Crisis and Constitution

Pilgrim Theological Seminary AMH 241.1 The Creation of a New Republic Study Resources Welcome to The Creation of a Republic. The purpose of this program of study is to help students develop an understanding of American History from the time of the American Revolution until the mid 1800's. We have made a sincere effort to select and organize the following learning resources in a way that will help you understand important concepts in the development of our nation and to help you master key terms, events, and the names of people and places. There are six areas of study that we will be exploring; each area corresponds to a chapter in the recommended textbook. First Area of Study: Toward the War for American Independence (1754-1776) Second Area of Study: The American People and the American Revolution (1775-1783) Third Area of Study: Crisis and Constitution (1776-1789) Fourth Area of Study: The Early Republic (1789-1824) Fifth Area of Study: The Opening of America (1815-1850) Sixth Area of Study: The Rise of Democracy (1824-1840)

Learning Resources The primary learning resource for our study is: US: A Narrative History, Volume 1: To 1877, 5th Edition; Authors: James West Davidson, Historian; Brian DeLay, Christine Leigh Heyrman, Mark H Lytle,Michael B Stoff, Softcover, 400 pages. © McGraw-Hill Companies, 2009, ISBN-13 9780073385662 The textbook is supplemented by an Online Learning Center. The OLC provides helpful educational resources specifically related to the individual Area of Study guides we have provided. Please visit the OLC to familiarize yourself with its resources. If you would like to review a sample chapter of the textbook you can access Chapter One, Chapter Two, or Chapter Three. Print versions of textbooks are available through Amazon, Barnes and Noble, Borders, and other retailers. The textbook may also be found occasionally in local public libraries. The entire textbook is also available as an e-book (a textbook in an electronic format that is read on your computer or portable device). E-books are less expensive than the printed text. You might also wish to consider purchasing an Institute of America customized e-book which includes only those chapters applicable to this study. Click here to purchase an e-book for AMH 241.2 The Creation of a New Republic.

About this Program of Study The Creation of a New Republic is a self-paced program of study designed to provide men and women with the opportunity to learn about American History from the time of the

1 American Revolution until the mid 1800's. Those who wish to do additional study in American History could take AMH 241.1 The Creation of a New America and AMH 241.3 The Republic Transformed and Tested. There is also an American History II study available. A sequential study plan has been provided for each Area of Study to help methodically guide your learning efforts. Each study plan contains a variety of educational resources which will help you master the material and self test your knowledge. There are web links and interactive activities included in each study plan as well as numerous audio and video presentations. There are also computer scored practice quizzes to help you self- assess what you have learned. We recommend that you follow the study plan in its suggested order. Course Examination The examination for this course contains approximately 50 multiple choice questions (some from each Area of Study) and has a one hour time limit. You may take an examination after you have adequately studied the material presented or otherwise feel that you are prepared to do so. When you have completed the exam with a score of 75% or better you will have successfully completed the examination for this course. If you score less than 75% on the examination, please study the material more thoroughly. After seven days, you may take a second or, if necessary, subsequent exam. Grades are added to a student's official record only after the examination has been successfully completed. Examinations that have a score of 74% or less are marked as I for incomplete. I grades are not listed on a student's official record. The seminary uses the following grading scale for all examinations: Less than 75% = I 75-83% = C 84-92% = B 93-100% = A All exams must be taken at an authorized Pilgrim Seminary testing location or, when necessary, be proctored by an adult unrelated to the student. A proctor must be a person of high moral character and be willing to oversee the taking of an online exam. It is the preference of the registrar's office that students take proctored exams at settings such as public or school libraries, a local participating church, or a community based program center. Students may suggest a proctor who is an active or retired teacher, a clergy person, or another person knowledgeable of testing procedures. Please remember that individual proctors must be approved, in advance, by the Office of the Registrar.

Academic Integrity Policy Pilgrim Theological Seminary students are expected to maintain the highest standards of personal and academic honesty and integrity. The seminary will not tolerate academic dishonesty, plagiarism or cheating on exams. Should a student be found in violation of the seminary's academic integrity policy, he or she will be prohibited from taking additional courses through the seminary and his or her entire academic record will carry a permanent notation of dismissal for academic dishonesty.

2 First Area of Study: Toward the War for American Independence (1754-1776)

Suggested Reading Please read Chapter 6 of the recommended textbook.

Learning Objectives At the end of this Area of Study students should be able to: 1. Summarize the outcome of the Seven Years’ War and explain the ways in which it affected relations between Britain and its colonies. 2. Describe the evolution of political thought and tactics among Americans who opposed British policies. 3. Explain the significance of the First Continental Congress and the collapse of royal authority in the colonies. 4. Explain the popularity and political importance of Common Sense. Area of Study Overview: The disunited colonies finally found a common enemy to unite them. Rivalry for the control of North America climaxed after 1754. The struggle waged among the English, the French, and the Indians had brought on three wars during the first half of the eighteenth century. That struggle culminated in a fourth conflict, the Seven Years’ War (1754-1763; known traditionally if misleadingly to Americans as the French and Indian War). But Britain’s total victory in that fight and the end of French power in North America did not bring lasting peace. Native Americans struggled to protect their territory and political sovereignty west of the Appalachians. At the same time, Britain’s determination to consolidate its American empire revived the ambivalence of many colonials toward the parent country. Parliament hoped to bind the colonies to the British empire with new laws and regulations. This legislation served only to alienate Americans already wary of the inequalities of English society and the corruption of English politics. Popular opposition to Britain’s new measures led ultimately to rebellion and independence. With the French enemy out of the way, the British government became the ultimate common enemy that made possible 13 “united states.”

Presentation The classroom lecture for this Area of Study, entitled Empires in Conflict, covers some of the major geopolitical events for the British colonies in the 18th century, including the wars of the 1730s-1760s and the colonists' growing discontent with Great Britain. The presenter is Dr. David Noon.

Websites Related to This Area of Study Americans liked being English. In spite of the disagreement and disunity discussed in an

3 earlier Area of Study, the one unifying cultural feature most Americans shared was a sense of English identity. Yet less than seven years after Bostonians celebrated their victory in the Seven Years' War and expressed pride in their young king, George III, their fellow Britons are portrayed firing upon these same loyal citizens. The same year the American painter Benjamin West completed the painting commemorating the death of General Wolfe at Quebec, the Empire's great triumph, Paul Revere, a Boston engraver, published an etching of the Boston massacre. What went wrong in less than a decade? As Parliament attempted to bind the American colonies more closely to the empire, once-loyal Americans became convinced that their rights were being violated. Encouraged by Thomas Paine's pamphlet, Common Sense, proclaiming "a new era for politics," Americans rejected the idea that they were English. The Web activities for this Area of Study explore the West and Revere images as important pieces of visual evidence of colonial affairs. You will examine the story behind Revere's engraving, and the decisions and choices made on both sides of the Atlantic that led most Americans to agree with Paine in 1776: it was the destiny of Americans to be republicans not monarchists; to be independent, not subjects of George III; to be American, not English.

Web Activities 1. Visual evidence is an important source of historical information. In activities 1-3 you will analyze two key period images to assist you in answering the question, what went wrong between Britain and her American colonies during the years between the triumph at Quebec and the "massacre" in Boston? View the painting The Death of General Wolfe by Benjamin West and the widely circulated companion engraving (magnify image). Study the composition, the key figures represented—noting their dress—and other symbolic elements in this strictly imaginary scene. For a discussion of Historian Simon Schema's perspective on the consequences of West's portrayal go to "The Many Deaths of General Wolfe" by Maryland State Archivist, Dr. Edward C. Papenfuse. Open the first link and read the sections "In Command" and "Parkman's Account of the Death of Wolfe." Why do you think Schama terms

