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Well-Being with Soul: Science in Pursuit of Human Potential

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Well-Being with Soul: Science in Pursuit of Human Potential PPSXXX10.1177/1745691617699836RyffScience in Pursuit of Human Potential 699836research-article2017 Perspectives on Psychological Science 2018, Vol. 13(2) 242 –248 Well-Being With Soul: Science in © The Author(s) 2017 Reprints and permissions: Pursuit of Human Potential sagepub.com/journalsPermissions.nav DOI:https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691617699836 10.1177/1745691617699836 www.psychologicalscience.org/PPS Carol D. Ryff Department of Psychology and Institute on Aging, University of Wisconsin–Madison Abstract This essay examines core contributions of a model of psychological well-being that has had widespread scientific impact. It drew on distant formulations to identify new dimensions and measures for assessing what it means to be well. Key themes among the more than 750 studies using the model are sketched, followed by reflections about why there has been so much interest in this eudaimonic approach to well-being. A final section looks to the future, proposing new directions to illuminate the forces that work against the realization of human potential as well as those that nurture human flourishing and self-realization. Keywords eudaimonia, purpose in life, personal growth, health, inequality, greed, arts This essay tells the tale behind an article I published the upside of the human experience. Formulations in Current Directions in Psychological Science (Ryff, came from clinical (Jahoda, 1958; Jung, 1933), devel- 1995), an article that is one of the top 30 cited articles opmental (Bühler, 1935; Erikson, 1959; Neugarten, in Association for Psychological Science journals. This 1973), existential (Frankl, 1959), humanistic (Maslow, work, heralded by Ryff (1989) and elaborated by Ryff 1968; Rogers, 1961), and social (Allport, 1961) psychol- and Keyes (1995) and Keyes, Shmotkin, and Ryff (2002), ogy. Their writings delineated numerous characteristics reformulated the meaning and empirical utility of psy- of what it means to be mentally healthy, fully devel- chological well-being. These publications now have oped, purposefully engaged, self-actualized, fully func- more than 20,000 citations. What defined the novelty tioning, and mature. No one perspective stood notably in the new model is revisited below, giving emphasis above the rest, but common themes were evident across to distal sources of inspiration, including Aristotle’s them. These points of convergence became core com- view of eudaimonia. The enthusiastic reception by the ponents of the model (Ryff, 1989, 1995) that put forth scientific community is briefly distilled, and reflections six separate dimensions of well-being depicted in are offered on why so much interest grew up around Figure 1. Definitions for each dimension (see Ryff & the model. Final thoughts look to needed future inqui- Singer, 2008) drew from the foundational literatures ries. An overarching observation is that the scientific described above, while also serving as the basis for task of nurturing better, more realized lives and, relat- developing structured self-report tools to operationalize edly, building better, more just societies requires com- the constructs. pelling ideals about what constitutes essential parts of Reflections about Aristotle’s eudaimonia were pres- being fully human. As recognized by Aristotle more ent from the beginning and were subsequently elabo- than 2,000 years ago, guiding visions of what it means rated (Ryff & Singer, 2008). He described many virtues to become the best that one can be are what give the in the Nichomachean Ethics (Artistotle, 349 B.C./1925) enterprise soul. but gave primary emphasis to the highest of all virtues, The Happening: Infusions From the Corresponding Author: Past to Enrich Well-Being Carol D. Ryff, Institute on Aging & Department of Psychology, University of Wisconsin–Madison, Medical Science Center, In the middle of the past century, scholars from sub- 1300 University Ave., Madison, WI 53706 fields of psychology embraced the task of articulating E-mail: [email protected] Science in Pursuit of Human Potential 243 Fig. 1. Core dimensions of psychological well-being and their theoretical underpinnings. which he saw as growth toward realization of one’s true The new model stood in marked contrast to other and best nature. Thus, for Aristotle, the highest of all views of subjective well-being at the time, which human goods was activity of the soul in accord with revolved around assessments of happiness, life satisfac- virtue. The key task in life is thus to know and live in tion, and positive and negative affect (Andrews & truth with one’s daimon, a kind of spirit given to all Withey, 1976; Bradburn, 1969; Campbell, 1981; Diener, persons