A Performance Guide to Mandarin-Chinese Diction and Selected Art Songs by Yiu-Kwong Chung

Home , Art song, Dongfang (surname), Fangxiang, Guoyue, Lui (surname), Qiao (surname)

D.M.A. DOCUMENT

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Musical Arts in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University

Yung-Wei Sun

Graduate Program in Music

The Ohio State University

2012

D.M.A. Document Committee:

Robin Rice, Advisor Marjorie K. M. Chan Joseph Duchi Jere Forsythe

Yung-Wei Sun

2012

Abstract

Over the past few decades, many social and cultural avenues from different countries have opened up, creating an emergence of singers from new cultures. This has allowed singers more opportunities to sing their national vocal repertoires in public concerts, placing new talents and repertoire on international stages. Some languages in these repertoires traditionally have been rare, such as Spanish, Russian, and Czech, and their introduction began to catch audiences’ imaginations. Take American singers as an example; they are excited to sing their new nationalistic repertoire for international competitions or concerts. As the repertoire’s texts and libretti related to the diction of that repertoire are published, the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) which is the universally recognized tool for singers to learn how to pronounce languages is becoming prevalent. This provides non-native speakers of those languages a more accurate and clearer mechanism in which to sing in those languages, which in turn allows these new vocal pieces to immediately become more popular.

The artistry found in Mandarin-Chinese art songs is just as high as the vocal works in other languages, such as the French Mélodie or the German Lied. However, it is very difficult for non-native speakers of Mandarin-Chinese to sing the Mandarin-Chinese art songs because of their unfamiliarity with the language and the absence of literature related to the diction of Mandarin-Chinese. ii

This study uses a singer’s point of view to explain pronunciations of Mandarin-Chinese

IPA. By using the English, Italian, German, and French IPA systems, four of the most familiar languages for singers, it describes the pronunciations of Mandarin-Chinese which would give singers easier and accurate access to Mandarin-Chinese diction. It also provides the IPA for ten songs by one of the most well-known composers in Asia, Yiu-

Kwong Chung. Each song provides not only the IPA translation of the texts of the

Mandarin-Chinese songs, but also a word-for-word translation, and a poetic translation.

The study offers a valuable bridge that provides countless non-native speakers of

Mandarin-Chinese singers a clear, understandable, and efficient way to learn and sing

Mandarin-Chinese diction, thereby opening a new world of repertoire.

iii

To my family

Acknowledgments

This was a very long journey for me to reach this point in my life. I would not be able to make it without so many amazing people around me. First, I thank my family for the unconditional support. Although I am thousands of miles away, I do not feel alone, because I know you are always there for me. Second, I would like to thank the professors on my committee, Marjorie K. M. Chan, Joseph Duchi, Jere Forsythe. Having an open- minded and passionate committee gave me more strength and confidence to complete my goal. Third, I thank my old friends, Fion Lee, Chia-Ning Lee, Ya-Hsin Lin, Hsin-Yi

Chen, Pei-Han Chao, Hsin-Yi Lin, and special thanks to my undergraduate voice teacher,

Mewas Lin. I could not imagine making it this far without having you. Thank you for listening to me, crying with me, being happy for me, and being such a wonderful friend in my life. Fourth, I thank my new friends I made here, Ju-Ya Cheng, Ja-Ping Lin, Sarah

Khatcherian, Emily Holsclaw and Jaime Hartzell; and very special thanks to my coach,

Edward Bak. It was not easy going through so many things without having a family here.

Meeting you and becoming friends/family with you warms my hearts.

Last, I really want to thank my voice teacher/advisor, Dr. Robin Rice. People are always impressed with how much I have grown vocally, mentally, and emotionally after I

v studied with you. (Sometimes, I even wonder if you have magic!) Thank you for believing in me since the first lesson. This means a lot to me. There were a lot of things I do not think I could have done without your encouragement; for example, this document.

For me, this long journey does not only mean that I have completed this degree, but this also means that I found myself. Thank you for supporting me to be who I am. Thank you, thank you, and thank you.

Vita

2003...... B.M. Voice Performance, National Taiwan

University of Arts, Taipei, Taiwan

2006...... M.M. Voice Performance, National Sun

Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan

Document: A Study of Edward Grieg’s

Sechs Lieder, Op. 48

2009...... M.M. Voice Performance, The Ohio State

University, Columbus, OH

2010...... Recipient, Irma Cooper Vocal Scholarship,

The Ohio State University.

2011...... Recipient, Graduate Research Small Grants

Program, The Ohio State University

Fields of Study

Major Field: Music

Studies in Applied Voice: J. Robin Rice, D.M.A. (2009-2012)

vii

Table of Contents

Abstract……………………………………………………………………………...... ii

Dedication……………………………………………………..……………………….....iv

Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………………v

Vita……………………………………………………………………………..…….….vii

List of Tables……………………………………………………………………………...x

List of Examples………………………………………………………………………….xi

Chapter One: Introduction………………………………………………………………..1

Chapter Two: Mandarin-Chinese Art Songs in Taiwan…………………………………..6

The beginning of Mandarin-Chinese Art Songs ...... 6

The Development of Mandarin-Chinese Art Songs...... 7

The Development of Mandarin-Chinese Art Song in Taiwan ...... …….10

Chapter Three: Introduction of Mandarin-Chinese Diction……………………………...15

Chapter Four: The Mandarin-Chinese Diction- Vowels and Glide……………………...21

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...21

Vowels and Glides: ㄚ [a], ㄛ [ɔ], ㄜ [ǝ], ㄜ [ǝ], ㄝ [ε], ㄦ [ɚ], ㄧ [i], ㄨ [u], ㄩ [y],

ㄢ [an], ㄣ [ǝn], ㄤ [aŋ], ㄥ [ǝŋ]………………………………22 viii

Diphthongs: ㄞ [ai], ㄟ [ei], ㄠ [ɑu], ㄡ [ou]………………………………………...31

Chapter Five: The Mandarin-Chinese Diction- Consonants……………………………..33

Introduction…………………………………………………………………………...33

The Bilabial Stop: ㄅ [p], ㄆ [ph], ㄇ [m]……………………………………………36

The Labiodental Fricative: ㄈ [f]……………………………………………………..38

The Dental Stop: ㄉ [t], ㄊ [th], ㄋ [n]………………………………………………..38

The Dental Lateral: ㄌ [l]………………………………………………………….....40

The Velar Stop and Fricative: ㄍ [k], ㄎ [kh], ㄏ [x]………………………………....43

The Alveolar-palatal Fricative and Affricate: ㄐ [tɕ], ㄑ [tɕh], ㄒ [ɕ]………………..41

The Post-alveolar Affricates and Fricative: ㄓ [tʂ], ㄔ [tʂh], ㄕ [ʂ]…………………..45

The Post-alveolar Approximant: ㄖ [ɹ]………………………………………………48

The Dental Affricates and Fricative: ㄗ [ts], ㄘ [tsh], ㄙ [s]………………………....49

Chapter Six: Chung Yiu-Kwong- The Composer………………………………………..52

Biography……………………………………………………………………………..52

Style…………………………………………………………………………………..56

Chapter Seven: Zhimo Xu- The Poet…………………………………………………….61

Biography…………………………………………….………………….……………61

Love Life……………………………………………….……………………………..67

Writing Style………………………………………………………………………….71

Chapter Eight: Three Sets of Mandarin Chinese Art Songs by Yiu-Kwong Chung…….76

Three Poems by Xu Zhimu……………………………………………………………77

Four Poems by Xu Zhimu…………………………………………………………….89

Three Chinese Folk Song…………………………………………………..………..101

Chapter Nine: Conclusion………………………………………………………………108

Appendix A……………………………………………………………………………..112

Appendix B……………………………………………………………………………..113

Bibliography……………………………………………………………………………115

List of Tables

Table 1: The Traditional Analysis of the Chinese Syllable………………………….…..16

Table 2: Thirty-Seven Symbols of Zhuyin Fuhao and IPA……………………………...19

Table 3: The Vowel Space Diagram………………………………………………...…...23

List of Examples

Example 1: The First Sentence of the Poem, "Ouran", by Zhimo Xu………...…..………5

Example 2: Location of the Tonal Mark in IPA Transcription……...... …….20

xii

Chpater One:

Introduction

Over the past few decades, Italian, German, French, and English have been the main languages sung in traditional vocal repertoire. However, now that many social and cultural avenues from different countries have opened up to the world, more and more singers from new and various cultures have had more opportunities to sing their national vocal pieces in public concerts, placing new talents and repertoire on international stages.

Some languages in this new international repertoire traditionally have been rare, such as

Spanish, Russian, and Czech, and their introduction began to catch audiences’ imaginations. Some examples include, the very famous soprano aria, “Měsíčku na nebi hlubokém” (“Song to the Moon”) from Antonin Dvorak’s opera, Rusalka, which is in

Czech. Or, the baritone aria, “Ya vas lyublyu” (“I love you beyond all measure”) from

Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky’s opera, Pikovaya Dama (The Queen of Spades), which is in

Russian. Because these new vocal selections revealed and attracted singers’ attention, singers were encouraged to explore them, even though they were non-native speakers of those languages. However, for those singers who are not familiar with those languages, the primary challenge for them would be how to sing the words/texts.

Besides learning to speak the languages, the “International Phonetic Alphabet” (IPA)1 is the universally recognized tool for singers to help them correctly pronounce song lyrics from these languages, otherwise known as "Lyric Diction." Using the IPA system enables singers to sing/pronounce correct foreign language diction without knowing the language.

Therefore, to encourage singers to sing new foreign repertoire, many scholars began publishing literature that provided the IPA transcription of the languages, such as Natalia

Challis’ The Singer’s Rachmaninoff2 and Tmothy Cheek’s Singing in Czech: A Guide to

Czech Lyric Diction and Vocal Repertoire3. Natalia Challis’ indispensable book collected all of Sergei Rachmaninoff’s Russian art songs. In it, she provides the background, IPA translation of the text, a word-for-word translation, and a poetic translation for each song.

This book has become a valuable handbook for singers who are not familiar with Russian songs and serves as the primary source for any information about this famous composer's songs.

Sound in traditional Chinese music has always been mystical to Western musicians.

Unlike Western music, there are many traditional Chinese elements that are not as

1 The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) was devised by the International Phonetic Association. It is an alphabet system of phonetic notation based on the Latin alphabet which is considered to represent the sounds of the spoken languages. For example, the IPA of the English word, “international,” would be [ɪntə’næʃənəɫ].

2 Natalia Challis. The Singer’s Rachmaninoff. New York: Pelion Press, 1989.

3Timothy Cheek. Singing in Czech: A Guide to Czech Lyric Diction and Vocal Repertoire. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2001. 2 prevalent in Western music, such as the “pentatonic scale.”4 Because Western-trained

Taiwanese/Chinese composers have tried to fuse Western musical sounds and techniques with traditional Chinese elements, they have fashioned a new compositional style which combines Western and Chinese musical methods. The new development of Chinese music became increasingly attractive to Western musicians, leading them to become interested in playing and performing Chinese music. However, because of the language barrier, Mandarin-Chinese vocal works are still performed less often than any other instrumental works by non-Taiwanese/Chinese musicians. At the same time, the lack of language and pronunciation-related references has limited the possibility of access to

Mandarin-Chinese art songs for non-native speakers.

There are several kinds of systems to transcribe the sound of Standard Chinese (SC); for instance, Zhuyin Fuhao (注音符號, Phonetic Symbols), Hanyu Pinyin system (漢語拼音,

Chinese Phonetic Alphabet), Yale Romanizationand IPA. In addition, Dr. Mei-Fung

Agnes Kang Chi from Columbia University created another system which is called

“Singer’s International Phonetic Alphabet” in her dissertation, A Performance Guide for

Contemporary Chinese Art Songs from Taiwan 5 . However, in providing for a more universal and professional pronunciation guide of SC, this study uses the IPA which is provided by the International Phonetic Association, which singers are accustomed to

4 The “pentatonic scale” is do-re-mi-sol-la. Chinese composers would base on the relationship of these five notes to compose their works.

5Mei-Fung Agnes Kang Chi. A Performance Guide for Contemporary Chinese Art Songs from Taiwan. (PhD diss., Columbia University, 1996). 3 using for learning foreign language diction. Her study describes and explaines the IPA of thirty seven Mandarin Phonetic Symbols which were devised by the International

Phonetic Association.

Because there are some unfamiliar IPA symbols of Mandarin Phonetic Symbols, the explanation of those sounds is from a singer’s point of view, and uses similar sounds found in Italian, German, French, and English to approach the concepts of the thirty- seven Mandarin Phonetic Symbols in the study. It was apparently assumed that this would be the most efficient way for singers to understand and pursue these unfamiliar sounds by using the sounds they already know how to pronounce.

The current study will also introduce ten Mandarin-Chinese art songs which were composed by one of the most well-known composers in Asia, Yiu-Kwong Chung. The repertoire that will be provided in the study is three sets of Mandarin Chinese art songs,

Xu Zhimo Shi Sanshou (《徐志摩詩三首》, Three Poems by Xu Zhimu), Xu Zhimo Shi

Cishou (《徐志摩詩四首》, Four Poems by Xu Zhimu)6, Zhongguo Minyao Sanshou

(《中國民謠三首》, Three Chinese Folk Song). Except Zhongguo Minyao Sanshou, the texts of the songs are from Zhimo Xu (徐志摩), the very famous twentieth century

Chinese poet. This study provides the IPA translation of the texts of these Mandarin-

6There are several ways to transcribe Mandarin-Chinese sounds with Hanyu Pinyin system. Unlike Romanization system, Hanyu Pinyin system is not standared or systemetic in The People's Republic of China. For example, the transcription of the very common Chinese last name 「李」([li]214) is “Lee” in Taiwan, but” Li” in China. Here, the composer, Chung, titled his set as Zhimu instead of Zhimo. Therefore, the name of the set will use the name which posted on his official website (http://www.cykusic.com/Eworklist.htm) in the study. 4

Chinese songs, but also a word-for-word translation, and a poetic translation. The format for editing the information used will be the format found in Natalia Challis’s The Singer’s

Rachmaninoff (Example 1).

IPA: wɔ ȿɹ thjan khwəŋ li ti ji phjan ɥyən Poem in Chinese: 我是天空裡的ㄧ片雲 Word-for-word Translation: I am in the sky a cloud Poetic Translation: I am a cloud in the sky.

Example 1: The first sentence of the poem, “Ouran” (〈偶然〉, “Chance”), by Zhimo Xu.

The artistry found in Mandarin-Chinese art songs is just as high as the vocal works in other languages, such as the French Mélodie or the German Lied. However, it is very difficult for non-native speakers of Mandarin-Chinese to sing the Mandarin-Chinese art songs because of their unfamiliarity with the language. Therefore, overcoming the language barrier is the most important thing for singers who are non-native speakers of

Mandarin-Chinese. This study offers a more accurate and efficient performance guide of

Mandarin-Chinese diction. It will also give the IPA and translation of three sets of contemporary songs. Hopfully, this study will solve the primary obstacle for non-native speakers to access Mandarin-Chinese songs and will serve as a valuable reference for future research on Mandarin-Chinese art songs.

Chapter Two:

Mandarin-Chinese Art Songs in Taiwan

The Mandarin-Chinese art song was established one hundred year later than the first

German Lieder, “Gretchen am Spinnrade.” 7 According to Dr. Hao-Ming Chao’s dissertation, Twentieth century Chinese vocal music with particular reference to its development and nationalistic characteristics from the May Fourth Movement (1919) to

1945, “Dajian Dongqu” (〈大江東去〉, “The Great River Flows Fat” ,1920) by Qing

Zhu (青主), “Wen” (〈問〉, “The Question”, 1922) by Youmei Xiao (蕭友梅), Maibu

Yao (〈賣布謠〉, “The Cloth-selling Song”, 1922) by Yuenren Zhao (趙元任) were considered as the earliest Mandarin-Chinese art songs.8

The beginning of Mandarin-Chinese Art Songs

The Mandarin-Chinese art song is descended from “school song” which first appeared in the late nineteenth century. When Christian missionaries came to China in the early nineteenth century, they not only preached the gospel, but also founded church schools in

7“The birthday of the Lied is said to be October 14, 1814. It was the day that Schubert composed “Gretchen am Shpinnrade.” Carol Kimball. Song: A Guide to Art Song Style and Literature. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2005.

8Hao-Ming Nancy Chao. Twentieth century Chinese vocal music with particular reference to its development and nationalistic characteristics from the May Fourth Movement (1919) to 1945. (Ph.D diss., University of California, 1995), 59. 6

China. Teaching psalms in the music class at the church schools was the beginning of introducing Western music to China. In 1905, because of the suggestion by Youwei Kang

(康有為), the modern schools, which were based on Western models, were broadly founded during the late period of Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), and of course, the music curricula were kept to be part of the education. The notation, theory, and concepts of

Western music were officially introduced into Chinese music. The songs which were taught and used in class were called “school song”.

The “school song” was considered as a beginning of the development of Mandarin

Chinese art song. It was the very first time for Chinese to hear and sing foreign tunes, and also to have a chance to learn the methods of Western music. However, the purpose of their inclusion was focused more on the text than the music of “school song”. It was used more as a tool for the government to teach people new thoughts. It was divided into four categories, and they are patriotic songs, women’s songs, children’s songs and social songs.9

The Development of Mandarin-Chinese Art Songs

After the May Fourth Movement, the development of Mandarin-Chinese art song was gradually evolved. The music education was not limited to the classroom experiences in public schools. There were many Western-trained musicians who returned to China, such as Yuanpei Cai (蔡元培), Zi Huang (黃自), and Youmei Xiao, and they led teachers and

9 Ibid., 21.

7 students to establish music associations, such as the Beijing Daxue Yinyue Yanjiuhui (北

京大學音樂研究會, Peking University Music Research Association), Zhonghua

Meiyushe (中華美育社, China Art Education Association), and Guoyue Gaijinshe (國樂

改進社, Chinese Music Improvement Association). Additionally, in 1920, the Western educational music department system began to take place at universities by leading

Chinese intellectuals in China, and the first formal Western-like music institution,

Shanghai Conservatory of Music,10 was founded on November 27, 1927 as well.

The Western-trained musician not only brought the latest music theory back to China, but they also used the techniques they had learned to compose Mandarin-Chinese songs. For example, Zi Huang went to Oberlin College and Yale University for his bachelor degree in music. When he went back to China, Huang was invited to Shanghai Conservatory of

Music as a director of teaching affairs and chair of the composition area.11 He taught

Western theory, composition and music appreciation. At the same time, he did not stop composing new Chinese music which combined the Western and Chinese musical styles.

As Huang said, “Western music is not all of the best quality. We should be careful in choosing the works that suit us and exclude what we don’t need. In a word, we should learn what is good in Western music and use this technique to rearrange Chinese ancient music and folk song; thus, it will not be difficult for us to have a new music of our own

10 It was called Shanghai National Conservatory of Music.

11Hao-Ming Nancy Chao. Twentieth century Chinese vocal music with particular reference to its development and nationalistic characteristics from the May Fourth Movement (1919) to 1945. (Ph.D diss., University of California, 1995), 106.

8 nationalistic style.”12 Huang had composed over a hundred works, and most were vocal works. “Si Xiang” (〈思鄉〉, “Longing for home”), “Chunsi Qü” (〈春思曲〉, “Spring

Yearning”), and Meigui Sanyuan (〈玫瑰三願〉, “The Three Wishes of Rose”) are three of his most famous Mandarin Chinese songs.