4 the painting both an "icon of the British Empire" and a "grandiloquent lie"? 2. By 1770 the relationship between British troops in the colonies had deteriorated, especially in Boston where brawls were frequent. When five people were killed in March, propagandists labeled the incident a "massacre" and Revere created America's most lasting visual image of the event. Go to “A Behind the Scenes Look at Paul Revere’s Most Famous Engraving” to view this image and read an explanation of how and why this image captured the public imagination. Transcript of his trial the account of Captain Thomas Preston, who was in charge of the British troops, and the transcript of his trial, an anonymous account, Printed by Order of the Town of Boston, an account taken from the Boston Gazette and Country Journal of 12 March 1770, 3. West's engraving sold for approximately five guineas (several hundred dollars), Revere's, for a few shillings (less than a dollar). Conclude your study of the images by answering the following questions. Who was the intended audience of each? What is their message? What have you learned concerning their historical accuracy? In what ways did analyzing these images help you understand the issue of colonial identity and larger issues of American history? What decisions and choices were made on both sides of the Atlantic between 1763 and 1776 that separated the American and English participants in the triumphant victory at Quebec from those portrayed in Revere's etching? Finally, read John Hancock, "Boston Massacre Oration," delivered on the event's fourth anniversary. Pay particular attention to the emergence of revolutionary rhetoric. What observations does Hancock make concerning "righteous government" versus tyranny, George III, the "slaughtered innocents", and standing armies? 4. In January 1776, nine months after Lexington and Concord, revolutionary rhetoric reached new heights with the publication of Common Sense, by Thomas Paine. The full text of Common Sense may be found at George Welling's From Revolution to Reconstruction project in The Netherlands at the University of Groningen. Read the Introduction , then find section five and resume reading at the paragraph which begins "A government of our own is our natural right," and continue to the end (omitting the section on naval preparations). Mark the words and phrases you consider to be revolutionary, as much verbal propaganda as Revere's image was visual. What do you think would have been the most compelling parts of Paine's concluding argument to his "target" audience? Why did Paine's pamphlet have such a profound impact on Britain's American colonist's decision for independence?

Additional Research Links The Seven Years War The Seven Years War is a site with another fine narrative overview of events and good internal links. An additional site on the French and Indian War focuses on the practice of

5 scalping by English and French as well as Native American combatants.” Fighting for a Continent: Newspaper Coverage of the French and Indian War, 1754- 1760, contains some interesting images of period newspapers reporting the war with an interpretive essay that may contain suggestions for research. The following items from the British National Maritime Museum Greenwich collection on the Seven Years War provide additional contemporary visual evidence of Britain's North American triumph (be sure and magnify each). Capture of Louisbourg Medal, 1758 A Plan of the River St Laurence with the Operations of the Siege of Quebec French Fireships Attacking the English Fleet off Quebec, 28 June 1759 A View of the Taking of Quebec, 13 September 1759 (how does this image differ from the one in the text on page 147?). The Imperial Crisis Removal of the French from North America had significant consequences for native peoples. For online information see Pontiac's Rebellion, then go to Great Lake Indians and scroll down to the rebellion. Go to Lord Jeffrey Amherst's letters discussing germ warfare against American Indians to examine the smallpox blankets controversy. Read The Royal Proclamation - October 7, 1763, to comprehend the British perspective of the post-war period. Toward the Revolution Two good chronologies of the era include one at the Tax History Museum, view room 1756- 1776: The Seven Years War to the American Revolution for a fine summary of events with images, and another at The Age of George III, Topic Page. Digitized primary source documents of the era are extensive. See The Townshend Acts and the period 1767-1768 , then visit the Charles Townshend Papers (site has good background notes) at the the University of Michigan. Next explore the general Text Index of George Welling's From Revolution to Reconstruction project for additional research opportunities. The First Continental Congress met from September 5 to October 26, 1774. Journals of the Continental Congress is the complete edition based on the manuscript Journals and other manuscript records of the Continental Congress in the Library of Congress. The Age of George III provides one account of events at Lexington and Concord from the colonists' point of view, and another, written by the sister of one of the customs' commissioners to her friend in England, presents the actions of the American colonists in a different light. The International Sons of Liberty The American Sons of Liberty were part of an international network of the friends of

6 Liberty. John Wilkes, a London journalist was one, Pascal Paoli, the Corsican freedom fighter, another. The repercussions of such movements have led historians to suggest that there was an "Atlantic Revolution."' Visit the CNN Millennium site. Go to the 18th century section, then click on "map" to tour other Area of Studies of Democratic Revolutions.

Area of Study Summary Americans liked being English. They celebrated the English triumph over the French. But in the dozen years thereafter, they came to realize that English politicians would not allow them to be English. In short, the Seven Years’ War resolved the contest for supremacy in North America but it also set the stage for American independence. The Seven Years’ War was pivotal because it created opposing expectations for the future. Once the French were removed from the frontiers of British America, George III and his ministers could renew their efforts to centralize and consolidate the empire. The British victory left Americans overflowing with great expectations of the role that they would play in the expanded empire. But many leading Britons charged that Americans had withheld support and even traded with the enemy. Such conflicting perceptions lit the fuse of imperial crisis.

The Imperial Crisis Britain determined to impose tighter controls on its newly enlarged empire and pay for the expense by raising revenue in the colonies. The new measures of the early 1760s—e.g., the Proclamation of 1763, the Stamp Act, and the Quartering Act—were all designed to advance the cause of centralization. The timing of these new measures was disastrous. They deflated American expectations of a more equal status and coincided with a downturn in the colonial economy. The new measures abridged what Americans understood to be their constitutional and political liberties. British actions seemed to confirm American suspicions of a deliberate plot to enslave Americans by depriving them of property and liberty. Americans displayed an unprecedented unity in opposing imperial policy, turning to petitions, crowd actions, and boycotts as resistance tactics. Parliament bowed to pressure from British merchants and repealed the Stamp Act, but reasserted its authority to tax by passing the Townshend Acts in 1767. Americans renewed their resistance, enforcing boycotts with committees of inspection, and affirmed their unity in responses to the Massachusetts Circular Letter. The stationing of British troops erupted into violence with the Boston Massacre. With the repeal of most of the Townshend duties, American resistance subsided until the Gaspee incident in 1772. The formation of the committees of correspondence fostered intercolonial consensus and spread the scope of the resistance inland. When Britain responded to the Boston Tea Party with the Coercive Acts in 1774, many more Americans joined the

7 cause. The stage was set for concerted intercolonial action.

Toward the Revolution The growing unity of the resistance movement came to fruition when the First Continental Congress met at Philadelphia in September 1774. Delegates resisted both radical demands for immediate mobilization for war and conservative appeals for accommodation. They denied Parliament any authority in the colonies except the power to regulate trade, but acknowledged the colonies’ allegiance to George III. The collapse of royal authority in Massachusetts was moving the colonies toward a showdown with Britain. As a show of force, General Thomas Gage dispatched troops in April of 1775 to seize arms being stored at Concord. A battle between British soldiers and the Massachusetts militia resulted. In January of 1776, Thomas Paine’s Common Sense undermined the emotional tie to England by attacking George III, persuading many Americans of the necessity of becoming independent and republican—to become not English, but American.

Additional Resources for This Area of Study The Online Learning Center for this Area of Study contains additional learning resources in which you might be interested. The ancillary OLC provides interactive exercises for key terms, key events, and people and places. These are excellent knowledge assessment tools.

Self Examination Please review the learning objectives set forth at the beginning of this Area of Study. Are you able to do what they suggest? If so, please try the computer scored multiple choice quiz. There are also fill-in- the- blank and short answer practice quizzes. If you are having difficulty with these you should re-read your text, paying specific attention to important names, places and events. If you are satisfied with the results of your self assessment, please proceed to the next area of study: The American People and the American Revolution.

8 Area Two: The American People and the American Revolution [1775-1783]

Suggested Reading Please read Chapter 7 of the recommended textbook.

Learning Objectives Upon the completion of this Area of Study you should be able to: 1. Explain why the Second Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Independence and how that document justified revolution. 2. Explain why many Americans became loyalists or tried to remain neutral during the revolutionary struggle. 3. Describe the evolution of military strategy during the war, tracing the course of the conflict from north to south. 4. Explain the significance of the British surrender at Saratoga. Area of Study Overview: It was British attempts to consolidate political control over their American empire that pushed their colonials toward independence. After finally driving France from North America, the British policymakers initiated a decade of crisis and confrontation with their fellow subjects there. Many Americans slowly came to embrace independence as the way to preserve their rights. Misunderstanding and suspicion on both sides gave rise to the American Revolution, a complex conflict that was at once a colonial war of liberation, a civil war among loyal and rebel Americans, and a renewal of the struggle for global supremacy between England and France.

