sign in sign up
<<
Home , Ahmad, Alvin Plantinga, Din (Arabic), Fitra, Hadith, Islamic philosophy

Article and Suffering in Islamic —Towards a Mystical

Nasrin Rouzati

Religious Studies Department, Manhattan College, Riverdale, NY 10471, USA; [email protected]

Received: 13 December 2017; Accepted: 28 January 2018; Published: 3 February 2018

Abstract: This paper sheds light on the treatment of the ‘’ and human suffering from an Islamic perspective. I begin by providing an overview of the term ‘evil’ in the Qur’an to highlight its multidimensional and to demonstrate the overall portrait of this as it is presented in the Islamic through the narrative of the . Having established a Qur’anic framework, I then provide a brief historical overview of the formation of philosophical and theological debates surrounding “” and “bad/evil” and the origination of Muslim theodicean thought. This will lead us to Ghazalian¯ theodicy and the famous dictum of the “best of all possible ” by one of the most influential scholars of Islamic thought, Abu H. amid¯ ¯ ¯ı. The final section of this paper will explore the Sufi/ mystical tradition of through the teachings of one of the most distinguished mystics of Islam, Jalal¯ al-D¯ın Rum¯ ¯ı. The conclusion of the paper will attempt to bring about a new understanding of how the so-called “problem of evil” is not presented in Islam as a problem but rather as an instrument in the actualization of ’s plan, which is intertwined with human in this —an that is necessary for man’s spiritual development.

Keywords: problem of evil; theodicy; Qur’an; Job; good; evil; al Ghazal¯ ¯ı; ; Islam

1. Introduction The ‘problem of evil’ or, as it is more often referred to, the cause of human suffering is perhaps one of the most debated questions in the of the philosophy of .1 Although the issue makes itself known to humankind in general, it gains particular attention in the context of monotheistic religions as it brings into question the main pillar of such religions, namely, the of a powerful and merciful God. In light of the enormous amount of evil in the world, especially in the case of undeserved suffering, the challenge becomes even more acute and begs for answers. According to Hick, pondering about the volume of afflictions and adversities that mankind is faced with, “we do indeed have to ask ourselves whether it is possible to think of this world as the work of an omnipotent creator who is motivated by limitless ... this is indeed the most serious challenge that there is to theistic .”2 This paper aims to shed light on the treatment of the ‘problem of evil’ and human suffering from an Islamic perspective. I will begin by providing an overview of the term ‘evil’ in the Qur’an to highlight its multidimensional meaning and attempt to demonstrate the overall portrait of this notion as it is presented in the Islamic revelation through the narrative of the prophet Job. Having established a Qur’anic framework, I will then provide a brief historical overview of the formation of theological

1 The “Problem of Evil”, in the context of Western scholarship, is generally identified in two main : theoretical and existential, and further divides the theoretical dimension into logical and evidential; the distinction between moral evil and is also underscored. For more on this see L. Peterson, The Problem of Evil, Selected Readings (Peterson 2011), , God, Freedom, and Evil (Plantinga 1974), and , Evil and the God of Love (Hick 2007). 2 See John Hick, An Interpretation of Religion (Hick 2004, p. 118).

Religions 2018, 9, 47; doi:10.3390/rel9020047 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions Religions 2018, 9, 47 2 of 13 debates surrounding “good” and “bad/evil” and the origination of Muslim theodicean thought. This will lead us to Ghazalian¯ theodicy and the famous dictum of the “best of all possible worlds” by one of the most influential scholars of Islamic thought, Abu H. amid¯ Ghazal¯ ¯ı. The final section of this paper will explore the Sufi/mystical tradition of Islam through the teachings of one of the most distinguished mystics of Islam, Jalal¯ al-D¯ın Rum¯ ¯ı. The conclusion of the paper will attempt to bring about a new understanding of how the so-called “problem of evil” is not presented in Islam as a problem but rather as an instrument in the actualization of God’s plan, which is intertwined with human experiences in this world—an experience that is necessary for man’s spiritual development.

2. Evil and Suffering in the Qur’an: An Overview For more than fourteen hundred years the Qur’an has served as the foundation of the religion of Islam and continues to play a dynamic role in shaping and influencing the lives of its followers, regardless of their diverse cultural backgrounds. The Qur’an is also considered to be the highest source of Islamic scholarship and functions as the starting point for a major portion of scholarly works. Therefore, to understand the treatment of evil and suffering in Muslim thought, the journey must begin with studying the Qur’anic narratives where this makes itself known. A cursory review of studies on theodicy reveals that the meaning of ‘evil’, for the most part, is assumed and is not negotiable—personal loss, illness, violence, natural disaster, etc. Although the term appears abundantly in both popular and scholarly works, there seems to be a conceptual ambiguity surrounding it: What exactly is evil? Furthermore, does human understanding of evil concur with the divine message? A key term in that is translated as evil is ‘sharr’ and it is presented in two distinct categories of Qur’anic narratives. The first category includes verses that fall in the semantic field of sharr and appears amongst the moral of the Qur’an. The overall notion of good (khayr) and bad/evil (sharr) is a central theme in Qur’anic teachings and is emphasized in both Meccan and Medinan phases of the Islamic revelation.3 Considering these narratives hermeneutically by applying an intra-textual contextualization method, whereby the Qur’an functions as its own interpreter,4 seems to suggest that the most prominent meaning for the term sharr in this group of narratives is the situation that man creates for himself.5 It is clearly stated in the Qur’an that when humankind, through his own volition, acts in certain ways and adapts to specific behaviors that are not in accordance with the divine plan, he situates himself in a condition that is referred to as sharr by the Qur’an. Some of the deeds that fall into this moral category include miserliness, unbelief/rejecting God, slander, and transgression.6 The Qur’an noticeably upholds that the creation of the —and by extension, humankind—is purposeful and not in vain.7 Man, therefore, must make a serious effort to live his life according to God’s cosmic plan. By neglecting the purpose for his creation and the accountabilities that it entails, he creates an undesirable living condition for himself, that is, sharr. The purposefulness of man’s creation and his responsibility as it pertains to suffering will be discussed later in the article. The second category of Qur’anic narratives is more of an interest to us as it is directly related to human suffering and theodicy. This group of verses falls beyond the semantic field of sharr and is

3 For on the chronology of the Qur’an, see Neal Robinson, Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text (Robinson 2003). 4 Intra-textual contextualization is a methodology used in understanding Qur’anic verses according to the context in which they appear individually, as well as in relation to the overall theme of all the chapters in which they appear. For an excellent discussion on the interpretation of the Qur’anic terms, see Toshibiko Izutsu, Ethico - Religious Concepts in the Qur’an (Izutsu 2002). 5 For example, see Qur’an, 3:180; 8:22; 24:11; 17:11. For an excellent on the Qur’an, see (Tabarsi 1350). 6 For more information on various contexts of sharr in the Qur’an, see Tunbar Yesilhark Ozkan, A Muslim Response to Evil. Said Nursi on Theodicy (Ozkan 2015, pp. 19–35). 7 Qur’an, 38:27 Religions 2018, 9, 47 3 of 13 revealed in various historical contexts reflected in the Qur’an.8 A careful scrutiny of these narratives demonstrates that the so-called problem of evil—and by extension, human suffering—is not treated in the Qur’an as a theoretical problem but rather as an instrument in the actualization of God’s purpose. Most of these narratives illustrate that the underlying rationale for the existence of various forms of evil and suffering is that they serve as a trial (ibtila¯) and test: “We shall certainly test you with fear and hunger, and loss of , lives, and crops; however, [Prophet], give good news to those who are steadfast.” 9 The purpose of human suffering and its role in God’s overall cosmic plan may bring about two corollaries. First, there is no contradiction between the divine attributes of God and the fact that suffering exists; therefore, affirmation of the Qur’an regarding God’s is not under question: “Say ‘God, holder of all sovereignty, You give control to whoever You will, and remove it from whoever You will. You elevate whoever You will and humble whoever You will. All that is good lies in Your hands: You have power over everything.”10 Moreover, since God is undoubtedly in control of creation, suffering must also be allowed by him for God’s plan to be fully executed. Second, if suffering is meant as a test and is regarded as a necessary component of life, then a Muslim must view the undesirable situations (illness, financial difficulty, loss of a loved one, etc.) as an opportunity to actualize his inner potential and move forward in his spiritual journey, who he “is” as the fruit of the creational tree. It may also be concluded that by presenting the notion of evil and suffering as part of the human experience and a necessary component of man’s spiritual journey, the Qur’an refrains from articulating a systematic theodicy. Therefore, the objective is not to engage man in abstract but rather to help him realize the purpose of suffering and offer guiding in how to overcome various forms of evil.11 Here it may be noted that the notion of ‘natural evil’—a distinct category under the umbrella of the ‘problem of evil’—is not treated in the Qur’an. Although the Qur’an frequently makes references to and events in the natural world that might not be desirable by mankind, these are not referred to as ‘evil’.

3. Overcoming Evil: Prophet Job (Ayyub¯ )—The Exemplar The notion of (nabuwwa) and the descriptive narratives about the lives of the ¯ constitute a major portion of the Islamic scripture. While the prophets serve as the conduits through which the divine message is communicated to addressee communities, they are portrayed as exemplars that inspire and guide people to the straight path of . The history of Qur’anic prophethood began with , chosen to become the first prophet after the trial of eating from the forbidden tree, and includes many of the figures mentioned in Judaeo–Christian traditions. Although Islamic tradition speaks of 124,000 prophets in the history of mankind, the Qur’an mentions twenty-five by name and describes their challenges as they conveyed the prophetic message to their respected communities. Prophet is mentioned as the final messenger and is referred to as the “Seal of the Prophets”.12 The story of Job (Ayyub¯ ), an eminent figure in Jewish and Christian tradition, is seen in the Qur’an to exemplify genuine devotion to God, gratitude through fortune and health, and patience when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job’s incomparable and submission to God’s will in both