Unfortunately, as the development of Mandarin Chinese art songs was gaining strength, the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) began. The war started from the northern provinces of China, and it broadened the scope to the whole mainland China. Because of the war, many patriotic songs were composed, including, “Jiu Yi Ba” (〈九一八〉,

“September Eighteenth”) by Huang, “Changcheng Iao” (〈長城謠〉, “A Ballade of the

Great Wall”) by Xueyan Liu (劉雪庵), and “Dujue Hua” (杜鵑花, “Azaleas in Bloom”) by Youdi Huang (黃友棣). During this time, many music institutions were moved to remote provinces to be away from the war, and this hindered the development of music education. 13 However, it also brought an unexpected benefit to the development of

Mandarin Chinese art song. The musicians noticed various kinds of folk songs from the areas in which they stayed, and they used their musical knowledge to write the tunes in

Western musical notation that were published later. The collections of the folk songs did not only save and introduce these valuable folk songs to more people, but it also encouraged the composers to explore the new compositions other than Western art songs.

For instance, composers started to arrange Chinese folk songs with Western musical style,

12Ibid, 127.

13Jaan-Ay Tyan. A Performer’s Guide to Selected Chinese Art Songs by Twentieth-Century Chinese Composers. (DMA diss.. The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2003), 14. 9 either arranged (adapting) the melody of the song or by adding a completely different accompaniment.

The Development of Mandarin-Chinese Art Song in Taiwan

After the end of the Second Sino-Japanese War, China was still lingering in the turmoil of war. The Communist Party of China started the civil war in 1947, and the primary party, the Chinese Nationalist Party, known as Guomindang (國民黨), had to retreat from

Republic of China to Taiwan in 1949. Following the establishment of the People's

Republic of China by the Communist Party of China in Mainland China on October 1,

1949, China was officially divided into two governments. This change did not only change the political territories, but also made the Mandarin-Chinese art songs have different developments in the areas.

The development of Mandarin-Chinese art song was limited in Mainland China, because

Communism was implemented by the Communist Party of China. During the time that people in Mainland China were under control by the government in almost every way, the Mandarin Chinese art song was gradually being developed in Taiwan.

Before 1949, Western musical style had already been introduced into Taiwan through

Taiwanese composers such as, Si-Zhi Chen (陳泗治), Quan-Sheng Lü (呂泉生), and Zhi-

Üan Guo (郭芝苑). In addition, because of the Second Sino-Japanese War, many Chinese musicians immigrated to Taiwan, and they established the first music department in the

National Normal College in Taiwan in 1946. 14 This was the very beginning of professional music education being provided to Taiwanese musicians.

The contributions from the Taiwanese and Chinese musicians and educators provided a very nice environment for the second generation of musicians in Taiwan. The musicians were able to not only have more advanced musical knowledge and technique, but also to establish a more world view of musical concepts. Furthermore, the development of music in Taiwan has never stopped. After studying abroad, many musicians like Chang-Hui Xu

(許常惠), De-Yi Liu (劉德義), Tai-Xiang Lee (李泰祥) and Shui-Long Ma (馬水龍) brought the newest music concepts from all over the world back to Taiwan, and of course, these concepts were also reflected in the Mandarin-Chinese art songs. Take Changhui Xu as an example. After graduating from the National Taiwan Normal University, he went to

Ecole Cesar Franco and Institut de musicologie, Universite de Paris in France in 1954.

During the time he was in France, Musical Impressionism was the mainstream there. His first composition, Gequ Sishou (《歌曲四首》, Four Songs) was finished in 1956. This was also his first attempt at composing a work in the Musical Impressionism style. Later, his fifth work, Liangshou Shiyueshi- Zuo Zi Haishang Lai. (《兩首室樂詩-昨自海上

來》, I Came from the Sea Yesterday of Two Chamber Music Poems) which was a set for

14 Jaan-Ay Tyan. A Performer’s Guide to Selected Chinese Art Songs by Twentieth-Century Chinese Composers. (DMA diss.. The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2003), 19.

11 soprano, was awareded as a piece of fine work by the Italy International Modern Music.15

No doubt, he brought the new musical style back to Taiwan when he returned in 1959. He not only taught Musical Impressionism style at the music institutes, but also composed much of his musical works with it. He especially dedicated himself to Mandarin Chinese art songs. He composed many Mandarin Chinese art songs, including Nü Guanzi (〈女冠

子〉, “Lady's Headwear”), Qiao (〈橋〉, “The Bridge”). He also arranged various

Chinese folk songs into the new style. He held a concert, “Xu Changhui Bianqu-

Zhongguo minyao Yanchanghui” (「許常惠編曲：中國民謠演唱會」“Chinese Folk

Songs Concert- Music Arranged by Xu Changhui”) in 1965 to present his works. His teaching and works brought the Mandarin Chinese art songs to an advanced level quite successfully. Moreover, he founded several associations and published articles and books which promoted music in Taiwan.

Because of the contributions from these types of musicians, the development of music in

Taiwan began to mature. Not only did Taiwanese musicians begin to gain international recognition, but also the works by Taiwanese composers were performed on global stages.

However, the development of the Mandarin-Chinese art songs has become somewhat stalled, because most composers have become more attentive to composing in larger musical forms and genres.16 The Association of Vocal Artists of R.O.C. noticed this

15Rui-Kun Xu and Mei-Wen Li. One Hundred Eastern Music Masters- Recent Asian Composers. Kaohsiung: Center for the Humanities at National Sun Yat-sen University. Site address: http://humanitiescenter.nsysu.edu.tw/webplan_person03.php

16 Jaan-Ay Tyan. A Performer’s Guide to Selected Chinese Art Songs by Twentieth-Century Chinese Composers. (DMA diss.. The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2003), 18. 12 stalling in Mainland China and Hong Kong. Since 1994, they held several Mandarin

Chinese art songs concerts; for example, “Jiaowo Ruhe Buxiang Ta- Zhao Yuenren

Jinian Xilie” (「教我如何不想他-趙元任紀念系列」, “How Can I not Think of Him-

In Memory of Yuenren Zhao”, 1994), “Na Yike Xing Zai Dongfang- Xu Changhui Ge

Yuezhan” (「那一顆星在東方-許常惠歌樂展」, “The Star is in the Eastern- The

Performance of Songs by Changhui Xu” 1995), “Baiyun Guxiang- Lin Shengxi Ge

Yuezhan” (「白雲故鄉-林聲翕歌樂展」, “The Hometown of White Clouds- The

Performance of Songs by Shengxi Lin”, 1996). Furthermore, the association commissioned outstanding Taiwanese composers to compose Mandarin Chinese art songs, and held a series of “Taiwan Dangdai Zuoqujia Ge Yuelianzhan” (「台灣當代作

曲家歌樂聯展」, “The Performance of Songs by Contemporary Taiwanese Composers”,

1997), and “Chuangzuo Gequ Fabiaohui” (「創作歌曲發表會」, “The Presentation of

Songs” 2000) to present almost one hundred Mandarin Chinese art songs written by thirty-two modern Taiwanese composers. In 2003, the association collected and published some of the songs from the concerts in Dangdai Zhongwen Yishu Gequji (《當

代中文藝術歌曲集》, Contemporary Chinese Art Songs). Later, it commissioned four

Taiwanese poets and composers to cooperate to compose seventeen songs which were published in Dangdai Zhongwen Yishu Gequji 2 ( 《當代中文藝術歌曲集 2 》 ,

Contemporary Chinese Art Songs, Volume 2) in 2005. In addition, the Association of

Vocal Artists of Republic of China (R.O.C.) held competitions and concerts of Mandarin-

Chinese art songs every year to encourage not only composers to compose more

Mandarin-Chinese art songs, but to also encourage the singers of the latest generation to know the repertoire. As the former president of the Association of Vocal Artists of

R.O.C., Xue-Yong Shen (申學庸), said, “One of the most important goals for founding the association is to promote the vocal works wrriten by Taiwanese composers. It is a long-term plan.”17 Undoubtly, its efforts have rekindled the development of Mandarin-

Chinese art songs.

17Xueyong Shen, Ed. Dangdai Zhongwen Yishu Gequji (《當代中文藝術歌曲集》, Contemporary Chinese Art Songs ). Taipei: Mercury Publishing House, 2003, 3. 14

Chapter Three:

Introduction of Mandarin-Chinese Diction

Chinese is one of the oldest languages that have been used continuously; it was the native language of the Han people18. There are seven mutually unintelligible dialect families of

Chinese. They are the Mandarin dialects, the Wu dialects, the Yue dialects, the Min dialects, the Hakka dialects, the Xiang dialects, and the Gan dialects, and they are considered as regional dialects. 19 Because the different pronunciations between each dialect caused communication problems, the Republic of China decided to establish

Standard Chinese (SC) as a national language in the early twentieth century.

The pronunciation of SC is based on the Beijing dialect, one of the Mandarin dialects, which is considered as the main language used in Mandrin-Chinese art songs. In 1949,

SC became the official language in China and Taiwan. It is called Putonghua (普通話, common language) in China and Guoyu (國語, national language) in Taiwan.20 SC is taught in schools and used in broadcasts in China and Taiwan. However, there are subdialectal differences between regions. For example, the most obvious difference of SC

18 The name, Han, originally came from the Han Dynasty (206 BCE – 220 CE). Now, Chinese refers “Han people” to them.

19 Yen-Hwei Lin. The Sounds of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 2.

20 It is called Huayu (華語, Chinese language) in Singapore. 15 between Putonghua and Guoyu is that there are more retroflex sounds in Putonghua than

Guoyu.

For composing a sound of SC, the pronounciation combines three important parts. They are an initial, a final and a tone mark. First, a consonant is used as an initial which is the beginning of a syllable, and it must be followed by a vowel. Second, a final means the rest of the syllable after the initial, and they are a vowel and a vowel with a glide.

However, an initial can be empty in SC. When an initial is empty, a vowel is the only segment of the syllable. (Table 1)

Syllable

Initial Final

Medial Rime

Nucleus Ending

Consonant Glide Vowel Consonant or the second half of a diphthong

Table 1: The Traditional Analysis of the Chinese Syllable21

21 Ibid, 107. 16

Last, Chinese is considered as a tone language. Excpet the neural tone is changed based on the tone of the syllable preceeding it, and does not have specific pitch. There are four tones in SC which have different pitch values and pitch patterns. They are the first tone, second tone, third tone, and fourth tone. The pitch value can be classified to high, mid and low level. Based on the scale of 1 to 5, 5 indicate the highest pitch and 1 is the lowest pitch. The pitch pattern can be rising, falling, rising-falling, or falling-rising. 22 The concept of the pitch value and pitch pattern is relative. It would be different from a person to a person. The first tone is high and without rising or falling (55, ); the second tone is mid and rising (35, ); the third tone is low and falling-rising (214, ); and the foruth tone is high and falling (51, ). As an important part of syllable in SC, the different tones present different meanings. For instance, the vowel /ai/ in different tones has different meanings: [ai] in first tone is ‘哀’ (sad), in second tone is ‘癌’ (cancer), in third tone is ‘矮’ (short), and in fourth tone is ‘愛’ (love).

There are two major systems used for transcribing the sounds of SC for native speakers.

The first one was created in 1913 by the Conference on Unification of Pronunciation, led by Jinheng Wu (吳敬恆) and it is called Zhuyin Fuhao (注音符號, Phonetic Symbols) which originally was called Zhuyin Zimu (注音字母, Phonetic Alphabet). The system started to be officially promoted in 1928. The symbols of Zhuyin Fuhao were based on the forms of ancient Chinese characters and created by Zhang Binglin (章太炎). The system now is used for teaching SC in schools and it is also a Chinese computer input

22Yen-Hwei Lin. The Sounds of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 92. 17 method in Taiwan. Another system is Hanyu Pinyin (漢語拼音, Chinese Phonetic

Alphabet) which was created by Youguang Zhou (周有光) and published by the Chinese government in 1958. The system is a Romanization system to transcribe SC into the

Roman alphabet. Hanyu Pinyin was revised several times and adopted as the international standard in 1982 by the International Organization for Standardization. It is used in China,

Malaysia, Singapore, and Taiwan.

In order to avoid the confusion of the Roman symbols in IPA and Hanyu Pinyin, the classification of the SC vowels and consonants in the study is based on Zhuyin Fuhao.

(Table 2) In addition, “Standard Chinese” or “Chinese” is used as “Mandarin-Chinese” in this study. The discussion of the pronunciations of Mandarin-Chinese in the following chapters is from a singer’s point of view, and use similar sounds found in Italian, German,

French, or English words to approach the concepts of the sound in Mandarin-Chinese in the study. For each sound, it will be given a symbol of the Zhuyin Fuhao, a symbol of the

IPA, an explanation of the sound, and three Mandarin-Chinese words as examples. In addition, there are several rules for changing the pronunciation of words in Mandarin-

Chinese as other foreign languages. However, Mandarin Chinese words do not consist of

English or Latin alphabets but in a number of strokes. It is difficult to recognize the pronunciation of the words for non-native speakers of Mandarin-Chinese. For example, the word ‘Love’ in Chinese is ‘愛’, and the word ‘hate’ is ‘恨’. It is not like European languages where people can pronounce a word once they know the pronunciation of the

English alphabets and the rules. Therefore, the study concentrates on the pronunciations

18 of the Mandarin Chinese IPA, and only discusses the rules for the exception of the syllable itself.

Zhuyin Fuhao ㄅㄆㄇㄈㄉㄊㄋㄌㄍㄎ

IPA p ph m f t th n l k kh

Zhuyin Fuhao ㄏㄐㄑㄒㄓㄔㄕㄖㄗㄘ

IPA x tɕ tɕh ɕ tʂ tʂh ʂ ɹ ts tsh

Zhuyin Fuhao ㄙㄚㄛㄜㄝㄞㄟㄠㄡㄢ

IPA s a ɔ ǝ ε ai ei ɑu ou an

Zhuyin Fuhao ㄣㄤㄥㄦㄧㄨㄩ

IPA ǝn ɑŋ ǝŋ ɚ i u y

Table 2: Thirty-Seven Symbols of Zhuyin Fuhao and IPA

Pronouncing the correct tone in SC is very difficult for non-native speakers, especially for people whose native language is a non-tone language. However, it is less problematic to sing in Mandarin-Chinese, because the pitch value and pitch contour will be covered by musical tones in songs. Therefore, there is no further discussion about tones in this

19 study. Only the examples of the Chinese words for each sound have a tonal mark based on IPA transcription in the example below. (Example 2)

Tone Value Pitch Pattern IPA Word Meaning Transcription

First Tone High Level [ai]55 哀 sad

Second Tone Mid-Rising [ai]35 癌 cancer

Third Tone Low-Falling-Rising [ai]214 矮 short

Fourth Tone Hihg-Falling [ai]51 愛 love

Example 2: The Tonal Mark in IPA Transcription

Chapter Four:

The Mandarin-Chinese Diction- Vowels and Glides

Introduction

A vowel is made when the air goes through the vocal tract and makes the vocal folds vibrate. In addition, every vowel has its particular position of the tongue and the lips.

Generally, there are three classifications of vowels. They are the degree of openness, the place of articulation, and the lip position.23

First, the degree of openness is related to the degree of sonority. The openness of the jaw and the low position of the tongue root are two factors that affect the degree of openness.

Based on the degree of openness, the vowel can be divided into a high vowel, mid vowel, and low vowel. Compare the English vowels [ɑ] in park and [i] in leave. The vowel [ɑ] has the position of the more open jaw and the lower tongue root than [i]. Therefore, the vowel [ɑ] is called a low vowel, and the [i] is called a high vowel.

Second, a vowel can be classified as a front, central, and back vowel by the placement of the articulated front tongue. Take the sounds of French low vowels [a] in la (there) and [ɑ] passer (pass) as examples, the difference between [a] and [ɑ] is that [a] is produced when

23 Yen-Hwei Lin. The Sounds of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 63. 21 the front part of the tongue is raised, and the front part of the tongue moves backward for producing [ɑ]. The Table 3 is the vowel space diagram which illustrates the differences between vowels.

front central back high i u

mid e ǝ o

low a ɑ

Table 3: The Vowel Space Diagram24

Last, in addition to the differences of the degree of openness and the place of articulation, the lip position is another classification for vowels. This position is used especially for distinguishing presence or absensce of lip-rounded. It divides the high vowels [i] and [u], and the mid vowels [e] and [o]. The vowel [i] and [e] are in a lip-unrounded position, and

[u] and [o] are in a lip-rounded position.

24 Ibid, 65. 22

Vowels and Glides

* Vowel: ㄚ [a]

The vowel ㄚ [a] is a low, front vowel which is considered as a bright [a]. The sound of

ㄚ [a] is made with the tongue moving toward the tongue position of [ɛ] as the facial muscles slightly lift as in the act of smiling. The sound is the same as the French [a] in table (table) and femme (woman), the Italian [a] in bacio (kiss) and donna (woman).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

法 (ㄈㄚˋ, fà) [fa]51 France

八 (ㄅㄚ, ba) [pa]55 eight

拿 (ㄋㄚˊ, ná) [na]35 to take

* Vowel: ㄛ [ɔ]

The vowel ㄛ [ɔ] is a mid and back vowel with lip-rounding. When the lips are rounded, the tongue is flat and low in the mouth and the tongue tip is behind the front lower teeth, the sound of ㄛ is produced. Its sound is close to the “aw” in English saw and law, or in

[ɔ] French mort (dead) and Noël (Christmas), or in Italian poco (little) and Tosca (Tosca), or in German sonne (sun) and Gott (God).

Exception:

When the ㄛ is preceded by a labial consonant25, the vowel ㄛ is pronounced [wɔ].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

火 (ㄏㄨㄛˇ, huŏ) [xwɔ]214 fire h 破 (ㄆㄛˋ, pò) [p wɔ]51 broken

佛 (ㄈㄛˊ, fó) [fwɔ]35 Buddha

* Vowel: ㄜ [ǝ]

The vowel ㄜ [ǝ] is mid and central vowel. The vowel ㄜ is produced with the tongue in a neutral position. The sound is close to the “a” in English abroad and allure.

Exception:

1) When the vowel ㄜ is the only segment in the syllable, it involves a retroflex sound [ɹ]

involved. Therefore, the IPA of the vowel ㄜ would be [ǝɹ]. However, the nuclear

vowel is still [ǝ].

2) When the vowel ㄜ is in the final position in the syllable preceeded by a consonant (a

consonant+ㄜ), the IPA of the vowel would be [ɤ]. The sound of [ɤ] is similar to the

vowel [o] without lip-rounding.

25 There are two kinds of labial consonants. They are bilabial and labio-dental consonants. In SC, the consonant ㄅ [p], ㄆ [ph], ㄇ [m], and ㄈ [f] are labial consonants. 24

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

餓 (ㄜˋ, è) [ǝ]51 hungry

樂 (ㄌㄜˋ, lè) [lɤ]51 happy

色 (ㄙㄜˋ, sè) [sɤ]51 color

* Vowel: ㄝ [ε]

The vowel ㄝ [ε] is mid, front vowel. The sound is close to the Italian [e] in e (and), velo

(veil), and sè (himself/herself).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

別 (ㄅㄧㄝˊ, bié) [pjε]35 to leave

略 (ㄌㄩㄝˋ, luè) [lɥε]51 to leave out

滅 (ㄇㄧㄝˋ, miè) [mjε]51 to exterminate

* Vowel: ㄦ [ɚ]

The vowel ㄦ [ɚ] is called a retroflexed vowel. The sound of ㄦ [ɚ] is close to an English schwa with the tip of tongue raising toward the post-alveolar region; for example, English

[ɚ] in leader and reader.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

二 (ㄦˋ , èr) [ɚ]51 two

兒(ㄦˊ, ér) [ɚ]35 son

耳 (ㄦˇ, ĕr) [ɚ]214 ear

*Vowel: ㄧ [i]

The vowel ㄧ [i] is a high and front vowel. The sound is similar to the Italian [i] in Mimì

(Mimi), venti (twenty), and pietà (pity).