Presentations There are several presentations in this Area of Study. In the video presentation entitled The Coming of Independence, Professor Maier tells the story of how the English-loving colonist transforms into the freedom-loving American rebel. The luminaries of the early days of the Republic -- Washington, Jefferson, Adams -- are featured in this program as they craft the Declaration of -- and wage the War for -- Independence. Please visit A Biography for America and select program four. Provided by Annenberg/CPB. The first two audio presentations for this Area of Study have been made available through the generosity of the Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs at Ashland University. The presenters are Dr. Gordon Lloyd from Pepperdine University and Dr. Christopher Flannery of Azusa Pacific University. Please listen to one or more of these excellent presentations as time permits. "Apple of Gold:" The Centrality of the Declaration of Independence in American Political Life Topics in this lecture include: Why is it important to understand the Declaration of Independence? What does the Declaration say, and why and how does it say it? What does the Declaration not say, and why and how does it not say it? What is the significance of

9 Jefferson's draft of the Declaration? What does the Declaration mean, and what does the Declaration not mean? What is the philosophical and historical heritage on which the Declaration draws? (87 Min) The American Mind Topics in this lecture include: What is the logic of the argument of the Declaration? Reflections (time permitting) on the course of human events, people, the laws of nature and of nature's God, decent respect for the opinions of mankind, self evident truths, equality, rights, liberty, the pursuit of happiness, consent, prudence, the ends of government, the right to abolish government and institute new government, facts submitted to a candid world, sacred honor, and more. (38 Min) There are two classroom lectures for this Area of Study which focus on the American Revolution. Please visit Revolution I and Revolution II. The presenter is Dr. David Noon, University of Alaska- Southeast.

Websites Related to This Area of Study Introduction One year after the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Second Continental Congress, which was impelled (as noted in chapter 5) by Thomas Paine's Common Sense, adopted the Declaration of Independence. Drafted by Thomas Jefferson the summer he was 33 years old, the Declaration "is one of the most celebrated documents in the nation's history." To support the Declaration, delegates pledged "to each other our Lives, our fortunes and our Sacred Honor." Affirming the principles that government originates in the consent of the governed and is grounded on the natural rights of all people, the document is so imbued with the spirit of John Locke and the writings of Scottish Enlightenment thinkers that Jefferson was once accused of plagiarism. But, what is the rest of the story? Would Americans, such as the citizen soldiers portrayed below, actually fight for independence? Visit the National Archives, Jefferson's home (Monticello), and other websites, to experience the document's historical context and consider the Declaration of Independence in new ways. Additional links to materials that consider the social dynamics of the revolution and explore events in Revolutionary military history will help you answer the complex question, "Will they fight?"

10 Revolutionary Soldiers ~ Watercolor Sketch by Jan Baptiste de Verger

Web Activities 1. Read the Declaration of Independence. The first part of the document serves notice that Americans no longer consider themselves English. The second section, directed against King George III, denies England any authority in the colonies and affirms the principle that government originates in the consent of the governed and is grounded on the natural rights of all people. Briefly summarize the contents of each section. What might the document have said but did not? What do you think Jefferson means by the phrase equality? Go to Jefferson's "original Rough draught", scroll down to read the paragraph that begins "he has waged cruel war against human nature itself…" To whom does Jefferson refer? Why do you think these words were omitted from the final version? What evidence is there that Jefferson was aware of the contradiction between slavery and the ideas in the Declaration? Visit Jefferson's home, Monticello online. A good place to begin is the resources page which provides links to Jefferson quotations on a variety of subjects. See the Jefferson- Hemings resource page for the results of recent investigations. How does this information affect your thinking about the complex man and the extraordinary document he wrote? 2. The Declaration of Independence was an act of revolution committing Americans to a rebellion for which the ultimate price of failure was hanging. How did the Continental Congress assemble the Continental Army, establish rules, and mobilize the public will? Use the Library of Congress Organizing a Warsite to help you answer these questions. As you view all three links, note that one of the consequences of this activity will be learning to navigate the resources of the American Memory section of the Library of

11 Congress web. In Congress makes rules for plundering enemy ships (and scroll down) when you click on "this document," an extensive list of documents will appear. You want document #1. Note the "Click here to see the full text of this document" instructions In Congress boosts public morale (and scroll down), whose help does congress enlist? Next go to Fanning the Flames of Patriotism and review links 2-4. Find and read the Manifesto, representing congressional response to British peace offers following the French Alliance, at Congress publicly threatens the British. What rhetorical style and revolutionary language does this document have in common with the Declaration of Independence? 3. The act of revolution also necessitated translating the will of rebel forces to fight against the armed forces of the British Empire, into the ability to do so. To answer the question, "Will they fight?", read pages 176-191 in your text and visit the following sites. While touring the sites keep in mind these questions, what were the psychological consequences of the Battles of Bunker Hill and Saratoga? In what ways did Americans come to fight on their own terms? Explore The Decisive Day is come: the Battle of Bunker Hill an extensive site sponsored by The Massachusetts Historical Society. Read several of the contemporary accounts of the battle and the essay by Bernard Bailyn. Read the article The Battle of the Brandywine by Edward G. Lengel (War Time Journal, illustrated, with sources). What were the specific difficulties Washington's Continental Army faced and the consequences of Brandywine? Visit the sites of four battlefields of the War in a "staff ride" tutorial from Worcester Polytechnic Institute. See especially the Battle of Saratoga. Thomas Paine continued to serve the republican cause in a series of papers, The American Crisis composed between 1776 and 1783. Here, he too addressed the thorny question, "Will they fight?" Read the first three paragraphs, then scroll down and read the final one. What does Paine mean by his opening statement, "THESE are the times that try men's souls. The summer soldier and the sunshine patriot will, in this crisis, shrink from the service of their country; but he that stands it now, deserves the love and thanks of man and woman."

Additional Research Links War Chronologies and Battles on the Web The most comprehensive time line of the American Revolution from the perspective of the Commander in chief is with the George Washington papers at the Library of Congress. See the Timeline of the American Revolution from the PBS series Liberty Lighting Freedom's Flame: National Park Service American Revolution Web Page marks

12 the 225th anniversary of the events that brought about separation from Great Britain. The site has links to all major Park Service commemorations of Revolutionary War battlefields. African and Native Americans in the Age of Revolution The PBS series Africans in America: Revolution, 1750-1805, examines America's journey through slavery. Go to Part 1 Narrative and explore the various links and resource bank that explain the compelling part story of the personal, religious, and legal challenges of African Americans of the era. The National Park Service site Valley Forge Encampment: Diversity of the Revolutionary Soldiers examines the role of African and Native Americans during the war An essay by Wilcomb E. Washburn, Indians and the American Revolution, further explores the consequences for Native Peoples. American Loyalists, British Moderates Go to Loyalists during the American Revolution for an online overview of contrasting views of American Loyalists. What is a Loyalist? (requires Adobe Reader examines why some 50,000 loyalists went to the British North American Colonies of Quebec and Nova Scotia. The Nova Scotia Museum project: Remembering Black Loyalists, Black Communities provides information on the Black Loyalists who settled first in Nova Scotia, then in 1791 made an Exodus to Sierra Leone One Member of Parliament who urged a moderate policy toward the American colonies was Edmund Burke. His "Speech on Conciliation with America" (1775) is an eloquent example of such rhetoric. The Revolutionary Experience To examine one aspect of women's experience during the revolutionary era read Abigail Adams "Remember the Ladies" letter to John Adams 31 March 1776, and his response, John Adams to Abigail Adams 14 Apr. 1776. For another see Amazing Women in War and Peace which looks at several women who fought against the British. See Religion and the American Revolution to understand how religion offered a moral sanction for opposition to the British. Divining America explores the topic further to help you order understand how religious faith drew many ordinary Americans into resistance to Britain and committed them to the cause of rebellion and republicanism. Sins of the Fathers: Religion and the Revolution is Edwin S. Gaustad's classic essay. For insight on the American Revolution from the British Perspective, return to the Was the American Revolution Inevitable? This site offers an assessment of this question primarily from the British perspective.

13 The Revolution Becomes A Global War To learn more about the global perspective of the American Revolution visit PBS Global Village interactive map. Examine details of Benjamin Franklin's alliance negotiations with France and their consequences at Benjamin Franklin: A Documentary History (click on The Oldest Revolutionary and go to the individual pages for the years 1777-1783).