8 Discussing the historical, political, and social climate of Islam’s normative period is beyond the scope of this paper; however, it needs to be noted that a large portion of the Qur’an is directly related to the circumstances that surrounded Prophet Muhammad and the early Muslim community. 9 Qur’an, 2:155. Also see 67:2 and 89:16. 10 Qur’an, 3:26, see (Abdel Haleem 2004). 11 For an extended discussion on the instrumentality of evil in the forms of bala¯ see, Nasrin Rouzati, Trial and Tribulation in the Qur’an: A Mystical Theodicy (Rouzati 2015). 12 Qur’an, 33:40. 13 The story of Job in Judeo-Christian traditions is presented in the and appears in the form of a dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the for his sufferings. A comparative study of the story between Judeo-Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper. For an excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur’an (Johns 2008, pp. 51–82). Religions 2018, 9, x FOR 4 of 13 Religions 2018, 9, 47 4 of 13 when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job’s incomparable sincerity and submission to God’s willhealth in andboth prosperity, health and as prosperity well as during, as well affliction as during and hardship,affliction are and the hardship, theare Qur’anthe reason portrayss the Qur’anhim as “anportrays excellent him servant.”as “an excellent14 servant.”14 AccordingAccording to to Muslim Muslim exegesis, exegesis, what what distinguishes distinguishes Job Job is the is fact the that fact despite that despite his enormous his enormous fortune, fortune,he continually he continually attributed attributed the source the of sourcehis blessings of his to blessings God and to remained God and humble remained as a humble servant aswho a servantlacked ownership who lacked of hisownership belongings. of his Similarly, belongings. when GodSimilarly, tested when him with God a serious tested disease,him with he a exercised serious disease,patience he and exercised recognized patience that he wasand going recognized through that a test—a he was positive going experience—and through a test— ascribeda positive any 15 experiencenegative feelings—and ascribed of despair any to negative .15 feelings of despair to Satan. TheThe Qur’anic Qur’anic narrative narrative about about Job Job demonstrates demonstrates that that trial trialss and and test tests—whethers—whether in in prosperity prosperity and and healthhealth or or illness illness and and hardship hardship—are—are part part of of the the d divineivine plan, plan, so so much much so so that that even even prophets prophets are are not not exempt;exempt; it it is is through through various various experiences experiences in lifein thatlife man that is man able is to able actualize to actualize his potential his potentialand propagate and propagatehis mission his on mission this earth. on Asthis John earth. notes, As “theJohn storynotes, of “the Job instory the Qur’anof Job in is the understood Qur’an is primarily understood as a 16 primarilyreward narrative as a reward with narrative an emphasis with differentan emphasis from different that of the from story that of of Job the in story the .”of Job in16 the Bible.”

4.4. Concept Concept of of Evil: Evil: Theological Theological and and Philosophical Philosophical Development Development OneOne of of the the earliest earliest problems problems in in Muslim Muslim theological theological thought thought ( (kalāmkalam¯ )) was was how how to to reconcile reconcile the the divinedivine attribute attribute of of omnipotence omnipotence with with the the notion notion of of human human free . The The departure departure point point for for this this discoursediscourse was was the the Qur’an Qur’an and and the the diverse diverse interpretations interpretations of of its its teachings teachings on on the the divine divine n namesames an andd 1717 aattributesttributes ( (asmāasma¯ʾ al-al-h.ḥusnusna¯ā).). TheThe reconciliationreconciliation of of certain certain divine divine attributes, attributes, predominantly predominantly the the aspect aspect of ofan an all-powerful all-powerful God, God with, with the ideathe of human of human free will—the free will broader—the broader frame with frame which with human which suffering human sufferingwas enclosed—was was enclosed the— firstwas attempt the first to attempt initiate to a theodicyinitiate a withintheodicy the within context the of context Islam. of Islam. TheThe discourse discourse presents presents itself itself at atthe the core core of the of thetheological theological dialogue dialogue amongst amongst various various groups. groups. The theologiansThe theologians who who advocated advocated for forthe theattribute attribute of ofomnipotence omnipotence in inits its absolute absolute and and uncompromising uncompromising formform were were of of the the opinion opinion that that the the only only agent agent in in this this world world is is God: God: He He creates creates His His own own acts acts as as well well as as Religions 2018thethe, acts9 acts, x FOR of of all allPEER human human REVIEW . beings. As As this this view view raised raised serious serious concerns concerns about about the the creation creation of of “evil”5 “evil” of 13 acts acts by by God,God, the the debate debate developed developed further further to to question question the the validity validity of of human human free free wi will—thell—the concept concept that that is is of instrumentalitydeeplydeeply rooted rooted of human in in the the Quransuffering as as it itin relates relatesthe divine to to man’s man’s plan. responsibility responsibility The notion ofand and suffering, accountability accountability, which, includedas as well well as as divine divine undeservedjudgmentjudgment suffering and and reward byreward children and and punishment. punishment. and , The The continued dialogue dialogue tocrystallized crystallized be discussed between between by the the Mu Muʿʿtazilitetazilite and and the the theologians.AshAshʿ19arite,arite, The the Mu two ʿtazilite main’s firm schools stress ofof thought,onthought God’,s with withjustice,a a divergence divergence however, ofresulted of opinion; opinion in boththe; both group made made dividing a seriousa serious, effort effort to which finallytowin win the gave the argumentbirth to accordingthe according Ashʾarite to to their school their understanding understandingof thought. of of the the Qur’an. Qur’an.18 18 AccordingTheThe to Mu MuAshʿtazilitetaziliteʾarite theologians, school school of of thought, thought, God’s lawalso also of known known as as applies the the rationalists, rationalists, only to human categorically categorically beings who opposed opposed have the the idea idea been obligatedthatthat God God to createsact creates according human human to acts actsHis that . that include include Applying evil evil and the and advocatedidea advocated of justice for for humanto God, human free however, free will will by will emphasizing by put emphasizing a the limit on importanceanthe all importance-powerful of the ofcreator thedivine divine; therefore, attribute attribute God of j of usticeis justicenot bound(ʿadl ( adl). They).by They His upheld own upheld laws that that. HeGod God, is, justin in accordance accordancein whatever with with His His He does.attributeattribute 20 Applied of of ( ʿ (toāadilaadil¯ suffering,),), cannot cannot thi create creates then evil evilmeans and and that that that evil all evil isharm the is thedirectencountered direct result result of by man’s man of man’s freedomis fair freedom as ofit .has of choice. This been willedviewThis by view was God challengedwas who challenged is just byin all raising by His raising creation. questions questions The such Ash such ʾ as:arite as:I fthinkers God If God does were does not in not sharp create create conflict evil, evil, who, who,with then, then, is is the Muʿresponsibletaziliteresponsibles who for forasserted human human that suffering suffering not only caused caused is God by by illnessessubjected illnesses and to and thedisasters? disasters?same rules And And ofif Godjustice if God wills but wills for that, illnesses for in illnesses and fact, the disastersobligationand disasters in to human act in in human just life, means how life, can is how eternal He can be andj Heust? uncompromising be The just? Muʿ Thetazilite Mus for tazilitesresponded God. It responded is by worth affirming noting by affirming that that illnesses that a prominentandillnesses disasters,Muslim and p disasters,hilosopherwhile may while, appearIbn Rushd may as appear “evil”, (, as are “evil”, in d. actuality1198), are in challenged actuality“good” that “good”these God views that creates and God assertedand creates that and serve that a that the elementsignificantserve a significantof justicepurpose may purposein thenot creationalbe inemployed the creational cosmic for God plan. cosmic and This man plan. seems in the This to same be seems the manner: first to beappearance theman, first by appearance of the theory of of thejust, theory advances of instrumentality to a higher level of of human goodness; suffering God, inhowever, the divine is just plan. due The to notionHis perfection of suffering,—a which trait that included requires undeservedHim to be just. suffering 21 by children and animals, continued to be discussed by the Mu tazilite 13 In the finalThe storyanalysis, of Job mainstream in Judeo₋Christian Sunnite traditions theologians is presented supported in the the Book Ash ofʾarite Job andschool appears of thought in the form of a dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings. A comparative and emphasized that God creates all acts. In order to reconcile God’s omnipotence with human study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper. For an responsibility,14 the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; freely Qur’anexcellent 38:41–2 comparative and 21:83–4. review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 2008, 15 See Abubakr ‘Tigh Neishabur Surabadi, Surabadi, ed. ‘Idi Sirjani (Surabadi 1381). Also, see Brannon22 M. Wheeler, acquire certainpp. 51 acts–82 ).and , therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of acts. Prophets in the Qur'an, an Introduction to the Qur’an and Muslim Exegesis (Wheeler 2002). Conversely,14 Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam—through the influence of 16 SeeQur’an (Johns 38:41 2003–,2 pp. and 50–51). 21:83–4. rational 1517 element ForSee moreAbubakr inon the this `Tigh Mu seeʿ Abdol taziliteNeishabur Rahman Surabadi, Ibn Khald—remained Tafsirun,¯ Surabadi in , disagreement ed. of Ibn Sa` KhaldIdi Sirjaniun¯ (Ibn with (Surabadi Khald theun¯ 1375 Ash 1381).).ʿari Also,tes. Ansee Brannon example 18 of ForM. this Wheeler, a comprehensive may be Prophets observed discussion in the from Qur'an, on development the an writings Introduction of theology of to an the eminent in Qur'an Islam, see and Persian Harry Muslim Austryn p hilosopher,Exegesis Wolfson, (Wheeler The Morteza Philosopy 2002). of (Wolfson 1976). Muṭahhar16 ī (d.See 1979) (Johns, who2003, waspp. 50 of– 51).the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating God from17 injustice,For more resulted on this see in Abdolexonerating Rahman human Ibn Khaldūn, oppressors Muqaddimah of any of wrongdoing Ibn Khaldūn (Ibn.23 Khaldūn 1375). 18 From theFor Muslim a comprehensive philosophical discussion perspective, on development the notion of theologyof good and in Islam, evil issee enclosed Harry Austryn within Wolfson,the The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). wider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam). Briefly put, good is defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from nonexistence and as such is viewed as a negative entity. 24 An example of the ontological interpretation of what constitutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent Muslim who significantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn Sīnā, known as (d. 1037), and Sadr al- Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā Sadrā (d. 1636). Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as “essential” evil (sharr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and “accidental” evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be either being or privation. In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil that is the leading cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe outweighs the amount of evil. 25 Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this philosophical approach by an interest in combining theology with mystical insight. This approach, according to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic .26

19 For a great discussion on the Muʿtazilite’s view on and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000). For an extensive study on the notion of disability in Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology and (Ghaly 2010). 20 See Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 21 For more on his philosophy, see Ibn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes 1921). 22 For more on theory of acquisition, see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 23 See (Mutahhari 1385, pp. 50–51). 24 For more on ontological aspects of good and evil, see Seyyed Hossein , from Its Origin to the Present (Nasr 2006, pp. 65–68). 25 For more on Ibn Sīnā’s theodicy, see C. Inati, The Problem of Evil: Ibn Sina's Theodicy (Inati 2000). 26 See Sajjad Rizvi, '', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Rizvi 2009).

Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job’s incomparable sincerity and submission to God’s will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons the Qur’an portrays him as “an excellent servant.”14 According to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormous fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble as a servant who lacked ownership of his belongings. Similarly, when God tested him with a serious disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test—a positive experience—and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan.15 The Qur’anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests—whether in prosperity and health or illness and hardship—are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and propagate his mission on this earth. As John notes, “the story of Job in the Qur’an is understood primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible.”16

4. Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 Religions 2018, 9, 47 5 of 13 One of the earliest problems in Muslim theological thought (kalām) was how to reconcile the of instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan. The notion of suffering, whichdivine included attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will. The departure point for this undeserved suffering by children and animals, continued to be discussedtheologians. by19 theThe Mudiscourseʿtazilitetazilite’s was firm the stressQur’an on and God’s the justice, diverse however, interpretations resulted of in its the teachings group dividing, on the divine names and theologians.19 The Muʿtazilite’s firm stress on God’s justice, however, resultedwhich finally in the gavegroup birthattributes dividing to the (,asmā Ashʾ ariteal-ḥusn schoolā).17 The of thought. reconciliation of certain divine attributes, predominantly the aspect which finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought. According to Ashof anarite all- theologians,powerful God God’s, with the of idea justice of applieshuman onlyfree towill human—the beingsbroader who frame have with which human According to Ashʾarite theologians, God’s law of justice applies onlybeen to obligatedhuman beings to actsuffering who according have was to enclosed His laws.—was Applying the first the attempt idea of to justice initiate to God,a theodicy however, within will the put context a of Islam. been obligated to act according to His laws. Applying the idea of justicelimit to God, on an however, all-powerful willThe creator;put discourse a therefore, presents God itself is not at bound the core by of His the own theological laws. He dialogue is just in amongst whatever various groups. The limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is not bound by His ownHe laws does.. He20 Appliedis just intheologians whatever to suffering, who this advocated then means for that the allattribute harmencountered of omnipotence by man in its is absolute fair as it hasand uncompromising He does. 20 Applied to suffering, this then means that all harm encounteredbeen willed by man by is God fairform whoas wereit ishas just of the in allopinion His creation. that the only The agent Ash arite in this thinkers world is were God: in He sharp creates conflict His own acts as well as been willed by God who is just in all His creation. The Ashʾarite thinkerswith were the in Mu sharptazilites conflictthe whoacts with of asserted all human that beings. not only As isthis God view subjected raised serious to the sameconcerns rules about of justice the creation but of “evil” acts by the Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the samethat, rules in fact, of justice the obligation butGod, that, the to indebate act in developed just means further is eternal to question and uncompromising the validity of for human God. Itfree is worthwill—the concept that is fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromising fornoting God. that It is a worth prominent deeplynoting Muslim thatrooted ,in the Quran Ibn as it Rushd relates (Averroes, to man’s d.responsibility 1198), challenged and accountability these views , as well as divine a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198), challengedand asserted these views that and thejudgment elementasserted and of justice reward may and not punishment. be employed The for dialogue God and crystallized man in the samebetween manner: the Muʿtazilite and the that the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in theman, same by manner: virtue ofman, beingAsh byʿ arite, just,virtue advancesthe two main to a higherschools level of thought of goodness;, with a God, divergence however, of isopinion just due; both to His made a serious effort of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, isperfection—a just due to His trait perfection thatto win requires the—a argument Him to beaccording just.21 to their understanding of the Qur’an.18 trait that requires Him to be just.21 In the final analysis,The mainstream Muʿtazilite Sunnite school theologiansof thought, supportedalso known the as Ashthe rationalists,arite school categorically of thought opposed the idea In the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported theand Ash emphasizedʾarite school thatthat of thought God God createscreates allhuman acts. acts In orderthat include to reconcile evil and God’s advocated omnipotence for human with free human will by emphasizing the and emphasized that God creates all acts. In order to reconcile God’sresponsibility, omnipotence the with doctrineimportance human of acquisition of the divine (kasb )attribute was adopted: of justice God creates(ʿadl). allThey acts; upheld humans that freely God acquire, in accordance with His responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God createscertain all acts acts; and, humans therefore,attribute freely areof (ʿ accountableāadil), cannot for create the evil acquisition and that of evil good is the and direct evil result acts.22 ofConversely, man’s freedom of choice. This acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisitionMuslim of goodthinkers and belonging view evil acts. was to22 the challenged Shi ite branch by raising of Islam—through questions such the influence as: If God of rational does not element create in evil, who, then, is Conversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islamthe— Muthroughtazilite the theology—remained influenceresponsible of for human in disagreement suffering caused with the by Ashillnessesarites. and An disasters? example And of this if God may wills be for illnesses and rational element in the Muʿtazilite theology—remained in disagreementobserved with from the the Ash writingsdisastersʿarites. An of in an human eminent life, Persian how can philosopher, He be just? Morteza The Mu Muʿtazilitet.ahhars¯ı responded (d. 1979), who by affirming was that illnesses example of this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persianof the opinion philosopher, thatand the Morteza Ashdisasters,arite outlook,while may while appear aimed as “evil”, at vindicating are in actuality God from “good” injustice, that resulted God creates in and that serve a Muṭahharī (d. 1979), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook,exonerating while aimed human at vindicatingsignificant oppressors purpose of any wrongdoing.in the creational23 cosmic plan. This seems to be the first appearance of the theory God from injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoingFrom the.23 Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the From the Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good andwider evil ontological is enclosed understanding within the of existence ( wuj ud ¯ ) and nonexistence ( adam). Briefly put, good 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a wider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistenceis ( definedʿadam). Br asiefly a positive put, good entity is that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings. A comparative defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on nonexistence the other hand, and as stems such fromis viewed as a negative entity.24 An example of the ontological interpretation study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper. For an nonexistence and as such is viewed as a negative entity. 24 An example of the ontological of what constitutes goodexcellent and evil comparative may be seen review, from see the A.H. works Johns, of two A Comparative prominent MuslimGlance at philosophers Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 2008, interpretation of what constitutes good and evil may be seen from who the works significantly of two influenced prominentpp. 51–82 the). shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn S¯ına,¯ known as Muslim philosophers who significantly influenced the shaping of MuslimAvicenna philosophical (d. 1037), thought:14 and Qur’an Sadr Ibn al-Din38:41 –2 Shir andaz¯ 21:83¯ı, who–4. was mostly recognized as Mulla¯ Sadra¯ (d. 1636). Sīnā, known as Avicenna (d. 1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostlyIbn Srecognized¯ına¯ formed15 as aSee theodicyMullā Abubakr by `Tigh distinguishing Neishabur Surabadi, the various Tafsir forms Surabadi of, eviled. Sa` suchIdi Sirjani as “essential” (Surabadi evil 1381). Also, see Brannon Sadrā (d. 1636). (sharr bidh-dhat¯ ), whichM. is non-beingWheeler, Prophets or privation, in the Qur'an, and “accidental”an Introduction evil to the (sharr Qur'an bil- andara Muslimd. ), which Exegesis can be(Wheeler 2002). Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms ofeither evil beingsuch as or “essential” privation.16 See In evil(Johns his analysis, 2003, pp. Ibn 50– S51).¯ına¯ concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil 17 (sharr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and “accidental” evilthat (sharr is the bil- leadingʿaraḍ), which cause For ofcan humanmore be on suffering this see Abdol and that Rahman the total Ibn amountKhaldūn, of Muqaddimah good in the of universe Ibn Khaldūn outweighs (Ibn Khaldūn 1375). 18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see , The either being or privation. In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is thethe non amount-essential/accidental of evil.25 Mull evila¯ Sadra,¯ on the other hand, extensively developed this philosophical Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). that is the leading cause of human suffering and that the total amountapproach of good by an in interest the universe in combining theology with mystical insight. This approach, according to outweighs the amount of evil. 25 Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this 26 Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics. In Mulla¯ philosophical approach by an interest in combining theology with mysticalSadra’s¯ insight. view, explained This approach, in his major work called Mafatih¯ Al-ghayb, absolute existence is absolute good according to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertainsand sinceto Islamic God ismetaphysics. the only Necessary26 Being, He is the absolute good: perfection applies only to the

19 For a great discussion on the Muʿtazilite’s view on pain and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000). For an extensive 19 For a great discussion on the Mu tazilite’s view on pain and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000). For an extensive study study on the notion of disability in Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability:on the notion Perspectives of disability in Theology in Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology and Jurisprudence and Jurisprudence (Ghaly 2010). (Ghaly 2010). 20 20 See Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). See Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 21 For more on his philosophy, see Ibn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes,(Averroes 1921). 21 For more on his philosophy, see Ibn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes 22 For more on theory of acquisition, see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 1921). 23 See (Mutahhari 1385, pp. 50–51). 22 For more on theory of acquisition, see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson24 For 1976). more on ontological aspects of good and evil, see , Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present 23 See (Mutahhari 1385, pp. 50–51). (Nasr 2006, pp. 65–68). 25 24 For more on ontological aspects of good and evil, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, IslamicFor more Philosophy on Ibn S from¯ına’s¯ theodicy,Its Origin see Shams C. Inati, The Problem of Evil: Ibn Sina’s Theodicy (Inati 2000). 26 See Sajjad Rizvi, ‘Mulla Sadra’, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Rizvi 2009). to the Present (Nasr 2006, pp. 65–68). 25 For more on Ibn Sīnā’s theodicy, see Shams C. Inati, The Problem of Evil: Ibn Sina's Theodicy (Inati 2000). 26 See Sajjad Rizvi, 'Mulla Sadra', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Rizvi 2009).

Religions 2018, 9, 47 6 of 13

Necessary Being. Thus, the rest of creation—all contingent entities—lacks certain degrees of goodness; that is, evil and suffering are partial and negative.27 It may be concluded that Muslim philosophers28 have mostly referred to evil as privatio boni “privation of good,” which in turn provides a strong rationale for the doctrine of the optimum (al-as.lah. ). According to this , this world, regardless of the existence of evil and human suffering, has been created in perfect fashion by its Creator who is the Perfect One. Therefore, the amount of evil and human suffering is inconsequential in relation to the volume of good that is inherent in the makeup of creation.

