious pose the onset of severe wildfires risk than this generation has been. and, sometimes, tragedy,

We are very aware that many of few that, within the past decade, an essential role in regulating America's forests are not as healthy have all occurred in long-needle long-needle pine stands. In the as they were 100 years ago. We are pine ecosystems. These recent prolonged absence of surface fire, also aware that the firefighters' fire wildfires are far different from the these stands have undergone sig­ behavior environment may not be kind of fire witnessed a century nificant changes in species compo­ as safe as it was 100 years ago, par­ ago. Then periodic fires turned sition and structure which, in ticularly in long-needle pine and back encroaching small trees and turn, have predisposed them to se­ other short-interval, fire-adapted other less fire-tolerant species. vere wildfire (GrueIl1983). Figures ecosystems. These fires were generally low in­ 2 through 5 show the dramatic tensity and, although they could be change that has occurred in one of In the West, long-needle pine eco­ fast moving, were far less severe, these stands on the Bitterroot Na­ systems comprise ponderosa pine, less threatening, and much less tional Forest in western Montana sugar pine, white pine, and Jeffrey damaging than the fires we see on between 1909 and 1989. Notice the pine; in the South, the species are these same sites today. accumulation of understory biom­ loblolly, short-leaf, long-leaf, and ass. Today, under the influence of slash pine. In fact, these species In the past several years, we have drought, many of the encroaching range across about 30 percent of learned that these ecosystems ben­ understory species have died and, the acres under USDA Forest Ser­ efit from periodic, low-intensity as standing dead fuel, further exac­ vice protection. Figure 1 shows the fire. Prior to settlement, fire played erbate the chance that wildfires in general distribution of these species in the continental United States.

Of course, wildfires occur in a wide variety of fuel types and anyone of them can be dangerous. However, many of today's most significant wildfires are, paradoxically, occur­ ring in those ecosystems where fire was historically most benign. Wild­ fires named Tyee, Foothills, Foun­ tain, Black Tiger, Aubrey Hall, __..... pln. ~lIIit. pin. Hangman Hills, and Dude are but a Bil L..." • .,-n_ pi ... !IlIiI LoCI1.1i~-_tl pi ... l>oo._N_AlIu."_T>Poo'H'l Jerry Williams is assistantdirector for Operations, USDA Forest Service, Fire and AviationManagement, Washington, DC. Figure I-General distribution oflong-needle pine types in the continental United States. I Fire Management Notes Figure 2-This 1909 these ecosystems can be devastat­ photo ofLick Creekon ing. the Bitterroot National Forestin Montana shows an openponderosapine Fire-adapted forests have been so stand. Fire scars showed drastically transformed by the com­ a meanfire intervalof 7 years between1600and bined effects of overstory logging, 1900. Photo:W 1. grazing, and fire exclusion that the Lubken, USDA Forest very character of fires in these eco­ Service, 1909. systems has changed. In this 100­ year period, the forest has changed and fire behavior characteristics have changed too. Low-intensity stand maintenance burning, com­ Figure3-The camera mon a century ago, has been dis­ point in 1947 replicated placed by severe, stand replacement the originalpositionon Lick Creek. Photo: USDA burning today (Williams and ForestService. 1947. Rothermel 1992). Figure 6 shows the change in fire behavior charac­ teristics over time on the same site as forest stand characteristics be­ come more dense in the understory.

Today, the Forest Service uses pre­ scribed fire on about 450,000 acres (182,110 hal per year to reduce fuel loadings. It is estimated that we Figure 4-Once again the need to treat some 3,000,000 acres camerapoint was repli­ (1,214,000 hal per year in long­ cated in 1979, showing needle pine types alone to more that wildfireexclusion allowedponderosapine closely approximate the more natu­ and Douglas firto become ral, less severe fire cycle. establishedand develop into a dense understory, The largeponderosa pine Since the tragedies of the fire sea­ in the 1909and 1947 son of 1994, we have had a long pe­ photos was cut-as were riod of mourning, reflection, and other trees-during introspection within the wildland harvests in either 1952 or 1962.Photo: W 1. Reich, fire community. As we strengthen USDA Forest Service! our resolve to improve firefighter 1979. safety, we need to be mindful of the Figure 5-The Lick factors that set the stage for catas­ Creek photo point as it trophe. Our ability to change fuel appearedin 1989; note flammability characteristics is an the accumulation of important safety element we must understory biomass. Photo:USDA Forest not overlook. Hazard abatement Service, 1989. techniques, including prescribed fire, need to be more fully inte­ grated into our land management practices.

Fuel treatment is as important to ensuring firefighter safety as is ad- . herence to the 10 Standard Fire Or­ ders or the correct use of Nomex Continued on page 8 Volume 55 • No.3. 1995 I protective clothing and fire shel­ ters. It is time we accept that the costs and risks involved in using prescribed fire to treat fuels are far less than the consequences of inac­ tion. To do anything less will leave the next generation of firefighters at more serious risk than this gen­ eration has been. Literature Cited Gmell, George E. 1983.Fire and vegetative trendsin the northern Rockies: Inter­ pretations from 1871-1982 photographs. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-158. Ogden, UTo U.S.,Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,Intermountain Forestand Range Experiment Station. 117 p Williams, J.T.,: Rothermel. R.C. 1992'. Fire Figure 6-A ~omparisonof fire dynamics between fire-mai~tained and Iire-exclud. d dynamics in northern Rocky Mountain [onq-needle pme types. e stand types. Res. Note INT-405. Ogden UTo U.S. Department ofAgriculture, , ForestService, Intermountain Research Station. 4 p. 0

S.s1ety First-lEvery we will have "zero tolerance" for FIre. lEvery lime unsafe behaviors and activities dur­ ing fire suppression operations Aswe reflect on the 1994 fire sea­ that can cause (or have caused) ac­ son and other recent and past cidents. As we focus on firefighter devastating wildland fires safety, it is paramount that these firefighter safety stands out as a safe practices become a major concern. But this concern "Firefighter Code of Conduct." is not a temporary phenom­ Jack Ward enon-we all know that safety is Thomas In 1937, David Godwin, national an ongoing responsibility. It is must consider the safety of our fire director for the Forest Service not "someone else's" job nor the workforce in future fire seasons. said that in our "control of forest ' province of a single staffing area. As is appropriate for our agency fires some accidents will occur­ Because the USDA Forest Service all of our employees help prote~t just as in city fire protection­ is responsible for about 80 per­ our natural resources. Now and in without fault or failure on the part cent of the wildland firefighting the future, more of us must be of anyone." While he was certainly business, our agency must take prepared to support fire emergen­ correct that there are many haz­ primary responsibility for cies when they occur. We must ards associated with wildland fire firefighter safety. have capable leadership, astute operations, we can ensure that our management, and well-qualified firefighters are 100 percent pre­ We all know why we fight fires on personnel. We can do nothing pared. They must have the best our wildlands-to protect lives, less. equipment available and be thor­ property, and resource values. oughly trained to carry out their "Protecting lives" always comes I wish you well in your mission. first-and those lives include firefighting responsibilities in the those of our firefighters. In the future. We all know that our agency is un­ future, as the Secretary ofAgri­ dergoing great changes in the culture and Secretary of the Inte­ downsizing and restructuring pro­ rior have stated elsewhere in this cess. As we make decisions, we issue of Fire Management Notes, Jack WardThomas, Chief I Fire Management Notes PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT IN WILDFIRE ENTRAPMENTS1