Exception:

There are two exceptions when the sound of ㄧ [i] becomes a glide [j]:

1) When there is no consonant before the vowel ㄧ, the glide [j] would be sounded before

the vowel ㄧ. The vowel becomes [ji].

2) When the vowel ㄧ is followed by the mid and low vowels26, the vowel ㄧ becomes a

glide [j].

The sound of [j] is similar to the English [j] in yes, yard, and yellow.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

ㄧ (一, yi) [ji]51 one

也 (ㄧㄝˇ, yĕ) [je]214 also

鼻 (ㄅㄧˊ, bí) [pi]35 a nose

26 The mid and low vowels are [e], [ǝ], [o], [a], and [ɑ].

* Vowel: ㄨ [u]

The Vowel ㄨ [u] is high, back, and rounded vowel. To pronounce the vowel ㄨ [u], the lips are rounded and protruded forward, the tongue tip is behind the lower front teeth, and the back of the tongue rises toward the soft palate. The sound is similar to the English [u] in blue and Luke, and the Italian [u] in tu (you) and giù (down).

Exception:

There are two exceptions of when the sound of ㄨ becomes a glide [w]:

1) When there is no consonant before the vowel ㄨ, the glide [w] would be sounded

before the vowel ㄨ. The vowel becomes [wu].

2) When the vowel ㄨ is followed by the mid and low vowels, the vowel ㄨ becomes

glide [w].

The sound of [w] is similar to the English [w] in window and watch.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

五 (ㄨˇ, wŭ) [wu]214 five

婦 (ㄈㄨˋ, fù) [fu]51 a woman h 譜 (ㄆㄨˇ, pŭ) [p u]213 scores

* Vowel: ㄩ [y]

The Vowel ㄩ [y] is the high, front and rounded vowel. The sound of ㄩ [y] is made with the tongue placed as [i] and then round the lips as an open [ɔ] to produce [y]. It is as same as the French [y] in flute (flute) and sur (on), the German ü in für (for) and Blüte

(blossom).

Exception:

There are two exceptions of when the sound of ㄩ becomes a glide [ɥ]:

1) When there is no consonant before the vowel ㄩ, the glide [ɥ] would be sounded

before the vowel ㄩ. The vowel becomes [ɥy].

2) When the vowel ㄩ is followed by the mid and low vowels, the vowel ㄧ becomes

glide [ɥ].

The sound of [ɥ] is similar to the French [ɥ] in nuit (night) and lui (it).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

女 (ㄋㄩˇ, nŭ) [ny]214 female

綠 (ㄌㄩˋ, lù) [ly]51 green

魚 (ㄩˊ, yú) [ɥy]35 a fish

* Vowel: ㄢ [an]

To pronounce the vowel ㄢ [an], practice the English [æn] in pan and plan first and the back part of the tongue slightly moves down. Therefore, when the vowel [æ] is changed to [a], the vowel ㄢ [an] is made.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

安 (ㄢ, ān) [an]55 peaceful

半 (ㄅㄢˋ, bàn) [pan]51 half

懶 (ㄌㄢˇ, lăn) [lan]214 lazy

* Vowel: ㄣ [ǝn]

The vowel ㄣ [ǝn] is close to the German [ǝn] in ihnen (them) and geblieben (remained).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

笨 (ㄅㄣˋ, bèn) [pǝn]51 stupid

門 (ㄇㄣˊ, mén) [mǝn]35 a door

分 (ㄈㄣ, fēn) [fǝn]55 to separate

* Vowel: ㄤ [aŋ]

To pronounce the vowel ㄤ [aŋ], practice the English [ʌŋ] in sung, and lung first and raise the soft palate slightly. Therefore, when the vowel [ʌ] is changed to [a], the sound of ㄤ [aŋ] is made.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

昂 (ㄤˊ, áng) [aŋ]35 to raise

幫 (ㄅㄤ, bang) [paŋ]55 to help

浪 (ㄌㄤˋ, làng) [laŋ]51 waves

* Vowel: ㄥ [ǝŋ]

The vowel ㄥ [ǝŋ] is similar to the English [oŋ] in song and long without lip-rounding.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

蹦 (ㄅㄥˋ, bèng) [pǝŋ]51 to leap

瞪 (ㄉㄥˋ, dèng) [tǝŋ]51 to stare

能 (ㄋㄥˊ, néng) [nǝŋ]35 capable

Diphthongs: ㄞ [ai], ㄟ [ei], ㄠ [ɑu], ㄡ [ou]

A vowel consisting of two vowel qualities within a syllable is called a diphthong. For example, the English [ai] in fly includes the vowel qualities of [a] and [i]. In SC, there are four diphthongs. They are ㄞ [ai], ㄟ [ei], ㄠ [ɑu], ㄡ [ou]. The duration of the two vowels in SC diphthongs is that the first vowel is longer and the second vowel is shorter.

* Vowel: ㄞ [ai]

The vowel ㄞ [ai] is as same as the English [ai] in lie and bye.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

拜 (ㄅㄞˋ, bài) [pai]51 to worship

來 (ㄌㄞˊ, lái) [lai]35 to come

買 (ㄇㄞˇ, măi) [mai]214 to buy

* Vowel: ㄟ [ei]

The vowel ㄟ [ei] is as same as the English [ei] in lay and pay, and the Italian [ei] in lei

(she) and sei (six).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

杯 (ㄅㄟ, bēi) [pei]55 a cup

美 (ㄇㄟˇ, mĕi) [mei]214 beautiful

累 (ㄌㄟˋ, lèi) [lei]51 tired

* Vowel: ㄠ [ɑu]

The vowel of ㄠ [ɑu] is similar to the English [ɑu] in cow and loud, the Italian [au] in aura (aura) and Laura (Laura).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

傲 (ㄠˋ, ào) [ɑu]51 proud

老 (ㄌㄠˇ, lăo) [lɑu]214 old

抱 (ㄅㄠˋ, bào) [pɑu]51 to hug

* Vowel: ㄡ [ou]

The vowel ㄡ [ou] is close to the English [oʊ] in soul, sew, and load.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

嘔 (ㄡˋ, òu) [ou]51 to vomit

樓 (ㄌㄡˊ, lóu) [lou]35 a building

嗽 (ㄙㄡˋ, sòu) [sou]51 to cough

Chapter Five:

The Mandarin-Chinese Diction- Consonants

Introduction

In SC, there are twenty-one consonants and there are several major different characters among the consonants. The characters are divided into four catalogies. They are the state of the glottis, place of articulation, manner of articulation, and aspirated/unaspirated.27

Understanding the differences between characters can help the students not only to have a better idea of the phonetic description of a sound in Chinese, but also to know how to pronounce the exact sound physically.

First, the state of the glottis, which is the opening between the vocal folds, affects the consonants to be either voiced or voiceless. A voiced sound is produced when the air from the lung could not be pushed though the glottis and make the vocal folds vibrate. On the other hand, when the air could be easily pushed through the glottis, the vocal folds do not vibrate, and a voiceless sound is produced. In English as an example, the b in bee is a voiced consonant and p in pee is a voiceless consonant. The only different between these two sounds is the state of the glottis which makes one is voiced and the other is voiceless.

In SC, there are only four voiced consonants which are sonorants: nasals and

27 Yen-Hwei Lin. The Sounds of Chinese. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007, 19. 33 approximents. They are ㄇ [m], ㄋ [n], ㄌ [l], and ㄖ [ɹ]. Other than these four consonants, all the consonants in SC are voiceless consonanats, and they are obstruents.

Hence, in SC, sonorants are voiced sounds and obstruents are voicless.

Subsequently, a consonant is produced when the air cannot flow through the vocal tract, and the location of the obstruction is the place of articulation. There are three main places of articulation and they are a labial articulation, coronal articulation, and dorsal articulation. A labial sound that is made by the lips and it includes two types of labial sounds: bilabial and labiodental. For example, the English “m” in mother and “f” in father are both labial sounds. A sound that is made by using the tip or blade of tongue as an articulator is called a coronal sound. Based on where the tip or blade of tongue forms a constriction, there are three types of coronal sounds. They are dental, alveolar and post- alveolar. The English “th” in thin, “n” in nine, and “r” in ride are examples of coronal sounds. A dorsal sound is produced by the body (back) of the tongue and the velum. It is also called a velar sound. The English “k” in key and “g” in glee are velar consonants.

The third category among consonants in SC is the manner of articulation. The manner of articulation is how to describe the different ways of forming obstructions by articulators.

They can be divided into a stop, fricative, affricate, approximant, and lateral. First, the different degrees of the constriction make a stop, fricative and approximant. A stop is made when the articulators completely block the air to escape through the mouth. There are two types of stops- oral stops and nasal stops. The English “t” in tea and “m” in meat

34 are the examples of stops. When the articulators do not completely block the air and allow the air escape from a very small opening, the friction is happened, and it is called a fricative. The pair of voiced and voiceless consonants, “f” in fan and “v” in vain, are examples of fricatives. An approximant is the highest degree of opening when the articulators are close to each other. Take the English r in road and l in long as examples, there is no friction when saying these words. Second, an affricate has characteristics of both a stop and fricative. The sound [tʃ] in cheap is an example of an affricate. When saying the first consonant [tʃ] of the word cheap, there is a very short complete closure followed by a friction. It is not like [t] in tea which does not have a friction followed by.

Last, a lateral sound is made when the tongue tip or blade touches the alveolar, and the air escapes from the sides of the tongue.

Last, the difference between an aspirated and unaspirated consonant is the voice onset time. The voice onset time is the very short period of time between a voiceless consonant and the following voiced sound. Consonants which have longer voice onset time are aspirated consonants, and there is a sound like [h] during the voice onset time. Compare the English words pin and spin. The time between the consonant p and the vowel i in two words is different. The voice onset time of the word pin is longer than spin. The consonant p in pin has [h]-like sound, as a result of aspiration.

After understanding the different characters among consonants, each consonant can be easily given a more accurate phonetic description of a sound. For example, the sound [m]

35 is classified as voiced, bilabial, and nasal consonant. In addition, it will be also easier for students to have a better picture of the pronunciation of each consonant in the following discussion.

The Bilabial Stop: ㄅ [p], ㄆ [ph], ㄇ [m]

The bilabial is one type of labial sounds. The sound is made by both lips touching each other. There is no tongue movement. All three of these consonants are classified as a stop.

The consonants ㄅ [p] and ㄆ [ph] are oral stops which occur when articulators (both lips) completely block the air through the oral cavity and nasal cavity. The consonant ㄇ [m] is a nasal stop, and it occurs when the air is only blocked in the oral cavity.

* Consonant: ㄅ [p], voiceless, unaspirated, bilabial, oral stop.

Although the consonant ㄅ [p] was classified as “b” in Pinyin system, singers should be aware that ㄅ [p] is voiceless, unaspirated sound, and not mispronounce it as a voiced sound. The sound of ㄅ [p] is like the English “p” in spoon and spa. In addition, the

Italian [p] and French [p] are both similar to the sound of ㄅ [p], for example; the Italian

[p] in pace (peace) and Puritani (Puritan), and the French [p] in Paris (Paris) and

Poulenc.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

爸 (ㄅㄚˋ, bà) [pa]51 father

拜 (ㄅㄞˋ, bài) [pai]55 bye

不 (ㄅㄨˋ, bù) [pu]51 no

* Consonant: ㄆ [ph], voiceless, aspirated, bilabial, oral stop.

The sound ㄆ [ph] is made with the same way as ㄅ [p], except ㄆ [ph] is aspirated. The sound of ㄆ [ph] is like the English “p” in park, pea, and put.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning h 怕 (ㄆㄚˋ, pà) [p a]51 to be afraid h 媲 (ㄆㄧˋ, pì) [p i]51 to be equal to h 撲 (ㄆㄨ, pū) [p u]55 to throw oneself on

* Consonant: ㄇ [m], voiced, bilabial, nasal stop.

The sound of ㄇ [m] is the same as the English “m” in mother, meat, and mood. It is also as same as the Italian, French, and German [m].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

媽 (ㄇㄚ, mā) [ma]55 mother

米 (ㄇㄧˇ, mĭ) [mi]214 rice

木 (ㄇㄨˋ, mù) [mu]51 wood 37

The Labiodental Fricative: ㄈ [f]

A labiodental sound is made with the lower lip closed to the upper front teeth. In addition, for making a fricative, there is a narrow gap between the lower lip and the upper front teeth, and the air escapes.

* Consonant: ㄈ [f], voiceless, labiodental fricative.

The sound of ㄈ [f] is the same as the English “f” in far, fair, and full. It is also the same as the Italian, French, and German [f].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

罰 (ㄈㄚˊ, fá) [fa]35 to punish

飛 (ㄈㄟ, fēi) [fei]55 to fly

富 (ㄈㄨˋ, fù) [fu]51 rich

The Dental Stop: ㄉ [t], ㄊ [th], ㄋ [n]

Unlike the English sounds [t] and [n] are alveolar stops, the [t], [th], [n] in SC are classified as dental stops. The sound is made with the tongue tip or blade close to the upper front teeth so that the air cannot escape through the mouth. However, there are many native speakers of Mandarin-Chinese making this sound with the tongue tip or blade close to the alveolar.

* Consonant: ㄉ [t], voiceless, unaspirated, dental, oral stop.

It is easy for people to confuse the sound of ㄉ [t] in SC, especially since it is spelled as d in the pinyin system. However, there is no [d] in SC. The Sound of ㄉ [t] is the same as the English “t” in stunning. In addition, the same sound also occurs in Italian. The Italian

[t] is unaspirated, for example, tu (you) and dito (finger).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

大 (ㄉㄚˋ, dà ) [ta]51 big

地 (ㄉㄧˋ, dì ) [ti]51 a floor

讀 (ㄉㄨˊ, dú ) [tu]35 to read

* Consonant: ㄊ [th], voiceless, aspirated, dental, oral stop.

The only difference between the consonants ㄉ [t] and ㄊ [th] is that the latter is aspirated.

It means that there is more air coming out when saying the consonant ㄊ [th]. The sound of [th] can be found in English, such as the “t” in tango and telephone; it is also similar to

French [t], such as tu (you), and tout (all).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning h 他 (ㄊㄚ, tā) [t a]55 he h 踢 (ㄊㄧ, tī) [t i]55 to kick h 兔 (ㄊㄨˋ, tù) [t u]51 a rabbit

* Consonant: ㄋ [n], voiced, dental, nasal stop.

The consonant ㄋ [n] is a dental nasal stop which is made with the tongue tip or blade close to the upper front teeth. The sound is like the Italian [n] in nome (name) and buona notte (good night). However, as mentioned before, the consonant ㄋ [n] can be pronounced as a dental stop or alveolar stop in SC. Therefore, there are some native speakers of Chinese that pronounce ㄋ [n] as an alveolar stop, in which the sound is the same as the English “n” in no and not.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

哪 (ㄋㄚˇ, nă) [na]214 where

內 (ㄋㄟˋ, nèi) [nei]51 inside

你 (ㄋㄧˇ, nĭ) [ni]214 you

The Dental Lateral: ㄌ [l]

There is only one type of lateral sound in SC, and it is a dental lateral. The dental lateral is produced by the tongue tip or blade touching the upper front teeth. The air can flow through the mouth along the sides of the tongue. Although the sound is classified as a dental sound, there are some native speakers of SC pronouncing the sound with the tongue tip or blade close to the center of alveolar ridge.

* Consonant: ㄌ [l], voiced dental lateral (approximant).

The sound of ㄌ [l] is like the Italian [l] in largo (wide) and leggero (light). In addition, as mentioned earlier, the ㄌ can be considered as an alveolar ridge, and the sound is close to the English “l” in lure and lay.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

辣 (ㄌㄚˋ, là) [la]51 spicy

累 (ㄌㄟˋ, lèi) [lei]51 tired

路 (ㄌㄨˋ, lù) [lu]51 a path

The Velar Stop and Fricative: ㄍ [k], ㄎ [kh], ㄏ [x]

The velar sound is made when the back/root of the tongue touches the velum.

* Consonant: ㄍ [k], voiceless, unaspirated, velar stop.

Unlike the sound [k] in Italian, French and German which is a palatal sound, the consonant ㄍ is pronounced when the back of the tongue touches the velar which is behind the hard and soft palatal. It is as same as the English “k” in sky, ski, and score.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

蓋 (ㄍㄞˋ, gài) [kai]51 to cover

過 (ㄍㄨㄛˋ, guò) [kuΩ]51 to pass

歌 (ㄍㄜ, gē) [kr]55 a song

* Consonant: ㄎ [kh], voiceless, aspirated, velar stop.

The sound of ㄎ [kh] is an aspirated sound of ㄍ [k]. The consonant ㄎ sounds like the

English “k” in card, core, and cool.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning h 卡 (ㄎㄚˇ, kă) [k a]214 a card

口 (ㄎㄡˇ, kŏu) [kou]214 a mouth

褲 (ㄎㄨˋ , kù) [ku]51 pants

* Consonant: ㄏ [x], voiceless, velar fricative.

It is easy to be confused with the sound of ㄏ [x] in SC, especially since it is spelled as

“h” in Pinyin system. However, the sound of [h], for example, in English is a glottal sound, but ㄏ [x] is not. The consonant ㄏ is a velar sound. In addition, it is confusing to singers, especially, the ㄏ with the German “ch” in lich, and ach which is a uvular sound, not a velar sound as well.

Because the only different between the consonant ㄏ and ㄍ is the manner of articulation, the consonant ㄏ is a fricative and ㄍ is a stop. To pronounce the consonant ㄏ, speak the

English [k] which is voiceless velar stop first, and move the tongue down slightly from the velar. The voiceless velar fricative sound, ㄏ, is made.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

畫 (ㄏㄨㄚˋ, huà) [xua]51 to draw

灰 (ㄏㄨㄟ, hueī) [xuei]55 gray

湖 (ㄏㄨˊ, hú) [xu]35 a lake

The Alveolar-palatal Fricative and Affricate: ㄐ [tɕ], ㄑ [tɕh], ㄒ [ɕ]

There are two kinds of post-alveolar sounds. One is called (apical) post alveolar, and another is alveolar-palatal. The three consonants, ㄐ [tɕ], ㄑ [tɕh], ㄒ [ɕ], are the alveolar- palatal. The alveolar-palatal is one kind of post alveolar. The alveolar-palatal sound is made when the tongue blade is close to the region between the alveolar and the hard palate. Note that the alveolar-palatal sound is only made with the tongue blade, not the tongue tip.

* Consonant: ㄐ [tɕ], voiceless, unaspirated, alveolar-palatal affricate.