at birth. Eudaimonia embodied the Greek 1984; Larson, 1978). These approaches were not cen- imperatives of self-truth (know thyself) and striving trally concerned with the philosophical meanings of toward an excellence consistent with innate potentiali- well-being; some, in fact, acknowledged the atheoreti- ties (become what you are). These ideas deepened the cal nature of questions about happiness and life satis- philosophical significance of the new approach to psy- faction. Later, Ryan and Deci (2001), in a review marking chological well-being. the new millennium, partitioned the field of well-being 244 Ryff into two broad traditions, one dealing with happiness capable (environmental mastery), being meaningfully (hedonic well-being) and the other dealing with human engaged (purpose in life), being connected to others potential (eudaimonic well-being). Both were traceable (positive relations), realizing their potential (personal to the ancient Greeks. Contemporary psychological growth), and experiencing positive self-regard (self- research had thus transformed ancient philosophical acceptance). ideas into empirically tractable science. Using data from Arguably the greatest innovations in science fol- a national sample of Americans, Keyes et al. (2002) lowed from eudaimonia’s entry into the health arena. provide the first evidence that the two approaches Some studies linked illnesses and disabilities to differ- were, indeed, empirically distinct. Thus, a central prem- ing aspects of well-being, whereas epidemiological ise of Ryff (1989), namely that the prior reigning indica- studies documented the protective influence of well- tors of subjective well-being “neglected important being (especially purpose in life) in reducing later life aspects of positive psychological functioning” (p. 1070), risk for cognitive impairment, Alzheimer’s disease, car- was scientifically documented. Effectively, contempo- diovascular disease, stroke, and osteoporosis (e.g., rary research had embraced new, conceptually enriched Boyle, Buchman, Barnes, & Bennett, 2010; Boyle et al., ideas about what it means to be well (self-realized, fully 2012; Kim, Sun, Park, Kubzansky, & Peterson, 2013). functioning, purposefully engaged). Prospective studies showed extended length of life among those with higher purpose in life (after adjusting The Response: Enthusiastic Engagement for numerous confounds and covariates), including a multicountry meta-analysis (R. Cohen, Bavishi, & The new scales took on a life of their own: They were Rozanski, 2016). Underscoring relevance across cultures, translated into more than 30 languages from which the Japanese concept of ikigai, focused on what makes more than 750 publications were generated. A look at life worth living, was part of the meta-analysis. this proliferation (Ryff, 2014) revealed several topics of Further researchers began looking for mediators to interest, beginning with the psychometric properties of account for the health benefits noted above, such as the new scales. Did they support a six-factor model, practicing better health behaviors (e.g., Kim, Strecher, including in different cultural contexts? When assessed & Ryff, 2014). The biological correlates of well-being with adequate depth of measurement (long-form received extensive attention; numerous studies showed scales), most evidence supported the guiding model. that higher eudaimonia was linked with better physi- Other research addressed developmental questions: ological regulation measured in terms of stress hor- What happens to eudaimonic well-being across the mones, inflammatory markers, glucose regulation, decades of adult life? Is it stable or changing? A repli- cardiovascular risk factors, and allostatic load (Zilioli, cable set of findings brought attention to the challenges Slatcher, Ong, & Gruenewald, 2015). Some physiological of aging: Multiple national studies documented longi- benefits were also documented among disadvantaged tudinal decline in purpose in life and personal growth segments of society, thereby underscoring the resilience- in the transition from midlife to old age, thus drawing promoting features of purposeful life engagement, per- attention to the contemporary reality that living longer sonal growth, and positive ties to others in the face of does not necessarily translate to meaningful living. inequality and limited life chances (e.g., Morozink, Fried- Other studies contextualized experiences of well- man, Coe, & Ryff, 2010). Gene expression involved in being by linking them to work and family life. Occu- inflammatory processes has been linked to well-being; pational psychologists tied variations in well-being to findings showed salubrious effects for eudaimonic but whether one was engaged in paid or unpaid work, the not hedonic well-being (e.g., Cole et al., 2015). degree to which work was stressful, and how
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