Richard J. Mangan

issoula Technology and De­ flame contact and extremely velopment Center (MTDC) MTDC evaluates high temperatures, conditions Mfire equipment specialists protective equipment that exceeded the design criteria routinely investigate wildland fire and techniques to of the shelters. The shelters entrapments to ensure that failed to protect them. firefighting equipment and tech­ ensure firefighter • Several individuals deployed niques are appropriate. In 1993 safety. " their fire shelters perpendicular and 1994, these specialists investi­ to the flame front rather than gated entrapments in Arizona, parallel, increasing the surface California, Colorado, Georgia, and firefighters must get shelters out area subjected to radiant heat New Mexico and made some im­ and get rid of packs, which slow and reducing the value of the portant observations about the per­ up escape and deployment and shelter. formance and use of personal may ignite on firefighters. • A fire shelter with a 3-foot (91­ protective equipment (PPE). They • As they walked along a narrow em) tear, caused by a person try­ also generated some recommenda­ jeep trail above the fire, five indi­ ing to get under another's tions for proper use of PPE to viduals used their partially shelter, provided adequate pro­ avoid injury. While sizes, locations, opened fire shelters as heat tection for the entrapped fuel types, and burning conditions shields. They did not fully deploy firefighters. of wildland fires vary across the their shelters in the recom­ United States, similarities in the mended manner and may have use of PPE allow all firefighters to endangered themselves by being benefit from a review of these en­ in a zone where super-heated air trapments. and gases could have damaged their respiratory systems. Their Fire Shelters fire shelters provided clearer air and shielded them against some Fire shelters were used to protect of the radiant heat. some firefighters from high levels • Many individuals traveling along of radiant heat in the entrapments. roads to larger safety zones in­ Information gathered from the haled harmful amounts of smoke MTDC investigations includes: and subjected themselves to ra­ • Firefighters are still trying to diant heat without deploying outrun flame fronts while carry­ their fire shelters as shields. ing heavy packs. They are sel­ • Individuals attempting to outrun dom successful. When a flame front moved through ex­ entrapment is imminent, cellent shelter deployment sites J without recognizing them. DickMangan is program leader for Fire and Aviation Management, USDA Forest • Both a jeep trail 8 feet (2.4 m) Service,Missoula Technology and wide and a forest road 16 feet George Jackson, fireequipment specialist Development Center, Missoula, MT. (4.9 m) wide provided adequate at MTDC, disptays thermal protective areas to safely deploy fire shel­ clalhing and PPEincluding hardhat, "l'his article, in part, was first published as "Lessons Nomex clothing, leather gloves, and fire Learned: The Use of Personal Protective Equipment on ters. sheller. Photo:Jim Kautz, USDA Forest Wildland Fire Entrapments in 1993" in the April 1994 • Some individuals deployed their Service,MTDC, Missoula, MT, 1990. issue of Fire Tech Tips, published by the USDAForest Service's Technology and Development Program, shelters in areas subject to direct Missoula, MT. Continued on page 10 Volume 55 • No.3. 1995 I o Two individuals survived under one fire shelter (without inju­ ries) when one person was un­ able to deploy his shelter quickly enough. o Several fire shelters showed some sign of wear inside the clear polyvinyl bags but per­ formed satisfactorily in use. However, these shelters had not been properly inspected. o Several entrapped firefighters failed to have their fire shelters with them on the fire. o People are still failing to lie on the ground before the flame front catches them. The air within 18 inches (46 ern) of the Jim Kautz photographing PPE usedin a 1993 fire entrapment on the Buchanan fire, ground is often sufficiently cool Santa FeNationalForest. Photo: DickMangan, USDA Forest Service, MTDC, Missoula, to protect the respiratory system MT, 1993. even when no fire shelter is used. functioned as designed and pro­ fireline. These garments do not o Several individuals wore gloves vided thermal radiation protec­ offer adequate levels of protec­ that were too bulky to allow tion. tion from radiant heat and are them to remove shelters from o Radiant heat in the 400-600 OF not NFPA-1977 compliant. the carrying case without re­ (204-316 °C) range will not dam­ o One individual who did not de­ moving their gloves; others had age line gear. Some damage and ploy his fire shelter had his face oily gloves that slipped when burning occurred when flam­ and neck shroud tucked inside they tried to pull the tabs on mable items such as fusees or his hardhat and failed to let it their fire shelter case. saw gas containers, left in the down when entrapped. He suf­ firefighter's field pack, caught fered minor burns to his ears Other Personal fire. Fusees will self-ignite at when the fire burned by him. Protective Equipment 375 of (191°C); the igniter por­ o Close-fitting face and neck tion burns at 3,300 OF (1,820 °C) The MTDC investigators learned shrouds restrict breathing and the following about the perfor­ and the main portion of the fu­ are uncomfortable. The lack of see continues to burn at 1,600 an insulating air layer between mance of other items of PPE on these entrapments: OF (870°C). These temperatures the shroud and skin increases far exceed the design limitations the heat load the wearer suffers o Several individuals who at­ of the PPE. and can lead to burns from di­ tempted to outrun the fire on o All individuals entrapped were rect contact with the shroud or steep slopes lost their hardhats wearing cotton or cotton/polyes­ from radiant heat. At least one because they were not using the ter mix t-shirts; both short­ firefighter was so uncomfortable chin straps. Hardhats provide sleeved and long-sleeved while running from the fire that critical thermal protection for versions were used. Although he opened the shroud to breath the head and reduce direct expo­ charring occurred, none of these more easily. sure to radiant heat or actual items ignited. The extra insula­ o One individual did not wear flame. tion between the Nomex outer gloves while constructing o Nomex shirts and overpants on shirt and the firefighter's skin fireline; when he tried to outrun several individuals were sub­ reduced burn injury by about 15 a quick-moving flame front, he jected to temperatures in excess percent. received third-degree radiant of 600 OF (316°C). These items o Some individuals wore military burns on his hands. Nomex flight suits on the

Fire Management Notes TedPutnam. MTDC fire • Leather lace-up boots provided equipment specialist, good protection for entrapped examines PPEduring an investigation after the Glen firefighters. No burn injuries to Allen fire on the Angeles the feet occurred when exposure National Forest in 1993. was in the protection range of During an entrapment at this site, two firefighters were the other PPE. One person wore killed and two were severely plastic boots, which are hazard­ burned. Photo:DickMongan, ous in a fire environment, do not USDA ForestService,MTDG, meet minimum safety standards, Missoula, MT, 1993. and may contribute to foot in­ jury. Recommendations While wildland firefighters do not expect to be entrapped on fire as­ signments, the possibility always exists. To minimize injuries, firefighters must plan their reac­ tions in case of entrapment. Fol­ lowing are some recommendations for actions that could be critical for survival: • Select escape routes and safety zones carefully. Consider the po­ • Always carry your fire shelter extremely smoky conditions, de­ tential rate of fire spread and the where it can be quickly reached, ploy the shelter and lie on the fire intensity of the fuels to allow even if you are on the run. Never ground to minimize smoke inha­ sufficient time to escape. carry your shelter inside your lation, even when burn injury is • Always use all assigned PPE in field pack. unlikely. the method intended (e.g., • Inspect your fire shelter annu­ • If no other alternative exists, sleeves down on shirts and ally at the start of each fire sea­ share a fire shelter with another gloves on). son, and reinspect it regularly firefighter. • When entrapped with no escape (every 2 weeks) throughout the • Do not wear face and neck route, lie face down on the fire season. Specific information shrouds on a regular basis; they ground where cooler air will on inspecting fire shelters can be cause heat stress and may tempt help protect your airway, even if found in the publication "In­ you to take more chances. Wear you cannot get into your fire specting your Fire Shelter," them when previously safe con­ shelter. Before the high heat ar­ available from the address at the ditions worsen and when escape rives, be inside your fire shelter. end of this article. or entrapment action becomes • During an entrapment, always • Practice deployments. you likely, remove all flammable materials should be able to properly deploy such as fusees, saw gas contain­ and be within your shelter in MTDC will continue to evaluate ers, and oil-soaked packs imme­ less than 25 seconds. Practice protective equipment and tech­ diately, even ifyou must sites should include steep, un­ niques to ensure firefighter safety. complete removal while you are even ground. Use large fans to Remember, following these recom­ lying on the ground or in your simulate the high wind condi­ mendations could save your life! shelter. Push your pack well tions that often occur on wild­ For additional information, con­ away from others and yourself. land fire entrapments. tact Dick Mangan, MTDC, Bldg. 1, • Never begin an operational pe­ • Refresh your fire shelter training Ft. Missoula, Missoula, MT59801; riod with clothing or PPE that every year and completely re­ tel. 406-329-3949; Fax 406-329­ has gas, oil, or other flammable train every 3 years. 3719. 0 materials on it. •A shelter may prevent minor burns and smoke inhalation. In Volume 55 • No.3. 1995 I ~~~ FOREST SERVICE A POTENTIAL LIFE SAVER­ __ _ TECHNOLOGY & == ~...:= DEVELOPMENT TRAINING WITH A PRACTICE == ~ PROGRAM FIRE SHELTER

Kevin Lee

Why Train With a Practice Shelter? Firefighters must rely on tools at sures that the firefighter maxi­ Using a practice fire shelter and hand on the fireline. However, if mizes the effectiveness of the one materials mentioned in the ac­ they haven't received sufficient tool that is a proven lifesaver. Hun­ companying article during train­ training, they won't be able to use dreds have been saved from injury ing can help firefighters deploy these tools effectively. Prior train­ or death through the proper use of their fire shelters quickly and ing with a practice fire shelter en- the fire shelter. safely during wildland firefighting,

ildland firefighting is an in­ herently dangerous activity. WFuel types, topography, weather, time of day-these are just a few factors that playa major role in the behavior of a particular fire. With so many variables­ some changing drastically from minute to minute-the potential for a life-threatening event occur­ ring during the suppression of a wildland fire is very real. When seconds count, firefighters faced with a fire entrapment must be able to deploy their fire shelters quickly and effectively. Hundreds have already been saved from in­ jury or death through the proper use of the fire shelter. A comparison of an actual fire shelterwith a practice fire shelter (in orangecase). The practiceshelter, reusable duringrepeatedpracticesessions, enables firefighters to get In order to ensure that firefighters sufficient training in shelter deployment. Photo: Jim Kautz, USDAForest Service, MTDC, are safely inside their fire shelter Missoula, MT, 1994. " within 25 seconds, they must re­ ceive sufficient training to make deployments. By repeatedly prac­ Why Practice Shelter 1 the deployment procedure auto­ ticing the procedure, the Training Is Essential matic. Only one training technique firefighter soon becomes more Using an actual fire shelter for adequately provides this: practice proficient at getting the shelter de­ training poses several problems. ployed and getting inside. Once a fire shelter has been re­ Firefighters have long needed a moved from its plastic container Kevin Lee is a forestry technician forthe shelter that allows practice deploy­ USDAForest Service, Missoula Technology and unfolded, it cannot be ad­ andDevelopmentCenter. Missoula, MT. ment, and it is now available. equately refolded and put back in