To produce the sound of ㄐ [tɕ], speak the English [dʒ] which is a post-alveolar affricate as in jeep and jaw, or the Italian [dʒ] in giaccio (ice) and leggiero (slightly) first, and slightly move the tongue tip forward and down. When the tongue tip is behind the lower front teeth, and the tongue blade close to the region between the alveolar and the hard palate without lip-rounding, the sound of ㄐ is produced. The sound of ㄐ should be more forward and flat than the sound of [dʒ].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

雞 (ㄐㄧ, jī) [tɕi]55 a chicken

叫 (ㄐㄧㄠˋ, jiào) [tɕiau]51 to shout

舊 (ㄐㄧㄡˋ, jiù) [tɕiou]51 old

* Consonant: ㄑ[tɕh], voiceless, aspirated, alveolar-palatal affricate.

The sound of ㄑ [tɕh] is an aspirated sound of ㄐ [tɕ]. To produce the sound of ㄑ [tɕh], speak the English [tʃ] in cheap and chair, or the Italian [tʃ] in ciò (that) and ciao first, and slightly move the tongue tip forward and down. When the tongue tip is behind the lower front teeth, and the tongue blade is close to the region between the alveolar and the hard palate, the sound of ㄑ is produced. Note that the lips are not rounded. The sound of ㄑ should be more forward and flat than the sound of [tʃ].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning h 氣 (ㄑㄧˋ, qì) [tɕ i]51 angry h 切 (ㄑㄧㄝ, qiē) [tɕ ie]55 to cut h 橋 (ㄑㄧㄠˊ, qiáo) [tɕ iao]35 a bridge

* Consonant: ㄒ [ɕ], voiceless, unaspirated, alveolar-palatal fricative.

Speak the French [ʃ] which is voiceless alveolar-palatal stop in chose (thing) and chercher (to look for) first, and then move the lips to be unrounded. In addition, have a slight space between the tongue blade and the region between alveolar and palate to make the fricative sound. The consonant ㄒ is close to the Russian щ in щapф (scarf).

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

蝦 (ㄒㄧㄚ, xiā) [ɕia]55 a shrimp

謝 (ㄒㄧㄝˋ, xiè) [ɕie]51 to thank

秀 (ㄒㄧㄡˋ, xiù) [ɕiou]51 to show

The Post-alveolar Affricates and Fricative: ㄓ [tʂ], ㄔ [tʂh], ㄕ [ʂ]

The three consonants, ㄓ [tʂ], ㄔ [tʂh], ㄕ [ʂ], are specifically classified as apical post- alveolar.

The apical post alveolar is made when the tongue tip close to the post-alveolar region which is between the alveolar and the hard palate. Be careful that the difference between the apical post-alveolar sound and the alveolar-palatal sound is that the former is made with the tongue tip, and the latter is made with the tongue blade. There would be a slice of air coming through the tiny space between the tongue tip and the post alveolar region when pronouncing the affricates and fricatives.

* Consonant: ㄓ [tʂ], voiceless, unaspirated, post-alveolar affricate.

The sound of ㄓ [tʂ] is close to the English “j” in jerk and jeer, or the Italian [dʒ] in giara

(jar) and regie (royal).

When the consonant ㄓ is the only segment of the syllable, there would be a retroflex sound [ɹ] involved. 28 The IPA would be [tʂɹ]. The sounds ㄓ [tʂɹ] is made when prolonging [dʒ] and raise the tongue tip toward the back of the alveolar ridge. The sound of [tʂɹ] is like ㄓ [[tʂ] + schwa [ǝ].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

眨 (ㄓㄚˇ, zhă) [tʂa]214 to blink

週 (ㄓㄡ, zhōu) [tʂou]55 a week

紙 (ㄓˇ, zhĭ) [tʂɹ]214 paper

28 The retroflex sound [ɹ] is considered as an apical vowel when it proceeds by an apical consonant. 46

* Consonant: ㄔ [tʂh], voiceless, aspirated, post-alveolar affricate.

The ㄔ [tʂh] sound is made when prolonging the English “ts” in pets, and raises the tongue tip toward the back of the alveolar ridge.

When the consonant ㄔ is the only segment of the syllable, there would be a retroflex sound [ɹ] involved. The IPA would be [tʂhɹ]. The sound of [tʂhɹ] is like ㄔ [tʂh] + schwa

[ǝ].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning h 茶 (ㄔㄚˊ, chá) [tʂ a]35 tea h 處 (ㄔㄨˋ, chù) [tʂ u]51 a place h 吃 (ㄔ, chī) [tʂ ɹ]55 to eat

* Consonant: ㄕ [ʂ], voiceless, post-alveolar fricative.

The ㄕ [ʂ] sound is made when prolonging the English “s” in mouse, and raise the tongue tip toward the back of the alveolar ridge.

When the consonant ㄕ is the only segment of the syllable, there would be a retroflex sound [ɹ] involved. The IPA would be [ʂɹ]. The sound of [ʂɹ] is like ㄕ [ʂ] + schwa [ǝ].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

殺 (ㄕㄚ, shā) [ʂa]55 to kill

瘦 (ㄕㄡˋ, shòu) [ʂou]51 thin

十 (ㄕˊ, shí) [ʂɹ]35 ten

The Post-alveolar Approximant: ㄖ [ɹ]

The consonant ㄖ [ɹ] is post-alveolar which is made when the tongue tip close to the post- alveolar region which is between the alveolar and the hard palate. It is especially classified as an apical post-alveolar. The sound of ㄖ [ɹ] is close to the English “r” in road, rude, and rock without lip-rounding.

To pronounce the consonant ㄖ, prolong the English “z” in zoo, and curl the tongue tip back and close to the post-alveolar region. In addition, because the sound of ㄖ [ɹ] is approximant, there is a space between the tongue tip and the post-alveolar region.

When the consonant ㄖ is the only syllable in a word, there would be a retroflex sound [ɹ] involved. The IPA would be [ɹɹ]. The sound of [ɹɹ] is like ㄖ [ɹ] + schwa [ǝ].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

肉 (ㄖㄡˋ, ròu) [ɹou]51 meat

入 (ㄖㄨˋ, rù) [ɹu]51 to enter

日 (ㄖˋ, rì) [ɹɹ]51 day

The Dental Affricates and Fricative: ㄗ [ts], ㄘ [tsh], ㄙ [s]

The sound of the dental affricates or fricative is made by two steps. First, make the upper and lower front teeth very close to each other, and then, articulate the sound with the tongue tip or blade closer to the upper or lower front teeth, or in the middle of the upper and lower front teeth. There would be a slice air coming through the tiny space between the upper and the lower teeth when pronounce the affricates and fricative sounds.

* Consonant: ㄗ [ts], voiceless, unaspirated, dental affricate.

The sound of ㄗ [ts] is close to the English “ds” in sounds and birds. The sound is also similar to the Italian voiced [z] in zelo (zeal) and pranzo (lunch). However, singers should be careful that ㄗ [ts] is voiceless, and the English “ds” and Italian [z] are classified as voiced consonants.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

再 (ㄗㄞˋ, zài) [tsai]51 again

走 (ㄗㄡˇ, zŏu) [tsou]214 to go

組 (ㄗㄨˇ, zŭ) [tsu]214 to organize

* Consonant: ㄘ [tsh], voiceless, aspirated, dental affricate.

The sound of ㄘ [tsh] is an aspirated sound of ㄗ [ts]. The sound of Italian voiceless “z” is as same as ㄘ [tsh]. For example, the Italian [z] in danza (dance), azione (action), and zoppo (lame). The ㄘ [tsh] is also similar to the English “ts” in bits, bats, or tsunami.

Chinese Word IPA Meaning h 擦 (ㄘㄚ, cā) [ts a]55 to wipe h 湊 (ㄘㄡˋ, còu) [ts ou]51 to collect h 菜 (ㄘㄞˋ, cài) [ts ai]51 vegetables

* Consonant: ㄙ [s], voiceless, dental fricative.

The consonant ㄙ is close to the English “s” in sub, soup, and sad. However, the English

[s] is voiceless alveolar fricative. Therefore, to pronounce the consonant ㄙ correctly, prolong the English “s”, and move the tongue tip from the alveolar region to the back of the front teeth.

When the consonant ㄙ is the only syllable in a word, there would be a retroflex sound [ɹ] involved. The IPA would be [ʂɹ]. The sound of [ʂɹ] is like ㄙ [ʂ] + schwa [ǝ].

Chinese Word IPA Meaning

灑 (ㄙㄚˇ, să) [sa]214 to spray

素 (ㄙㄨˋ, sù) [su]51 plain

四 (ㄙˋ, sì) [sɹ]51 four

Chapter Six:

Chung Yiu-Kwong- The Composer

Biography

Yiu-Kwong Chung (鍾耀光), was born in Hong-Kong in 1956. Chung came from a small family, and was the only child. Before he went to elementary school, Chung had no musical background. His first music class at school was an eye-opening experience for him. At that point, his favorite thing to do was to stand beside the music teachers and watch them play the piano. Chung’s parents, of course, noticed his desire for music.

However, because of their financial difficulties, they were not able to provide him with any private music lessons. This did not stop Chung who had already fallen in love with music and who strongly wanted to learn more and more about the world of music. Chung not only started listening to classical music program from a Hong-Kong Commercial

Radio station every night, but he also joined the school wind band when he went to Pui

Ching Middle School (培正中學). He was a trumpeter and percussionist in the band.

Chung studied music with the director of the band, Yi-Guang Pan (潘裔光). Because of the good quality of the musical environment at Pui Ching Middle School, Chung developed his music techniques as a percussionist, and set his heart on pursuing his studies as a musician.

Chung went to Hong Kong Baptist University as a music major and started his professional music training as a percussionist. However, Chung was frustrated that there were not enough percussion teachers in Hong-Kong. So it was difficult for him to get more advanced training. Therefore, he decided to go to the U.S. during his junior year.

He received his Bachelor and Master degrees at the Philadelphia College of the

Performing Arts and Brooklyn College respectively. He studied with Nicolas D'Amico and Morris Lang. In addition, he also studied marimba with Leigh Howard Stevens and

Keiko Abe.

In 1980, the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra was searching for instrumentalists and held auditions all over the world. Chung went to the audition in New York, and was accepted. Therefore, after graduating, he went back to Hong Kong and joined the Hong

Kong Philharmonic Orchestra as the Assistant Principal Percussionist.

Chung was already well-known as a percussionist at the age of twenty-four in Hong

Kong, but his talent as a composer was not noticed till 1986. His work, Chariots Ballad for Solo Marimba and Seven Percussionists, 29 won the first prize at the Thirteenth

Percussive Arts Society Composition Competition in the U.S. Winning the competition encouraged Chung to study composition formally. At the same time, he had grown tired of the routine of his job at the Hong Kong Philharmonic Orchestra. Therefore, he gave up his liberal salary and went to City University of New York to further his study in

29 It had performed by the Prague Percussion Ensemble and other renowned percussion ensembles in Asia and the U.S. It is now a popular repertoire for a percussion ensemble. 53 percussion and composition. He received his doctoral degree in percussion in 1991 and composition in 1995. His Doctor of Music Arts (D.M.A) dissertation, Hans Werner

Henze's Five Scenes from the Snow Country: An Analysis, won the Barry Brook

Dissertation Award.

When he was at City University of New York, Chung studied composition with Robert

Starer and David Olan. This was the very first time Chung had professional training in composition. His PhD dissertation was I-Ching Compositional System: The Symbolism,

Structures, and Orderly Sequence of the Sixty-Four Hexagrams as Compositional

Determinants. I-Ching was the theory people used for divination. It has sixty-four hexagrams in orderly sequence. Chung combined the ideas and theories from the Chinese

Yin-Yang Philosophy and Western contemporary music and invented I-Ching

Compositional System (ICCS).

Chung decided to move to Taiwan after he finished his doctoral degree in percussion in

1991. The reason why he moved to Taiwan instead of going back to Hong Kong was because he liked the musical environment in Taiwan where composers could have more opportunities and support there.

After moving to Taiwan, Chung’s compositions received a wider international recognition very quickly. His compositions for Chinese orchestra, The Eternal City for

Chinese Orchestra, won the first prize of the Twenty-first Century International

Composition Competition in 2000. Moreover, his works have been heard in many major international festivals, such as the Prague Spring Festival, the International Society for

Contemporary Music (ISCM) World Music Days, the Shanghai Music Festival, the

Festival of the Asian Composers' League, and The World Association for Symphonic

Bands and Ensembles (WASBE) International Band Festival.

Commissions from international artists increased along with his reputation. For example, cellists Yo Yo Ma, Mischa Maisky, and Anssi Karttunen; flutists Sharon Bezaly and

Pierre Yes Artaud; saxophonists Christian Wirth and Claude Delangle; the guitarist Eva

Fampas percussionists Evelyn Glennie, Keiko Abe, and PercaDu trombonists Christian

Lindberg, the Quatuor Emphasis, the Berlin Philharmonic Twelve Cellists, the Elsner

String Quartet, and the Kronos Quartet have all commissioned works. In addition, his compositions are not only performed in traditional concerts, but also in the Peking Opera and Taiwanese Opera houses.

Chung now is a full time proforessor of composition and percussion at the National

Taiwan University of Arts and serves as a general director for the Taipei Chinese

Orchestra.

Style

Chung did not have any professional composition training until he won the first prize at the Thirteenth Percussive Arts Society Composition Competition in1986 and had a chance to go to City University of New York for his doctorate in composition. Chung said he learned all of his compositional techniques from reading orchestral scores by himself. His first teacher was too ill to have time to teach him, and when he changed to the second teacher, he was about to graduate; therefore, Chung did not really study with either of these teachers. However, because of this independent study, Chung gained a lot of personal freedom to develop his own style, as well as the ability to compose in many genres of compositions. For example, Chung had composed not only for the western orchestral, chamber, solo instrument, solo voice, chorus, and opera styles, but also commercial, Chinese orchestra, Peking Opera, Taiwanese Opera and pop music styles.

One of the main ideas in Chung’s compositions is to emotionally move audiences. Chung said in his interview, “There are two kinds of compositions. One is very avant-garde, very modern music. The other kind is understandable music for everyone. And, the latter can touch more people’s hearts. Therefore, I will still focus on the later style of compositions in the future years.”30 For Chung, there is no easier kind of music to write, because the most difficult part of composing is to let audiences understand, and be moved

30「創作有兩種，一種是很前衛、很現代的音樂，一種是普羅大眾能夠了解的，而後者能接觸的面寬廣的多，因此未來幾年我的創作重心仍然會放在後者。」“ZuoqujiaChung Yiu-Kwong: Renhe Yinyue Dou Ying Wanquan Jiayu” (〈作曲家鍾耀光：任何音樂語言都應完全駕馭〉, “The Composer, Chung Yiu-Kwong: All kinds of Music Languages should be Managed”) (25 November, 2005), Site address: http://blog.yam.com/nocturnes/article/732177

56 by the works that he spent so much time to compose or it would be wasted. Because of these beliefs, he never feels antipathy toward writing any kind of work, even though some commissions are for commercial purpose.

Because of his background as percussionist, Chung is not afraid to use a lot of percussion color in his works. For example, the percussion has a very important role in his famous work, Festive Celebration.31 He also wrote many works for percussion, such as Drum

Flames (Concerto for 6 Percussionists and Orchestra), Concerto for Timpani and Strings,

Multi-vector (Chamber for 10 Percussionists), Pestle Song (Chamber for Alto Saxophone and Percussion), and Concerto for Solo Drum set, (Concerto for solo drum set, piano, electric bass, and saxophone ensemble, and Naowu (for Solo Percussion and Solo

Dancer).

As an Asian composer who had Western music training, Chung combines Chinese music styles with the Western music styles. For example, he added gongs and drums, Chinese traditional percussion, to his Western orchestral works, such as Festive Celebration; he composed concertos for Western instruments and Chinese orchestra, such as Huxuan

Dance (Concerto for flute and a Chinese orchestra) and Cursing General Caocao

(Concerto for trombone and a Chinese orchestra); and he used some motifs from the major Peking opera, Farewell My Concubine and The Drunken Beauty to compose the

Symphonic poem, Changxi (Opera Singing).

31 Festive Celebration was for nine percussionists originally. In 1992, Chung arranged it for a wind band, and a year later, he arranged again it for an orchestra. He arranged it for a Chinese orchestra in 2007. The edition for wind band was published in 1998 by Musikverlag Johann Kliment. 57

Chung not only integrates the Chinese musical style with the Western musical style, but he also uses Western musical concepts to create a new Chinese musical style. He used the

Western orchestra to compose the Taiwanese Opera, Who Is My Bride, which was traditionally performed with a Chinese orchestra. Besides composing for instruments and vocal ensembles, Chung has written for solo voice as well. He has composed twenty-one songs, and there are seven songs which were arranged from Chinese folk songs.

Chung maintains his integration of the Western and Eastern music style in his songs. He ingeniously used the Chinese Pentatonic Scale in either the vocal line or the accompaniment. He placed the fusion of the traditional Chinese melodic pattern and the modern Western compositional techniques that make his works have a unique beauty of conflicting elements.

The preparation for using certain texts for Chung’s art songs can be traced back to his early schooling at Pui Ching Middle School where Chinese was a very important subject.

During his six years there, Chung not only established his music techniques as a percussionist, but also advanced his attainment in Chinese poetry. Except for seven folk songs, in his art songs, Chung has used seven ancient poems by Qingzhao Li (李清照),

Kui Jiang (姜夔), Shi Su (蘇軾), Bai Li (李白), Haoran Meng (孟浩然), and seven modern poems by Zhimo Xu (徐志摩).

Chung has an intuitive melodic talent and the ability to uncover the essence of the poetry and transform it into musical expression. He produced songs in which the style is conditioned not only by the content of the poetry, but also by the rhythm of the poetry and the background of the poet. For example, for expressing the romantic feelings during the May Fourth Movement, Chung used symmetrical structures of melody to compose “I

Have a Love” (我有一個戀愛), “Building a Love Wall” (起造一座牆), “I cannot Tell

Where the Wind Blows” (我不知道風是在哪一個方向吹).

The treatment of Chung’s accompanying figures is to unify stanzas and set the scene. For instance, he changed the rhythm pattern to sixteen notes to create the atmosphere of water flowing in “Saying Good-bye to Cambridge Again” (再別康橋), and “The Rhythm of the

Sea” (海韻). The piano plays an active supportive role for the voice in his songs. Some are orchestral in texture. His vocal lines have more tonal color than many modern

Mandarin-Chinese songs. Chung is very careful and detailed in marking his scores. He would note tempi, dynamics and sound for both the vocal line and accompaniment in his scores.

Chung claims that a composer needs to have his own brand and language first, and then people will accept you as an international composer.32 Chung believes that it is very important to be diversified as a composer. As an Asian composer, his strength is to

32 Yujing Chang (張玉菁). Chung Yiu-KwongWushou Gequ Yanchang Quanshi (《鍾耀光五首藝術歌曲演唱詮釋》, The Interpretation of Yiu-Kwong Chung’s Five Art Songs.) (Master’s thesis, National Taipei University of Education, 2008), 8.

59 integrate. He not only utilizes the Western composing techniques to compose, but he also uses traditional Asian music culture to decorate his works. This integration makes his works unique. In addition, at the same time, he broke away from dividing his works between the Western or Eastern sound, and instead, his only focus is on serving the purpose of the composition. This gives him more freedom to write his music. As he said in an interview, “I have a new thought in these two years. It is when I compose a new piece; I would only consider the piece is for what kind of environment, what kind of need, and what kind of commission. I do not care about any kind of style, and of course, there is no difference between the Eastern and Western. I have the blood from both of them. I only need to care if my music is thoughtful and persuasive.”33 This is the reason why he is one of the most well-known composers in Asia, and the commissions from international artists have never stopped.