Area of Study Summary The Decision for Independence When the Second Continental Congress convened at Philadelphia in the spring of 1775, many moderate and conservative delegates clung to the hope of a settlement with Britain. Radicals who favored independence moved cautiously, hoping that time would create consensus. Even as Congress approved the creation of the Continental Army, it dispatched the "Olive Branch Petition" that declared continued loyalty to George III. The harsh British response to that overture withered the cause of compromise within the colonies, opening the way for Congress's adoption of the Declaration of Independence, drafted mainly by Thomas Jefferson, on July 4, 1776. In the first part of the Declaration, Jefferson set forth a general justification of revolution. He invoked the "self-evident truths" of human equality and "inalienable rights" to "life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness." The second and longer section denied England any authority in the colonies and blamed George III for a "long train of abuses and usurpations." Despite an increasing base of support, rebel leaders still recognized that a substantial minority of colonials remained loyal to the king and Parliament. Loyalty to Britain remained especially strong in those places where violent controversies over sectional grievances or land tenure had raged during the decades before 1776. The loyalists' feared that the break from Britain would plunge America into anarchy or civil war. The Fighting in the North British troops under General William Howe prepared to wage a conventional war in America through a strategy focused on capturing cities and luring the main American force into a decisive battle. As George Washington took command of the Continental Army outside of Boston, he faced daunting odds. The British army was a seasoned professional fighting force, while the Continentals lacked both numbers and military discipline. In 1776 the British evacuated Boston, took New York City, and drove the Continentals into a retreat through New York and New Jersey. But as winter set in, Washington recovered some of his army's credibility at the Battles of Trenton and Princeton. Many civilians in that region, alienated by the British army's harsh treatment, switched their loyalties to the rebel cause. In the summer campaign of 1777, Howe's army took Philadelphia, but British forces under John Burgoyne suffered a disastrous defeat at Saratoga, New York. The Turning Point

14 France had waited for an opportunity to gain revenge against Britain since its defeat in the Seven Years' War. Thus from the beginning of the American Revolution, the French were anxious to turn discontented colonials into willing allies against Great Britain. The victory at Saratoga marked a turning point in the fighting. In 1778, France openly allied with American rebels, and shortly thereafter, Spain joined France. What had begun as a colonial rebellion had now widened into a European war, forcing the British to disperse their army to fend off challenges all over the world. Sir Henry Clinton, who replaced Howe as commander-in-chief, pulled back from Philadelphia to New York City. En route, he fought to a draw with Washington at the Battle of Monmouth Courthouse in June 1778. The Continentals had suffered grievously through the previous winter at Valley Forge, Pennsylvania, but the struggle left them spoiling for a fight and the training and discipline instilled by Baron von Steuben during that winter showed at Monmouth Courthouse. But thereafter, with Clinton's army holed up in New York City, Washington's inactive Continentals erupted into mutinies. Since the end of 1776, the Continental rank-and-file had come from the most property poor and desperate Americans. Congress, suspicious of standing armies had neglected their needs for food, clothing, and shelter, a mistake further exploited by profiteering military contractors who delivered substandard goods to the troops. The Struggle in the South While the war in the North stalemated, the British pursued a southern strategy. They easily captured Savannah, Georgia, and, after a long siege, Charleston, South Carolina, in 1780. But the rebel milita dashed British hopes that southern resistance would quickly collapse. Although loyalists remained numerous in the Georgia and Carolina backcountry, they met determined resistance from rebel irregulars led by men such as Francis Marion and Thomas Sumter. As a vicious, partisan war seared the backcountry, the Continentals, after a humiliating defeat at Camden, South Carolina, secured an important victory at Cowpens. Soon after, they forced exhausted British troops under Charles, Lord Cornwallis, to abandon their pursuit of the rebel army at Guilford Courthouse in North Carolina. Nathanael Greene, in command of the Continental Army in the South, proved an ingenious strategist. His support for the rebel partisans and his careful treatment of a civilian population disenchanted by Cornwallis's marauding army frustrated British efforts to take the Carolinas. The British, fearful of estranging whites, had also erred by refusing to mobilize one large group of southerners who might have fought with them to win liberty--African-American slaves. The World Turned Upside Down Cornwallis made one final bid for victory at Yorktown, Virginia, in 1781. In this final battle, though, he found himself outflanked by Continentals under Washington, French troops

15 under the Comte de Rochambeau, and the French navy under the Comte de Grasse. With the tide of war in Europe turning against them as well, the British decided to cut their losses in America and agreed to the Treaty of Paris in 1783. Many Americans had, indeed, proven willing to fight

16 Third Area of Study: Crisis and Constitution [1776-1789]

Suggested Reading Please read Chapter 8 of the recommended textbook.

Learning Objectives Upon the completion of this Area of Study you should be able to: 1. Define republicanism and explain how the first state constitutions reflected the postwar view of republicanism. 2. Describe the Articles of Confederation and explain why it proved unsatisfactory. 3. Explain the ways in which the settlement of the West gave rise to both diplomatic and domestic political conflict, yet produced the Northwest Ordinance, which reconfigured sectional tension. 4. Explain how American revolutionaries understood “equality” and how this view shaped the scope and limits of social changes during the post-revolutionary period. 5. Describe the framing of the federal Constitution and explain why many Americans were willing to establish a strong national government. Area of Study Overview: American rebels had won their independence from Great Britain. In many ways the war heightened existing divisions within American society. Added to older tensions over racial, ethnic, sectional, and religious diversity were a new set of difficulties arising from independent nationhood and the challenge of crafting a workable republican government. At the core of the crisis was the challenge to balance state against central and (within those) legislative against executive power. The first instinct, a natural consequence of their rebellion against King George, was to vest power in the state legislatures. But that initial strategy proved unworkable.

Presentations This Area of Study contains three audio lectures provided through the generosity of the Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs at Ashland University, Dr. Gordon Lloyd (Pepperdine University) and Dr. Christopher Flannery (Azusa Pacific University), presenters. Constitutional Convention I: Debating the Virginia Plan Topics included in this presentation: In what respects did the "Virginia Plan" represent a new constitution rather than a mere revision of the Articles? Of what significance were the rules adopted by the convention? What were the delegates' initial reactions and questions concerning the Virginia Plan? Did the delegates exceed their authority when they decided to consider the Virginia Plan? Why did the delegates seem to be so frightened by the prospect of democracy? What did the delegates mean when they spoke of a national government as opposed to a federal government? Why did the delegates take up the question of

17 the executive branch with such reluctance? What different principles animate the New Jersey and Virginia Plans and the Hamilton Proposal? What are the arguments for representation of the states, as opposed to the people, in the federal government? Compare the national and the federal views. Consider the discussions of the executive power and bicameralism in the context of "republican principles." What do "republican principles" say about the sources of power, the powers, and the structure of the federal government? Is Madison's extended republic argument a departure from republican principles? What are the arguments for the "legality" of the New Jersey Plan? (27 Min) Constitutional Convention II: The Convention in Crisis Topics include: Why did Madison think that the issue facing the delegates was not small states vs. large states? How did the "partly national, partly federal" concept enter the discussion? Who changed their minds and why? Who favored and who opposed the Connecticut Compromise? (27 Min) Constitutional Convention III: Drafting the Constitution Topics include: How does the Committee on Detail Report differ from the original and amended Virginia Plans? Did the delegates let "experience be their guide"? What powers and what rights did the delegates suggest be enumerated? How did the slavery provisions undergo changes during the deliberations? Why did Randolph decide against signing the Constitution? What happened to Mason's bill of rights proposal? (27 Min)

Internet Sites Related to This Area of Study

18 We continue with the theme of the emerging American identity. The revolutionary experience shaped the new republic and engendered the first crucial experiments in republicanism—the state constitutions. These written constitutions and the Articles of Confederation reflected the belief that executive power needed to be curbed to allow the people to rule. Yet, in less than a decade, as ordinary Americans struggled to define themselves and republican society, the new governments proved inefficient in dealing with either international crisis or local unrest. The turmoil brought fifty-five men to Philadelphia to construct an entirely new frame for government and to create the longest lasting constitutional republic in the history of the world. Traditional republican beliefs were compromised, but not without a fight. What were the republican beliefs embedded in the first state constitutions? How was the role of religion in American life understood? How did the Federal Constitution reshape republican values? How did the revolution change assumptions about slavery? Why was being "an American" such a difficult thing? The Web Activities and research links below guide you through the transformation of American society from thirteen separate state republics to "We the People." The additional research links encourage you to further explore online resources for the era. Web Activities 1. The new state governments shaped the first republican political experiments. Review the following state Constitutions. What common ground in language do the documents share? Where have you seen similar phrases? What is the relationship between government and citizen? Do you think these documents reflect widespread acceptance of republican beliefs or simply the political philosophy of their framers? • The Constitution of Virginia; June 29, 1776 and Bill of Rights; June 12, 1776 • The Constitution of New York : April 20, 1777 • Constitution of South Carolina: March 26, 1776 • Constitution of Massachusetts, 1780 2. Americans were not only concerned with the rights of individuals and their relationship with government, they also worried about the relationship between the state and religion. As you visit the following sites consider how religion continued to shape American society. Return to the Constitution of Massachusetts, 1780. Read article II and the first paragraph of III. What is the attitude toward religion and how does the state intend to deal with religion? Next go to Religion and the State Governments and read the church-state debates in Massachusetts and Virginia in order to understand the disestablishment of religion issue. Reflecting on your studies of religion in America to this time, why do you think proposals for religious taxes, or "general assessment schemes," to be laid on all citizens were so controversial? Although the Articles of Confederation mention religion only once (Article III), according to the exhibit Religion and the Congress of the Confederation, 1774-89,