Fire Management Notes .Oneof the publications . ---. the case. Also, folding and refold­ -. - about using fire shelters ing a fire shelter soon causes properly that is ~~~~tJ6RTE SHELTER available from NlFCin HE BASICS cracking and tearing along fold Boise, lD. Photo: Jim PMS 409 lines. After a relatively few uses, II Kautz, USDA Forest the fire shelter is worthless, even ! Service, MTDC, Missoula, MT, 1994. as a training tool. In addition, us­ ing fire shelters for training is very expensive. I The Missoula Technology and De­ I velopment Center (MTDC) has ad­ dressed this concern by taking a practice fire shelter designed by Facilitator's Guide the California Department of Cor­ JUNE 1991 /lFES Z179 rections and the California Depart­ ment of Forestry and Fire Protection and preparing drawings and specifications for the procure­ ment of a standardized practice fire The practice fire shelter has an in­ shelter. Remember the optimal shelter. The practice shelter is ternational orange outer container survival zone is within a foot (30 available in the 1995 GSA Wildland that is clearly marked "Practice em) of the ground with or with­ Fire Catalog for $30.54 including Shelter," eliminating the chance of out a fire shelter. shelter, liner, and case. Ordering confusing it with the yellow-en­ • Getting rid of flammable materi­ information: NFES #2407; NSN cased fire shelter. Although con­ als (fusees, saw gas, etc.) includ­ 6930-01-387-8543. structed from a different material ing after you are inside the than the fire shelter, the practice shelter. Attributes of the fire shelter shakes out and unfolds • Using large fans and steep ter­ Practice Shelter with the same "feel" as a fire shel­ rain to add realistic conditions to ter. the training. The practice fire shelter is made of • Employing the technique of vi­ polyethylene, which will allow for Other Shelter Training sualization to enhance the learn­ repeated use (estimated 50-75 Materials Available ing process. times). It folds back to its original size, readily slipping back into the When combined with reading and viewing materials produced by These materials are readily avail­ protective inner bag. The inner bag MTDC concerning fire shelters, the able through the National Wildfire is constructed of the same polyvi­ practice fire shelter is the perfect Coordinating Group (NWCG) Pub­ nyl material as the protective inner lications Management System bag for fire shelters, but the polyvi­ hands-on training tool. "Your Fire Shelter" (PMS 409-11NFES 1570 Unit. Orders may be mailed or nyl is thicker and has a Velcro clo­ faxed to: National Interagency Fire sure instead of a tear strip. The (In press), "Your Fire Shelter Be­ yond The Basics" (Facilitator's Center (NIFC); Attn: Supply; 3833 Velcro ring pull is a continuous South Development Avenue,, Boise strip and can be opened from ei­ Guide PMS409INFES 2179, May 1995), and the older video "Your ID 83705-5354; Fax: 208-389-2573/ ther side of the inner bag, reflect­ Fire Shelter" (PMS 409INFES 2548. ing the design modification in the fire shelter inner bag. 1568, 1986) are excellent guides to the correct fire shelter use. They For more information or to ask any questions regarding the prac­ The newer fire shelters have poly­ explain the proper methods for ef­ fective fire shelter use and training tice fire shelter, contact Ted vinyl inner bags with ring-pull tear Putnam, MTDC, Bldg. 1, Ft. strips that encircle the bag. With techniques, stressing many impor­ tant points such as: Missoula, Missoula, MT59801 or an initial cost comparable to a fire telephone 406-329-3900. His elec­ shelter, the practice fire shelter is a • Getting down low, even before tronic mailing address is FSWAI cost-effective solution to an impor­ you deploy your shelter or for [email protected] tant training need. that matter, even if you have no and his Fax is 406-329-3719. 0 Volume 55 • No.3' 1995 I HUMAN DECISIONMAKING ~Unlversltyofldaho IN THE FIRE ENVIRONMENT