33「我這兩年有個全新的領悟，就是生活在什麼樣的環境，有什麼樣的需要，受什麼委託，就創作什麼音樂，不再拘泥於任何型式，當然也不在意所謂東方與西方。我本來就流著東西方音樂的血液，我只在乎我的音樂是否有內涵與說服力而已。」______. “ZuoqujiaChung Yiu- Kwong: Renhe Yinyue Dou Ying Wanquan Jiayu” (〈作曲家鍾耀光：任何音樂語言都應完全駕馭〉, The Composer, Chung Yiu-Kwong: All kinds of Music Languages should be Managed”) (25 November, 2005), Site address: http://blog.yam.com/nocturnes/article/732177 60

Chapter Seven:

Zhimo Xu- The Poet

Biography

Zhimo Xu (徐志摩) is a twentieth century Chinese poet who was born in Zhejiang, China, on January 15, 1897. His given name was Zhangxu (章垿), and the courtesy name34 was

Yousen (槱森). When Xu was little, a Buddhist monk, whose name was Zhihui (志恢) caressed his head and praised him so that he will become very successful. Therefore,

Xu’s father was happy hearing that and decided to change his courtesy name to Zhimo before he went to study abroad. Therefore, Zhimo is the name people became most familiar with later.

Xu’s father, Shenru Xu (徐申如), was a successful businessman, and he owned a power station, a plum jam factory, a silk factory, and a bank. He was also president of Shensi

Stone Commercial Association. Xu’s mother was a concubine, and knew only a little writing. No one in Xu’s entire family had ever written a poem.

34 A courtesy name, also known as Zì (字), is a given name by parents or teachers. For male, a courtesy name would start to use at the age of twenty, and for female, it usually used after married.

Xu was nearsighted which made him see everything fuzzy; therefore, he began wearing glasses when he was a child.35 However, this did not stop his interest of reading literature.

He showed his talent early in his childhood. Xu was good at everything, especially writing. His writings were impressive and he called them “liangjiao shugui” (兩腳書櫃, a bookcase with two legs) at the age of twelve. He went to a very famous high school,

Hangzhou High School, and there, he published several articles in the school journal,

YouShang ( 《友聲》 , Voice from Friends), such as “ Xiaoshuo Yu Shiehui Zhi

Guanxi” (〈小說與社會之關係〉, “The Relationship of a Novel and Society”).

In 1915, he went to Shanghai Baptist College, and the next year, he transferred to

Beiyang University. A year later, Beiyang University was merged into Peking University where he majored in Political Science. The same year, he was married to Youyi Zhang

(張幼儀), his first wife. In 1918, Xu was introduced to Qichao Liang (梁啟超) who was a very important Chinese political reformist, and Xu officially became his apprentice.

Xu did not finish his degree at Peking University. He went to the U.S. to study history at

Clark University, and then went to Columbia University for his Masters degree in

Economics. He attended many political science classes there, and was introduced to the works of famous political philosophers such as Karl Heinrich Marx, Robert Owen and

Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche. He especially admired Bertrand Arthur William Russell. It was then that his goal was to study with Russell. In 1920, after he finished his dissertation,

35 Wearing glasses has become a special character of his look later. 62

Zhongguo Funy De Diuei (《中國婦女的地位》, The Place of Chinese Women), he gave up pursuing a doctorate at Columbia University and he went to England to study with

Russell. However, Russell was dismissed from Trinity College at the University of

Cambridge because he was convicted under the Defence of the Realm Act, in 1916.

Therefore, Xu missed the chance to study with him.

Although Xu did not study with Russell, his time in Cambridge was the most important period of Xu’s life. There, he was introduced to Galsworthy Lowes Dickinson, an English

Scholar, who later recommended him to Kings College of the University of Cambridge as a special auditor which allowed him to audit any class in Kings College. There, Xu also met Herbert George Wells, and Kathleen Mansfield Beauchamp Murry who were both famous English writers. He mentioned in a letter to his parents, “After coming to London, my insight is developed by good friends and have more and more desire of learning… I especially like hanging out with English celebrities and got a lot from them. There is endless smart to learn.” 36 Cambridge was like a new world to him. Xu was inspired not only by the celebrities who were around him, but also by the English culture and nineteenth century poetry. Xu who was also an Economics student had found a real literary interest and began writing poems at the age of twenty-four. As he said later,

“Cambridge taught me how to open my eyes. Cambridge encouraged my thirst for

36「兒到倫敦以來，頓覺性隨益友發展，求學性味益…兒尤喜與英國名士交接，得易倍蓰，真所謂學不完的聰明」 Agang, Lin Minghua, and Xiaoquan. Xu Zhimo Zuopin Xinshang. (《徐志摩作品欣賞》, The Appreciation of Xu Zhimo’s Works.) Nanning Shi : Guangxi Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1991, 259.

63 knowledge. Cambridge cultivated my self-awareness.”37 He considered Cambridge as his intimate friend who knew him deeply, who he could emotionally rely on, and who was the springhead of his life. He wrote the poem, “Kanggiao Zaihui Ba” (〈康橋再會吧〉,

“Cambridge, Farewell”) to express his emotion about Cambridge before he went back to

China in 1922.

Xu was very active after returning to China and put a lot of efforts toward the development of Chinese literature. He organized a Chinese literary society, Xinyue She

(新月社, Crescent Moon Society), in 1923. At first, it was a social dinner meeting which later became an eclusive club. The Crescent Moon Society advocated Xin Shi (新詩,

Modern Chinese poems) which abandoned any prescribed patterns, and concentrated on the internal rhythm of a poem. In 1928, Xinyue She published its first magazine, Xinyue

Yuekan (《新月月刊》, Crescent Moon Magazine). The organization dissolved after the death of Xu in 1931. Shi Hu (胡適), Shihchiu Liang (梁啟超), and Changming Lin (林長

民) were members of Xinyue She.

Xu not only advocated the new form of Chinese poems, but he also translated many

English works into Chinese. He was responsible for introducing wonderful English literature to Chinese culture. In 1924, Xu wrote an article, “Zheng Yishi Qi” (〈徵譯詩

啓〉, “An Announcement of Soliciting Translated Poems”). He also translated various

37「我的眼是康橋教我睜的，我的求知慾是康橋給我發動的，我的自我意識是康橋給我胚胎的。｣ Agang, Lin Minghua, and Xiaoquan. Xu Zhimo Zuopin Xinshang. (《徐志摩作品欣賞》, The Appreciation of Xu Zhimo’s Works.) Nanning Shi : Guangxi Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1991, 18. 64 literatures, such as “An Ideal Family” from the novel, The Garden Party, by Mansfield, A

Charwoman’s Daughter 38 by James Stephens, and various works by Percy Bysshe

Shelley, John Keats, and Thomas Hardy. Shi Hu had translated Mansfield’s novel with

Xu, and said about his skill of translation, “His quality of a translation was very lively and beautiful. He kept the flavor from the original text, even though there were some very difficult parts. It was a very rare translation.”39

There was another important event in 1924 in China. The Indian poet/writer/artist,

Rabindranath Tagore (1861-1941), was invited to China. Xu was one of the people who organized the trip, and was Tagore’s traveling companion as well. Tagore gave several speeches in Shanghai, Hangchow and Beijing (Peking). Xu was not only Tagore’s translator for his speeches, but he also translated his lecture notes and published them in the Xiaoshuo Yuekan (《小說月刊》, Novel Magazine) later. He also accompanied

Tagore later for his trip to Japan and Hong Kong. Xu wrote Shayounala Shibashiou

(《莎喲娜拉十八首》, Goodbye, Eighteen Poems) during the trip. Before he left China,

Tagore gave Xu an Indian name, Susima. They remained very good friends till Tagore died.

38The title of the novel was changed to Mali Mali (《瑪莉瑪麗》, Mary Mary) in Chinese version.

39「他的譯筆很生動，很漂亮，有許多困難的地方很能委曲的保存原書的風味，可算是很難得的譯本。」 Congzhou Chen , ed. Xu Zhimo Nianpu. (《徐志摩年譜》, The Yearbook of Zhimo Xu.) Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian, 1981, 34. 65

Xu decided to quit his teaching job at Peking University and traveled to Europe in 1925.

During this trip, he met a daughter of Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy in Siberia and Thomas

Hardy in England and visited the tombs of his second son in Berlin and Mansfield in

Avon. He recorded this trip and published as a collection which was titled as Ouyou

Manlu (《歐遊漫錄》, A Record of European Trip) in supplement of Chen Bao (《晨

報》, Morning Newspaper). The same year, Xu’s first collection of poems, Zhimo de Shi

(《志摩的詩》, Zhimo’s Poems) was published.

Xu had always wanted to have a literature magazine which could introduce Xin Shi and more wonderful works to the people. Therefore, after he came back from Europe, he took a job as the chief editor of a supplement of Chen Bao. The content of the supplement included lectures, translations, treatises and poems. Because it would be difficult to collect manuscripts since many people left Beijing during summer, the original supplement took a break and the supplement of drama replaced it. However, the supplement of drama ended three months later and Xu quit the job.

In 1927, Xu and his friends opened a bookstore called Xinyue Shudian (新月書店,

Crescent Moon Bookstore) in Shanghai. Xu’s works, such as Bali de Linzhua (《巴黎的

鱗爪》, Scales and Nails of Paris), Zi Pou (《自剖》, Self-analysis), and all his collections of poems were published in it.

Xu took another trip to Japan, England, U.S., France and India for six months during

1928. On the way back, he wrote the poem, “Zaibie Kangxiao” (〈再別康橋, “Second

Farewell to Cambridge”), which is one of his most famous works. His time in Cambridge was always the most important period in his life. He found his real ideal which was a life of love, freedom, and beauty there six years ago. However, he had tried very hard to pursue his ideal after leaving Cambridge, but he failed. He was very disappointed, and wrote this poem to mourn about his pain for this failure.

Xu taught at Peking University, Guanghua University, Soochow University, Daxia

University, and National Central University (now is Nanjing University), and travel a lot having lectures at several cities. He died on November 19, 1931 at the age of thirty-four.

Love Life

Xu is not only famous for his wonderful works, but also for his love life. He was a man full of adventure in his love life. As he said, “The real life needs to be fought and requested by ourselves. The real happiness needs to be fought and requested by ourselves.

The real love needs to be fought and requested by ourselves.”40 He had three important women in his life. They are Youyi Zhang (張幼儀), Huiyin Lin (林徽音), and Xiaoman

Lu (陸小曼).

40「真生命必自奮鬥自求得來，真幸福亦必自奮鬥自求得來，真戀愛亦必自奮鬥自求得來！」 Zhimo Xu. Xu Zhimo Zizhuan. (《徐志摩自傳》, An Autobiography of Zhimo Xu.) Nanjing : Jiangsu Wenyi Chubanshe , 1997, 22. 67

Youyi Zhang was Xu’s first wife. In the early part of the eighteenth century, all marriages were arranged by parents in China. Parents would consider if the financial and social status of both families were compatible in making a decision to marry. There was no dating before the marriage. Zhang was from a wealthy family which was more open about the traditional moralities for a female; for example, her family did not force Zhang to bind her feet while she was little, and they let her have education. Yet, Xu’s first marriage with Zhang in 1915 was not exceptional. Zhang only saw Xu’s picture before they married.

Their marriage was not happy. Zhang felt that Xu was a cold husband who never looked at her, even though she was trying to be a good wife, a good mom, and a good daughter in law. On the other hand, Xu felt the marriage was without love. He was dying to end his marriage with Zhang. Their first son was born in 1918. The same year, Xu went to

Columbia University for further study, and two years later, he went to England where he met Huiyin Lin.

Xu met Changmin Lin (林長民), Huiyin Lin’s father, in England, and they became friends. He introduced Xu to his daughter. Huiyin Lin was full of talent. They talked about music, literature, architecture etc. Xu found that he and Huiyin Lin had a lot of things in common. They admired each other, and fell in love with each other. However,

Xu was married to Zhang. Zhang went to England to accompany Xu and take care of him in 1920. Xu was just falling love with Lin. Lin left London to try and stop her feelings

68 toward Xu, and Zhang became pregnant again. There was nothing that could stop Xu from divorcing Zhang. He ended up asking Zhang to have an abortion and to grant him a divorce.

This was the only time Zhang did not obey her husband. Zhang did not have an abortion and refused to divorce him. After Xu ran away from home for months, she went to stay with her brother in Berlin, and her second son was born in 1922 there. Later, their marriage ended in divorce in Berlin. The divorce was the very first divorce which happened in China and it had a huge negative effect on his family.

After Xu went back to China, he wrote an announcement of his divorce with Zhang and published it in a newspaper to clarify that his marriage had ended. He did all that for Lin.

He wanted Lin to believe that he truly loved her and wanted to be with her. However, Lin chose to obey her morality instead of her love to him. Lin went to study architecture with her fiancée, Sicheng Liang (梁思成) in the U.S. and they married in 1928.

In 1924, Xu met the third woman in his life, Xiaoman Lu. Lu was married to Geng Wang

(王賡) who was Xu’s friend. Wang was a captain and had to travel a lot for business. He wanted Lu to hang out with his friends from Xinyue She, who were more serious about life. Therefore, he asked Xu to take care of Lu while he was away from home. Because

Xu and Lu had more time to be together, he was attracted to Lu who was lively and unconventional. Xu fell in love again with Lu who was a married woman. Their

69 relationship soon was discovered by their family, and there was no doubt that no one accepted their relationship. Nevertheless, there was nothing that could stop them. While

Xu went away for his European trip in 1925, Lu tried to divorce Wang. During his trip, he mailed Lu about his strong and continual feelings for her and asked her to be strong.

Their insistence finally helped Lu to get out from her marriage with Wang in 1925. Xu started writing a diary about their love from August to September the same year, and this diary was named Ai Mei Xiaozha (《愛眉小札》, Little Notes of Loving Mei.) Xu gave this as a gift to Lu.

Xu and Lu married in 1926. His teacher who was also his best friends, Qichao Liang, was their wedding witness, and he admonished and warned both of them not to have a third marriage. After they were married, they had a wonderful time for a while. He and Lu performed at the Beijing opera, Yu Tang Chun, Sanchun Huishen (《玉堂春．三春會

審》, The Story of Sue San) in Shanghai, and wrote a libretto of five acts for the Beijing opera, Ka Kungang (《卡昆崗》, Ka Kungang). But, Lu liked gambling, dancing, and shopping, and she was addicted to smoking opium. She was used to a very luxurious lifestyle which cost Xu so much that he needed to have more than three jobs to afford her lifestyle. Xu was exhausted. Xu asked Lu to leave Shanghai with him but Lu was addicted to opium and refused. Later in their marriage, they hardly saw each other. Xu was busy to traveling to teach and Lu spent most of her time gambling, dancing and smoking opium.

That was the most difficult time for Xu in his life. His friends told him to divorce Lu, but

Xu refused. He thought he could not leave Lu because he was the person who encouraged her to get out of her first marriage and marry him. He needed to take responsibility for her. He said, “I will look for my only partner in the sea of humanity. If I found her, it would be my luck. If I could not find her, it would be my fate. That is it.”41 Although

Xu’s life was in worse situation, there was still one wonderful thing in his life. Xu remained friends with Zhang and Lin, and both of them offered him financial and emotional support.

In 1931, Xu was going to Beijing to see Huiyin Lin (林徽音) who was going to give a speech about Chinese architecture. He had a free ticket for taking a postal airplane.

However, because of a heavy mist, the plane crashed into a mountain and exploded.

Writing Style

As described earlier, in 1920, Xu went to Cambridge to study Economics, but

“Cambridge” changed the plan of his life. He was inspired by the beautiful environment and celebrities of Cambridge, He wrote his first poem, “Caoshang de Luzhur” (〈草上的

露珠兒〉, “Dewdrops on the grass.”), in 1921, and started his life as a poet/writer. Xu’s writing period was only for ten years (1921-1931). He believed that he could use his

41 「我將於茫茫人海中訪我唯一之伴侶，得之，我幸；不得，我命，如此而已。｣」 Agang, Lin Minghua, and Xiaoquan. Xu Zhimo Zuopin Xinshang. (《徐志摩作品欣賞》, The Appreciation of Xu Zhimo’s Works.) Nanning Shi : Guangxi jiao yu chu ban she, 1991, 260.

71 poems to express his ideal and faith to the world. As he said, “We believe a poem is a tool of expressing human creation. It has the same character as music and art.”42

In the beginning of Xu’s writing period, he was just inspired by the colorful world. In addition, he found his first love, Lin, at the same time. He felt his life was new and exciting. He was very passionate and aspirant. He wrote “Xu Zhimo Zhang Youyi Lihun

Tonggao” (〈徐志摩張幼儀離婚通告〉, “A Divorce Announcement of Zhimo Xu and

Youyi Zhang”) to officially express his desire of the freedom to the public. At the same time, he wrote “Qingsi” (〈情死〉,”Love Dead”), “Xiaoshi” (〈小詩〉, “A Little

Poem”), “Qingfeng Chuiduan Chunzhaomeng” (〈清風吹斷春朝夢〉, “The Wind Blow off the Spring Morning Dream”), “Yuezhao Xihu” (〈月照西湖〉, “Moonlight Shines on West Lake”) to show his love and endless devotion to Lin.

In 1923, when he heard that Lin was engaged to Liang, he was sad and angry. He wrote

“Xiwang de Maizang” (〈希望的埋葬〉, “A Tomb of Hope”) and “Yige Emeng” (〈一

個噩夢〉, “A Bad Dream”) and blamed Lin for many bad things. Although Xu was disappointed, he still loved Lin very much, and eventually, he reluctantly decided to remain friends with her. However, because Lin knew of his hurt feelings, she tried to avoid seeing Xu. Once, Lin did not show up to one of their meetings, Xu wrote “Yuexia

Dai Dujuan Bulai” (〈月下待杜鵑不來〉, “Waiting in Vain for the Cuckoo under the

42 「我們信詩是表現人類創造力的ㄧ個工具，與音樂與美術是同等同性質的｣ Zhimo Xu. Xu Zhimo zi zhuan. (《徐志摩自傳》, An Autobiography of Zhimo Xu.) Nanjing: Jiangsu wen yi chu ban she, 1997, 248. 72

Moonlight”), which was a poem to describe his depressions of not being able to see her anymore.

In his poems, Xu was never shy in his expression of his emotions. For example, he wrote to Lin, “Please accept this undisguised heart, my love.”43 in “Yige Qidao” (〈一個祈

禱〉, A prayer) and “You go without worries….Do not be anxious about me….I have plenty of gut….Still more there is a lively bright pearl will always shines my deepest heart. I love you.”44 in “Niqü” (〈你去〉, “You Go”).

Xu’s first collection of poems, Zhimo de Shi, was published in 1925. He later criticized this collection, “The quality of surging in the beginning was eliminated, but most poems still had overabundance of emotions. There was nothing closed to the art of a poem or a technique…My pen was a runaway horse. I just realized how wildness I was after reading the strict works by Yiduo (聞一多, Yiduo Wen).”45

43「這顆赤裸裸的心，請收了吧，我的愛神。」Xu Zhimo. Xu Zhimo Quanji, Vol. 1 (《徐志摩全集 1》, The Complete Collection of Zhimo Xu’s works, Vol. 1.) Shangwu Yinshuquan Ed, Hong Kong: Shangwu Yingshuquan, 1983, 176.