19 religion was significant for the first national government. Scroll through the text. What evidence do you find that religion was assumed necessary for the maintenance of public morality? To explore the ways this debate continued at the Philadelphia convention, tour the next exhibit Religion and the Federal Government, Part I, then move on to Part II, The State Becomes the Church: Jefferson and Madison. Read through the documents on the separation between church and state debate. Why does Jefferson's argument for "a wall of separation between church and state," remain controversial? 3. The Constitutional Convention of 1787 produced a new frame of government that was truly national in scope. In this activity you will examine some of the materials and exhibits found at the Library of Congress and the National Archives relating to the Constitution. Go to Founding Fathers: Delegates to the Constitutional Convention. From the delegate list select one from each state for review (be sure to include some, indicated by an *, who did not sign the Constitution). What do those selected have in common? What assumptions about American society might they share? On what points might they disagree and why? Next go to Creating a Constitution. Visit each of the four links to review the work of the Constitutional Convention. A More Perfect Union: The Creation of the U.S. Constitution is a narrative provided by the National Archives. You need not read the entire essay, but scroll down to the end and read "The Document Enshrined." How has the Constitution become an American icon? Read The Constitution of the United States: Preamble and compare it with the first three articles of the Articles of Confederation. How does the Constitution's brief "We the People" statement reflect the new frame of government agreed to in Philadelphia? Visit the Treasure of Congress Web site, you need not view all the links there, just the first and third items in the index, "Creating a Legislature" and the "Bill of Rights." View the images and click on read more. Do so, then return here and read the Bill of Rights. How does the language reflect that of the Virginia Bill of Rights considered in activity one? What does the bill's passage tell you about the effectiveness of the new legislature? After reviewing these sites, do you agree with the text's statement, "The Constitution represented both a triumph of imagination and common sense and a rejection of some older, long-cherished republican beliefs" (220). Why, or why not? 4. After the Revolution slavery ceased to be a national institution and became instead the "peculiar institution" of the American South. An exhibit on Slave Voices suggests the dilemma republican ideals causes one Virginia slaveholder. Find at The Age of Revolutions: Two Kinds of Freedom in documents 15 and 16, brief descriptions of letters indicating the response in 1781 toward slaves who joined the British. What changes in attitude by 1791 is suggested by document 17? Do you think such altered views were widespread among southern slave owners? Legislatures of most northern states provided for the abolition of slavery. Read the first

20 three sections of the Pennsylvania Act for the Gradual Abolition of Slavery, 1780. What key words are used to extend republican virtues to African Americans? Congress extended republican government to the west in 1787 when it issued The Northwest Ordinance. Read Section 2, and in Section 14, articles 3 and 6. What congressional objectives, regarding Indian peoples and slaves do you think are indicated in these items? What do you think will be their long term consequences, increasing recognition of the rights of all Americans, or deepening differences?

Additional Research Links Republicanism and Slavery The Constitution and the New Nation section of the PBS series Africans in America includes excerpts from primary sources (see the exchange of letters between Jefferson and Banneker, 1791), and examines southern success in winning a constitutional guarantee for slavery. Republican Motherhood Site that provide further insight on the struggle to define republican society and the concept of Republican Motherhood (see Nation of Nations 4e, 211) are Republican Motherhood and Eliza Pinckney. From Confederation to Constitution For more insight on an event that threatened the Confederation, Shays's Rebellion. See also Charles Pinckney's speech on the treaty, delivered in Congress, August 16, 1786. The Tax History Museum site On Taxes 1777-1815: The Revolutionary War to the War of 1812 , notes that, "fiscal matters continued to loom large during and subsequent to the war for independence." The site presents tax issues related to the efforts to revise the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution debates and includes useful internal links. The Federalist Papers by Alexander Hamilton, John Jay, and James Madison, may be found in digital format at Emory University, and the Avalon Collection at Yale. These papers are interesting to compare with the series The Spirit of American Constitutionalism: John Dickinson's Fabius Letters, which also had a powerful influence in tipping the scales in favor of ratification of the new Constitution. Mary Woolstonecraft Mary Woolstonecraft wrote A Vindication of of the Rights of Women in1792. She called for educational as well as civil and political rights for women and her work received a hostile reaction on both sides of the Atlantic. The Modern History Sourcebook: Mary Woolstonecraft: A Vindication of the Rights of Women provides the complete text, and the site Mary Woolstonecraft includes related links

21 Area of Study Summary The American Revolution did not create an American national identity. Perhaps those who had served with the Continentals developed an allegiance to the army as a truly national institution, but most inhabitants of "these United States" and their political leaders did not yet think in terms of loyalty to a national cause. For a decade after independence, most revolutionaries remained less committed to creating an American nation, a single national republic, than to organizing 13 separate and loosely federated state republics. Republican Experiments Strong local loyalties, as well as the conviction that republics could not prosper over large territories, determined the shape of the first state constitutions. These crucial early experiments in establishing a republican government maintained the basic structure of the old colonial polities, but dramatically altered the balance of power among the branches of government. Popularly elected legislatures became the dominant force in the new governments, controlling not only weak executives but also the judiciary. Revolutionaries thus largely abandoned the British system of mixed government. They also departed from British practices by insisting on written state constitutions as a law superior to the government that defined the full scope of popular liberty. From Congress to Confederation While Americans focused on constructing their state constitutions, the national government received little attention. In fact, it took four years after 1777 for all the states to approve the Articles of Confederation. The Articles provided for a government by a national legislature, essentially a continuation of the Second Continental Congress. But they left the crucial power of the purse entirely to the states, as well as all final power to make laws for and execute control over undistributed western lands. Few leaders in the 1770s perceived the need for a defined distribution of power between the states and the national government. They gave more thought to this issue of federalism only as the events of the post-revolutionary period revealed that neither the states nor the national government could individually cope with international challenges and domestic dislocations. The Temptations of Peace Many of these conflicts arose from the expanding settlement process in the West. That region confronted not only international difficulties such as British efforts to lure Vermonters into Canada and Spanish attempts to encourage secession among southwesterners, but also internal problems as states squabbled over conflicting claims to western land. An even more serious contest arose between "landless" and "landed" states when the latter claimed large western tracts under the terms of their old colonial charters. Only in 1781 when the last of the landed states, Virginia, finally ceded its charter rights to the national government, did all the state governments ratify the Articles of Confederation. The settlement of the West also triggered controversy by democratizing state