5. Evil and “The Best of All Possible Worlds”: Ghazalian¯ Theodicy As discussed previously, the instrumentality of human suffering—purposefulness and the greater good that it brings—is emphasized in the Qur’an and is also at the core of the Muslim theological and philosophical discourse. However, the practical and more tangible aspect of this theory becomes highly observable in the teachings of one of the most influential intellectuals of Islam, namely, Abu¯ H. amid¯ Religionsal-Ghaz 2018al¯ ¯ı, (1058–1111).9, x FOR PEER REVIEW Al-Ghaz al¯ ¯ı’s significant impact on advancing Muslim scholastic thought5 of 13 is the reason he is often referred to as “the of Islam” (H. ujjat al-Islam). It is, however, his personal ofexperience instrumentality with suffering of human and, suffering by extension, in the divine his powerful plan. The statement notion of regarding suffering, the which creation included of the undeservedworld—“there suffering is not in bypossibility children anything and animals, more wonderful continued than to what be discussed is” (laysa fi’l-imk by thean¯ abda Muʿtazilitemimma¯ theologians.kan¯ )—that is19 ofThe special Muʿtazilite interest’s infirm this stress article. on God’s justice, however, resulted in the group dividing, whichThrough finally gave a rigorous birth to education the Ashʾarite in theology school of andthought. jurisprudence, as well as Qur’anic and (propheticAccording traditions) to Ash studies,ʾarite theologians, al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı’s God’s extraordinary law of justice abilities applies flourished only to human at a relatively beings youngwho have age beenand earnedobligated him to aact professorship according to positionHis laws. at Applying one of the the most idea distinguished of justice to God, academic however, settings will put of his a limittime, on namely, an all-powerful Niz.am¯ ¯ıyah creator College; therefore, in . God is However, not bound at by the His peak own of laws his career,. He is notwithstandingjust in whatever Hegreat does. achievements 20 Applied andto suffering, recognition, this al-Ghaz then meansal¯ ¯ı became that all doubtful harm encountered of the authenticity by man of is his fair theoretical as it has beenreligious willed by God who and resignedis just in fromall His his creation. position The to pursue Ashʾarite a more thinkers interior were path in of sharp piety. conflict In Bowker’s with theview, Mu al-Ghazʿtaziliteal¯s¯ı who felt that asserted his religious that not knowledge only is God about subjected God and to the the same ability rules to describe of justice Him but with that, such in fact,articulacy the obligation was worthless to act in if just it did means not bring is eternal him and into uncompromising a direct experience for of God. God. It29 is worth noting that a prominentIn his spiritualMuslim p autobiographyhilosopher, Ibn Rushdal-Munqidh (Averroes, min al- d.d. 1198),alal¯ (Deliverance challenged these from views Error), and al-Ghaz assertedal¯ ¯ı thatdescribes the element his intellectual of justice may and not emotional be employed challenges for God that and ultimately man in the resulted same manner: in a major man, by virtue in his oflife. being After just, examining advances possibleto a higher ways level by of which goodness; a deep God, religious however, knowledge is just due and to conventionHis perfection that— isa traitfree that from requires doubt may Him be to attained, be just.21 he affirmed that the mystic path of life where knowledge of God is groundedIn the final in direct analysis, mystical mainstream experience Sunnite was thetheologians way he hadsupported to peruse. the Ash However,ʾarite school in preparation of thought to andtravel emphasized on this path, that he needed God creates to disengage all acts. from In order all worldly to reconcile attachments: God’s the omnipotence prestigious withprofessorship human responsibility,position, family, the and doctrine wealth, of which acquisition in actuality (kasb proved) was adopted: to be much God more creates difficult. all acts; This humans inner struggle freely acquirelasted more certain than acts six and months, therefore until, heare was accountable faced with for a serious the acquisition illness—inability of good to and speak, evil acts.eat, or22 Conversely,drink—that Muslimcaused him thinkers afflictions belonging and much to the suffering. Shiʾite branch In fact, of it Islamwas through—through months the influence of hardship of rationaland suffering element due in to the unexpected Muʿtazilite physical theology and— spiritualremained crises in disagreement that al-Ghaz al¯ with¯ı transformed the Ashʿari internally,tes. An exampleleaving all of of this his may possessions be observed and departing from the to writings of an where eminent he spent Persian two yearsphilosopher, in contemplation Morteza Muandṭahhar prayerī (d. in search1979), who of certitude was of andthe opinion a personal that experience the Ashʾarite of God outlook, that was while free aimed from doubtfulness.at vindicating30 God fromThe positiveinjustice, impact resulted of in al-Ghaz exoneratingal¯ ¯ı’s encounter human oppressors with his severeof any wrongdoing illness, which.23 endangered his physicalFrom and the Muslim mental wellness,philosophical appears perspective, in accord the with notion the of optimistic good and portrayalevil is enclosed of hardship within andthe wider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam). Briefly put, good is defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from 24 nonexistence27 For an excellent and commentary as such on is Mull vieweda¯ Sadra’s¯ asmagnum a negative opus, Asfar¯ , entity. see (Rahman An 1975 example). of the ontological interpretation28 As mentioned of previously, what constitutes Ibn Rushd (Averroës, good and d. 1198) evil is consideredmay be seen as one from of the mostthe worksinfluential of Muslim two prominent philosophers. MuslimWhile philosophers he was greatly influenced who significantly by Ibn Sina, heinfluenced made a considerable the shaping effort of to Muslim highlight ’sphilosophical original thought: roots in Islamic Ibn philosophy, and remove the Neo- influence that had entered years later. Several centuries later, Mulla¯ Sadra¯ Sīnābecame, known known as asAvicenna the Shiite philosopher(d. 1037), whoand added Sadr a al mystical-Din Shirāzī layer to philosophical, who was andmostly theological recognized debates. Foras moreMullā on Sadrāthe (d. development 1636). of Islamic philosophy, see (Nasr 2006). 29 See John Bowker, The Religious Imagination and the of God (Bowker 1978, p. 195). 30 Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as “essential” evil See Abu¯ H. amid¯ Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı, Al-Munqidh Min Al-Dalal, Deliverance from Error (Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı 2006, pp. 52–55). (sharr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and “accidental” evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be either being or privation. In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil that is the leading cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe outweighs the amount of evil. 25 Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this philosophical approach by an interest in combining theology with mystical insight. This approach, according to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics.26

19 For a great discussion on the Muʿtazilite’s view on pain and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000). For an extensive study on the notion of disability in Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology and Jurisprudence (Ghaly 2010). 20 See Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 21 For more on his philosophy, see Ibn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes 1921). 22 For more on theory of acquisition, see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 23 See (Mutahhari 1385, pp. 50–51). 24 For more on ontological aspects of good and evil, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present (Nasr 2006, pp. 65–68). 25 For more on Ibn Sīnā’s theodicy, see Shams C. Inati, The Problem of Evil: Ibn Sina's Theodicy (Inati 2000). 26 See Sajjad Rizvi, 'Mulla Sadra', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Rizvi 2009).

Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job’s incomparable sincerity and submission to God’s will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons the Qur’an portrays him as “an excellent servant.”14 According to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormous fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble as a servant who lacked ownership of his belongings. Similarly, when God tested him with a serious disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test—a positive experience—and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan.15 Religions 2018, 9, 47 The Qur’anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests7— ofwhethe 13 r in prosperity and health or illness and hardship—are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and suffering presented in the Qur’an.31 For al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı, this apparent negative experience proved, in propagate his mission on this earth. As John notes, “the story of Job in the Qur’an is understood fact, to be positive and instrumental in the actualization of his intellectual and spiritual potentialities. primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible.”16 As already mentioned, during his professorship in Baghdad, al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı contributed greatly to shaping a variety of Muslim .32 Still, the practical implications of much of his teachings, particularly 4. Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development the relationship between theological and mystical discourses, are clearly articulated in his writings Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW following his departure and theOne years of the he spentearliest5 of in13 problems seclusion. in As Muslim Zarrink ub¯theological pointed out, thought the authenticity (kalām) was how to reconcile the of religious knowledge thatdivine al-Ghaz attributeal¯ ¯ı pursued of omnipotence through rational with the deductions notion of for human much free of his will. life The bore departure point for this of instrumentality of human suffering in the divinefruit plan. after The his notion illness of andsuffering,discourse major which mystical was theincluded experience.Qur’an and33 theThe diverse reflections interpretations of al-Ghaz ofal¯ ¯ı’sits renewalteachings are on the divine names and 17 undeserved suffering by children and animals, continuedpresented in to his bemagnum discusseda opusttributes bycalled the (asmāI h. Muya¯ʾ alʿtaziliteul-ḥum¯usn al-dinā ). The(“The reconciliation Revival of the of Religious certain Sciences divine ”),attributes, composed predominantly the aspect theologians.19 The Muʿtazilite’s firm stress on God’s duringjustice, thehowever, next decade resulted ofof hisinan the life.all -grouppowerful In this dividing major God work,,, with al-Ghazthe ideaal¯ ¯ıof illustrated human free through will— athe highly broader detailed frame with which human which finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite school of thought.elucidation of personal religioussuffering experienceswas enclosed ways—was by the which first a attempt profound to innerinitiate life a theodicy may be integrated within the context of Islam. According to Ashʾarite theologians, God’s law ofwith justice sound applies theological only to doctrines.humanThe beings discourse34 who presents have itself at the core of the theological dialogue amongst various groups. The been obligated to act according to His laws. Applying theThe idea reflection of justice ofto God, thistheologians worldviewhowever, who will and advocated put much a offor what the attribute may be of called omnipotence Ghazalian¯ in theodicyits absolute is and uncompromising limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, God is notencapsulated bound by His in own his famouslawsform. He dictumwere is just of in ofthe whatever the opinion best ofthat all the possible only agent worlds: in this “There world is is not God: in possibilityHe creates His own acts as well as He does. 20 Applied to suffering, this then means thatanything all harm more encountered wonderfulthe by than acts man what of is all fair is” human (aslaysa it hasbeings. fi’l-imk an¯ As abda this mimmview raiseda¯ kan¯ ). serious The statement concerns presents about itselfthe creation of “evil” acts by been willed by God who is just in all His creation. Thein BookAshʾarite 35 of thinkers the Ih. ya¯ wereulGod,um¯ in al-din:thesharp debate Kitconflictab¯ developed al-tawh with¯ıd wa’ further l- to question, Divine the Unity validity and Trust of human in God: free will—the concept that is the Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is God subjected to the same rulesdeeply of justice rooted but in thethat, Quran in as it relates to man’s responsibility and accountability, as well as divine fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternal and uncompromisingEverythingthat for God. Godjudgment distributesIt is worth and noting among reward that men and such punishment. as sustenance, The dialogue life-span ‘crystallizedajal’, happiness between the Muʿtazilite and the a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d.and 1198), sadness, challenged weakness Ashtheseʿarite, andviews power,the and two asserted faith main and schools unbelief, of thought obedience, with and a —alldivergence of ofopinion it is ; both made a serious effort that the element of justice may not be employed for God andunqualifiedly man in the same justto with manner: win no the injustice man, argument by invirtue it,according true with to no their wrong understanding infecting it. of Indeed, the Qur’an. all this18 of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God,happens however, according is just due to to aThe necessaryHis Mu perfectionʿtazilite and school— truea order, of thought, according also toknown what as is the appropriate rationalists, as itcategorically opposed the idea trait that requires Him to be just.21 is appropriate andthat in theGod measure creates human that is proper acts that to include it; nor is evil anything and advocated more fitting, for human more free will by emphasizing the In the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologiansperfect, supported and the more Ashimportance attractiveʾarite school within of of the thought the divine realm attribute of possibility. of justice For ( ifʿadl something). They upheld was to that exist God, in accordance with His and emphasized that God creates all acts. In order to reconcileand remind God’s one omnipotenceofattribute the sheer of omnipotence ( withʿāadil human), cannot of Godcreate and evil not and of thethat good evil is things the direct accomplished result of man’s freedom of choice. This responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted:by His God action, creates it wouldview all beacts; was miserliness humans challenged thatfreely utterlyby raising contradicts questions God’s such generosity as: If God and injustice does not create evil, who, then, is acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable forcontrary the acquisition to divine of justice.responsible good And and for if evil God human acts. were suffering22 not omnipotent, caused by He illnesses would be and impotent, disasters? thereby And if God wills for illnesses and 35 Conversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branchcontradicting of Islam the—through naturedisasters of the divinity.in human influence life, of how can He be just? The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnesses rational element in the Muʿtazilite theology—remainedAlthough in disagreement a critical and withanalysis disasters, the of Ash al-Ghazʿ whilearites.al¯ may¯ı’s An statement appear as is “evil”, beyond are the in scope actuality of this “good” paper, that it should God creates and that serve a example of this may be observed from the writingsbe ofmentioned an eminent that Persian he receivedsignificant philosopher, much purpose criticism Morteza in fromthe creational his opponents cosmic since plan. taking This thisseems position—it to be the first is not appearance of the theory Muṭahharī (d. 1979), who was of the opinion that thepossible Ashʾarite for Godoutlook, to create while a betteraimed world—is at vindicating in conflict with the Ash arite theological teachings relating 23 God from injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressorsto God’s omnipotence. of any wrongdoing36 However,. it must be pointed out that the statement is embedded within a 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a From the Muslim philosophical perspective, thebroader notion contextof good of andtawakkul evil is, “trust enclosed in God,” within which the is treated in the Qur’an extensively. In fact, Al-Wak¯ıl, wider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam).dialogue Briefly betweenput, good Job is and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings. A comparative the trustee, is one of the divinestudy attributes of the story that thebetween Qur’an Judeo references₋Christian when tradition it characterizes and Islam is true beyond believers, the scope of this paper. For an defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from that is, those who hold full trustexcellent in God. comparative This concept review, is alsosee A.H. discussed Johns, byA Comparative al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı in Glance his book at Ayyub called in the Qur'an (Johns 2008, nonexistence and as such is viewed as a negative entity. 24 An example of the ontological The Ninety-Nine Beautiful Namespp. 51 of– God82)., ‘al-Mags.ad al-asna¯ f¯ı sharh. ma an¯ ¯ı asma¯ ¯ al-h. usna’¯ , where he interpretation of what constitutes good and evil mayprovides be seen a comprehensive from the works14 discussionQur’an of two 38:41 of prominent– the2 and divine 21:83 – attribute4. of Al-Wak¯ıl, and describes to his audience Muslim philosophers who significantly influenced thehow shaping God, inof HisMuslim , philosophical15 deservesSee Abubakr to thought: have `Tigh NeishaburIbn entrusted Surabadi, to Him.Tafsir37 Surabadi, ed. Sa`Idi Sirjani (Surabadi 1381). Also, see Brannon Sīnā, known as Avicenna (d. 1037), and Sadr al-Din ShirāzīTherefore,, who was while mostly certain M.recognized elements Wheeler, ofProphetsas a Mullā classical in the theodicyQur'an, an are Introduction articulated to the in Qur'an al-Ghaz andal¯ ¯ı’sMuslim maxim Exegesis of (Wheeler 2002). 16 See (Johns 2003, pp. 50–51). Sadrā (d. 1636). “the best of all possible worlds,” one may infer that his objective was to provide practical guidelines to Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil17 such For as more “essential” on this see evil Abdol Rahman Ibn Khaldūn, Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldūn (Ibn Khaldūn 1375). reach a high level of trust18 in God despite the apparent imperfections of the world. Furthermore, prior (sharr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and “accidental” evil (sharr bilFor-ʿara aḍ comprehensive), which can be discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfson, The either being or privation. In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidentalPhilosopy of Kalam (Wolfson evil 1976). that is the leading cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe 31 For example, Quran, 2:216, “ ... you may dislike something although it is good for you, or like something although it is bad outweighs the amount of evil. 25 Mullā Sadrā, on thefor you: other God hand, knows and extensively you don’t.” developed this philosophical approach by an interest in combining32 theologyFor a comprehensive with mystical study insight. on al-Ghaz Thisal¯ ¯ı’s approach, thoughts, see Frank Griffel, Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı’s (Griffel 2009). The Companion to Arabic Also see Michael E. Marmura, ‘Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı’, in Peter Adamson26 and Richard Taylor (ed.), according to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existencePhilosophy as(Marmura it pertains 2005 to). Islamic metaphysics. 33 See Abdolhusin Zarrinkub, Farar Az Madrasah - Life and Teachings of Al-Ghazali (Zarrinkub 1387, p. 124). 34 For more on this, see (Watt 2007). 35 See (Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı 2001, pp. 45–46). 19 For a great discussion on the Muʿtazilite’s view on pain36 andFor suffering a detailed see discussion (Heemskerk on al-Ghaz 2000).al¯ ¯ı’sFor statement, an extensive see ( Ormsby 1984). It should be noted that several centuries later this study on the notion of disability in Islam, see Mohammedstatement Ghaly, Islam was raisedand Disability: by Leibnitz Perspectives in the context in Theology of a consistent theodicy. Also see (Kermani 2011, p. 58). 37 and Jurisprudence (Ghaly 2010). See (Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı 1992, pp. 375–76). 20 See Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 21 For more on his philosophy, see Ibn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes 1921). 22 For more on theory of acquisition, see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 23 See (Mutahhari 1385, pp. 50–51). 24 For more on ontological aspects of good and evil, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present (Nasr 2006, pp. 65–68). 25 For more on Ibn Sīnā’s theodicy, see Shams C. Inati, The Problem of Evil: Ibn Sina's Theodicy (Inati 2000). 26 See Sajjad Rizvi, 'Mulla Sadra', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Rizvi 2009).

Religions 2018, 9, 47 8 of 13 to making the aforementioned statement about the perfectness of the world, al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı engages in an in-depth discussion on the divine attributes of “” and “will” to highlight their connection, as well as the importance of viewing the world as the most excellent work of the Creator. From the Ghazalian¯ perspective, the signs of God’s will and wisdom are plentifully evident throughout His creation. Consequently, in order to fully trust in God that this world—including all of its seeming deficiencies—is the best of all possible worlds, one must be able to genuinely believe that the creation of the universe is planned and premeditated according to God’s will and wisdom. It should also be mentioned that this level of trust, tawakkul, is one of the highest stations in the mystic path and plays a significant role in man’s spiritual development. As it may be inferred from the above discussion, al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı’s theodicy is established on a strong relationship between man and God and the need to reach an elevated level of trust in God in the face of the world’s imperfections, adversities, and suffering. Nevertheless, it is in the teachings of Jalal¯ al-D¯ın Rum¯ ¯ı, one of the most prominent thinkers of Islam as well as a mystic and Sufi poet, where the comprehensive elucidations of the constructive aspects of hardship and suffering in man’s spiritual development come to light.38

6. Evil from the Muslim Mystical Perspective: Jalal¯ al-Dın¯ Rum¯ ı¯ The mystical dimension of Islam, similar to other forms of religious mysticism discussed in ,39 deals with the esoteric teachings of Islam and is traditionally represented by Sufism. Although the development of Sufism may be traced back to a century after the death of prophet Muhammad, the roots of its teachings go back to the Qur’an and the Sunna (normative behavior) of the prophet where contemplating on the spiritual of the universe is highly encouraged. That the external (z. ahir¯ ) practices of Islam should guide to insight and inner realities (ba¯.tin) may be understood 40 from the Qur’an where God is presented as both the Outward (al-z. ahir¯ ) and the Inward (al-ba¯.tin). Although the focus of Sufism is on the esoteric path (tar¯ıqah) in order to reach a state of union with God, the doctrines and practices of the Sufi path are, nevertheless, founded on the exoteric framework specified in Islamic law (shar¯ı’ah).41 One of the most influential Sufis of Islam is Jalal¯ al-D¯ın Rum¯ ¯ı (1207–1273) who is known in the West for his mystical . Rum¯ ¯ı was born in , the Persian province of Khoras¯ an,¯ and received a high level of education under his father who was a distinguished jurisprudent and Sufi, as well as a formal trainee to the mastery level in Sufism from one of the most well-known Sufi masters of the , Burhan¯ al-Din Tirmidh¯ı. Being educated in the traditional religious sciences in addition to Sufism gained him widespread recognition as a religious scholar and influential in both exoteric and esoteric teachings of Islam. In Shafiei Kadkani’s opinion, Rum¯ ¯ı is considered as one of the greatest intellectuals of the world mainly because of his extraordinary ability to engage with the mystical interpretation of some of the most difficult theological concepts, as well as their exposition in a poetic and inspirational language.42 Although Rum¯ ¯ı’s mystical elucidations are presented in much of his work, it is, however, his magnum opus, the Mathnaw¯ı that illuminates the mystical elements of the Qur’anic teachings, and is regarded as an esoteric commentary of the Qur’an.43 In what follows, I will