44「你放心走，…你不必為我憂慮，…我有的是膽，…更何況永遠照砌我的心底，有那顆不夜的明珠，我愛你。」Xu Zhimo. Xu Zhimo Quanji, Vol. 1 (《徐志摩全集 1》, The Complete Collection of Zhimo Xu’s works, Vol. 1.) Shangwu Yinshuquan Ed, Hong Kong: Shangwu Yingshuquan, 1983, 386.

45「在這集子裡初期的洶湧性雖已消滅，但大部分還是情感的無關闌的氾濫，什麼詩的藝術或技巧都談不到。… 我的筆本來是最不受羈勒的ㄧ匹野馬，看到了一多的謹嚴的作品我方才憬悟到我自己的野性。」 Zhimo Xu. Xu Zhimo zi zhuan. (《徐志摩自傳》, An Autobiography of Zhimo Xu.) Nanjing: Jiangsu wen yi chu ban she, 1997, 309.

Meeting Lu gave Xu even more inspiration in his later life. Because Lu was married, no one accepted their relationship. Xu, therefore, wrote “Zheshi Yige Nuoque de Shijie”

(〈這是一個懦怯的世界〉, “This is A Cowardly World.”) showing his brave and uncompromising spirituality. After Lu became Xu’s inspiration for writing, his writing style was not as dark as before and he returned to a colorful and more alive character. As he wrote in Ai Mei Xiaozha, “The nourishment of my poetic soul relies on you. You should hold my poetic soul as a mother holds her child. You should clothe him if he feels cold. You should feed him if he feels hungry - He does not worry about being hungry and clod because of your love. He is alive because of your love.”46

Besides Ai Mei Xiaozha, there were a multitude of works he specifically wrote for Lu, such as “Xuehua de Kuaile” (〈雪花的快樂〉, “The Happiness of Snowflakes”), Woyou

Yige Lianai” (〈我有一個戀愛〉, “I am in Love”), “Ta Shi Shuizhaole” (〈她是睡著

了〉, “She is Asleep”). In addition, he used Lu’s tone of speech to write a long poem,

“Feilengcui de Yiye” (〈翡冷翠的ㄧ夜〉, A Night of Florence) to express their endless love and their anxiety about the future.

The differences in life styles between Xu and Lu affected their marriage very soon. Xu realized that the ideal he had pursued for years was completely broken. His life was a

46 「我的詩魂的滋養全得靠你，你得抱著我的詩魂像母親抱孩子似的，他冷了你得給他穿，他餓了你得餵他食－有你的愛他就不愁餓不怕凍，有你的愛他就有命。｣ Xu Zhimo. Xu Zhimo Quanji, Vol. 4 (《徐志摩全集 4》, The Complete Collection of Zhimo Xu’s works, Vol. 4.) Shangwu Yinshuquan Ed, Hong Kong: Shangwu Yingshuquan, 1983, 296. 74 mess. His works began to decrease in his later life. These works show his inharmonious love life with Lu. Such works would include: “Canchun” (〈殘春〉, “Late Spring”),

Ganzhaoji (〈乾著急〉, “In Impotent Fury”), and Wo Buzhidao Feng Shi Wang Nage fangxiang Chui (〈我不知道風是往哪個方向吹〉, “I Do not Know Where the Wind

Blows).

After Xu died, Lu collected and edited his letters, diaries, and unpublished works. She named the collection, Zhimo Quanji (《志摩全集》, The Whole Collection of Zhimo.), and they were published in 1983. Although there were many people who did not agree with his alternative lifestyle, Xu was one of the most important writer/poets in the history of the development of Chinese literature. He not only advocated Xin Shi, but also brought a vast amount of foreign literature to China. His passionate and unconstrained mind inspired him to become a creative and free writer. His innocent and unique style of works opened Chinese writers/poets’ eyes and successfully brought Chinese literature to a new and higher level.

Chapter Eight:

Three Sets of Mandarin Chinese Art Songs by Yiu-Kwong Chung

Yiu-Kwong Chung has composed twenty-one songs, and except for seven songs arranged from the traditional Chinese folk songs, he chose both ancient Chinese poems and modern Chinese poems for his solo vocal works. The ancient Chinese poems he used were by Haoren Meng (孟浩然), Bei Li (李白), Shih Su (蘇軾), Kuei Jian (姜夔),

Qingzhao Li (李清照). The modern Chinese poems are solely based on Zhimo Xu’s works.

Xu’s works had become quite popular in modern Chinese poetry. Perhaps another reason why Chung used his poems for much of his solo works is because Xu’s poems touched and spoked Chung’s mind and spirit. Chung and Xu have similar backgrounds. Both of them studied abroad, and their minds were never limited by the world or culture. They have desires for real freedom of expression and true love. Both men through their works explore all the possibilities for life.

In this discussion of a set of the traditional Chinese folk songs, and two sets of Xu’s poems, for each song, I will include a brief introduction of historical background of the

76 poem and the song, Mandarin Chinese text, IPA transcription, a word by word translation, and a poetic translation.

徐志摩詩三首 [ɕy]35 [tʂɹ]51 [mwo]35 [ȿɹ]55 [san]55 [ȿou]214 / Three Poems by Xu Zhimu47

The songs of Three Poems by Xu Zhimu are “Ourian” (〈偶然〉, “Chance”), “Zaibie

Kangxiao” (〈再別康橋〉, “Second Farewell to Cambridge”), “Haiüen” (〈海韻〉,

“The Rhythm of the Sea”). This was the first set in which Chung used Xu’s poem for his solo vocal work. The premiere of the set was sung by Jingmei Li (李靜美) on March 31,

1998 at the National Theatre Recital Hall. The pianist was Huiying Lin (林慧英).

However, the poems are not related to each other, and can be performed individually.

偶然 [ou]214 [ɹan]35 / Chance

“Chance” was written on May, 1926 and published on May 27 in Chen Bao. The text is of the blind senior in Act 5 of the Beijing opera, Ka Kungang, which was written by Xu and Lu. It is found in his collection, Feilengcui de Yiye, in 1927. The poem expresses the free and easy attitude approach to life. The student of Xu’s, Zhilin Ka ( 卡之琳),

47There are several ways to romanize Mandarin Chinese. Chung titled the set as Zhimu instead of Zhimo. Therefore, the name of the set will use the name which posted on his official website (http://www.cykusic.com/Eworklist.htm) in the study.

77 described the poem, “This poem has the most perfect form than any other of Xu’s poems.”48

Many composers have set this poem, such as Wei-Ning Lee (李惟寧), De-Ju Xu (許德

舉), Bi-Guang Lian (連壁光).

wɔ ȿɹ thjan khwəŋ li ti ji phjan ɥən 我是天空裡的ㄧ片雲 I am in the sky a cloud I am a cloud in the sky. ou ɚ thou jəŋ tsai ni ti pwɔ ɕjən 偶而投影在你的波心 By chance shadow on your wave of the heart By chance a shadow on the wave of your heart ni pu pi ja ji 你不必訝異 You do not need to be surprised No need to be surprised, kəŋ wu ɕy xwan ɕi 更無須歡喜 Moreover not elated Or too elated. tsai tȿwan ȿwən tɕjan ɕjɑu mje ljɑu tswəŋ jəŋ 在轉瞬間消滅了蹤影 In an instant vanishes the trace In an instant the shadow shall vanish without a trace

48 “這首詩在作者詩中是在形式上最完美的一首。” Zhilin Ka, ed. Xu Zhimo Shiji. (《徐志摩詩集》, The Collection of Zhimo Xu’s poetry.) 94. 78 ni wɔ ɕjɑŋ fəŋ tsai xei je ti xai ȿɑŋ 你我相逢在黑夜的海上 You I met the dark night on the sea You and I met on the sea of the dark night. ni jou ni ti wɔ jou wɔ ti fɑŋ ɕjɑŋ 你有你的我有我的方向 You had your I had my direction You have your direction, I have mine. ni tɕi tɤ je xɑu 你記得也好 You remember it is ok Remember if you will tswei xɑu ni wuɑŋ tjɑu 最好你忘掉 It is better you forget Or, better still, forget. tsai tȿɤ tɕjɑu xwei ȿɹ xu fɑŋ ti kwɑŋ ljɑŋ 在這交會時互放的光亮 In this encounter exchanged light The light exchanged in this encounter

h h 再別康橋 [tsai]51 [pje]35 [k ɑŋ]55 [tɕ jɑu]35 / Second Farewell to Cambridge

“Second Farewell to Cambridge” is one of Xu’s most famous poems. The poem was written on November 6, 1928, and it was first published on December 10 in Xinyue

Yuekan. In 1920, Xu went to England for further study and his time in Cambridge, which changed his goal to become a poet. As he said later, “Cambridge taught me how to open my eyes. Cambridge encouraged my thirst for knowledge. Cambridge cultivated my self-

79 awareness.”49 The first time he left, he wrote “Farewell, Cambridge”. He was confident, hopeful, and looked forward to his happy return. However, he failed to accomplish his ideal. He wrote this poem when he was on the way back from Cambridge. There were a hundred feelings simultaneously knocking around in his brain during his second visit to

Cambridge. His poem, “Quietly I am leaving, as I quietly came” expresses his personal embrassment at his return to Cambridge. “Second Farewell to Cambridge” appeared in

Menghu Ji (《猛虎集》, The Collection of Violent Tiger).

tɕhjəŋ tɕhjəŋ ti wɔ tsou ljɑu 輕輕的我走了 Quietly I am leaving Quietly I am leaving tȿən ɹu wɔ tɕhjəŋ tɕhjəŋ ti lai 正如我輕輕的來 As I quietly came As I quietly came wɔ xuei ji xuei ji ɕjou 我揮一揮衣袖 I wave sleeves I wave my sleeves tswo pje ɕi thjan ti ɥyən tshai 作別西天的雲彩 Farewell the western sky clouuds a farewell to the clouds in the western sky.

49「我的眼是康橋教我睜的，我的求知慾是康橋給我發動的，我的自我意識是康橋給我胚胎的。｣ Agang, Lin Minghua, and Xiaoquan. Xu Zhimo Zuopin Xinshang. (《徐志摩作品欣賞》, The Appreciation of Xu Zhimo’s Works.) Nanning Shi : Guangxi jiao yu chu ban she, 1991, 18.

80 na xɤ phan ti tɕjən ljou 那河畔的金柳 On the riverside the golden willow The golden willow on the riverside

ȿɹ ɕi jɑŋ tȿwəŋ ti ɕjən njɑŋ 是夕陽中的新娘 Is in the sunset a bride is a bride in the sunset pwɔ kwɑŋ li ti jan jəŋ 波光裡的豔影 On the shimmering waves the colorful reflection Her colorful reflection on the shimmering waves tsai wɔ ti ɕjən thou tɑŋ jɑŋ 在我的心頭蕩漾 In my heart rippling is rippling in my heart

ɹwan ni ȿɑŋ ti tɕhjəŋ ɕjəŋ 軟泥上的青荇 On the soft mud (slime) verdant grass The verdant grass on the soft mud jou jou ti tsai ȿwei ti tȿɑu jɑu 油油的在水底招搖 Glossily under the water sways glossily sway under the water tsai khɑŋ xɤ ti ɹou pwɔ li 在康河的柔波裡 In the River Cam gentle waves In the gentle waves of the River Cam wɔ kan ɕjən tswɔ ji thjɑu ȿwei tshɑu 我甘心做一條水草 I would rather to be a water plant I would rather to be a water plant

81 na ɥy jən ɕja ti ji than 那榆蔭下的一潭 Under the shade of the elm the pool The pool under the shade of the elms pu ȿɹ tɕhjəŋ tɕhɥan ȿɹ thjan ȿɑŋ xwəŋ 不是清泉是天上虹 It is not crystal water it is in the sky the rainbow is not a crystal water but the rainbow in the sky

ɹou swei tsai fu tsɑu tɕjan 揉碎在浮藻間 Crushed among the algae Crushed among the algae tȿhən tjan tȿə tshai xwəŋ sɹ ti məŋ 沉澱著彩虹似的夢 Settling into rainbow-like the dreams settling into the rainbow-like dream

ɕɥən məŋ tȿhən ji tȿɹ tȿhɑŋ kɑu 尋夢撐一支長篙 To seek a dream pull a long pole To seek a dream? To pull a long pole

ɕjɑŋ tɕhjəŋ tshɑu kəŋ tɕhjəŋ tȿhu man swɔ 向青草更青處漫溯 Toward the grass the greener sail to sail toward where the grass is even greener man tsai ji tȿhwan ɕjəŋ xwei 滿載一船星輝 Fully loaded a boat starlight To have the boat fully loaded with starlight tsai ɕjəŋ xwei pan lan li fɑŋ kɤ 在星輝斑斕裡放歌 In the splendor of starlight to troll To troll in the splendor of starlight

82 tan wɔ pu nəŋ fɑŋ kɤ 但我不能放歌 But I cannot troll But I cannot troll tɕhjɑu tɕhjɑu ȿɹ pje li ti ȿəŋ ɕjɑu 悄悄是別離的笙簫 Silence is farewell music Silence is the music of the farewell

ɕja tȿhwəŋ je wei wɔ tȿhən mwɔ 夏蟲也為我沉默 The summer insects are also for me silence Even the summer insects are silent for me tȿhən mwɔ ȿɹ tɕjən wan ti kɑŋ tɕhjɑu 沉默是今晚的康橋 Silence is tonight’s Cambridge Cambridge is silent tonight tɕhjɑu tɕhjɑu ti wɔ tsou ljɑu 悄悄的我走了 Quietly I am leaving Quietly I am leaving tȿən ɹu wɔ tɕhjɑu tɕhjɑu ti lai 正如我悄悄的來 As I quietly came as I quietly came wɔ xwei ji xwei ji ɕjou 我揮一揮衣袖 I flicked the sleeves I flicked my sleeves pu tai tsou ji phjan ɥən tshai 不帶走一片雲彩 Not taking away a cloud without taking a cloud away

海韻 [xai]214 [ɥyən]51 / The Rhythm of the Sea

“The Rhythm of the Sea” was published on August 17, 1925 in Chen Bao. Xu used the dialogue between a boy and a girl in the poem, and each verse has its individual expression. The Hong Kong director, Xing Lee (李行) used this idea from the poem to direct a movie called, “The Rhythm of the Sea”.

ny lɑŋ tan ȿən ti ny lɑŋ 「女郎單身的女郎 Girl single girl “Girl, single girl, ni wei ȿɤ mɤ ljou ljan tȿɤ xwɑŋ xwən ti xai pjan 你為什麼留戀這黃昏的海邊 You why wander the at dusk at the seashore Why do you wander at the seashore at dusk? ny lɑŋ xwei tɕja pa ny lɑŋ 女郎回家吧女郎」 Girl go home girl Girl, go home, girl.” a pu xwei tɕja wɔ pu xwei wɔ ai tȿə wan fəŋ tȿhwei 「啊不回家我不回我愛這晚風吹」 Ah not going home I am not going I love the evening breeze “Ah, no, I am not going home, I love the evening breeze.” tsai ȿa than ȿɑŋ tsai mu ai li 在沙灘上在暮靄裡 On the sandy beach in the evening mist On the sandy beach, in the evening mist, jou ji kɤ san fa ti ny lɑŋ phai xwei phai xwei 有一個散髮的女郎徘徊徘徊 There is a with hair disheveled girl wandering wandering There is a girl with hair disheveled wandering, wandering.

ny lɑŋ tan ȿən ti ny lɑŋ 「女郎單身的女郎 Girl single girl “Girl, single girl, ni wei ȿɤ mɤ phɑŋ xwɑŋ tsai tȿə ləŋ tɕhjəŋ ti xai ȿɑŋ 你為什麼彷徨在這冷清的海上 You why hover by the desolate sea Why do you hover by the desolated sea? ny lɑŋ xwei tɕja pa ny lɑŋ 女郎回家吧女郎」 Girl go home girl Girl, go home, girl.” a pu ni thjəŋ wɔ tȿhɑŋ kɤ ta xai wɔ tȿhɑŋ ni lai xɤ 「啊不你聽我唱歌大海我唱你來和」 Ah no you listen me singing wild sea I sing you accompany “Ah, no, you listen to my singing. The wild sea, I sing, and you accompany.” tsai ɕjəŋ kwɑŋ ɕja tsai ljɑŋ fəŋ li 在星光下在涼風裡 Under the starlight in the cool breeze Under the starlight, in the cool breeze, tɕhjəŋ tɑŋ tȿɤ ȿɑu ny ti tɕhjəŋ jəŋ kɑu jəŋ ti ɔ 輕盪著少女的清音高吟低哦 Lightly repeat the girl’s clear voice high and low There is the girl’s clear voice lightly repeating, high and low. ny lɑŋ tan ta ti ny lɑŋ 「女郎膽大的女郎 Girl daring girl “Girl, daring girl, na thjan pjan tȿhə tɕhi lɤ xei mu 那天邊扯起了黑幕 The sky is pulling the black curtain The black curtain is pulling in the sky.

85 tȿə tɕhjəŋ khɤ tɕjan jou ǝ fəŋ phwɔ 這頃刻間有惡風波 Shortly there will be a bad tempest There will be a tempest shortly. ny lɑŋ xwei tɕja pa ny lɑŋ 女郎回家吧女郎」 Girl go home girl Girl, go home, girl.” a pu ni khan wɔ ljəŋ khwəŋ wu 「啊不你看我凌空舞 Ah no you look at me dancing in the sky “Ah, no, you look at me dancing in the sky,

ɕɥe ji kɤ xai ou mwɔ xai phwɔ 學一個海鷗沒海波」 Like a seagull disappearing among waves Like a seagull disappearing among waves.” tsai je sɤ li tsai ȿa than ȿɑŋ 在夜色裡在沙灘上 In the dim light on the sandy beach In the dim light, on the sandy beach, tɕi ɕɥan tȿə ji kɤ jɑu thjɑu ti ȿən jəŋ phwɔ swɔ phwɔ swɔ 急旋著一個窈窕的身影婆娑婆娑 Swiftly whirling a gentle and graceful figure dancing dacning There is a gentle and graceful figure swiftly whirling, dancing, and dancing. thjəŋ ja na ta xai ti tȿən nu 「聽呀那大海的震怒 Hark the wild sea’s rage “Hark, the rage of the wild sea, ny lɑŋ xwei tɕja pa ny lɑŋ 女郎回家吧女郎 Girl go home girl Girl, go home, girl,

86 khan ja na məŋ ȿou sɹ ti xai pwɔ 看呀那猛獸似的海波 Look the fierce beasts liked waves Look, the fierce beasts liked waves, ny lɑŋ xwei tɕja pa ny lɑŋ 女郎回家吧女郎」 Girl go home girl Girl, go home, girl.” a pu xai pwɔ ta pu lai thwən wɔ 「啊不海波他不來吞我 Ah no the wave it is not coming to engulf me “Ah, no, the wave is not coming to engulf me. wɔ ai tȿɤ ta xai ti tjan pwɔ 我愛這大海的顛簸」 I love the wild sea’s tossing I love the tossing of the wild sea.” tsai tȿhɑu ȿəŋ li tsai pwɔ kwɑŋ li 在潮聲裡在波光裡 In the sound of the tide In the light of waves In the sound of the tide, in the light of waves, jou ji kə xwɑŋ tȿɑŋ ti ȿɑu nɥ tsai xai mwɔ li tshwɔ thwɔ 有一個慌張的少女在海沫裡蹉跎 There is a nervous girl in the forming waves wasting There is a nervous girl in the forming waves, wasting time. ny lɑŋ tsai na li ny lɑŋ 「女郎在那裡女郎 Girl where are you girl “Girl, where are you, girl, tsai na li ni ljɑu ljɑŋ ti kɤ ȿəŋ 在那裡你嘹亮的歌聲 Where is it your clear voice Where is it, your clear voice?