22 legislatures, a development some conservatives disdained. They warned that parochial western delegates lacked wealth, education, and a "larger view" of politics sufficient to prudently oversee the operations of government. Such fears of democratic excess shaped the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which withheld full self-government from these new territories until they had attained statehood. Even so, the Northwest Ordinance established an orderly way of incorporating the frontier into the federal system and outlawed slavery in the region. In fact, northern laws abolishing slavery, along with an increase in manumissions in the upper South, swelled the growth of the free black community and altered its character. In the South as a whole, however, slavery continued to expand along with the cotton economy; more blacks lived in enslavement in 1800 than in 1776. The emergence of slavery as the "peculiar institution" of the South during the early national period would dominate the political agenda by the mid-nineteenth century. During the Confederation era, though, contests over the West and battles over monetary policy remained the focal points of political debate. Alarmingly, both the national and state governments proved even more powerless to redress postwar economic disruption than they had in coping with the problems posed by the frontier. Republican Society As political leaders struggled to shape new republican governments, ordinary Americans struggled to define a new republican society. Newly rich families came to demand and receive greater status; workers began to organize; some women claimed a right to greater political consideration, more freedom to divorce, and better educational opportunities; religious dissenters clamored for disestablishment. Yet white male revolutionaries stopped short of extending equality to the most unequal groups in American society, blacks and women. Suggestions that women received equal rights were met with outright hostility; indeed, the popular form of "seduction literature" continued to emphasize the differences between men and women even as this society gave women new authority as the guardians of sexual virtue and as "republican mothers." Their view of equality was essentially conservative, one that emphasized leveling the top of society by abolishing aristocratic privilege rather than raising up the lowest social groups. From Confederation to Constitution In the mid-1780s, the political crisis of the Confederation peaked as a result of both the controversy over the Jay-Gardoqui treaty and the fear caused by Shays' Rebellion. In response, political leaders called the Constitutional Convention of 1787. Although the convention only held the power to revise the Articles of Confederation, it produced instead an entirely new frame of government establishing a truly national republic, the federal Constitution. Based largely on James Madison's "Virginia Plan," the new Constitution provided for a

23 separation of powers among a judiciary, a bicameral national legislature, and a strong executive. They broke a deadlock among the delegates over the issue of representation, a crisis that reflected the deep rivalry between northern and southern states, through a compromise that provided for equal representation of states in the upper house of Congress and representation proportional to population in the lower house, with a slave counting as three-fifths of a free person.

24 Fourth Area of Study: The Early Republic [1789-1824]

Suggested Reading Please read Chapter 9 of the recommended textbook.

Learning Objectives Upon the completion of this Area of Study you should be able to: 1. Describe Alexander Hamilton’s financial program and the reasons it provoked opposition. 2. Trace the highlights of American relations with Spain, Britain, and France through this decade. 3. Describe the origins of the Federalist and Republican parties in the 1790s, their principles, and their main sources of support. 4. Explain the relationship between the party system and social and economic divisions in the nation. 5. Explain the significance of the 1800 presidential election. 6. Outline Jefferson’s political principles and philosophy of agrarianism. 7. Describe the process of western expansion after 1800 and the response of native peoples. 8. Discuss the course of American foreign policy both before and after the War of 1812, in a way that explains causes and consequences of the war. 9. Describe American nationalism after the War of 1812. Area of Study Overview: The Constitution was intended to correct the flaws of the Articles of Confederation by strengthening the national government. Yet most Americans retained a strong suspicion of government power. Thus, launching the new government was filled with peril. The Revolution had strengthened the ideology of republicanism, but Americans with different political, social, and economic visions of the Republic’s future interpreted republicanism differently. More particularly, an emerging market economy began both to rally one segment of Americans and to alienate another—foreshadowing the continuing link of economic growth to social condition and political opinion. This conflict, which was central to the struggle over ratification of the Constitution, intensified after 1789. And, when war resumed between Britain and France in this period, the United States found its rights and independence challenged. In sum, the first years under the Constitution represented a further working out of domestic and international problems that harked back to the Revolution and its meaning for the American people. The heated party battles of the 1790s deeply divided the leaders of the Revolution and

25 caused Americans to fear for the survival of the Republic. In 1801 Thomas Jefferson became the first leader of an opposing party to become president. Jefferson had come to power by opposing Hamilton’s and the Federalist party’s domestic and foreign policies, and he entered office determined to reverse the policies of the previous decade and preserve an agrarian empire of liberty. Yet once in office he quickly discovered that governing the nation was quite different from leading an opposition party. Jefferson and his successors confronted many of the same problems that had been central to the politics of the previous decade: the government’s role in the economy, the West, and American rights and independence in a perilous world of warring superpowers. In the end, they chose policies not so very different from those of the Federalists, policies reflecting a new American consciousness of nationhood. Presentations The first video presentation for this Area of Study is entitled A New System of Government. After the War for Independence, the struggle for a new system of government begins. Professor Maier looks at the creation of the Constitution of the United States. The Republic survives a series of threats to its union, and the program ends with the deaths of John Adams and Thomas Jefferson on the Fourth of July, 1826. Please visit A Biography for America and select program 5. Provided by Annenberg/CPB. The second video is entitled Western Expansion. At the dawn of the nineteenth century, the size of the United States doubled with the Louisiana Purchase. The Appalachians are no longer the barrier to American migration west; the Mississippi River becomes the country's central artery; and Jefferson's vision of an Empire of Liberty begins to take shape. American historian Stephen Ambrose joins Professors Maier and Miller in examining the consequences of the Louisiana Purchase -- for the North, the South, and the history of the country. Please visit A Biography for America and select program 6. Provided by Annenberg/CPB. For those students following along with the classroom lectures provided through the generosity of the University of Alaska and Dr. David Noon, there are four lectures which cover this and the following Area of Study. Please visit The Federalist Era I which deals with the domestic politics of the Federalist Era during the 1790s. Federalist Era II covers the1790s; Alien and Sedition Acts; and the fall of the Federalist Party. The other two lectures are Jefferson's Era and The War of 1812. Two supplemental audio presentations for this Area of Study are provided through the generosity of the Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs at Ashland University The presenters are Dr. Gordon Lloyd (Pepperdine University) and Dr. Christopher Flannery (Azusa Pacific University). Ratification Topics in this presentation include: What is the enduring significance of the nine month campaign to secure ratification of the Constitution? Just how closely did the Constitution come to not being ratified? Who were the main actors in the ratification struggle and what were their arguments? Why did James Madison agree to introduce a Bill of Rights in the First Congress?

26 What were the arguments in favor and against the adoption of the Bill of Rights? How reliable are the original documents surrounding ratification and the adoption of the Bill of Rights? (91 Min)

The Bill of Rights Topics in this presentation include: How did Madison propose to adopt "moderate" and "proper" amendments that would not alter the structure and power of the newly formed government? Did Madison and Jefferson change their minds concerning the importance of a Bill of Rights? Why did Sherman urge that the Bill of Rights be attached to the end of the original constitution and why did Madison object to this strategy? What changes were made to Madison's June 8 proposals? (92 Min)

Internet Sites Related to This Area of Study Introduction In 1789 George Washington journeyed from his home in Virginia to New York City to be inaugurated as the first President of the United States. The country he traveled through represented two very different societies: one the semi-subsistence barter economy of the isolated interior, the other the commercial market economy along the Atlantic coast. This fundamental division shaped attitudes toward the new national government. On the one hand, Thomas Jefferson championed the self-sufficient farmer, distrusted elites, and wanted a less active government. On the other, Alexander Hamilton favored a strong central government beneficial to commercially oriented Americans. The disparate views were popularly represented by the French writer turned farmer, Hector St. John de Crevecoeur, and by a self- made citizen of commercial America, Benjamin Franklin. Political debates and foreign disagreements during Washington's presidency stimulated the rise of political parties in spite of Americans' distrust of narrow interest groups. Major events of Washington's administration and that of his successor John Adams provided a framework to hold a socially diverse nation together. The websites listed below will assist you in comprehending life in the new Federal Republic and acquaint you with its leaders. Examine the various crises of the era by following the additional research links. Web Activities 1. Washington made his journey to New York reluctantly. Read his Address to the Mayor, Corporation and Citizens of Alexandria (magnify). What reason does Washington give for his return to public life? To understand the life Washington was leaving, visit his home at Mount Vernon and take the mansion tour. What does your visit to Mount Vernon indicate concerning social divisions in the early Republic? Was Washington representative of the self- sufficient farming sector of society, the commercial market economy, or both? Washington was aware of the need for strong leadership and the precedent his