38 It is important to note that al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı’s mystical teachings have greatly influenced Rum¯ ¯ı’s worldview. However, while the former emphasized more on God’s majesty, the latter established his teachings more on the notion of God’s love. For more on the mystical views of al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı and Rum¯ ¯ı, see (Soroush 1379, pp. 33–37). 39 Perennial Philosophy takes a approach in explaining the teachings of world religions, and brings to light a shared mystical vision among them. Viewed from this perspective, world religions and spiritual traditions, despite their cultural and historical differences, promote a deep understanding of the transcendent element, the , which exists in the universe. For more on this, see (Huxley 2009, p. vii). 40 Qur’an: 57:3, “He is the First and the Last; the Outer and the Inner: He has the knowledge of all things.” 41 For a comprehensive discussion about Islamic mysticism, see (Schimmel 1975). Also, see (Nasr 1987). 42 See (Shafiei Kadkani 1388, p. 2). 43 For more on the influence of the Qur’an in shaping ’s worldview, see (Zarrinkub 1388, p. 342). Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job’s incomparable sincerity and submission to God’s will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons the Qur’an portrays him as “an excellent servant.”14 According to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormous fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble as a servant who lacked ownership of his belongings. Similarly, when God tested him with a serious disease, he exercised patience and recognized that he was going through a test—a positive experience—and ascribed any negative feelings of despair to Satan.15 The Qur’anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests—whether in prosperity and health or illness and hardship—are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and propagate his mission on this earth. As John notes, “the story of Job in the Qur’an is understood primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible.”16 Religions 2018, 9, 47 9 of 13 4. Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development attempt to summarizeOne of the Rearliestum¯ ¯ı’s expositionsproblems in on Muslim the notion theological of evil and thought human (kalām suffering) was ashow presented to reconcile in the the Mathnawdivine¯ı . attribute of omnipotence with the notion of human free will. The departure point for this Indiscourse Rum¯ ¯ı’s worldview, was the Qur’an the multiplicity and the diverse that exists interpretations in this world of its is theteachings effect of on the the manifestation divine names and of God’sattributes names ( asmāasma¯ʾ )al and-ḥusn attributesā).17 The (reconciliationsifat¯ ) that aim of to certain reveal d Hisivine creative attributes, power. predominantly In other words, the aspect while theof an form all (-s.powerfulurat¯ ) of the God created, with entities the idea is varied,of human their free meaning will— (mathe nbroadera¯), nevertheless, frame with is indicative which human of Onesuffering Reality.44 wasRum¯ enclosed¯ı further— expandswas the first the attempt distinction to initiate between a theodicy form and within meaning the context to demonstrate of Islam. that while manThe discourse appears to presents be a being itself among at the othercore of beings the theological in the universe, dialogue the amongst universe various is, in fact, groups. in The man: “theologians... in form who thou advocated the microcosm, for the attribute in reality of thou omnipotence art the macrocosm.” in its absolute45 He and also uncompromising identifies man asform the “fruit”were of of the creation opinion and that uses the theonly agent in of this a tree world todescribe is God: He this creates highly His elevated own acts status: as well as “The onlythe acts reason of all that human the gardener beings. As this view a tree raised is for serious the sake concerns of the fruit.about Manthe creation is the goal of “evil” of the acts by creation;God, therefore, the debate he is developed the last creature further that to question comes into the existence; validity yet,of human in reality, free he wi isll— thethe first.” concept46 that is Thedeeply creation rooted of in Adam, the Quran as the as exemplarit relates to of man’s humankind responsibility in his ultimateand accountability closeness, toas God,well as is divine postulatedjudgment at the and center reward of Rum¯ and¯ı’s teachingspunishment. as it The relates dialogue to the positivecrystallized impact between of trials the and Mu tribulationsʿtazilite and the in man’sAsh spiritualʿarite, the development. two main schools According of thought to Rum¯, with¯ı, the a divergence Qur’anic notion of opinion of the; both “knowledge made a serious of the effort names,”to47 wintaught the argument to Adam uponaccording his creation, to their revealsunderstanding that humankind of the Qur’an. has the18 capacity to become the perfect mirrorThe where Muʿtazilite God’s school names of and thought, attributes also mayknown be as manifested. the rationalists, The knowledge categorically of opposed the names, the idea Rum¯ ¯ı informsthat God us, creates is not human the external acts that names include of theevil created and advocated beings; rather,for human it is free the mysterieswill by emphasizing and the the inner meaningsimportance of of the the various divine elements attribute within of justice the creation(ʿadl). They of the upheld . that Man’s God, responsibility in accordance is with to His live inattribute accordance of with(ʿāadil his), cannot inner nature create (evilfitra )and and that recognize evil is the that direct actualization result of of man’s his potential freedom is of doable choice. This by hisview own volition, was challenged as well as by the raising ability to questions differentiate such between as: If “form” God does and not “meaning”: create evil, to search who, for then, is the truthresponsible behind the for veils. human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters? And if God wills for illnesses and Fromdisasters the R inum¯ human¯ıan perspective, life, how can the He most be importantjust? The Mu phaseʿtazilite in man’ss responded spiritual by development affirming that is toillnesses get to knowand disasters, one’s self, while self-knowledge may appear (ma’rifatas “evil”, al- are in), andactuality ultimately “good” to that recognize God creates that he and has that been serve a separatedsignificant from his purpose original in Source the creational (as.l). By cosmic employing plan. the This analogy seems ofto abe “reed,” the first R um¯appearance¯ı explicates of thatthe theory this separation is the primary cause for humankind’s unhappiness in this life.48 Man tends to forget his divine origin and occupies himself with the worldly attainments; therefore, in order to awaken 13 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a him from the state of negligence, he will be faced with adversities and sufferings. In other words, dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings. A comparative trials and tribulations are necessary as they assist man in self-purification (tazkiyat al-nafs), freeing him study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper. For an from materialexcellent attachments comparative and review, the inclinations see A.H. Johns, of his A Comparative ego. Rum¯ ¯ı expoundsGlance at Ayyub upon in prophet the Qur'an ’s (Johns 2008, experiencepp. to describe51–82). the constructiveness of trials; Joseph’s enslavement, as difficult as it was, freed him from14 slaveryQur’an 38:41 to other–2 and creatures 21:83–4. so that he could become God’s slave alone.49 Furthermore, in Rum¯ ¯ı’s15 scheme, See Abubakr when a`Tigh person Neishabur is faced Surabadi, with a negative Tafsir Surabadibala¯,, for ed. example, Sa`Idi Sirjani a serious (Surabadi illness, 1381). his Also, attitude see Brannon and responseM. Wheeler, towards Prophets his condition in the Qur'an, are of an primary Introduction importance. to the Qur'an The and person Muslim whoseExegesis goal (Wheeler in life 2002). is to satisfy16 the See inclinations (Johns 2003, of hispp. animal50–51). self will complain and bring to question the justice of God. On the 17 other hand, For a more person on whosethis see goalAbdol is Rahman to purify Ibn the Khaldūn, self (nafs Muqaddimah), to go up of theIbn Khaldūn spiritual (Ibn ladder, Khaldūn will 1375) find. a 18 For a comprehensive discussion on development of theology in Islam, see Harry Austryn Wolfson, The deeper meaning in learning the lessons hidden within this experience.50 Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). As it was alluded to previously, from the Qur’anic perspective, man’s entire life on earth, in “good” (khayr) and “bad” (sharr), is viewed as a trial and a test; the purpose is to grant him the opportunity to flourish his inner potential by exercising freedom of choice (ı˛khtiar¯ ) and to strive to find ways to return to his source. As Rum¯ ¯ı explains, mankind has the tendency to forget God in two situations: when he is granted wealth and during good health.

44 See (Rumi 1926, VI:3172, 83). 45 Ibid., IV:521. 46 Ibid., III:1128–29. 47 Qur’an: 2:30–37. 48 See (Rumi 1926, I:1–2; 3; and 11). 49 See (Renard 1994). 50 See (Rumi 1926, III:682–68). For more on this, see (Zamani 1384). Religions 2018, 9, 47 10 of 13

Between God and His servant are just two veils and all other veils manifest out of these: they are health and wealth. The man who is well in body says, ‘Where is God? I do not know and I do not see.’ As soon as pain afflicts him he begins to say, ‘O God! O God!’, communing and conversing with God. So you see that health was his veil and God was hidden under that pain. As much as man has wealth and resources, he procures the means to gratify his desires and is preoccupied during the night and day with that. The moment indigence appears, his ego is weakened and he goes round about God.51

Rum¯ ¯ı further invites his reader to ponder about of afflictions when his prayer in ending the suffering appears not to have been granted by God, and to recognize and appreciate that this is more beneficial for him: the longer the duration of the hardship, the longer he remains in this state of immanence to God.52 Also, as Chittick observes, in Rum¯ ¯ı’s view, “if a person tries to flee from suffering through various stratagems, he is, in fact, fleeing God. The only way to flee from suffering is to seek refuge from one’s own ego with God.”53 Moreover, another positive impact of adversity and sorrow is that it transforms and purifies human character.

When someone beats a rug with a stick, he is not beating the rug; his aim is to get rid of the dust. Your inward is full of dust from the veil of I-ness and that dust will not leave all at once.54

Finally, before closing the discussion on Rum¯ ¯ı’s teachings, it should be pointed out that in his elucidations on the fruitfulness of hardships in man’s life, Rum¯ ¯ı also provides practical guidelines that can be put to practice when one is faced with adversities. In an effort to benefit from spiritual growth, as well as overcome suffering without going into despair, Rum¯ ¯ı explicates two critical aspects of being a Muslim, namely, the Qur’anic of patience (s.abr) and trust in God (tawakkul). As trusting God is at the core of al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı’s teachings and has already been discussed in conjunction with the “best of all ” statement, we will now turn to a brief discussion on the concept of patience from the Rum¯ ¯ıan perspective. In his explications of man’s condition on this earth, Rum¯ ¯ı frequently sheds light on the virtue of patience. Nevertheless, it is in the parable of the “chickpea,” one of the most well-known stories of the Mathnaw¯ı, where the importance of patience in the face of suffering fully comes to light. The story is about a fictional dialogue between a housewife and a chickpea that is being cooked as part of a meal. Similar to man at the time of his encounter with affliction, the chickpea complains to the housewife for cooking it in boiling water and it tries to escape by constantly jumping out of the pot. Finally, on realizing that it is not able to relieve itself from its misery, it desperately pleads with the housewife to take it out of the boiling water. The housewife then comes into a conversation to console the chickpea and help it learn that patiently enduring suffering is needed for its growth.