87 tsai na li ni jɑu thjɑu ti ȿən jəŋ 在那裡你窈窕的身影 Where is it your gentle and graceful figure Where is it, your gentle and graceful figure? tsai na li a ɥəŋ kan ti ny lɑŋ 在那裡啊勇敢的女郎」 Where are you the brave girl Where are you, the brave girl?” xei je thwən mwɔ ljɑu ta ti 黑夜吞沒了大地 The dark night engulfed the earth The dark night engulfed the earth. tȿə xai pjan tsai mei jou kwɑŋ mɑŋ 這海邊再沒有光芒 By the sea there is no more shines There is not more shines by the sea. xai tȿhɑu thwən mwɔ ljɑu ȿa than 海潮吞沒了沙灘 The tide engulfed the sandy beach The tide engulfed the sandy beach.

ȿa than ȿɑŋ tsai pu tɕjan ny lɑŋ 沙灘上再不見女郎 On the sandy beach again have not seen the girl Never see the girl on the sandy beach. tsai pu tɕjan ny lɑŋ 再不見女郎 Again have not seen the girl Never see the girl, again.

徐志摩詩四首 [ɕy]35 [tʂɹ]51 [mwo]35 [ȿɹ]55 [sɹ]51 [ȿou]214 / Four Poems by Xu Zhimu

The songs of Four Poems by Xh Zhimu are “Qyzao Yizuo Qiang” (〈起造一座牆〉,

“Building a Wall”), “Woiou Yige Lianai” (〈我有一個戀愛〉, “I Have a Love”),

“Banye Shenxiang Pipa” (〈半夜深巷琵琶〉, “The Pipa in the Deep Lane in the Dark

Night”), and “Wo Buzhidao Feng Shi Wang Nage fangxiang Chui” (〈我不知道風是在

那一個方向吹〉, “I Do Not Know Where the Wind Blows”). Again, the poems are not related to each other and can be performed individually. The four songs were commissioned by the Association of Vocal Artist of R.O.C.

h 起造一座牆 [tɕ i]214 [tsɑu]51 [ji]35 [tswo]51 [tɕjɑu]35 / Building a Wall

“Building a wall” was written in August 1925 and published on September 5. When Xu wrote the poem, he was deeply in love with Lu. However, because Lu was still a married woman, their relationship was unacceptable to their family, friends and society. Xu was frustrated and afraid that Lu would leave him because of this. In this poem, Xu expresses his strong desire that Lu would love him as strong as he was, and wished they could escape from life’s reality to Xanadu.

The premiere of Chung’s version was sung by Yan-Ling Chen (陳妍陵) on December 10,

2000 at the National Theatre Recital Hall. The pianist was Zhang Cheng (程彰).

ni wɔ tɕhjan wan pu khɤ ɕje tu na ji kɤ tsɹ 你我千萬不可褻瀆那一個字 You I must never blaspheme that a word You and I must never blaspheme the word pje wɑŋ ljɑu tsai ȿɑŋ ti kən tɕhjan ti ɕɹ 別忘了在上帝跟前的誓 Do not forget before God oath Do not forget the oath before God wɔ pu tɕjən jɑu ni tswei ɹou ɹwan ti ɹou tɕhjəŋ 我不僅要你最柔軟的柔情 I not only want your softest tender I not only want your sofest tender tɕjɑu ji sɹ ti ɥəŋ ɥan kwɔ tȿə wɔ ti ɕjən 蕉衣似的永遠裹著我的心 As the peel of the banana forever wraps my heart to wrap my heart as the peel of the banana wɔ jɑu ni ti ai jou tȿhwən kɑŋ sɹ ti tɕhjɑŋ 我要你的愛有純鋼似的強 I want your love as the pure steel strong I also want your love as strong as the pure steel tsai tȿə ljou twəŋ ti ȿəŋ li tɕhi tsɑu ji tswɔ tɕhjɑŋ 在這流動的生裡起造一座牆 In this flux of life to build a wall to build a wall in the flux of the life

ɹən phjəŋ tɕhjou fəŋ tȿhwei tɕjən man ɥan ti xwɑŋ je 任憑秋風吹進滿園的黃葉 Even though the autumn wind blew in a full yard of yellow leaves Even though the autumn wind covered the yard with yellow leaves

ɹən phjəŋ pai ji tȿu lan tɕhjan njan ti xwa pi 任憑白蟻蛀爛千年的畫壁 Even though the termites ate away a thousand years of wall paintings Even though the termites ate away a thousand years of wall paintings tɕjou ȿɹ jou ji thjan phi li tȿən fan ljɑu ɥy tȿou 就使有一天霹靂震翻了宇宙 Even one day thunderclaps shaked the universe Even if there is one day the thunderclaps shake the universe je tȿən pu fan ni wɔ ai tɕhjɑŋ nei ti tsɹ jou 也震不翻你我「愛牆」內的自由 Could not shake you me in the “love wall” the freedom It could not shake our freedom behind the “love wall”.

我有一個戀愛 [wuo]35 [jiou]214 [ji]35 [kə]35 [ljan]51 [ai]51 / I Have a Love

“I Have a Love” was written in March 1995 and is in the collecttion of Zhimo de Shi. In the poem, Xu characterize “the bright stars” as a “soul mate” which is far away from the world. He expresses his strong desire to chase the birght stars.

The premiere was sung by Yan-Ling Chen (陳妍陵) on December 10, 2000 at the

National Theatre Recital Hall. The pianist was Zhang Cheng (程彰).

wɔ jou ji kɤ ljan ai 我有一個戀愛 I have a love I have a love

91 wɔ ai thjan ȿɑŋ ti mjəŋ ɕjəŋ 我愛天上的明星 I love in the sky the bright stars I love the bright stars in the sky wɔ ai tha mən ti tɕjəŋ jiəŋ 我愛他們的晶瑩 I love their brilliance I love their brilliance

ɹən tɕjan mei jou tȿə ji jiɑŋ ti ȿən mjəŋ 人間沒有這異樣的神明 In the world there is no this peculiar spirits There is no the peculiar spirits in the world tsai ləŋ tɕhjɑu ti mu twəŋ ti xwɑŋ xwən 在冷峭的暮冬的黃昏 At the chilly late winter dusk At the chilly and late winter dusk tsai tɕi mwɔ ti xwei sə ti tɕhjəŋ tȿhən 在寂寞的灰色的清晨 In the lonely gray morning In the lonely and gray morning tsai xai ȿɑŋ tsai fəŋ ɥy xou ti ȿan tjəŋ 在海上在風雨後的山頂 At the sea a storm after mountaintops At the sea, at the mountaintops after the storm

ɥəŋ ɥan jou ji khɤ wan khɤ ti mjəŋ ɕjəŋ 永遠有一顆萬顆的明星 Always there is one ten thousand bright stars There is always one, ten thousands of bright stars

ȿan tɕjan pjan ɕjɑu tshɑu xwa ti tȿɹ ɕjən 山澗邊小草花的知心 By a mountain stream little grass flowers’ bosom friend The bosom friends of the little grass flower by a mountain stream

92 kɑu lou ȿɑŋ ɕjɑu xai thwəŋ ti xwan ɕiən 高樓上小孩童的歡欣 In tall buildings children’s joy The joy of children in tall buildings ly ɕjəŋ ɹən ti təŋ ljɑŋ ɥy nan tȿən 旅行人的燈亮與南針 The travelers’ lamp light and compass The lamp light and compass of the travelers wan wan li wai ȿan ȿwo ti tɕjəŋ ljəŋ 萬萬里外閃爍的精靈 Millions miles twinkling spirits The twinkling spirits in millions of miles wɔ jou ji kɤ phwɔ swei ti xwəŋ ljəŋ 我有一個破碎的魂靈 I have a broken soul I have a broken soul

ɕjɑŋ ji twei phwɔ swei ti ȿwei tɕjəŋ 像一堆破碎的水晶 Like a spike of broken crystal It is like a spike of broken crystal san pu tsai xwɑŋ je ti ku tshɑu li 散布在荒野的枯草裡 Scattering in the wilderness’ withered grass Scattering in the withered grass in the wilderness pɑu tȿhwɔ ni ji ȿwən ȿwən ti jən tɕhjən 飽啜你一瞬瞬的殷勤 Imbibing your incessant hospitality Imbibing your incessant hospitality

ɹən ȿəŋ ti ləŋ tɕi ɥy ɹou tɕhjəŋ 人生的冷激與柔情 Life Coldness passions and tenderness The coldness passions and tenderness of life

93 wɔ je tshəŋ tȿhɑŋ wei wɔ je tshəŋ ɹwəŋ ɹən 我也曾嚐味我也曾容忍 I have tasted I also have tolerated I have tasted and also have tolerated jou ȿɹ tɕje tɕhi ɕja ɕi ȿwai ti tɕhjou jən 有時階砌下蟋蟀的秋吟 Sometimes stairs under crickets’ fall recites Sometimes the fall recites of the crickets under the stairs jən tɕhi wɔ ɕjən ɕɑŋ pi phwɔ wɔ lei ljəŋ 引起我心傷逼迫我淚零 Making me sad making me cry Making me sad, making me cry wɔ than lou wɔ ti than pai ti ɕɥəŋ tɕjən 我袒露我的坦白的胸襟 I show my frank bosom I show my open bosom

ɕjan ai ɥy ji thjan ti mjəŋ ɕjəŋ 獻愛與一天的明星 To offer to love and a day’s bright stars To offer to love and the bright stars of a day

ɹən phjəŋ ɹən ȿəŋ ȿɹ xan ȿɹ tȿən 任憑人生是幻是真 Whether life is unreal is real Whether life is unreal or real, ti tɕhjou tshwən tsai xwɔ ȿɹ ɕjɑu mjən 地球存在或是消泯 The earth exists or extinguishes The earth exists or extinguishes da khwəŋ tȿwəŋ ɥəŋ ɥan jou pu mei ti mjəŋ ɕjəŋ 大空中永遠有不昧的明星 In the sky forever there are imperishable bright stars There are imperishable and bright stars in the sky forever.

h h 半夜深巷琵琶 [pan]51 [jie]51 [ȿən]55 [ɕjɑŋ]51 [p i]35 [p a]35 / The Pipa in the Deep Lane in the Dark Night

“The Pipa in the Deep Lane in the Dark Night” was published on May 20, 1925 in Chen

Bao. 1925 was a tulmultuous year for Xu. His outcast relationship with Lu was hard on him, but visiting his son’s grave in Europe completely frustrated him. Xu used the sound of pipa in the dark night to bring out the gloomy atmosphere. It was rare for Xu to have this much darkness in his work. He used symbolic techniques to draw the picture of the poem. For example, the “exploded hat” and the “iron chain” are symbolic of the sufferings of life, and “she” symbolizes “death”. The poem was included in Feilengcui de

Yiye (《翡冷翠的ㄧ夜》, A Night of Florence) in 1928.

Chung combined the traditional Chinese musical style and American Jazz style to create the dispirited and gloomy sound for this song. The premiere was sung by Mei-Yang Ji

(紀美仰) on December 10, 2000 at the National Theatre Recital Hall. The pianist was

Zhang Cheng (程彰).

jou pei tha tshwəŋ ȿwei məŋ tȿwəŋ tɕjəŋ ɕjəŋ 又被它從睡夢中驚醒 Again let it from the dream awake Let it awake from the dream again

ȿən je li ti phi pha 深夜裡的琵琶 In he deep night of pipa The sound of pipa in the deep night

ȿɹ ȿwei ti pei sɹ 是誰的悲思 Whose sad thought Is whose sad thought

ȿɹ ȿwei ti ȿou tȿɹ 是誰的手指 Whose fingers Is whose fingers

ɕjɑŋ ji tȿən tɕhi fəŋ 像一陣凄風 Like a burst of chilly winds It is like a brust of chilly winds

ɕjɑŋ ji tȿən tshan ɥy 像一陣慘雨 Like a burst of miserable rains It is like a brust of miserable rains

ɕjɑŋ ji tȿən lwɔ xwa 像一陣落花 Like a burst of falling flowers It is like a burst of falling flowers tsai tȿə je ȿən ȿən ȿɹ 在這夜深深時 At the night deep At the deep night tsai tȿə ȿwei xwən xwən ȿɹ 在這睡昏昏時 When the sleep comatose At the comatose sleep thjɑu twəŋ tȿə tɕjən tshu ti ɕjan swɔ 挑動著緊促的弦索 Plucking pressing string Plucking the pressing strings

96 lwan than tȿɤ kwəŋ ȿɑŋ tɕjɑu tȿɹ 亂彈著宮商角徵 Strumming palace business angle drafts (The Chinese pentatonic scale) Strumming the Chinese pentatonic scale xwo tsɤ tsɤ ȿən je xwɑŋ tɕje 和著這深夜荒街 With the deep night desolate street By the desolate street in the deep night ljou ȿɑu thou jou tshan ɥe kwa 柳梢頭有殘月掛 Willow treetop there is waning crescent moon hanging There is waning crescent moon haning on willow treetop a pan lwən ti tshan ɥe 啊半輪的殘月 Ah dichotomous waning crescent moon Ah! The dichotomously waning crescent moon

ɕjɑŋ ȿɹ phwo swei ti ɕi wɑŋ tha 像是破碎的希望他 Is like broken hope he Is like broken hope, he thou tai ji tjəŋ khai xwa mɑu 頭戴一頂開花帽 a head wearing an exploded hat He is wearing an exploded hat

ȿən ȿɑŋ tai tȿɤ thje ljan thjɑu 身上帶著鐵鏈條 Body wearing iron chain He is wearing an iron chain tsai kwɑŋ jən ti tɑu ȿɑŋ fəŋ ljɑu sɹ ti thjɑu 在光陰的道上瘋了似的跳 On time the road like a crazy jumping Jumping like a crazy on the road of time.

97 fəŋ ljɑu sɹ ti ɕjɑu 瘋了似的笑 Like crazy laughing Laughing like crazy wan ljɑu tha ȿwɔ tȿhwei xu ni ti təŋ 完了他說吹糊你的燈 Finished he said blow faint your light Finished, he said. Blowing your light tha tsai fən mu ti na ji pjan təŋ 她在墳墓的那一邊等 She is the grave the other side waiting She is waiting at the other side of the grave təŋ ni tɕhy tɕhjən wən 等你去親吻 Waiting for you to kiss Waiting for your kiss

我不知道風是在哪一個方向吹 [wo]214 [pu]51 [tȿɹ]55 [tɑu]51 [fəŋ]55 [ȿɹ]51 [tsai]51 [na]214 [ji]35 [kə]51 [fɑŋ]55 [ɕjɑŋ]51 [tȿhquei]55 / I Do Not Know Where the Wind Blows

“I Do not Know Where the Wind Blows” was written in 1928 and published on March 10,

1928 in (新月). In the poem, the phrase, “I do not know where the wind blows. I was in the dream.” is repeated six times and becomes the main idea throughout the poem. It expresses Xu’s confusion and disappointment. Indeed, when Xu wrote this poem, he was on his way back to China. After his second farewell to Cambridge, Xu realized his life was a failure, and it was difficult for him to find the balamce between the reality and his dreams for his life. His dream became a visionary dream. It was collected in Menghu Ji.

Chung composed this song for baritone. The premiere was sung by Jia-Huang Chang (張

嘉煌) on December 10, 2000 at the National Theatre Recital Hall. The pianist was Zhang

Cheng (程彰).

wɔ pu tȿɹ tɑu fəŋ ȿɹ tsai na ji kɤ fɑŋ ɕjɑŋ tȿhwei 我不知道風是在哪一個方向吹 I don’t know the wind is which direction to blow I don’t know which direction the wind blows wɔ ȿɹ tsai məŋ tȿwəŋ 我是在夢中 I was in the dream I was in the dream tsai məŋ ti tɕhjəŋ pwɔ li ji xwei 在夢的輕波裡依洄 On the dream of light waves lingering Lingering on the light waves of the dream wɔ pu tȿɹ tɑu fəŋ ȿɹ tsai na ji kɤ fɑŋ ɕjɑŋ tȿhwei 我不知道風是在哪一個方向吹 I don’t know the wind is which direction to blow I don’t know which direction the wind blows wɔ ȿɹ tsai məŋ tȿwəŋ 我是在夢中 I was in the dream I was in the dream tha ti wən tshwən wɔ ti mi tsuei 她的溫存我的迷醉 Her gentle my intoxication Her gentle and my intoxication wɔ pu tȿɹ tɑu fəŋ ȿɹ tsai na ji kɤ fɑŋ ɕjɑŋ tȿhwei 我不知道風是在哪一個方向吹 I don’t know the wind is which direction to blow I don’t know which direction the wind blows

99 wɔ ȿɹ tsai məŋ tȿwəŋ 我是在夢中 I was in the dream I was in the dream thjan mei ȿɹ məŋ tȿwəŋ ti kwɑŋ xwei 甜美是夢中的光輝 Sweetness is the dream of glorious Sweetness is the gloriousness of the dream wɔ pu tȿɹ tɑu fəŋ ȿɹ tsai na ji kɤ fɑŋ ɕjɑŋ tȿhwei 我不知道風是在哪一個方向吹 I don’t know the wind is which direction to blow I don’t know which direction the wind blows wɔ ȿɹ tsai məŋ tȿwəŋ 我是在夢中 I was in the dream I was in the dream ta ti fu ɕjən wɔ ti ȿɑŋ pei 她的負心我的傷悲 Her betraying my sorrow Her betraying, my sorrow wɔ pu tȿɹ tɑu fəŋ ȿɹ tsai na ji kɤ fɑŋ ɕjɑŋ tȿhwei 我不知道風是在哪一個方向吹 I don’t know the wind is which direction to blow I don’t know which direction the wind blows wɔ ȿɹ tsai məŋ tȿwəŋ 我是在夢中 I was in the dream I was in the dream tsai məŋ ti pei ai li ɕjən swei 在夢的悲哀裡心碎 In the dream of sorrow heart breaking My heart is breaking in the sowrrow of the dream

100 wɔ pu tȿɹ tɑu fəŋ ȿɹ tsai na ji kɤ fɑŋ ɕjɑŋ tȿhwei 我不知道風是在哪一個方向吹 I don’t know the wind is which direction to blow I don’t know which direction the wind blows wɔ ȿɹ tsai məŋ tȿwəŋ 我是在夢中 I was in the dream I was in the dream an tan ȿɹ məŋ li ti kwɑŋ xwei 黯淡是夢裡的光輝 Gloom is in the dream glorious Gloom is the gloriousness of the dream

中國民謠三首 [tʂ]55 [kwo]35 [mjǝn]35 [jiɑu]35 [san]55 [ʂou]214 / Three Chinese Folk Song

This is Chung’s very first solo vocal work. He arranged three Chinese folk songs,

“Xiaolu” (小路, Little Path), “Muolihua” (茉莉花, Jasmine Flower), and “Alamuhan”

(阿拉木汗, Alamuhan). There is no connection between the poems and they can be performed individually. The premiere of the set was sung by Yong-Xiu Xin (辛永秀) on

Septemnber, 20, 1996 at the National Theatre Recital Hall. The pianist was Xuang-Tiang

Zhu (朱象泰).