27 presidency set. Visit the George Washington papers at the Library of Congress. Read the essay on Washington's Letterbooks (copies of letters he sent), "Yr. Most Humble Obt. Servt." Be sure to follow several of the links to read Washington's own words. What insights on his administrative skills and the routine of governing does the correspondence provide? Go to The Surprising George Washington, an article by Richard Norton Smith, in Quarterly of the National Archives and Records Administration, Spring 1994, and read parts three and four. What does Smith indicate is surprising about Washington? How does he contend that Washington harmonized America's competing interests? Washington distrusted political parties. When in 1796 he decided not to run again, he offered "counsels of an old and affectionate friend" in his Farewell Address. Skim through the document and list several of these "counsels," then review your list to see with which political faction Washington is most in agreement and why. What were the consequences for American politics of Washington's decision? Finally, explore additional interpretations of Washington at the University of Virginia site The Apotheosis of Washington . Scroll down to the table and follow the three biographical section links to read about Washington's life, then scan The Moral Washington: Construction of a Legend (1800-1920s) and Washington Materialized: Paradigm of Enshrinement (1856- 1930's). Think about the manner in which Washington has been imagined and re-imagined by generations of Americans. Go to Case Studies in Comparison and view images of Washington at the National Portrait Gallery in the section "Space, Time, and Washington." Do you concur with the statement, "whatever the republic was to become, Americans agreed that George Washington personified it" ? 2. Hector St. John de Crevecoeur, who referred to himself as a "humble American Planter, a simple cultivator of the earth," characterized the American landscape of Washington's era by the widespread equality of its people. The farmers of the interior represented his "new man." While Crevecoeur praised the self-reliant rural farmer, Benjamin Franklin encouraged Americans to take advantage of commerce and a wider market economy. Crevecoeur's twelve Letters From An American Farmer provide a portrait of rural American life. Go to letter number three, What is an American, and read several selections. List some of the virtues promoting equality that Crevecoeur extolls. Read the text of Benjamin Franklin's "The Way to Wealth." Make a list of Franklin's economic ethics -- Poor Richard's maxims -- centering on industry and frugality. Compare them with your list of Crevecoeur's virtues. After reviewing these sites and your lists, ponder the following statement, "the ethics of Franklin's marketplace, which looked forward to the opening up of opportunity in American society, threatened to destroy Crevecoeur's egalitarian America" Did it? 3. The tensions and conflicts Thomas Jefferson, Alexander Hamilton, and John Adams caused within Washington's administration challenged his leadership. How did the political philosophies of these men differ?

“First” political cartoon, published in Ben Franklin’s Pennsylvania Gazette newspaper Was the conflict between Jefferson and Hamilton a significant factor in the emergence of political parties, or did it simply mirror the social divisions noted in activity 2? What were the political outcomes of their differences and how did this contribute to Adam's troubled presidency? The following sites will assist you in your responses. Go to the site created by Ian Finseth at the University of Virginia, The Rise and Fall of Alexander Hamilton. First read the introductory essay Gone But Forgotten which juxtaposes Hamilton's career with Jefferson's; then under "Political Battles," read Secretary of the Treasury. Next go to the Index of the online Revolution to Reconstruction project's Biography of Alexander Hamilton by Lisa Marie DeCarolis. How do the topics included in the "Precipice of Power" section compliment the material on Finseth's site and in your text? Read number 22, Jefferson and Madison create a party, which narrates their response to Hamilton's activities. Next read item 26, Strained loyalties: the French Revolution 1789-1799, and 36, The Quasi War with Adams (1789-1800). On the one hand, Hamilton was determined to solve the nation's financial problems and link the interests of the wealthy with the new government. The Tax History Museum site examines the thorny issue of Hamilton and the need for revenue production. Go to the section 1777-1815. Scroll down to the years 1790-94 and read the summary of Hamilton's "Report on Public Credit" and "Report on Manufactures." Why was the second report rejected? On the other hand, Jefferson distrusted the market economy and opposed Hamilton's program. In Notes on the State of Virginia, read Query 19, The present state of manufactures, commerce, interior and exterior trade; then read Jefferson on the subject of Money & Banking and Interpreting the Constitution . What insights on his political philosophy do these documents provide? Finally, John Adams shared neither Hamilton's commercial-industrial vision nor Jefferson's views on equality and personal liberty. During the election of 1796 Hamilton opposed both Adams and Jefferson. Although Adams' victory was predicted by many (see Peterson's letter) a political "fault line" separated Adams from Jefferson, his Vice President. Go to the Adams Papers at the Massachusetts Historical Society and review the chronology of Adams years during the Washington Administration and his own, 1789- 1801. What do these benchmark events tell you about the man, his relationship with Hamilton, and his troubled presidency?

Additional Research Links

Federalist Leadership To continue your examination of how Washington's life represented and shaped his era view the three part timeline site at "The George Washington Papers" at the Library of Congress. Each timeline contains internal links to documents in the collection and includes illustrations that may be magnified. See also The Diaries of George Washington.

29 The Papers of George Washington project at the University of Virginia compliments the Library of Congress collection and offers additional research opportunities. See the Documents and Articles section. Two primary sources on the "whiskey rebellion" are The Whiskey Rebellion, 1794, a Proclamation and The Whiskey Insurrection from "The Diaries of George Washington 30 September to 19 October 1794." The Whiskey Rebellion site at PBS provides a good summary of events.

Political Parties To explore more on the emergence of political parties return to the Treasures of Congress. Go to The Formation of Political Parties: Early Animosities and The Formation of Political Parties: The Alien and Sedition Acts. Next, for a brief look at the controversial election of 1800, go to "Congress Finds a Home: The House Selects a President."Click on "read more," then be sure to magnify the images of each of the key players. Key diplomatic documents of the era include: Treaty With the Cherokee : 1791 The Proclamation of Neutrality :1793, issued by George Washington The Jay Treaty:1794, includes all articles Treaty of Greenville:1795 Treaty of Friendship, Limits, and Navigation Between Spain and the U.S. (Pinckney's Treaty): 1795, including full text of related presidential and Senate messages. Americans and the French Revolution During the 1790s many Americans believed that the future of their republic was threatened by events abroad, specifically by the French Revolution and its consequences. To better understand American anxieties refer to The French Revolution Timeline and the timeline for the Napoleonic Europe 1799 -1815 . Read David Cody's brief essay on the French Revolution to further understand the revolution's importance in the context of Western history. Note the links to works by Thomas Paine (see Web activities chapter 5) and Edmund Burke (see Web activities chapter 6).

Area of Study Summary This Area of Study covered the tumultuous 1790s, the first decade of the Republic's existence under the new Constitution. The Suggested Reading began by describing the celebrations over ratification of the Constitution, celebrations that could not hide basic divisions in society and the great uncertainty many Americans felt over their republican

30 experiment. Two of the central purposes of the chapter were to describe the basic division in the United States between the commercial and semi-subsistence economies and to explain how this division was central to the development of two competing political parties. 1789: A Social Portrait As the new government began operation in 1789, the Republic divided roughly between commercial and semi-subsistence Area of Studies of the country. Hector St. John de Crvecoeur celebrated the life of semi-subsistence farm families, where wealth remained fairly evenly distributed and where people tried to provide as much of their own food and wants as they could. They had only limited contact with regions beyond their local community, seldom saw cash, and functioned in a largely barter economy. Benjamin Franklin, by contrast, came to symbolize the world of commerce. In his writings, he praised the marketplace and upheld the commercial side of America; he showed how urban economies and commercial farm families had become tied to larger markets that sold specialized goods or services were sold and created increased social distance between the rich and the poor. Americans who participated in the commercial economy held different attitudes about wealth and opportunity than did those who lived in semi-subsistence Area of Studies. Urban merchants and workers--as well as commercial farmers--generally supported the Constitution during the debate over ratification, while semi-subsistence farmers tended to oppose it, fearing too much concentration of power in the hands of aristocrats and urban merchants. Content with their lives and harboring the traditional fear of taxes, debt, and intrusive government, they wanted to preserve their society and avoid any outside interference in their lives.