At the time of being boiled, the chickpea comes up continually to the top of the pot and raises a hundred cries, Saying, ‘Why are you setting the fire on me? Since you bought me, how are you turning me upside down?’ The housewife goes on hitting it with the ladle. ‘No!’ says she: ‘boil nicely and don’t jump away from the one who makes the fire.’ I do not boil you because you are hateful to me; nay, ‘tis that you may get taste; this affliction of yours is not on account of you being despised.’ Continue, O chickpea, to boil in tribulation, that neither existence nor self may remain

51 See (Rumi 2004, p. 240). 52 See (Rumi 1926, VI:4222–26). 53 See (Chittick 1983, p. 238). 54 See (Rumi 1379). Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 4 of 13

when afflicted with illness and adversity.13 Job’s incomparable sincerity and submission to God’s will in both health and prosperity, as well as during affliction and hardship, are the reasons the 14 Religions 2018, 9, 47 Qur’an portrays him as “an excellent servant.” 11 of 13 According to Muslim exegesis, what distinguishes Job is the fact that despite his enormous fortune, he continually attributed the source of his blessings to God and remained humble as a to thee. servant who lacked ownership of his belongings. Similarly, when God tested him with a serious The chickpea said,disease, ‘since it heis so, exercised O lady, I patiencewill gladly and boil: recognized give me help that in heverity! was going through a test—a positive In this boiling thouexperience art, as it— were,and myascribed architect: any negative smite me feeling with thes of skimming-spoon, despair to Satan.15 for 55 thou smites very delightfully.’The Qur’anic narrative about Job demonstrates that trials and tests—whether in prosperity and health or illness and hardship—are part of the divine plan, so much so that even prophets are not Recapitulating Rum¯ ¯ı’s thought as presented in the final verse of the chickpea story, when man exempt; it is through various experiences in life that man is able to actualize his potential and journeys in the mystic path and is able to attain the state of inner (riza¯) during times of propagate his mission on this earth. As John notes, “the story of Job in the Qur’an is understood suffering, he has truly submitted to of God—has become a Muslim. Consequently, in patiently primarily as a reward narrative with an emphasis different from that of the story of Job in the Bible.”16 enduring suffering, as well as trusting in God and the overall goodness of His creation, man will be able to overcome the anguish and move up the spiritual ladder to reach nearness with God. It should 4. Concept of Evil: Theological and Philosophical Development also be mentioned that in Rum¯ ¯ı’s mystical path, plays a significant role in the process of man’s spiritual growth. As manOne of is remindedthe earliest of problems his separation in Muslim from histheological Source (a thoughts.l), the love(kalām of) thewas how to reconcile the Beloved is the means bydivine which heattribute will be of able omnipotence to endure the with most the difficult notion times, of human knowing free that will. through The departure point for this God’s love he has the potentialdiscourse to was reach the the Qur’an elevated and statethe diverse of riza¯—what interpretations the Qur’an of its refers teachings to as the on the divine names and 17 56 highest state of tranquilityattributes (‘nafs mut (asmā.maʾ inna’al-ḥusn)—whereā). The man reconciliation is pleased withof certain his Lord. divine attributes, predominantly the aspect of an all-powerful God, with the idea of human free will—the broader frame with which human 7. Conclusions suffering was enclosed—was the first attempt to initiate a theodicy within the context of Islam. The notion of evil and humanThe discourse suffering presents is not portrayed itself at the in the core Islamic of the revelation theological as dialogue a “problem” amongst to various groups. The be resolved but rather astheologians part of the human who advocated experience. for Therefore, the attribute since of the omnipotence Qur’an does in not its engage absolute its and uncompromising readers in abstract ideasform and theologicalwere of the discussionsopinion that about the only evil, agent the formulation in this world of ais classical God: He theodicy creates His own acts as well as is not presented. Most ofthe the acts Qur’anic of all human verses beings. on adversity As this and view suffering raised serious suggest concerns that human about beings, the creation of “evil” acts by including prophets, willGod, be testedthe debate by difficult developed times. further The ontological to question nature the validity of evil of is human referred free to aswill—the concept that is nonexistence and privationdeeply of goodrooted by in Muslim the Quran philosophers, as it relates while to man’s the theologiansresponsibility attribute and accountability evil to , as well as divine man’s conduct. The Muslimjudgment mystical and literaturereward and as presentedpunishment. in theThe teachings dialogueof crystallized Rum¯ ¯ı demonstrates between the Muʿtazilite and the that trials in adversitiesAsh areʿ necessaryarite, the two to remove main schools man from of t thehought state, with of negligence a divergence in order of opinion for him; both to made a serious effort 18 realize his divine sourceto and win to the choose argument to set forthaccording on a spiritual to their journey.understanding In this mysticof the Qur’an. path, exercising patience, trusting God, as wellThe as lovingMuʿtazilite God, school are essential of thought, in assisting also known man reach as the the rationalists, state of tranquility. categorically opposed the idea Along the path, man, asthat the fruitGod ofcreates the creation, human acts will that be able include to actualize evil and the advocated potentialities for human of his innerfree will by emphasizing the nature and purify his soulimportance to become of a the perfect divine mirror attribute in manifesting of justice God’s(ʿadl). namesThey upheld and attributes. that God, in accordance with His attribute of (ʿāadil), cannot create evil and that evil is the direct result of man’s freedom of choice. This Conflicts of Interest: The authorsview was declare challenged no conflict by of interest. raising questions such as: If God does not create evil, who, then, is responsible for human suffering caused by illnesses and disasters? And if God wills for illnesses and References disasters in human life, how can He be just? The Muʿtazilites responded by affirming that illnesses ReligionsAverroes, 2018 Ibn, 9, x Rushd.FOR PEER 1921. REVIEWandThe disasters,Philosophy while and Theology may appear of Averroes as “evil”,. Translated are in by actuality Mohammad “good” Jamil that Rehman.5 ofGod 13 creates and that serve a Lexington: ForgottenBooks.significant purpose in the creational cosmic plan. This seems to be the first appearance of the theory ofAbdel instrumentality Haleem, Muhammad of human A. suffering S. 2004. The in Qur’an, the divine English plan. The notion. New York:of suffering, Oxford University which included Press, US. undeservedAl-Ghazal¯ ¯ı, Ab sufferingu¯ Hamid.¯ by 1992. childrenThe Ninety-Nine and animals, Beautiful continued Names of God, to al-Magbe discussedsad al-Asn bya¯ f¯ı Shar the h MuMaʿtazilitean¯ ¯ı asma¯ . 13 . . 19 The story of Job in Judeo₋Christian traditions is presented in the Book of Job and appears in the form of a theologians.Allah¯ al-H .Theusna ¯Mu. Translatedʿtazilite’ bys firm stress B. Burrell. on God Cambridge:’s justice, however, The Islamic resulted Text Society. in the group dividing, dialogue between Job and his friends who try to explain to him the reason for his sufferings. A comparative whichAl-Ghaz finallyal¯ ¯ı, Ab gaveu¯ H amid.¯birth to 2001. theKit Ashab¯ ʾ al-Tawharite school¯ıd wa’ l-Tawakkul,of thought. Faith in Divine Unity & Trust in Divine Providence. . study of the story between Judeo₋Christian tradition and Islam is beyond the scope of this paper. For an AccordingTranslated to by Ash Davidʾarite Burrell. theologians, Louisville: God’s Fons law Vitae. of justice applies only to human beings who have excellent comparative review, see A.H. Johns, A Comparative Glance at Ayyub in the Qur'an (Johns 2008, Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı, Abu¯ Hamid.¯ 2006. Al-Munqidh min al-Dalal, Deliverance from Error. Translated by R. J. Mccarthy. been obligated to act. accordingpp. to 51 His–82). laws. Applying the idea of justice to God, however, will put a limit onLouisville: an all-powerful Fons Vitae. creator14 Qur’an; therefore, 38:41–2 Godand 21:83 is not–4. bound by His own laws. He is just in whatever HeBowker, does. John.20 Applied 1978. The to Religioussuffering,15 See Imagination Abubakr this then `Tigh and means theNeishabur Sense that of all GodSurabadi, harm. Oxford: encountered Tafsir Oxford Surabadi University by, ed. man Sa` Press.Idiis fairSirjani as (Surabadiit has 1381). Also, see Brannon beenChittick, willed William by God C. who 1983. isThe justM. Sufi inWheeler, all Path His of Prophets creation. Love: The in Thethe Spiritual Qur'an, Ash Teachingsʾarite an Introduction thinkers of Rumi were to. Albany:the inQur'an sharp State and conflict UniversityMuslim with Exegesis of (Wheeler 2002). the MuNewʿtazilite Yorks Press.who asserted16 See that (Johns not 2003,only pp.is God 50–51). subjected to the same rules of justice but that, in fact,Ghaly, the Mohammed.obligation to 2010. act in17Islam justFor and means more Disability: on is eternalthis Perspectives see Abdoland uncompromising inRahman Theology Ibn and Khaldūn, Jurisprudence for God. Muqaddimah It. London:is worth of Ibn . noting Khaldūn that (Ibn Khaldūn 1375). 18 a prominentGriffel, Frank. Muslim 2009. Al-Ghaz philosopher al¯ ¯ı’sFor Philosophical a, Ibn comprehensive Rushd Theology (Averroes, discussion. New York:d. 1198), on Oxford development challenged University ofthese theology Press. views in and Islam, asserted see Harry Austryn Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). that the element of justice may not be employed for God and man in the same manner: man, by virtue of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection—a 55 trait thatSee (Rumi requires 1926, III:4160–64;Him to be 78; just. 97–98).21 56 For more on the notion of love in Rumi’s mysticism, see (Zarrinkub 1388). Also, see (Schimmel 1993). In the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought and emphasized that God creates all acts. In order to reconcile God’s omnipotence with human responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountable for the acquisition of good and evil acts. 22 Conversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the Shiʾite branch of Islam—through the influence of rational element in the Muʿtazilite theology—remained in disagreement with the Ashʿarites. An example of this may be observed from the writings of an eminent Persian philosopher, Morteza Muṭahharī (d. 1979), who was of the opinion that the Ashʾarite outlook, while aimed at vindicating God from injustice, resulted in exonerating human oppressors of any wrongdoing.23 From the Muslim philosophical perspective, the notion of good and evil is enclosed within the wider ontological understanding of existence (wujūd) and nonexistence (ʿadam). Briefly put, good is defined as a positive entity that branches from existence; evil, on the other hand, stems from nonexistence and as such is viewed as a negative entity. 24 An example of the ontological interpretation of what constitutes good and evil may be seen from the works of two prominent Muslim philosophers who significantly influenced the shaping of Muslim philosophical thought: Ibn Sīnā, known as Avicenna (d. 1037), and Sadr al-Din Shirāzī, who was mostly recognized as Mullā Sadrā (d. 1636). Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing the various forms of evil such as “essential” evil (sharr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation, and “accidental” evil (sharr bil-ʿaraḍ), which can be either being or privation. In his analysis, Ibn Sīnā concluded that it is the non-essential/accidental evil that is the leading cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe outweighs the amount of evil. 25 Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this philosophical approach by an interest in combining theology with mystical insight. This approach, according to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics.26

19 For a great discussion on the Muʿtazilite’s view on pain and suffering see (Heemskerk 2000). For an extensive study on the notion of disability in Islam, see Mohammed Ghaly, Islam and Disability: Perspectives in Theology and Jurisprudence (Ghaly 2010). 20 See Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 21 For more on his philosophy, see Ibn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes 1921). 22 For more on theory of acquisition, see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 23 See (Mutahhari 1385, pp. 50–51). 24 For more on ontological aspects of good and evil, see Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islamic Philosophy from Its Origin to the Present (Nasr 2006, pp. 65–68). 25 For more on Ibn Sīnā’s theodicy, see Shams C. Inati, The Problem of Evil: Ibn Sina's Theodicy (Inati 2000). 26 See Sajjad Rizvi, 'Mulla Sadra', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Rizvi 2009).