小路 [ɕjɑu]214 [lu]51 / Little Path

This is a folk song from Inner Mongolia. The content of the song is about a young couple who wants to meet each other secretly; therefore, they have to meet behind the house. 101

h h The term, 卿卿([tɕ jən]55 [tɕ jən]55) is the diminutive form used between husband and wife. Now it also used as an affectionate form of addressing another person.

fɑŋ tɕhjan ti ta lu 房前的大路 In front of the house broad road The broad road in front of the house ai tɕhjən tɕhjən ni mɔ tsou 哎卿卿你莫走 Ah dear you don’t go Ah, my dear, don’t choose to go there.

fɑŋ xou pjan tsou ɕja 房後邊走下 Behind the house walk through Come from the lane behind the house. ai tɕhjən tɕhjən ji thjɑu ɕjɑu lu 哎卿卿一條小路 Ah dear a little path Ah, my dear, that little path. a 啊 Ah

茉莉花 [mwo]51 [li]51 [xwa]55 / Jasmine Flower

“Jasmine” is a Chinese folk song created in the eighteenth century. It was originally called, “The Tune of the Fresh Flower” (Xianhua Diao, 鮮花調). There are several regional versions. The basic melodies of the regional versions are similar, but the poems 102 are different. “Jasmine Flower” was the first Chinese folk song that became well known outside China. It appeared in Turandot by G. Puccini and in the Hollywood movie, The

Good Earth. In Chung’s version, he used the concepts of playing the zheng to arrange the piano accompaniment.

xɑu ji two mei li ti mwɔ li xwa 好一朵美麗的茉莉花 Such a beautiful jasmine flower What a beautiful jasmine flower

xɑu ji two mei li ti mwɔ li xwa 好一朵美麗的茉莉花 Such a beautiful jasmine flower What a beautiful jasmine flower fən fɑŋ mei li man tȿɹ ja 芬芳美麗滿枝椏 Balmy beautiful full of branches It is balmy, beautiful, and full of branches. jou ɕjɑŋ jou pai ɹən ɹən khwa 又香又白人人誇 And fragrant and white everyone praises It is also fragrant and white that everyone praises.

ɹɑŋ wɔ lai tɕjɑŋ ni tȿai ɕja 讓我來將你摘下 Let me come get you pluck Let me pluck you swəŋ kei pje ɹən tɕja 送給別人家 Give to other family and give to other family

103 mwɔ li xwa mwɔ li xwa 茉莉花茉莉花 Jasmine flower Jasmine flower Jasmine flower, jasmine flower.

阿拉木汗 [a]55 [la]55 [mu]51 [xan]51 / Alamuhan

“Almuhan” is a Xinjiang Uigur folk song which is a contredanse. The poem uses question-and-answer style to praise how beautiful the girl, Almuhan, is.

a la mu xan ȿɤ mɤ jɑŋ 阿拉木汗什麼樣 Alamuhan how look like How Alamuhan looks like

ȿən twan pu fei jei pu ȿou 身段不肥也不瘦 The figure not fat and not thin Her figure is not fat or thin a la mu xan ȿɤ mɤ jɑŋ 阿拉木汗什麼樣 Alamuhan what look like How Alamuhan looks like

ȿən twan pu fei jei pu ȿou 身段不肥也不瘦 The figure not fat and not thin Her figure is not fat or thin tha ti mei mɑu ɕjɑŋ wan ɥε 她的眉毛像彎月 Her eyebrow is like a crescent moon Her eyebrow is like a crescent moon

104 tha ti ȿən jɑu ɕjɑŋ mjan ljou 她的身腰像棉柳 Her waist is like a willow Her waist is like a willow tha ti ɕjɑu tsuei xən twɔ tɕhjəŋ 她的小嘴很多情 Her small mouth very passionate Her small mouth is very passionate jan tɕjəŋ nəŋ ȿɹ ni fa tou 眼睛能使你發抖 Eyes could make you shivering Her eyes could make you shiver a la mu xan ȿɤ mɤ jɑŋ 阿拉木汗什麼樣 Alamuhan How look like How Alamuhan looks like

ȿən twan pu fei jei pu ȿou 身段不肥也不瘦 The figure not fat and not thin Her figure is not fat or thin a la mu xan tȿu tsai na li 阿拉木汗住在那裏 Alamuhan where she lives Where Alamuhan lives

105 thu lu fan ɕi san pai ljou 吐魯番西三百六 Turpan western three hundred and sixty She lives three hundred and sixty miles away from Turpan due West a la mu xan tȿu tsai na li 阿拉木汗住在那裏 Alamuhan where she lives Where Almauhan lives thu lu fan ɕi san pai ljou 吐魯番西三百六 Turpan western three hundred and sixty She lives three hundred and sixty miles away from Turpan due West wei tha xei jε mei ȿwei tɕjɑu 為她黑夜沒睡覺 For her dark night not to sleep Have not slept in the dark night for her wei tha pai thjan tȿhɑŋ khə sou 為她白天常咳嗽 For her daytime often to cough Have coughed a lot in the daytime for her wei tha pɑu tɕjəŋ fəŋ xɤ ɕɥe 為她飽經風和雪 For her experienced wind and snow Have experienced the harsh weather for her wei tha ɕjε ti tȿhɑŋ phɑu thou 為她鞋底常跑透 For her soles often run broken Have the soles broken for her a la mu xan tȿu tsai na li 阿拉木汗住在那裏 Alamuhan where she lives Where Alamuhan lives

106 thu lu fan ɕi san pai ljou 吐魯番西三百六 Turpan western three hundred and sixty She lives three hundred and sixty miles away from Turpan due West

107

Chpater Nine:

Conclusion

During these modern times of science and technology with rapid change, the distances between centuries are seemingly coming closer. It is easier for many social and cultural aspects from different countries to open up and be accepted into the world. Because more and more musicians from all over the world desire to perform the music from their homeland in public concerts in different countries, various musical styles and repertoire have been placed on the international stage. This is even more true for vocal repertoire.

Italian, German, French, and English have been the major languages sung in traditional vocal repertoire, but the Spanish, Russian and Czech repertoire is becoming more popular for singers as well. However, because of the language barriers, there is a large amount of very artistic repertoire in other languages which have yet to be discovered on the international stage. Most importantly absent are Mandarin-Chinese art songs.

The language is not the only barrier for this, but also the style of the Mandarin-Chinese art songs is very different from the Western art song. It combines the styles of traditional

Chinese music and Western music, and the sounds of the songs are very new for Western singers. Understanding the background of Mandarin-Chinese art songs will greatly help singers to have better concept in interpreting Mandarin-Chinese art songs. Therefore, I

108 have included a broad history of the development of Mandarin-Chinese art songs in

Chapter Two. Much of this document is focused on the outstanding composer, Yiu-

Kwong Chung; I have also included a brief history on the development of the art song in

Taiwan as well. The Association of Vocal Artists of R.O.C had a series of Chinese-

Mandarin art songs concerts and competitions to encourage the latest generation of singers to explore their Chinese-Mandarin repertoire. These efforts flourished and contributed to the development of Mandarin Chinese art songs in Taiwan.

Knowing the correct pronunciation is the most important thing for singers as they start their new repertoire. However, Mandarin-Chinese is not like other American and

European languages having various references of diction to study. Therefore, this document provides an in depth and complete Lyric Diction pronunciation guide for

Mandarin-Chinese in Chapter Three, Four, and Five. I have described and explained the thirty-seven Mandarin Phonetic Symbols of the IPA which were devised by the

International Phonetic Association. It included vowels, glides, and consonants. The explanation of the sounds are from a singer’s point of view, and have used similar sounds found in Italian, German, French, and English as an example to approach the concepts of the thirty-seven Mandarin-Chinese Phonetic Symbols in the study.

Unlike other Western languages, Mandarin-Chinese words do not consist of English or

Latin alphabets. Therefore, the study provided the IPA and translations for Yiu-Kwong

109

Chung’s ten Mandarin-Chinese art songs in the later chapters. I have included two sets which used Zhimo Xu’s poetry, and a set of traditional Chinese folk songs.

Chung is one of the most famous Asian composers. He was born in Hong Kong, and had his doctoral degree in percussion and composition at City University of New York.

Because Chung liked the music environment in Taiwan better than Hong Kong, he moved to Taiwan after he finished his doctoral degree to start his career as a composer.

He soon received wide international recognition. Although Chung has written only twenty-one songs for solo voice, his talent of writing intuitive melodies and transforming the essence of the poetry into musical expression makes his songs very popular in Taiwan.

Chung’s two sets, Three Poems by Xu Zhimu and Four Poems by Xu Zhimu, are his most well-known songs in Taiwan. Chung’s unique compositional techniques attracts singers, but also the poet, Zhimo Xu, wrote very fine poetry and this makes for a unique and high artistic experience for the singers and the audience. The two sets included in the study have seven poems which showed the change of Xu’s writing from happiness to desperation.

The purpose of this document has been to provide the professional singer or voice students who are non-native speakers of Mandarin-Chinese an understandable and efficient way to learn Mandarin-Chinese diction and the large amount of highly artistic and beautiful contemporary Mandarin-Chinese art songs. I have worked the sets which

110 used Zhimo Xu’s poetry with the coach accompanist, Edward Bak, who knows a little

Chinese. During our rehearsals, he has been able to pronounce the text correctly by reading the IPA I wrote on the scores. This is evidence that this document will be able to solve the primary obstacle for non-native speakers and they will be able access

Mandarin-Chinese art songs. I hope it will serve as a valuable reference for future research on Mandarin-Chinese art songs and that many Mandarin-Chinese art songs will be performed all over the world.

111

Appendix A:

The Table for the Mandarin-Chinese Vowels and glides

Vowels and glides IPA Sound Example

ㄚ [a] Italian a in bacio 八 [pa]55 (eight)

ㄛ [ɔ] Italian o in poco 火 [xwɔ]214 (fire)

ㄜ [ǝ] English a in abroad 餓 [ǝɹ]51 (hungry)

ㄝ [ε] Italian e in velo 別 [pjε]35 (to leave)

ㄦ [ɚ] English er in leader 二 [ɚ]51 (two)

一 [i] Italian i in pietà 一 [ji]55 (one)

ㄨ [u] English u in blue 婦 [fu]51 (a woman)

ㄩ [y] French u in flute 綠 [ly]51 (green)

ㄞ [ai] English ie in lie 來 [lai]35 (to come)

ㄟ [ei] Italian ei in lei 累 [lei]51 (tired)

ㄠ [ɑu] English ou in loud 老 [lɑu]214 (old)

ㄡ [ou] English oa in load 樓 [lou]35 (a building)

ㄢ [an] NA 半 [pan]51 (half)

ㄣ [ǝn] German en in geblieben 笨 [pǝn]51 (stupid)

ㄤ [aŋ] NA 浪 [laŋ]51 (wave)

ㄥ [ǝŋ] NA 瞪 [tǝŋ]51 (to stare) 112

Appendix B:

The Table for the Mandarin-Chinese Consonants

Consonant IPA Sound Example

ㄅ [p] French p in Paris 爸 [pa]51 (father)

h h ㄆ [p ] English p in park 怕 [p a]51 (to be afraid)

ㄇ [m] English m in mother 媽 [ma]55 (mother)

ㄈ [f] English f in far 罰 [fa]35 (to punish)

ㄉ [t] Italian t in tu 讀 [tu]35 (to read)

h ㄊ [t ] French t in tu 兔 [tu]51 (a rabbit)

ㄋ [n] English n in not 哪 [na]214 (where)

ㄌ [l] English l in lure 路 [lu]51 (a path)

ㄍ [k] English k in sky 蓋 [kai]51 (to cover)

h h ㄎ [k ] English c in card 卡 [k a]214 (a card)

ㄏ [x] NA 湖 [xu]35 (a lake)

ㄐ [tɕ] NA 雞 [tɕi]55 (a chicken)

h h ㄑ [tɕ ] NA 氣 [tɕ i]51 (angry)

ㄒ [ɕ] Russian щ in щapф 蝦 [ɕia]55 (a shrimp)

ㄓ [tʂ] English j in jerk 眨[tʂa]214 (to blink)

113

h h ㄔ [tʂ ] NA 茶 [tʂ a]35 (tea)

ㄕ [ʂ] NA 殺 [ʂa]55 (to kill)

ㄖ [ɹ] English r in rude 入[ɹu]51 (to enter)

ㄗ [ts] English ds in sounds 再 [tsai]51 (again)

h h ㄘ [ts ] Italian z in danza 擦 [ts a]55 (to wipe)

ㄙ [s] English s in sub 灑 [sa]214 (to spray)

114

Bibliography

Adams, David. A Handbook of Diction for Singers: Italian, German, French. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999.

Agang, Lin, Minghua, and Xiaoquan. Xu Zhimo Zuopin Xinshang. (《徐志摩作品欣賞》, The Appreciation of Xu Zhimo’s Works.) Nanning Shi : Guangxi Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 1991.

Challis, Natalia. The Singer’s Rachmaninoff. New York: Pelion Press, 1989.

Chang, Pang-Mei Natasha. Xiaojiao Yu Xifu: Zhang Youyi Yu Xu Zhimo De Jiabian. (《小腳與西服 : 張幼儀與徐志摩的家變》, Bound Feet And Western Dress.) Trans. Jiayu Tan. Taipei: Zhiku Gufen Youxiangongsi, 2009.

Chang, Yujing. Chung Yiu-KwongWushou Gequ Yanchang Quanshi (《鍾耀光五首藝術歌曲演唱詮釋》, The Interpretation of Yiu-Kwong Chung’s Five Art Songs.) Master’s thesis, National Taipei University of Education, 2008.

Chao, Hao-Ming Nancy. Twentieth century Chinese vocal music with particular reference to its development and nationalistic characteristics from the May Fourth Movement (1919) to 1945. Ph.D diss., University of California, 1995.

Cheek, Timothy. Singing in Czech: A Guide to Czech Lyric Diction and Vocal Repertoire. Lanham: Scarecrow Press, 2001.

Chen, Congzhou, ed. Xu Zhimo Nianpu. (《徐志摩年譜》, The Yearbook of Zhimo Xu.) Shanghai: Shanghai Shudian, 1981,

Chi, Mei-Fung Agnes Kang. A Performance Guide for Contemporary Chinese Art Songs from Taiwan. PhD diss., Columbia University, 1996.

Cox, Richard. Singing in English: A Manual of English Diction for Singers and Choral Directors. Lawton: American Choral Directors Association, 1990.

Denton, Kirk A., ed. Modern Chinese Literary Thought: Writings on Literature, 1893- 1945. California: Stanford University Press, 1996.

115

Fang, Ren-Nian. “Hu Shih and Hsü Chih-mo.” Chinese Studies in History 26, no. 4(1993), 50-72.

Farish, Stephen, ed. French Diction for Singers. Denton: Gore Publishing Company, 1999.

Grubb, Thomas. Singing in French: A Manual of French Diction and French Vocal Repertoire. New York: Schimer Books, A Division of Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1979.

International Phonetic Association. Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A Guide to the Use of the International Phonetic Alphabet. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Kimball, Carol. Song: A Guide to Art Song Style and Literature. Milwaukee: Hal Leonard Corporation, 2005.

Lao, Yeedeh C., ed. “Hanyu Pinyin Bajiang.” (〈漢語拼音八講〉, “Eight Lessons in Hanyu Pinyin.”) National Council of Associations of Chinese Languages Schools, 2002.

Lau, Joseph S. M. and Goldblatt, Howard, ed. The Columnia Anthology of Modern Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1995.

Liang, Shiqiu. Tan Xu Zhimo. (《談徐志摩》, Memory of Zhimo Xu.) Taipei: YuanDong Tushu Gongsi, 1958.

Lin, Yen-Hwei. The Sounds of Chinese. New York: Cambridge, 2007.

Liu, Guanghui and Shi, Peiwen. Hanyu Shisjian Yuyin. (《漢語實踐語音》, A Practical Course in Chinese Phoentics.) Beijing: Jingji Guanli Chubanshe, 1998.

Mair, Victor H., ed. The Columbia Anthology of Traditional Chinese Literature. New York: Columbia University Press, 1994.

Marshall, Madeleine. The Singer’s Manual of English Diction. New York: G. Schirmer, Inc., 1953.

Moriarty, John. Diction: Italian, Lation, French, German; The Sounds and 81 Exercises for Singing Them. Boston: E. C. Schirmer Music Co., 1975.

116

Payne, Robert. Contemporary Chinese Poetry. London: George Routledge & Sons LTD, 1947.

Reetz, Henning and Jongman, Allard. Phonetics: Transcription, Production, Acoustics, and Perception. Malden: Wiley-Blackwell, 2009.

Renjian Siyuetian. (《人間四月天》, April Rhapsody.) 10 videodiscs. Shenzhen Shi: Shenzhen Shi Dongfang Liren Wenhua Chuanbo Youxian Gongsi, 2002.

Shen, Xueyong, ed. Dangdai Zhongwen Yishu Gequji (《當代中文藝術歌曲集》, Contemporary Chinese Art Songs.) 2 vols. Taipei: Mercury Publishing House, 2003.

Song, Yiqiao. Xu Zhimo Zhuan. (《徐志摩傳》, The Biography of Zhimo Xu.) Tainan: Wenguo Shuju, 1999.

Tyan, Jaan-Ay. A Performer’s Guide to Selected Chinese Art Songs by Twentieth- Century Chinese Composers. DMA diss.. The Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, 2003.

Wall, Joan. International Phonetic Alphabet for Singers: A Manual for English and Foreign Language Diction. Dallas, Pst…Inc, 1989.

Wilcke, Eva. German Diction in Singing. Trans. Arthur Edward Smith. New York: E. P. Dutton & Co., Inc, 1930.

Xu, Rui-Kun and Li, Mei-Wen. One Hundred Eastern Music Masters- Recent Asian Composers. Kaohsiung: Center for the Humanities at National Sun Yat-sen University. Site address: http://humanitiescenter.nsysu.edu.tw/webplan_person03.php

Xu, Zhimo. Xu Zhimo Quanji. (《徐志摩全集》, The Complete Works of Xu Zhimo.), 5 Vols. Fucong Jiang and Shiqiu Liang, ed. Taipei: Zhuanji Wenxue Chubanshe, 1969.

______. Xu Zhimo Weikan Riji. (《徐志摩未刊日記》, The Unpublished Diary of Xu Zhimo.) Beijing: Beijin Tushuguan Chubanshe, 2003.

______. Xu Zhimo Zizhuan. (《徐志摩自傳》, An Autobiography of Zhimo Xu.) Nanjing : Jiangsu Wenyi Chubanshe , 1997.

Yeh, Michelle, trans. and ed. Anthology of Modern Chinese Poetry. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1992.

117

Yiu-Kwong Chung. Site address: http://www.cykusic.com/Eworklist.htm

Zhao, Qin. Jin Qishi Nian Lai Zhongguo Yishu Gequ. (《近七十年中國藝術歌曲》, The Mandarin-Chinese Art Songs in Recent Seventy Years.) Taipei: Zhong-yang Wenwu Gongyingshe, 1982.

Zhongguo Xiandai Ming-ren Shuxin. (《中國現代名人書信》, The Letters from Chinese Contemporary Celebrities.) Xianggang: Dong Ya Shu-ju, 1960.

“ZuoqujiaChung Yiu-Kwong: Renhe Yinyue Dou Ying Wanquan Jiayu” (〈作曲家鍾耀光：任何音樂語言都應完全駕馭〉, “The Composer, Chung Yiu-Kwong: All kinds of Music Languages should be Managed”) (25 November, 2005), Site address: http://blog.yam.com/nocturnes/article/732177

118