Curt C. Braun and Buck Latapie

= !! Fight fire aggressively, but provide for safety first" not Although we would like to think that humans only represents the first are efficient and accurate decisionmakers, Standard Fire Order but also char­ research clearly shows that human acterizes the drive to advance sup­ pression technology. Toward this decisionmaking can be less than perfect; stress goal, considerable gain has been has been shown to adversely influence decision achieved in areas of aviation, fire quality in a variety of ways. prevention, suppression tactics, = fire behavior, and equipment tech­ nology (Wilson 1989). Although physical fitness to training. Al­ Firefighter substantial energy has been dedi­ though this representation is cated to understanding the nature rather arbitrary, it serves three of fire, these efforts have been purposes: clearly skewed in favor of what • It divides the larger fire suppres­ might be considered the more tan­ sion task into elements that can gible aspects of fire (e.g., fuel mod­ be more closely examined. els, fire behavior, suppressing • It clearly differentiates the chemicals, and use of equipment). firefighter from the equipment. Today, firefighters possess a greater • Most importantly, it identifies knowledge and understanding of Fire Equipment the human as integral to all sup­ fire behavior, suppression tactics, Figure I.-The firesuppression triangle. pression efforts. retardant effectiveness, equipment use, and weather prediction than fire location. This report does not Ofthe three components, the least ever before. Yet firefighters them­ consider the inherent qualities of selves are one aspect of the fire en­ emphasis has been placed on the the crew that might influence pro­ human. The difficulties associated vironment that has received duction. disproportionately less attention. with identifying and understanding factors that influence human be­ The Suppression havior, however, should not imply A survey of the relevant literature Triangle revealed few writings concerned that they are insignificant or in­ with the human aspect of suppres­ Efficient fire suppression contains consequential. On the contrary, sion. For example, the report of three components, all of which the human represents the single Haven et al. (1982) examining the contribute to the success or failure largest aspect of fire control (be­ production rates of hand crews re­ of a suppression effort: the fire en­ sides Mother Nature) that influ­ lied solely on qualities of the fire. vironment, equipment, and ences the success or failure of all Production rates were based upon firefighters (see fig. 1). In the sup­ fire suppression. One aspect of the factors such as the fuel's resis­ pression triangle, "equipment" can human that has the greatest poten­ tance-to-control classification and range from hardhats and shovels to tial to affect the success or failure bulldozers and air tankers. "Fire" of a suppression effort is Curt C. Braun is an assistantprofessor in ranges from fire basics to complex decisionmaking. Here we focus on the Department ofPsucholoau. University fuel and spread models. "Fire­ the decisionrnaking process and ofIdaho, Moscow. [D, and Buck Latapie is a fire training andsafety specialist for the fighter" comprises aspects of indi­ identify characteristics of humans USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest viduals and crews, ranging from that might influence the quality of Region, Portland, OR. the decisions we make. I Fire Management Notes Characteristics of situations in the fire environment lete. When the coaches and Human Decisionmaking that might be particularly suscep­ sportwriters were informed that a Everyone involved in firefighting is tible to these human imperfec­ professional player had come from a decisionmaker. An overhead team tions: decisions requiring the the same town as the high must decide among suppression integration of multiple pieces of schoolers, however, the rankings of strategies. Division supervisors information, decisions made with­ the prospective players increased. must decide how to deploy re­ out feedback, and decisions made sources. Crew superintendents under stress. The fact that a piece of information must decide how long their crews is salient does not imply that it is should stay in deteriorating condi­ Integrating Multiple important. It is extremely unlikely tions. Finally, individual Pieces of Information that a town's history of profes­ firefighters might have to decide if It seems reasonable to think that sional athletes would affect the a burning root poses any threat of having more information leads to performance of an individual foot­ crossing the line. better decisions. Yet most deci­ ball player, yet the saliency of the sions are made with only a few information still influenced the Although we like to think that hu­ pieces of information, independent coaches' decisionmaking process. mans are efficient and accurate of what information is available In fact, what is salient might have decisionmakers, research clearly (e.g., how much information do little bearing on the decision at shows that decisions can be ad­ most people have when deciding to hand. For instance, when versely influenced by certain purchase a specific car?). Research firefighters know that structures decisionmaking processes that are evaluating how humans use infor­ are being threatened, that salient efficient but imperfect. Unlike mation in the decision making pro­ information might inappropriately computers that make decisions cess has shown that additional affect decisions regarding based upon systematic algorithms, information typically fails to im­ firefighting tactics. human decisionmaking is com­ prove the quality of the decision. monly based on general rules-of­ Assessing the thumb called heuristics. An Our capacity to remember and Reliability of the example of a heuristic is the mne­ mentally manipulate information InformatIon monic "right is tight; left is loose." places restrictions on the amount The process of selecting what in­ In the majority of situations, me­ of decisionmaking data that can be formation will be useful is con­ chanical objects have right-handed processed. Given these limitations, strained by yet another threads and are consistent with the humans actively filter information decisionrnaking limitation. When rule. However, sometimes the rule before making a decision. Wallsten faced with multiple pieces of infor­ fails. The small propane tank on and Barton (1982), for example, mation, humans tend to regard all certain kinds of outdoor barbecues found that decisionmakers, when the information "as if' it possesses has a left-hand thread; thus the under the stress of time con­ the same informative value heuristic would tighten rather straints and multiple pieces of (Wickens 1992). Consider the foot­ than loosen fitting. What heuris­ data, filter out the unassuming ball example above where tics lack in accuracy, however, they data in favor of the salient and decisionmakers assigned equal compensate for in efficiency. By re­ attention-getting information. weight to both the high school per­ membering a simple rule, we can Although this process is effective formance of an athlete and his assemble or disassemble the ma­ in reducing the amount of data, it hometown, ignoring the fact that jority of mechanical objects. assumes that the saliency of the one's hometown does little to pre­ information is equal to its impor­ dict future football achievement. It is unlikely that the safety of a tance. This, however, is not always Similar situations can occur in the firefighter would be jeopardized by the case. Gilovich (1981), for ex­ fire environment. When attempt­ an inability to disconnect a pro­ ample, asked sportswriters and ing to mentally predict fire spread, pane tank from a barbecue. This football coaches to evaluate the po­ a firefighter might place equal im­ example, however, reflects the fact tential of several fictitious high portance on information about fuel that human decisionmaking is not school football players. As ex­ type, slope, wind, and relative hu­ as systematic as expected. There pected, decisions were made based midity. Realistically, the weather are at least three decisionmaking upon past performances of the ath- Continued on page 16 Volume 55 • No.3· 1995 I might be the single best predictor life. Communicating with Presi­ light failed to indicate that the of fire spread. In this situation, the dent Truman about the feasibility landing gear had properly ex­ firefighter might overemphasize of the atomic bomb, Admiral Will­ tended. In reality, the landing gear the effects of fuel type, slope, and iam Leahy is quoted as saying, was in place, but the light bulb was relative humidity and under­ "That is the biggest fool thing we burned out. Unfortunately, the emphasize wind. have ever done. The bomb will crew, under stress, focused on the never go off, and I speak as an ex­ landing light and failed to respond Making Decisions in pert in explosives" (Myers 1993). to an altitude warning. The aircraft the Absence of Although feedback is essential for slowly descended into the ground, Feedback decisionrnaking, timely feedback and all of the passengers and crew might not be available in many were killed. . Feedback is fundamental to learn­ complex environments. The ab­ ing and decision making, for it al­ sence of feedback will result in lows us to evaluate the quality of A similar stress reaction might ex­ little learning and in confidence previous decisions. In trial-and­ plain the ever-increasing number levels that exceed an individual's error learning, error represents the of fire shelter incidents. When abilities. Firefighters are not im­ feedback that prompts changes in faced with the increasing activity mune to these problems. Whether future trials. Without feedback, the of a fire and the prospect of being it be an overhead team's confi­ learning process degrades from a trapped, firefighters might focus dence in a suppression strategy, a trial-and-error to a trial-and-trial inappropriately on a single ele­ division supervisor's confidence in process, a method guaranteed to ment of the situation while disre­ completing a section of handline, produce little, if any, learning. In garding other important sources of or a crew's confidence that a sec­ the fire environment, feedback information. tion of line will hold, feedback is concerning a particular suppres­ needed not only to promote learn­ sion tactic might be delayed or not Stress also decreases the human's ing but also to keep confidence lev­ exist. capacity to mentally manipulate els in check. information (Daviesand Feedback not only facilitates learn­ Parasuraman 1982) and signifi­ ing; it provides a benchmark Decisionmaking Under cantly reduces the ability to con­ against which we can evaluate the Stress sider the whole problem or other confidence we place in our deci­ By now it is apparent that human possible solutions. Wright (1974), sions. Without feedback, already decisionrnaking is less than per­ for example, found that decision high confidence levels can far ex­ fect. The degree to which these im­ quality decreased as time con­ ceed our performance capability. perfections adversely affect straints, distractions, and amount Excessively high confidence levels decisions will vary. However, there of obtained information increased. are a consistent feature of human is one aspect of environment that Stress has also been shown to nar­ decision making. For example, complicates the situation-stress. row the ability to retrieve informa­ Kahneman and Tversky (1979) The combination of these imper­ tion from long-term memory. In asked people to fill in the blanks in fections and stress can place new stressful situations, humans are the following sentence. "I feel 98 limitations on human more likely to resort to well­ percent certain that the air dis­ decisionmaking. learned or overlearned skills and tance between New Delhi and behavior (Allnut 1987). Research Beijing is more than _ miles but Stress has been shown to adversely shows that under conditions of less than _ miles"." While about influence decision quality in a vari­ stress, operators shift from a slow, one-third of the respondents iden­ ety of ways. For example, stress accurate process to a fast, error­ tified ranges that were incorrect, can cause decisionmakers to inap­ prone process (Hockey 1986). Fi­ they reported being 98 percent propriately focus on only a few ele­ nally, stress produces a type of confident of their answers. What ments of the situation. Consider action tunneling (Cowen 1952) has been termed the overconfi­ the actions of crew members on that might cause a firefighter to dence phenomenon (Fishhoff et al. board a jet that crashed into the continue to apply inappropriate so­ 1977) is apparent in many facets of Everglades. Although most of the lutions to the fire situation when flight was uneventful, while on ap­ other, more effective solutions are -rhe air distance between New Delhi and Beijing is proach to the-airport a landing available. 2,500 miles (4,023 km). I Fire Management Notes Improving All too often, these evaluations are addressed the human tendency to Decisionmaking provided by individuals who lack consider only information that Poor or inadequate decision­ the experience and technical exper­ supports a particular decision by making at any level of a suppres­ tise to make a valid assessment forcing decisionmakers to consider sion effort might have disastrous (e.g., the media or politicians). other alternatives. For instance results. The ultimate goal is to ap­ they found that the accuracy of' propriately address areas that There are two possible sources of predictions given by weather fore­ might be prone to decisionmaking feedback. First, a system of peer re­ casters improved when the fore­ imperfections and stress effects. view might serve as a potential casters were required to consider Efforts to improve fire-line source of feedback. For example, reasons why their predictions decisionrnaking can be aimed at the interaction of less-experienced might be wrong. firefighters with well-seasoned }, three areas: decision aids feed- back, and training. ' firefighters would provide feedback When training individuals to work at the time of the decision. Ideally, in stressful environments, Wickens during the training assignment (1992) presents three broad guide­ I The broad classification of "deci­ phase, evaluators could predict lines: sion aids" includes a variety of de­ consequences of proposed actions. vices that range in complexity. For • The training should be extensive example, an aid might be as simple = and focus on key procedures that as a checklist that presents the ''Training should include _ are required. The aim is to en­ Standard Fire Orders or as com­ sure that required procedures plex as a computerized fire-growth the anticipation, are branded into long-term model. Independent of the level of planning, and rehearsal memory so they can be easily re­ complexity, these aids should ad­ of actions that are trieved. dress the shortcomings of human necessary in stressful • Training should be as consistent decisionmaking. In other words, across situations as possible. an aid should provide valid predic­ conditions." • Training should include the an­ tions, minimize demands on men­ ticipation, planning, and re­ tal manipulation, facilitate the hearsal of actions that are compilation of multiple pieces of Another source of feedback might necessary in stressful conditions. information, and provide clear take the form of a postseason peer decisionmaking steps for stressful review of selected fires. This pro­ Conclusion situations. Tojudge the utility of cess would, however, require the collection of enough data to allow Decisionmaking represents one the decision aid, however, feedback human characteristic that can must be provided. for a sufficient review. Its largest shortcoming centers on the long greatly influence the safety and ef­ fectiveness of firefighters. Al­ At times we are fortunate to see delay between the decisions and the observed results. The use of though imperfections in human the results of decisionrnaking. For decision making are relatively con­ example, the Yellowstone fires of simulation would be an ideal source of feedback. Braun (1993) sistent across individuals, they are 1988 provided feedback for earlier not insurmountable. Simply tell­ decisions. Most of the time how­ noted that low-cost simulations on a personal computer could serve as ing people that their decisions ever, the results of decisions in the might be adversely influenced by fire environment go unnoticed. an excellent tool for providing de­ cision feedback. these imperfections might serve to For instance, a crew member who minimize their effects. Moreover, decides not to check for spotting Finally, training can be used to ad­ the use of innovative decision aids, across the line might never know simulations, training packages, that this decision resulted in more dress shortcomings in human decisionmaking. This training, like and systematic feedback can only acres burned. Moreover, it is diffi­ serve to improve firefighter perfor­ cult to guess the impact of decid- decision aids, varies in complexity. For example, Lopes (1982) reduced mance. Ultimately, we must realize . ing not to burn out a piece of line. that the decisionmaking process is Feedback is often a luxury afforded the effects of decision biases by simply informing the less than perfect, but with the ap­ only by a system that evaluates the propriate research, technology, progression of a suppression effort. decisionmakers that the imperfec­ tions existed. Koriat et al. (1980) Continued on page 18 Volume 55 • NO.3· 1995 L training, and feedback, the process propriateness of extremeconfidence. Koriat, A., Lichtenstein, S.; Fischhoff, B. of fire line decisionmaking can be Journal of Experimental Psychology: (1980).Reasonsfor confidence.Journal Human Perception and Performance. 3: of Experimental Psychology: Human enhanced. 552-564. Learning and Memory. 6: 107-118. Gilovich T. (1981). Seeing the past in the Lopes, L.L. (1982,October). Procedural present: The effectof associations to fa­ debiasing. Tech.Report WHIPP 15. Literature Cited miliar eventson judgementsand deci­ Madison, WI: Wisconsin Human Infor­ Allnut, M.F. (1987). Human factors in acci­ sions. Journal of Personality andSocial mationProcessing Program. dents. British Journal of Anaesthesia. Psychology. 40: 797-808. Myers, D.G. (1993). Social psychology. New 59: 856-864. Haven,L.; Hunter, P.; Storey, T.G. (1982). York: McGraw-Hill. 50. Braun, C.C. (1993,February). Application Production ratesforcrewsusing hand Wallsten,T.S.; Barton, C. (1982).Process­ of simulation in recurrency training. In­ tools on firelines. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW­ ing probabilistic multidimensional in­ vited presentation at the National Wild­ 62. Department of Agriculture, Forest formation fordecisions.Journal of ~I land Coordinators Group Meeting, Service, Pacific SouthwestForestand Experimental Psychology; Learning, Jacksonville, FL. (Information available Range Experimentation Station. Memory and Cognition. 8: 361-384. from the author of this article.) Hockey, G.R.!. (1986). Changes in operator Wickens, C.D. (1992).Engineering psy­ I' Cowen, E.L. (1952). The influence of vary­ efficiency as a function of environmen­ chologyand human performance. New ing degrees of psychosocial stresson tal stress, fatigue, andcircadian York: HarperCollins: 258-311. problem-solving rigidity. Journal ofAb­ rhythms. In: Boff, K.R.; Kaufman, L.; Wilson, J.F. (1989). Majortransitions in normal and SocialPsychology. 47: 512­ Thomas, J.P.eds. Handbookof percep­ firefighting. FireManagement Notes: 519. tion and human performance (vol.II). 50(1): 6-8. Davies, D.R.; Parasuraman, R. (1982). The NewYork: Wiley. 44-1--44-49. Wright, P. (1974).The harassed decision psychology ofvigilance. London: Aca­ Kahneman, D.; Tversky, A. (1979). Intui­ maker: Time pressures, distractions, and demicPress. tive prediction: Biasesand corrective the use of evidence. Journal ofApplied Pischhoff B.; Slavic, P.; Lichtenstein, S. procedures. Management Science. 12: Psychology. 59: 555-561. 0 (1977). Knowing with certainty: The ap- 313-327.