Religions 2018, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 13 Religions 2018, 9, 47 12 of 13 of instrumentality of human suffering in the divine plan. The notion of suffering, which included undeserved suffering by children and animals,Heemskerk, continued Margaretha to be T. discussed 2000. Suffering by in the The Mu Muʿtazilite Theology: ‘Abd al-Jabbar’s Teachings on Pain and Divine theologians.19 The Muʿtazilite’s firm stress on God’sJustice justice,. London: however, Brill. resulted in the group dividing, which finally gave birth to the Ashʾarite schoolHick, of thought. John. 2004. An Interpretation of Religion. New Haven and London: Press. According to Ashʾarite theologians, God’sHick, law of John. justice 2007. appliesEvil and only the God to human of Love. Newbeings York: who Palgrave have Macmillan. been obligated to act according to His laws. ApplyingHuxley, Aldous. the idea 2009. of justiceThe Perennial to God, Philosophy however,. New will York: put HarperCollins.a limit on an all-powerful creator; therefore, GodIbn is Khaldnot boundun,¯ Abdol by His Rahman. own laws 1375.. HeMuqaddimah is just in ofwhatever Ibn Khald un¯ . Translated by Mohammad P. Ghonabadi. 2 vols. He does. 20 Applied to suffering, this then means thatTehran: all harm Sherkat encountered Elmi Farhangi. by man is fair as it has been willed by God who is just in all His creation.Inati, The Shams Ash C.ʾarite 2000. thinkersThe Problem were of Evil:in sharp Ibn Sina’s conflict Theodicy with. Albany: State University of New York Press. the Muʿtazilites who asserted that not only is Izutsu,God subjected Toshibiko. to 2002. the sameEthico—Religious rules of justice Concepts but in that, the Qur’an in . Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press. fact, the obligation to act in just means is eternalJohns, and Anthonyuncompromising H. 2003. ‘Job’. for InGod.Encyclopedia It is worth of the noting Qur’an that. Edited by Jane Dammen McAuliffe. 3 vols. : a prominent Muslim philosopher, Ibn Rushd (Averroes,Brill, d. pp. 1198), 50–51. challenged these views and asserted that the element of justice may not be employedJohns, for God A. H.and 2008. man ‘A in Comparativethe same manner: Glance man, at Ayyub by virtue in the Qur’an’. In Deconstructing Theodicy. Edited by David Burrell. : Brazos Press, Baker Publishing. of being just, advances to a higher level of goodness; God, however, is just due to His perfection—a Kermani, Navid. 2011. The Terror of God (Original Work in German). Translated by Wieland Hoban. Cambridge: trait that requires Him to be just.21 Polity Press. In the final analysis, mainstream Sunnite theologians supported the Ashʾarite school of thought Mutahhari, Morteza. 1385. ‘Adl-e elahi. : Sadra. and emphasized that God creates all acts. In order to reconcile God’s omnipotence with human Marmura, Michael E. 2005. ‘Al-Ghazal¯ ¯ı’. In The Cambridge Companion to Arabic Philosophy. Edited by Peter Adamson responsibility, the doctrine of acquisition (kasb) was adopted: God creates all acts; humans freely and Richard Taylor. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 22 acquire certain acts and, therefore, are accountableNasr, Seyyed for the Hossein. acquisition 2006. Islamic of good Philosophy and evil from acts. Its Origin to the Present. Albany: State University of Conversely, Muslim thinkers belonging to the ShiNewʾite York branch Press. of Islam—through the influence of rational element in the Muʿtazilite theology—Seyyedremained Hossein in Nasr, disagreement ed. 1987. Islamic with —Foundations the Ashʿarites. An . 2 vols; World Spirituality, 1.; New York: Crossroad. example of this may be observed from the writingsOrmsby, Eric of an L. 1984. eminentTheodicy Persian in Islamic philosopher, Thought: Dispute Morteza over Al-Ghazali’s “Best of All Possible Worlds”. Princeton: Muṭahharī (d. 1979), who was of the opinion that thePrinceton Ashʾarite University outlook, Press. while aimed at vindicating God from injustice, resulted in exonerating humanOzkan, oppressors Tunbar Yesilhark. of any 2015.wrongdoingA Muslim.23 Response to Evil. Said Nursi on Theodicy. London: Ashgate. From the Muslim philosophical perspective,Peterson, the notion Michael of L. good 2011. andThe Problemevil is enclosed of Evil, Selected within Readings the . Notre Dame: . wider ontological understanding of existence Plantinga,(wujūd) and Alvin. nonexistence 1974. God, Freedom,(ʿadam). and Br Eviliefly. Cambridge:put, good is WM. B. Berdmans. defined as a positive entity that branches fromRahman, existence; Fazlur. 1975. evil, The on Philosophy the other of hand,Mulla Sadra stems. Albany: from State University of NY Press. nonexistence and as such is viewed as a Renard, negative John. entity. 1994.24 AnAll the example King’s Falcons, of the Rumi ontological on Prophets and Revelation. Albany: State University of interpretation of what constitutes good and evil mayNew York be seen Press. from the works of two prominent Muslim philosophers who significantly influencedRizvi, the Sajjad. shaping 2009. of ‘Mulla Muslim Sadra’, philosophical Stanford Encyclopedia thought: Ibn of Philosophy. Available online: http://plato.stanford. Sīnā, known as Avicenna (d. 1037), and Sadr al-Dinedu/entries/mulla-sadra/ Shirāzī, who was mostly (accessed recognized on 13 January as Mullā 2013). Sadrā (d. 1636). Robinson, Neal. 2003. Discovering the Qur’an: A Contemporary Approach to a Veiled Text. Washington: Georgetown Ibn Sīnā formed a theodicy by distinguishing Universitythe various Press. forms of evil such as “essential” evil (sharr bidh-dhāt), which is non-being or privation,Rouzati, and “accidental” Nasrin. 2015. Trialevil and(sharr Tribulation bil-ʿaraḍ in), thewhich Qur’an: can A be Mystical Theodicy. Berlin, Germany: Gerlach. either being or privation. In his analysis, Ibn SīnāRumi, concluded Jalal al-Din. that 1379. it is theDiwan non Shams-essential/accidental Tabrizi. Tehran: Peyman. evil Rumi, Jalal al-Din. 1926. The of Jalaluddin Rumi. Translated by Reynold A. Nicholson. Cambridge: that is the leading cause of human suffering and that the total amount of good in the universe E.J.W. Gibb Memorial. outweighs the amount of evil. 25 Mullā Sadrā, on the other hand, extensively developed this Rumi, Jalal al-Din. 2004. Fihi ma fihi (Discourses of Rumi). Translated by . London and philosophical approach by an interest in combining theology with mystical insight. This approach, New York: Routledge. according to Rizvi, totally transformed the theory of existence as it pertains to Islamic metaphysics.26 Schimmel, Annemarie. 1975. Mystical Dimentions of Islam. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. Schimmel, Annemarie. 1993. The Triumphal Sun: A Study of the Works of Jalalodin Rumi. Albany: State University of New York Press. 19 For a great discussion on the Muʿtazilite’s view onShafiei pain Kadkani,and suffering Muhammad see (Heemskerk Reza. 1388. 2000).Mowlana For an extensive Rumi’s Ghazaliat . Tehran: Sokhan. study on the notion of disability in Islam, see MohammedSurabadi, AbubakrGhaly, Islam ‘tigh and Neishabur. Disability: Perspectives 1381. Tafsir in Surabadi Theology. Edited by Sa‘idi Sirjani. 3 vols; Tehran: Farhamg and Jurisprudence (Ghaly 2010). Nashr-Nu. 20 See Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). Soroush, Abdolkarim. 1379. Ghomar-E ‘Asheghaneh: Rumi and Shams. Tehran: Serat. 21 For more on his philosophy, see Ibn Rushd (Averroes), The Philosophy and Theology of Averroes, (Averroes Tabarsi, Abu ‘ al-Fadl ibn al-Hassan. 1350. Majma’ al-Bayan fi Tafsir al-Qur’an. Translated by Beheshti. 1921). Tehran: Farahani. 22 For more on theory of acquisition, see Wolfson, The Philosopy of Kalam (Wolfson 1976). 23 See (Mutahhari 1385, pp. 50–51). Watt, W. Mongomery. 2007. The Faith and Practice of al-Ghazali. Oxford: Oneworld. 24 For more on ontological aspects of good and evil,Wheeler, see Seyyed Brannon Hossein M. Nasr, 2002. IslamicProphets Philosophy in the from Qur’an, Its Origin An Introduction to the Qur’an and Muslim Exegesis. to the Present (Nasr 2006, pp. 65–68). New York: Continuum. 25 For more on Ibn Sīnā’s theodicy, see Shams C. Inati,Wolfson, The HarryProblem Austryn. of Evil: Ibn 1976. Sina'sThe Theodicy Philosopy (Inati of Kalam 200.0). Cambridge: Press. 26 See Sajjad Rizvi, 'Mulla Sadra', Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Rizvi 2009).

Religions 2018, 9, 47 13 of 13

Zamani, Karim. 1384. Minagar-E Eshgh: A Thematical Commentary of the Mathnawi Ma‘nawi. Tehran: Nashr-e Nay. Zarrinkub, Abd al-Husayn. 1388. Sirr Nay: A Critical Analysis and Commentary of . Tehran: Ettellat. Zarrinkub, Abdolhusin. 1387. Farar az Madrasah—Life and Teachings of al-Ghazali. Tehran: Amir Kabir.

© 2018 by the author. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).