I Fire Management Notes ATTITUDE CHECK

Bill Fish

uch has been said in recent to be getting the bottom of the bar­ months about having a "pas­ Firefighters need a rel when it comes to fire assign­ Msion for safety," holding indi­ positive attitude to think ments. What's wrong with those viduals directly accountable for clearly, act decisively, people in dispatch? They need to safety, and strengthening our "sen­ do a better job of assigning the sitivity to basic safety standards so and do their jobs safely. good fires." Or have you ever been they permeate every fiber of our = -_.- = dispatched to a fire only to find out strategy, tactics, and basic fire op­ that someone else had been there erations." These are certainly basic culties, and inconveniences have a before your crew and barely tenets of a fire suppression ethic profound effect on our frame of scratched a fire line? When the fire where attention to safety is of para­ mind and our ability to focus at­ kicks up again, crosses the line, mount importance. tention on safe processes. We know and makes a run, you might what safety is, we know what grumble, "What's the matter with Our training materials, handbooks, things to watch out for, but our those folks; can't they do the job and manuals all include strongly ability to concentrate on this as­ right? Why do we have to come worded references to safety. For ex­ pect of our wildfire suppression re­ back and do the job they should ample, The Fireline Handbook sponsibility often is impaired by have done in the first place?" Or, states, "Each individual and espe­ barriers that are a part of every in­ have you ever been left out on the cially supervisors have and must cident we get assigned to-from line past your scheduled pickup redeem their safety responsibility" the smallest lightning fire to the time because of human error? Did (NWCG 1989). There is virtually no largest project fire. you ever have trouble getting place where our attention to safety equipment from supply? These is left out or not emphasized. To be sure, firefighting operations situations are not that uncommon have come a long way over the over the course of a fire season for We know how to do the suppres­ years. We now have some conve­ many reasons. Sometimes one or sion job safely. There was little niences that not too many years more of these events can occur learned during the last fire season ago were unheard of or impossible over the course of a line shift. to drastically change our funda­ to access. Attention to crew well­ mental tactical approach to fight­ being is constantly a point of em­ Now how do you suppose these ing wildfires. Our approaches to phasis. We have guidelines for events (or combination of events) teaching firefighting techniques rotating crews between rest and impact your ability to do the job are solid. recreation and active duty-guide­ safely? The answer to this question lines that are an important aspect might be that it shouldn't have an To truly focus on our "passion" for of fire resource management. Even impact, but the real answer is that safety, however, there is one aspect with these improvements, how­ it probably does. It takes special at­ of our daily awareness that needs ever, we still need to deal with such tention and vigilance not to allow attention. Our emphasis on doing intangible factors as crew morale, these common occurrences to in­ this dangerous job safely needs to frame of mind, and the very strong fluence or mask attention to safe be fine-tuned with a discussion link between these psychological firefighting tactics. Being physi­ about incident attitude or outlook states and our ability to concen­ cally tired, emotionally out of and an awareness that some orga­ trate on doing the job safely. sorts, or even uptight about the nizational situations, physical diffi- coming assignment are potential Have you ever been dispatched to a indicators of a poor frame of mind Bill Fish is the staffofficer ofOperations fire thinking "Why didn't we get (Aviation and Fire Management and that need attention. Timber and Range) for the USDAForest sent to Arizona (or wherever) in­ Seruice, Ochoco NationalForest, stead of that crew? They got the Prineville, OR. last good fire, and we always seem Continued on page 20 I Volume 55 • No.3. 1995 L Of course, we as firefighters have cess allows crews assigned to any won't be at risk. Teamwork is an the right and responsibility to incident the opportunity to review integral part of wildfire suppres­ point out a mismanaged situation. their individual incident experi­ sion activities. Teamwork is needed Knowing we have a chance for ence and know their review will to do our job safely. Incident atti­ feedback to our supervisors and feed back to the incident manage­ tude needs to be positive so that it that they will respond to our feed­ ment structure and responsible does not impair our ability to think back should also improve our atti­ line officer. clearly and act decisively. tude in the long run. Similar to how we provide post-incident crew In closing, I urge that all of us con­ Literature Cited and individual performance ap­ tinue to be aware, take stock of our National Wildfire Coordinating Group. praisals, we need to ensure that attitudes about the duty ahead, and 1989.The fireline handbook. NWCG I Handbook3. Boise, ID:Boise Inter­ there is a feedback loop to critique help coworkers maintain a positive I agency Fire Center: 35. 0 t' incident management. Such a pro- attitude so their personal safety

WARNING! SOME ~IRE SHELTER URAINING UECHNIQUES ARE DANGEROUS

Richard J. Mangan use it. For more realism in train­ Putnam encourages training ing, some crews occupy shelters methods that emphasize hands­ Several years ago, a national near burning brush piles. This on deployment of the shelter in a firefighter magazine described a achieves realism but is still danger­ safe learning environment. He "live-fire" training exercise for ous. Steps must be taken to ensure says it's important that wildland firefighters. In this train­ that a trainee doesn't panic, leave firefighters learn to deploy their ing, firefighters deployed fire shel­ the shelter, and run into the fire. shelters in less than 25 seconds, ters and went inside; then a Safeguards should include fire sup­ essential in an actual deployment. practice fire was allowed to burn pression equipment such as an en­ To assist agencies in this training, over them. gine and a radio link with the MTDC has designed a "practice" trainee. For this training only, a fire shelter based on an idea de­ Ted Putnam, fire shelter specialist new or fully serviceable fire shelter veloped in California. (See previ­ at the USDA Forest Service'S should be used. Do not use shelters ous article on page 12 by Kevin Missoula Technology and Develop­ taken out of service. Lee-"A Potential Life Saver­ ment Center (MTDC) in Missoula, Training With a Practice Fire MT, strongly opposes these types "Even with engines ready to spray Shelter"-for information about of training. "Firefighters have re­ water, problems have occurred, so ordering and using the practice ceived burns and narrowly avoided we recommend even these more shelter for training.) serious injury or death during controlled fire shelter training ex­ such training," he said. "There is periences not be used," Putnam Putnam recommends coupling too great a risk to the safety of our said. "The point is that crews have hands-on deployment with "visu­ firefighters." devised many realistic training se­ alization" to help firefighters quences for shelter use over the mentally prepare for the greatest Although MTDC discourages live­ years, and even with what appears variety of conditions likely to oc­ fire training, crews continue to to be foolproof safety precautions, cur in an actual entrapment and things have gone wrong," he ex­ deployment. (The publications plains. "When practice fires are al­ and video referred to in Lee's ar­ DickMangan isthe program leader for lowed to burn over people in ticle discuss this and other cur­ Fire andAviation Management, USDA Forest Service, Missoula Technology and shelters, there is even less control rent training techniques.) Developmenl Center, Missoula, MT. and, therefore, greater risk."

1 Fire Management Notes ---'- DOES FIREFIGHTING POSE REPRODUCTIVE RISKs?1

Brian J. Sharkey

ildland firefighters face studies of smokers who are regu­ firefighters have not indicated se­ many hazards in the con­ -Iarly exposed to much higher levels vere heat problems, especially i Wduct of their duties. Among of the gas than firefighters. Specifi­ when firefighters are fit, acclima­ these hazards are potential repro­ cally, the blood of smokers regu­ tized, and hydrated. The low hu­ ductive risks-for both male and larly contains 5 to 10 percent midity and air movement of the female firefighters. Exposure to carboxyhemoglobin (COHb), but burning season enhance evapora­ smoke, toxic fumes, and heat-as studies of wildland firefighters tive and convective cooling and well as other factors-can threaten have found few instances where ex­ lower the risk of heat stress. an individual's ability to conceive posure would raise COHb levels to or bear a healthy child. 5 percent. In a recent study of Firefighters who are pregnant, smoke exposure at wildfires breast feeding, or attempting to Most of us would assume that (Reinhardt et al. 1995), carbon conceive should consult their phy­ smoking cigarettes is a possible monoxide exposure averaged 4.1 sician if they are concerned about model for the hazards of smoke ex­ parts per million (ppm) over the the reproductive risks of fire sup­ posure because we know cigarette workshift. This is far below the 35 pression. It may be useful to know smoking has been linked to low ppm permissible exposure limit that case studies of pregnant run­ birth weights. Statistics show the recommended by the National In­ ners have revealed that those who birth weight of infants born to stitute for Occupational Safety and remain active throughout most of mothers who smoke (depending Health. The 35 ppm limit is de­ their pregnancy have statistically upon how much they smoke) aver­ signed to keep COHb levels below fewer birth difficulties or defects ages 6 ounces (170 g) less than 5 percent, so it is likely that COHb than inactive pregnant women. that of infants born to mothers levels for firefighters in this study who are nonsmokers. Also, the in­ were usually below 2 percent. The U.S. Supreme Court, in a pre­ cidence of spontaneous abortion, Moreover, the exposure of cedent-setting case, ruled that stillbirth, pre-term birth, cleft pal­ firefighters is intermittent, epi­ pregnant workers who are physi­ ate, and sudden infant death syn­ sodic, and seasonal, while that of cally capable of performing the du­ drome may also be increased in cigarette smokers remains consis­ ties of the position may, at their pregnant women who smoke tently high, day after day. discretion, remain in active duty (Berkow 1992). However, there is (United Auto Workers v. Johnson little data concerning the risks of Researchers have been concerned Controls, 1991). While it is not the exposure to toxic chemicals at lev­ about firefighters' exposure to ex­ obligation of the employer to pro­ els measured in the breathing zone treme heat, which has been linked tect the fetus, the employer may be of wildland firefighters. to male infertility and possibly to able to assign the firefighter to less birth defects in the offspring of ex­ hazardous duties upon request. Carbon monoxide (CO) has the po­ posed mothers. Maternal illness Pregnant firefighters who, on the tential to affect the developing fe­ with prolonged high fever has been advice of a physician, cannot con­ tus, but, aside from lowering birth associated with birth defects, but tinue working in any capacity, weight, CO has not emerged in while precaution against extreme should be granted leave in accor­ heat remains prudent, research on dance with existing pregnancy or Brian J. Sharkey is a project leader, USDA pregnant women and their use of other leave policies of the agency ForestService, Missoula Technology and Development Center, Missoula, MT. saunas, for example, has not re­ having jurisdiction. vealed birth defects. And while IDr. Sharkey's original artfcle-c'Reproductive Risks of Firefighting't-s-appeared in "Health Hazards of Smoke," wildland firefighting has the po­ published by the Missoula Technology and tential for heat stress, studies of Development Center, Missoula, MT. Continued on page 22

Volume 55 • No.3' 1995 A nonprofit network-Women in ~WlCG ~DOPTS IFLAIGG~NG STANDARD the Fire Service (WFS)-has a "Re­ productive Safety Information The National Wildfire Coordinat­ Safety-Flag escape routes and Packet" available. The WFS main­ ing Group (NWCG) has adopted a safety areas with lime green tains a resource and data bank on "flagging standard" for wildland flagging. issues specifically pertaining to firefighting that is consistent women firefighters. Their address with the standard adopted by na­ Additional information can be is P.O. Box 5446, Madison, WI tional safety agencies for safety written in ink or with a grease 53705. Telephone or Fax them at and hazard designations. Specific pencil on the ribbons. Flagging 608-233-4768. colors are to be used to denote must be taken down when the Summary hazards and safety features: message is no longer appropriate. , While typical exposure of Hazards-Flag hazards with firefighters to smoke and heat is ribbon that has alternating yel­ not likely to cause reproductive low and black diagonal stripes. problems, individuals should al­ ways consult their physicians to For more information on any of Reinhardt. Timothy E.; Black, Janelle; help them make decisions about OUmar, Roger. 1995.Smoke exposure at their own reproductive health. the studies reported here, please wildfires. Seattle. WA: USDA Forest Ser­ Pregnant women may decide to re­ contact Brian J. Sharkey, MTDC, vice, Pacific Northwest Research Sta­ tion. Draft final report on file with quest reassignment or leave, if Bldg. 1, Ft. Missoula; Missoula, MT 59801; tel. 406-329-1043. Global Environmental Protection Pro­ necessary. And those who remain gram, Seattle Forestry Science Labora­ on the job should try to avoid ex­ tory, Pacific Northwest Research Literature Cited Station, 4043 RooseveltWayN.E.•Se­ cessive exposures to smoke and attle. WA 98105. 0 heat. Barkow. Robert. ed. 1992. The Merck manual of diagnosis and therapy. 16th ed. Rahway, NJ: Merck Research Labora­ tories.

GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Editorial Policy FSWAJS=D.PaananenlOU1= Authors are asked to use the English unit sys­ Fire Management Notes (FMN) is an interna­ [email protected]. Data tem of weight and measure, with equivalent values in the metric system. Tables should be tional quarterly magazine for the wildland fire General:S23L03A. Include with the paper copy typed, with titles and column headings capital­ community. FMNwelcomes unsolicited manu­ the complete name(s) and address(es) of authors scripts from readers on any subject related to as well as telephone and Fax numbers and e­ ized, as shown in recent issues; tables should be understandable without reading the text. In­ fire management. (See the subject index of the mail information. If the same or a similar article first issue of each volume for a list of topics cov­ is being submitted elsewhere, include that infor­ clude tables at the end of the manuscript. ered in the past.l mation also. Figures and illustrations (black ink drawings when applicable), and slides and clear photo­ Because space is a consideration, long manu­ Disks should be submitted with the paper copy. graphs (preferably glossy black and white prints) scripts are subject to publication delay and edi­ FMN prefers any version of WordPerfect, torial cutting; FMN does print short pieces of Microsoft Word for Windows, or an ASCII text are often essential to understanding of articles. file on IBMlDos-compatible disks. Please label On the back, please label carefully (Figure 1, interest to readers. the disk carefully with system being used and Figure 2; photograph A, B, C, etc.). Also include your complete name and address if you wish Submission Guidelines name of file. When possible, submit illustrations on disk as well and include instructions for use your material returned, and indicate the "top." Authors are asked to type or word-process their on the label. Clear, thorough captions (see recent issues) articles on white paper (double-spaced) on one should be labeled to correspond with these des­ side. Try to keep titles concise and descriptive; Consult recent issues for placement of the ignations. subheadings and bulleted material are useful author's name, title, agency affiliation, and loca­ and help readability. As a general rule of clear tion as well as style for paragraph headings and All photos and illustrations require a written re­ writing, use the active voice (e.g., Fire managers references. FMN uses the spelling, capitaliza­ lease, whether taken or drawn by government or know ... not It is known ...). tion, hyphenation, and other styles as recom­ nongovernment photographers and designers. mended by the u.S. Government Printing Office Authors not in the Federal government sign a Submit articles to Donna Paananen, Editor; Fire "Style Manual." Inhouse editing can be expe­ release acknowledging that they are aware that Management Notes; USDAForest Service; North dited if authors have their article reviewed by their work will be in the public domain. Please Central Forest Experiment Station, 1407 S. peers and by someone with editing skills. Please request forms from the editor.• Harrison Road, Room 220; East Lansing, MI list the editor and/or reviewer/s when submit­ 48823-5290; telephone 517-355-7740. Internet: ting. I Fire Management Notes I YELLOWJACKETS: THE LITTLE DANGER I I UNDER YOUR FEET

Billy J. Terry

firefighter almost died from a Two Different Stories reaction to multiple wasp Almost anyone can In September 1994, two Astings while working on the have an allergic firefighters were stung with very September 1994 Idaho City Com­ reaction to a different outcomes on the same plex. Another firefighter, with a yellowjacket sting. day during the Rabbit Creek Fire of known allergy, was swarmed by the Idaho City Complex. yellowjackets and suffered little = ., more than discomfort and 1 day One almost died after reacting to lost from the fire line. Why Firefighters Meet Yellowjackets multiple wasp stings. Apparently, neither the firefighter nor her crew The different results most likely Yellowjackets are more likely to was prepared to deal with reactions can be attributed to differences in survive a wildfire than other types to stings. During the 100-mile preparation for a known risk on of wasps because most species helicopter flight to a hospital in the fireline: stings by insects, par­ build their nests in the ground. Boise, !D, medics injected her re­ ticularly from members of the When firefighters construct line, peatedly with the stimulant epi­ wasp family, including they may unintentionally disturb nephrine to counter the allergic yellowjackets. these nests. reaction. Because of the fast action by the medics, she survived, but Fire camp medical unit records During a fire, yellowjackets live in hospitalization was required. show more treatment given for a disrupted world. Food is scarce, stings than any other fire-related so the yellowjackets have to forage injury except sore feet. Most stings a larger area. To compound the give fire personnel minor discom­ problem, forest fires in the West fort. But research by the American reach their intensity from July to Academy of Allergies and Immu­ September. Yellowjackets and nology shows more than 2 million other wasps actively collect food people in the United States are for winter during this time and are highly reactive to wasp and bee easily disturbed and can become stings and that at least 50 people very defensive. will die each year from anaphylac­ tic shock resulting from a sting. Firefighters increase the risk of be­ The number of people who are ing stung as they pound the highly reactive may be much ground constructing fireline and higher than these figures indicate. use chainsaws to fell trees. The dis­ Victims found dead outdoors are turbed insects quickly attack when sometimes wrongly diagnosed as they feel the vibrations through having died from heart attacks their feet. Bright yellow fire shirts (Dale 1991). may resemble food to wasps and yellowjackets, making fire person­ nel targets. And when food is around because people are eating Irritatedyellowjacketsarea hazardto fire Billy1. Terry is a ruralfire defense meals, it may make firefighters crews both constructing line and doing coordinator forthe USDA Forest Service, even more attractive to mop-up. Photo: Anne Bohnet, USDA Forest Service, NFES, Radnor, PA, 1994. Northeastern Area, State and Private yellowjackets. Forestry, Radnor, PA. Continued on page 24

Volume 55 • No.3. 1995 number of yellowjackets in an area. This normally indicates that a nest is close and caution should be used when running chainsaws or disturbing the ground. • When wasps are known to be around, keep shirt sleeves rolled down, put pant legs in boots, ", tuck in shirttails, and keep the '1 neck guard down. • Avoid using aftershave lotion, perfumes, hair sprays, tonics, suntan lotion with scents, or scented deodorant. Any of these can attract the insects. Most in­ sect repellents are not effective Pounding thegroundduringline construction or running chainsaws may encourage against wasps; some scented re­ yellowjackets to attack in force. Photo: Anne Bohnet, USDA Forest Service, NFES, Radnor, pellents even attract them. PA, 1994. • If a wasp enters a vehicle, the driver should pull over immedi­ The other firefighter was digging highly allergic individuals. In this ately, roll down all the windows, line with a Pulaski when the tool situation, symptoms could include and leave the vehicle until the penetrated a nest in the ground. dizziness, difficulty in breathing, insect escapes. Within seconds, he was covered and the need to lie down. The • When eating meals in areas with yellowjackets and stung five tongue could swell and the air pas­ where yellowjackets are active, times. Knowing he was highly al­ sages close. In a highly allergic place a small amount of any­ lergic, he carried an anaphylactic person, about 10 minutes will pass thing containing sugar where it kit (ana-kit) in his pack, so he was between the sting and a coma. In can be easily reached just out­ ready to immediately inject himself this case, a kit must be readily side the dining area. This could in the leg. The result was 1 day lost available. be soft drink in an open con­ from the fire line but no lingering tainer, broken cookies, or a half­ ill effects. Preparation made a big Almost anyone can have an allergic eaten apple. The insects will be difference. reaction. This happens for two rea­ attracted to the sugar and less sons. First, many people are not likely to demand the firefighters' What Is an Allergic aware that a previous sting has meals. Reaction and Who Is produced antibodies that could re­ Susceptible? sult in allergies. Second, a highly Steps to Take Before fatigued firefighter might be espe­ The sting of a yellowjacket, like Going on the Line cially susceptible to a severe reac­ that of most bees or wasps, causes tion. Skin testing has been used to • Equip at least one emergency the body to produce an antibody try to determine allergic levels, but medical technician on each fire called IgE. To cause a severe reac­ these tests are not reliable. In crew with an ana-kit. tion such as shock, a second sting short, there is no real way to know • Prior to going out on the some time later is normally re­ who can be allergic to such stings. fireline, instruct those known to quired. Once the antibodies have be allergic, crew leaders, and been produced, they are available How To Minimize the squad leaders in how to use ana­ in the body to react to the sting kits and how to recognize the venom. Possibility of Yellowjacket Attack symptoms indicating shock. These individuals should also Reactions can range from mild to • Supervisors should include in­ know who on the crew has a his­ full shock (Dale 1991). Antibody structions at the start of a shift tory of allergic reactions. production is increased greatly in to watch for increases in the I Fire Management Notes • All known to be allergic to wasp more than a slight discomfort for a Literature Cited or bee stings should carry an short period. However, there will Dale, Frank T. 1991. Beestings. Country ana-kit in their backpacks and always be the chance it will be Journal. July/August. tell their supervisors. Individuals something far more serious. Being Putnam, Stuart E., Jr. 1977. Controlling stingingand biting insects at campsites. known to be allergic should be prepared and aware of the potential ED&T 2689. Missoula, MT: U.S. Depart­ asked to obtain a kit from their problem is the key to eliminating ment of Agriculture, Forest Service, physician before going out on deaths caused by severe allergic re­ Equipment Development Center. 22p.D the fire line. Their physicians action. should also give them instruc­ i~ tions for injecting themselves to i mitigate the reaction to a sting. .~ When a Bee or Wasp I Stings John Chambers • Clean the area with soap and wa­ ter or an antiseptic solution. This aviation management tri­ • Applyan ice pack or cool com­ angle (fig. 1) represents the es­ press to slow venom absorption sential elements of sound, and lessen local swelling. professional aviation manage­ • Watch for an allergic reaction ment. Its objective is to provide such as hives or any swelling of safe, cost-effective, and appropri­ the tongue or throat. This would ate aviation services in support of include any difficulty in breath­ natural resource protection and ing. management. • Use the ana-kit if two or more of Figure I-The new aviation manaae­ the following symptoms of ana­ As depicted in this triangle, the men!trianglehassafety as its founda­ phylaxis occur: hives; swelling of foundation of aviation manage­ tion. the lips, eyelids, or tongue; ment is safety. If the mission can­ tightening in the chest; wheez­ not be accomplished without explain why, and recommend an ing; difficulty breathing; diffi­ compromising safety, we must economical alternative. culty swallowing; hoarseness or say no and explain safety con­ thickened speech; abdominal cerns. We can ensure an accept­ Finally, we should use the right pain; nausea; vomiting; dizzi­ able level of risk through sound aircraft for the situation. We ness; marked weakness; confu­ risk management. must question requests for the sion; or feeling of impending use of inappropriate aircraft, ex­ disaster. As shown on the left of the tri­ plain why a particular aircraft is • If the symptoms become more angle, we strive for cost-effective not the right one for the job, and severe, immediate medical atten­ aircraft use. We must question re­ recommend a better way of ac­ tion is required. Maintain the quests that are not cost-effective, complishing the mission. Again, airway. Useartificial respiration we do what's right! and a plastic airway device if necessary until a physician or By keeping the aviation manage­ John Chambers is assistant director ment triangle in mind as we qualified paramedic can adminis­ (Aviation Management), USDA Forest I make decisions, we will stand up I ter specific medications (Putnam Service, FireandAviation Management, 1977). Washington, DC. for aviation management!

Firefighters will continue to be stung on the fire line. Most of the time, this will amount to nothing

Volume 55 • NO.3· 1995 rI __ 1994 WILDFIRE PREVENTION AWARDS PRESENTED

Rod Kindlund

he Nation's highest award for Bill Clark was awarded the Golden wildland fire prevention, the "The Forest Service and Smokey for his efforts in fire pre­ , I TGolden Smokey, was presented our sister agencies vention on behalf of the National to three recipients on May 17, have reason to be Park Service. His fire prevention 1995, by Forest Service Associate analysis system has been adopted Chief DavidG. Unger. This year's proud of these by all USDI resource management recipients were Elsie W. individuals"- agencies and is part of the Forest Cunningham, acting national fire Chief Jack Ward Thomas. Service fire prevention training prevention officer for the USDA = conducted at NARTC in Marana, Forest Service in Washington, DC; AZ. Because of his encouragement, Donna Paananen, technical writer­ Donna Paananen was recognized the National Park Service became editor at the Forest Service's North for her involvement in local, reo an active participant in the cel­ Central Experiment Station in East gional, and national fire prevention ebration of Smokey Bear's 50th Lansing, MI; and Bill Clark, na­ programs and publications. Donna Anniversary. tional fire management specialist was a key player in the national for the USDI National Park Service Smokey Bear 50th Anniversary, for "The Forest Service and our sister in Boise, !D. which she wrote many fire preven­ agencies have reason to be proud tion speeches and articles. As part of these individuals," stated Chief The objective of the Golden of this effort, Donna was general Jack Ward Thomas. "They exern­ Smokey Bear Award is to recognize manager and contributing editor plify the essence of unselfish par­ individuals and organizations for for a commemorative issue of Fire ticipation in wildfire prevention at their outstanding service in wild­ Management Nates. She has since a time when that emphasis is fire prevention. These activities become editor of this periodical, changing very rapidly. Aswe move must encompass national publicity published by Fire and Aviation into the 21st century, fire preven­ and have been sustained over a pe­ Management in Washington, DC. tion, as well as other forest man- riod of 2 years or more.

Elsie Cunningham was recognized for her efforts as national program manager for the Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention (CFFP) program. In presenting the award, Associate Chief Unger said, "You have de­ manded excellence within the " Smokey Bear program and have enhanced its Quality." She has also implemented a centralized, catalog ordering system for Smokey Bear, which has eased the contracting, receiving, and distribution of pre­ vention education materials.

Rod Kindlundis a visualinformation AssociateChiefDavidUnger poseswith this year's Wildfire Awardrecipients. (From left: specialist! USDA ForestService, National Bill Clark, Donna Paananen,DavidUnger, ElsieCunningham) Pholo: Yuen·Gi Vee, USDA FirePrevention Operations, Clovis, CA. ForestService, PAG, Washington, DC, 1995. I Fire Management Notes agement programs, will have to • James Downie, Maine Forest Ser­ • Jacob C. Bruckler, New Jersey continue to integrate with natural vice, Augusta, ME. State Forest Fire Service, Tren­ resource values." • Jon Agner, Missoula County Fire ton, NJ. Protection Assn., Missoula, MT. • Glen's Markets, Inc., Gaylord, MI. "The recipients of this award have • Fred Judd, USDI, Bureau of Land • WMUR-TV, Channel 9, Concord, I spent their careers caring for the Management, Idaho Falls, !D. NH. I land on which so many Americans • National Automobile Museum, • WGME-TV, Channel 13, Portland, I live and recreate," the Associate Reno, NV. ME. Chief said, "and this is one way • Manning, Selvage & Lee Adver­ • WQCB-FM Radio (QI06.5j, J that we can show our appreciation. tising, Los Angeles, CA. " Brewer, ME. I Fire prevention in the wildland­ • Chuck Robinson, USDA, Forest urban interface has become a real Service, San Bernardino Na­ Nominations for these annual "; challenge for today's resource tional Forest, San Bernardino, awards are solicited each year from agencies. Their dedication to inter­ CA. field units of the Forest Service, agency cooperation is an example • Tim Whitten, Alabama Forestry State Foresters, and cooperating to resource managers nationwide." Commission, Montgomery, AL. natural resource agencies and are • Department of Agricultural due in October. Selection of the Silver and Bronze Smokey Bear Communications, TexasA&M award recipients is made during the Awards were presented earlier to University, College Station, TX. first meeting of the CFFP Executive 20 individuals and groups. Recipi­ • Jule Huffman, West Virginia Di­ Committee in the new year. 0 ents of the Silver Smokey statu­ vision of Forestry, Milton, WV. ettes must have provided at least 2 years of outstanding service in re­ gional or multistate fire prevention "~rr= fAlLS"-~Arr=ETV ~~DEID ~OW efforts. They are as follows: A 'TREE • Images in Motion, Lee LEi.VAILAIBLE Armstrong and Kamela Portuges, Sonoma, CA. The Publications Management duction of the video a priority. • Peter Carl Martin, USDA, Forest System (PMS) now has available Boise National Forest lost a Service, Mt. Hood National For­ the video "If a Tree Falls." It pro­ firefighter in 1992 when a snag est, Gresham, OR. vides information for firefighters fell from within the fire and • Alfred and Sylvia Grimes, or other woods workers on safety struck and killed Julie Young, Madbury, NH. related to falling trees, snags, or who was working on a line over • Wesley L. Wells, Georgia For­ green trees. "If a Tree Falls" can 90 feet away during an initial at­ estry Commission, Macon, GA. be used as a training aid, incorpo­ tack on the Silver Creek fire near • Baltimore Orioles Baseball rated into courses, or used as a Cascade, !D. Team, Baltimore, MD. basis for safety meetings. The tape program provides some Snags have always presented Bronze Smokey Statuettes are background on accidents involv­ firefighters with a "silent given for at least 2 years of local ing falling trees and recommends threat"-often present regardless and/or statewide fire prevention ef­ some practical ideas to help pre­ of terrain, weather, or fire behav­ " vent them, ior. That threat is real during ini­ I forts. They were presented to the following: tial attack on small fires, while The program was produced by the conducting operations on large \l • Dan Whittaker, USDA, Forest Boise National Forest in coopera­ fires, on "hot" segments, and in Service, Tahoe National Forest, tion with the National Wildland­ "quiet" areas-even during mop­ Nevada City, CA. Fire Coordinating Group's Safety up. Where trees are present, • Beverly S. Stout, Indiana Depart­ and Health Working Team. The snags are a threat. They are one ment of Natural Resources, In­ latter convened a Snag Hazard of the leading causes of injuries dianapolis, IN. ReviewTeam, headed by Jerry and death to firefighters on the • James T. Gowdy, New Jersey Schmidt, which made the pro- line. 0 State Forest Fire Service, Mays Landing, NJ. Volume 55 • No.3. 1995 1- FIRE CAMPS ON THE BOISE NATIONAL FOREST RECYCLE

Darrel Van Buren

right? Consider that in rural areas, ties of the recycling liason officer column ofsmoke is ; 11 a fire camp can have a higher popu­ (RLO), materials to be recycled, .1 spotted by the lookout. A lation than the neighboring town and basic requirements of estab­ radio call goes to the forest has. Also, a fire of any magnitude lishing a recycling program in fire dispatcher and crews are and duration could literally take camp. The plan was written to soon heading towards the years of use from the landfill, edg­ minimize impact to the overhead ing it closer to its planned capacity. team and cost to the incident but rapidly growing column. Any former resident of fire camp capture as much recyclable mate­ First reports indicate the fire can attest to the mountains of rial as possible. has the potential of waste generated. Comments often becoming a major incident heard are, "Why can't we use some Preplanning, coordination, and of the cardboard?" or "It's such a education are the key elements to a and an overhead team is waste to throw things away." successful program. The forest dis­ ordered. Another "big one" patcher, the local recycling center has burst in the Northwest Boise NF Recycles or collector, and the recycling and the firefighting machine These comments generated action liason officer(s) must be briefed of comes to life. on the Boise National Forest. Over duties and the proposed action the last 8 years, the Boise has had plan before the fire season starts. its share of fire boom towns, and we decided to do something about it. Implementation begins with the veryone associated with fire is forest dispatcher notifying the RLO familiar with this scenario and when an overhead team is ordered. the days that follow-long In 1993, a Fire Camp Recycling E Plan was drafted. It outlines the du- working hours, eating and sleeping in tents-we all know the scene. I i So what does the firefighting ma­ chine have to do with recycling? Fire camp has some of the same problems as a permanent city, in­ cluding transportation, health care, shelter, and garbage. Fire managers are constantly looking ".. for ways to minimize the impact of !". fire "boom" towns on the sur­

rounding communities. They've I done a pretty good job with one ex­ 1•.1 ception-garbage. t, I Garbage hasto go somewhere and I usually that's the local landfill, ,.I Darrel Van Buren is a civilengineering technician, USDA Forest Service, Boise National Forest, Boise, Idaho. I Fire Management Notes I I I WHAT ~ECVCUi\lG [EFIFORTS WORKED'?

• Coordinating for recycling dent. Using but not overextend­ preplanning allows a chance to needs and monitoring the recy­ ing the resources in place. screen applicants-they can ask cling program by the recycling o In the Boise National Forest and organizers can answer ques­ Iiason officer (RLO), the facili­ situation, using personnel from tions. Wealso suggest that you: ties unit leader, and the camp the Idaho Empowerment Pro­ o Have a preagreernent with a manager. gram as some members of the hauler or designate a specific camp crew. (The empowerment • Marking collection containers vehicle for hauling. Or, with clearly for recycling use and program helps the homeless de­ ".,. the trash disposal contractor, ensuring they are a different velop job skills and provides. try to coordinate recycling with type and color than trash cans. other services to help enrollees regular trash pickups. The con­ For convenience, locating recy­ reenter the work force.) tractor may be able to haul re­ cling containers and trash con­ cycled material to the recycling tainers together. What Recycling Efforts center. • Informing fire crews of the re­ Need Rethinking? o Prepare recycling signs and cycling program at morning containers before fire season briefings and in written brief­ o Relying on empty supply trucks begins. ings. Encouraging all person­ (returning to town from camp) o Locate bins at convenient areas nel to participate by separating to haul material to the recycler. in camp (e.g., near crew sleep­ tin, aluminum, glass, and plas­ Trucks were in short supply be­ ing quarters, where briefings tic containers in spike camps cause of the large fire activity on and meetings occur, at supply and at the Incident Command the Boise and Payette. stations, near washing and Post. • Not installing enough collection shower areas, where personnel • Having camp crew collect recy­ bins for recycling nor enough eat, and near unit tents). clable material from recycling signs around camp. o For a variety of reasons includ­ containers. (Many of the crew o The RLO not working closely ing easy pickup and hauling, enjoyed participating in the re­ enough with the facilities unit line all containers with plastic cycling effort.) leader to keep that person in­ formed. bags. o Posting information on bulletin o Bundle, bag, or box all recy­ boards about the recycling pro­ cling material (weight should gram and updating daily the to­ To Improve Fire Camp not exceed 45 pounds (20 kg). tal pounds collected. Also Recycling • Locate the main collection area posting general facts (including We recommend that other areas near the supply station or trivia) about recycling. consider a similiar recycling pro­ kitchen. Allowfor a lot of o Making the program as user gram and that they request from room. friendly as possible, minimiz­ public service groups a list of po­ o Make disposal and collection as ing the impact to the overhead tential and reliable people to inter­ user friendly as possible. team and the cost to the inci- view before the season. Such

I, , At the initial forest briefing, the perienced wildfires and rehabilita­ over $3,400 was returned to the RLO is introduced and the recy­ tion efforts on 300,000 acres United States Treasury from the re­ .I cling plan reviewed. The RLO coor­ (121,458 hal. The activity gener­ ceipts. dinates with the logistics chief as ated more than 81,000 pounds well as with food, supply, and facil­ (36,652 kg) of cardboard, 8,700 Wefelt that overall our efforts have ity unit leaders to minimize impact pounds (3,937 kg) of plastic been very successful (see box).And to the overall fire effort. The RLO (68,000+ water bottles), 3,775 we know where we need to make directs, coordinates, and supervises pounds (1,712 kg) of aluminum improvements in the future. Above recycling activities and personnel cans, and 1,500 pounds (679 kg) of all, we felt that because fire and in fire camp. glass. This is an estimated 300 cu­ garbage can impact our environ­ bic yards (230 em) that did not go ment so drastically, maybe our ef­ From July 20 through October 30, to the local landfill. In addition to forts to recycle will help lessen 1994, the Boise National Forest ex- recovery of recyclable material, some of these impacts. 0 Volume 55 • No.3· 1995 Ii __ REGIONAL ANALYSIS OF HAINES' LAS~

Brian E. Potter

In 1988, Donald A. Haines of the USDA Forest Service presented a method for predicting fire risk. It relies on properties of the lower atmosphere, namely temperature lapse rate (a measure of stability) and the difference between tem­ perature and dewpoint, i.e., dewpoint depression (Haines 5 1988)l. He called this a lower at­ mosphere severity index, or LAS!. Haines noted that temperature lapse rate and dewpoint depres­ sion receive equal emphasis in his system, but that this might not be the best approach. Recent re­ Figure I-Boundaries ofthe zones used for analysis ofthe LAS!. sults indicate that temperature lapse rate is not important in the data did not reveal a significant dif­ States in zone 5 where the LASI Southeast, and it is possible that ference between climatology and works, and States in zone 6 where neither lapse rate nor dewpoint fire weather. it does not. This could be deter­ depression is important in the mined only through a State-by­ South Central United States. On fire (jays, the LASI's lapse rate State analysis. component exceeds its climatologi­ I examined fire weather and cli­ cal value in all zones except 5 and I am currently evaluating an al­ matological data from the conter­ 6, while the fire day dewpoint de­ ternative measure of fire risk, one minous United States for the pression component exceeds cli­ that may be more useful in zone period 1971-84, dividing the Na­ matology in all zones except zone 5. This new measure uses the dif­ tion into six zones as shown in 5. In other words, the dewpoint de­ ference between actual tempera­ fig. 1. For each zone, I used sta­ pression component of the LASI ture and dewpoint temperature at tistical analysis of variance to test alone is sufficient to indicate fire the surface of the earth and ad­ the total LASI and each of its weather in zone 6. justs the difference for the influ­ components for the ability to dis­ ence of elevation. It differentiates tinguish fire weather from "typi­ Zone 5 had the fewest fires of all fire weather and climatology in cal" weather, i.e., climatology. the zones in this study, and it is most of the conterminous United The results show that the index is possible that the LASI does work States and Alaska, but fails to dif­ I capable of distinguishing fire there, but the statistical test used ferentiate in Hawaii and zone 6, I weather for all zones except zone did not find an appreciable differ­ according to the same statistical r- 5 (Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, ence between fire and climatology. testing methods used for the " Missouri, Oklahoma, Texas, and Zone 6, on the other hand, had LASI. Details of this method may parts of eastern Colorado and more fires in it than any other appear in a future issue of Fire New Mexico). In this zone, the zone in the study, but most of Management Notes. them were in North Carolina and Brian E. Potteris a research meteorolo­ gist forthe USDA ForestService, North Florida. These differences are due Literature Cited CentralForest Experiment Station, East to the availability of fire data for Haines, Donald A. 1988. A lower atmo­ Lansing, MI. the time period I examined. spheric severity index for wildland Because the zone boundaries are fires. National Weather Digest. 13(2): 'Editor'snote:Haines'LASIwasalsodiscussedin 23-27. 0 Fire Management Notes,1992-93,53-54(3):23-26 by purely artificial, there may be EdwardA.Brotak. I~ Fire Management Notes- We Are Each Aswe face each future fire season, Responsible there are some positive steps we I expect that all of us in fire man­ can take and reminders of behav­ agement who experienced the iors that we expect. For managers 1994 wildfire season, the most de­ and line supervisors these include: manding on record, will remem­ • Managers must ensure that each ber it for the rest of our lives. It is firefighter knows that safety is with a deep sense of personal loss paramount throughout all inci­ Mary10 Lavin and professional concern that I dents. reflect on those 34 individuals • Managers must be involved in • Communications between who lost their lives fighting wild­ and participate in firefighters must be main­ I fires across our Nation. We must presuppression, suppression, '1• tained; when necessary, tactics learn from this huge loss in hu­ monitoring, and followup activi­ will be adjusted to provide ap­ man lives. We are each respon­ ties. propriate communications. sible for ensuring that we never • Managers must ensure that • Firefighters must continue to again suffer such tragic losses. safety evaluations are included be important team members when planning strategy and tac­ during safety evaluations and Afew statistics quickly clarify the tics and that regular reevalua­ accident investigations. Their situation the agency faced in tions of safety are made. role is critical to ensure safety 1994. More than 69,000 wildfires • Managers must ensure that work issues are paramount on all in­ burned nearly 4 million acres and rest guidelines are followed. cidents. (1,600,000 hal nationwide. At the • Supervisors must be able to talk • Firefighters must know, with­ peak of the fire season, 28,000 with their crews and adjacent out question, that they will not men and women were working on crews; all must have access to face repercussions for making the suppression effort, along with operational and fire weather in­ themselves and others safe. some 4,000 military personnel. formation. • Firefighters must constantly The dollar cost to the Forest Ser­ remind themselves that fire be­ vice alone exceeded $700 million Both managers and firefighters havior can be so extreme that in that single year. will take the following steps: timeframes for decisionmaking • Managers and firefighters must are very short. We can take pride in knowing be able to attend key training that out of thousands of fires that courses and get the experience Let us all remember, no wildland occurred in 1994, only a very few they need to improve knowledge fire, even those that threaten fires escaped and caused prob­ and skills. structures or improvements, is lems. We should take credit for worth risking death or injury. our past successes. However, Firefighters have the following re­ we're still in the fire protection sponsibilities: Weare each responsible for en­ and suppression business. We suring that what happened in continue to have the responsibil­ • All firefighters must be respon­ 1994 never happens again. ity of reinforcing the tenets of the sible for their own personal 10 Standard Fire Orders and 18 safety and be alert to help those around them. If firefighters can­ J Situations that shout "Watch \ Out!" The abbreviation L.C.E.S. not mitigate or eliminate an un­ i} needs to be reviewed and imple­ safe situation, they must Mary Jo Lavin, Ph.D., Director mented: Lookouts, Communica­ communicate the problem to USDA ForestService tions, Escape routes, Safety those who can. Fire andAviation Management zones.

Volume 55 • NO.3' 1995 1- ,

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