The New Government Americans put their faith in George Washington, who more than any individual personified the Republic. Washington organized the executive branch into Departments and created a cabinet of advisors. The most important positions in the cabinet went to Alexander Hamilton, as Secretary of the Treasury, and Thomas Jefferson, as Secretary of State. To mollify opponents of the Constitution, Congress approved and the states ratified a series of amendments to safeguard certain basic liberties. These first 10 amendments became known as the Bill of Rights. A strong nationalist, Hamilton emerged as the dominant figure in the cabinet. He worked to strengthen the power of the federal government by assuming the states' remaining Revolutionary war debts and funding, or paying, the outstanding federal debt. This process became known as funding and assumption. Congress finally approved these policies once Hamilton agreed to the compromise of locating the permanent capital on the Potomac River. Eager to tie the wealthy to the new government, Hamilton also proposed that Congress charter a national bank to aid the Treasury in its transactions, a protective tariff to stimulate manufacturing, and a series of internal or excise taxes (the one on whiskey was most controversial). Congress eventually approved most of Hamilton's recommendations. His argument that the Constitution gave the national government implied as well as explicit powers

31 and that legislators and executive should interpret the document loosely persuaded Washington to sign the bill creating the national bank. While these ideas appealed to citizens active in the commercial life of the nation, they stimulated fears among other Americans. Eventually the Republican Party, organized by James Madison and headed by Thomas Jefferson, opposed the policies of the Federalists. Republicans feared that a corrupt aristocracy would come to dominate American society, that financial speculators, wealthy bankers, and unprincipled politicians would gain power, as had happened in Great Britain with the powerful Bank of England. They endorsed a strict construction of the Constitution, and wanted a less active federal government. Expansion and Turmoil in the West Washington tried to remain above the hostility developing between Jefferson and Hamilton, but Hamilton succeeded in gaining the president's support to send an army against citizens in western Pennsylvania. There, a whiskey rebellion had arisen against Hamilton's excise tax, an effort to raise money for the federal government and assert its power. Hamilton strategy proved an overreaction, for the army encountered little resistance and easily restored order. The Washington administration also sought to tie the West more firmly to the Union by defeating the Miami Confederacy and opening new tracts of land in the Ohio valley to white settlement. Thomas Pinckney also negotiated a favorable treaty with Spain that allowed western farmers to use the Mississippi River to ship their produce. Note: For more information and a video presentation on the life and presidency of George Washington, please visit the C-Span American Presidents website. The video program is from George Washington’s Mount Vernon, Program guests: Richard Norton Smith, Mt. Vernon Resident Director James Rees and others We express our sincere appreciation to C-Span for making this educational resource available. The Emergence of Political Parties Political parties emerged slowly because the ideology of republicanism taught Americans to fear parties. But the sharp controversy over Hamilton's domestic policies led to the formation of the first national parties in American history. The Federalists, led by Hamilton and Washington, took shape first. In general, Federalists believed in order and hierarchy and supported a loose construction of the Constitution (in order to allow the federal government to actively encourage commerce and manufacturing). Eventually the Republican Party, organized by Madison and headed by Jefferson, opposed the policies of the Federalists. Differences over foreign policy also sparked the formation of parties. The French Revolution became a focus of controversy in the United States. When monarchical England and republican France went to war, Washington pursued a neutral course. The Federalists, however, favored Britain, while the Jeffersonians backed France. Efforts to settle the differences between the U.S. and Britain failed, particularly on issues of trade, neutral rights, and impressment. The

32 U.S. gained little from Jay's Treaty (1795), which tied the nation economically to Britain. Bitter debates over the treaty further stimulated the creation of rival parties. In 1796, Washington announced that he would not seek another term. In the first contested presidential election in American history, John Adams, the Federalist candidate, defeated Jefferson, who was elected Vice President. The Presidency of John Adams Differences of opinion over America's role in European affairs continued to fester during the administration of Federalist John Adams. The major events of these years--the XYZ Affair, the Quasi-War with France, the Federalist-sponsored Alien and Sedition Acts, and the Republican response in the Virginia and Kentucky resolutions--all became part of the debate over America's diplomatic course. They also demonstrated the violence and bitterness in politics during the 1790s. The Federalists increasingly lost support because of their suppression of civil liberties and their aristocratic disdain for the masses. An increasingly fierce personal feud between Adams and Hamilton also hurt the party. Thus in 1800, Jefferson defeated Adams (although the House had to break the tie between him and his vice-presidential running mate, Aaron Burr). Despite the threat of violent tumult and even civil war, power passed peacefully from one administration and party to another. Under Washington's firm leadership, the Federalists had made the Constitution a workable instrument of government and established economic policies and principles of foreign affairs (particularly of neutrality) that even Jefferson's Republicans would continue. Note: For more information and a video presentation on the life and presidency of John Adams please visit the C-Span American Presidents website. The video Program is from the Stone Library of the Adams Mansion at the Adams National Historic Site - Quincy, MA, Program guest: David McCullough, Author and Historian. Mr. McCullough’s books include: John Adams, The Johnstown Flood, The Great Bridge, Brave Companions, Mornings on Horseback, The Path Between the Seas, and Truman. We express our sincere appreciation to C- Span for making this educational resource available. Additional C-Span resources include: • Interview with author Joseph Ellis on John Adams' collection of books Watch • Author C. Bradley Thompson on John Adams & Liberty Watch • Booknotes with Joseph Ellis on Passionate Sage Watch • Vignette on the Adams' Gravesites Watch Jefferson in Power The first section examines Jefferson's political philosophy. A complex individual, Jefferson combined a fondness for making seemingly radical pronouncements with a large dose of political realism. Jefferson had a strong faith in the people and a belief in limited government. Convinced that agriculture nurtured the values necessary to preserve republicanism, he wanted to keep commerce and urbanization distinctly subordinate in the American economy. Jefferson found, however, that he confronted different problems in power than in

33 opposition. His agrarian principles led him to push actively for the United States' geographic expansion, but on economic questions he increasingly compromised. In particular, he failed to dismantle Hamilton's economic program, opposition to which had largely caused the original formation of the Republican Party. Jefferson's radical rhetoric contrasted sharply with his more pragmatic actions. In another crucial development, the Supreme Court established the principle of judicial review -- the right of the Court to interpret the Constitution -- primarily as a result of the influence of Chief Justice John Marshall, a staunch Federalist appointed by John Adams at the end of his term. Based on this theory, the Court asserted its right to rule on the constitutionality of any laws passed by Congress and state legislatures, as well as its right to review decisions on constitutional matters by state courts. Marshall first laid out the principle of judicial review in the case of Marbury v. Madison (1803). Eager to bring all branches of government under their party's control, Republicans attempted to impeach several notoriously partisan Federalist judges, but Congress balked at this action, thereby preserving the independence of the judiciary. Jefferson and Western Expansion Jefferson viewed western expansion as a blessing. He believed that it would preserve his republic of liberty by keeping agriculture and the values of the semi-subsistence economy dominant. When France suddenly offered to sell the entire Louisiana region to the United States, Jefferson leapt at the chance to double the size of the country, even though he believed that the federal government lacked the power under the Constitution to acquire territory. Once again, as with his economic policies, practical politics prevailed over ideological purity. Jefferson dispatched an expedition under the leadership of Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to explore the new territory, find a route to the Pacific, and strengthen American claims to Oregon.

Whites and Indians on the Frontier As whites poured across the Appalachian Mountains into the Ohio Valley, a series of revivals broke out on the frontier. These revivals marked the beginning of the Second Great Awakening and were characterized by strong displays of emotion. The camp meetings offered social outlets for isolated pioneer families and offered an emotional release from the hard life on the frontier, while the revivalists preached a message of hope and the ability of individuals to gain salvation. As white settlement increased, tensions between whites and Indians steadily grew across the Ohio Valley. White encroachment on Indian lands and disputes over Indian trade with whites led to cultural disorder among the northwestern tribes. In this situation, some Indian leaders, such as Black Hoof, urged adoption of white culture .Most of the tribes in the region, however, rallied behind a religious movement promoted by the Shawnee leader Tenskwatawa, who was known as the Prophet, much as frontier families turned to the revivalism of camp meetings.

34 The Prophet sought to revitalize Indian cultures by limiting contact with whites, rejecting white goods, and preserving tribal lands. His movement, however, proved unable to prevent further land cessions. As the Prophet's prestige declined, his brother Tecumseh assumed leadership of the western tribes. Tecumseh advocated combining the western and southern tribes into a political and military alliance to protect their lands and way of life. Note: For more information and a video presentation on the life and presidency of Thomas Jefferson please visit the C-Span American Presidents website. The video program is from Monticello - Charlottesville, VA. Program guests include: Dan Jordan, President, Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation; Andrew Burstein, author, The Inner Jefferson: Portrait of a Grieving Optimist; Annette Gordon-Reed, author, Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemings: An American Controversy; Fraser Neiman, Monticello Archaeology Director; Cinder Stanton, Monticello Research Historian; and Dianne Swann-Wright We express our sincere appreciation to C-Span for making this educational resource available. Additional educational resources from C-Span include: • Jefferson Impersonator Bill Baker Watch • Peter Drummy on Jefferson Collections Watch • Panel on Jefferson and Sally Hemmings Watch • David Alder, A Picture Book of Thomas Jefferson Watch • Garrett Sheldon on What Would Jefferson Say? Watch • Alfred Mapp and Gene Crotty, "Talking About Jefferson" • Booknotes with Annette Gordon-Reed on Thomas Jefferson and Sally Hemmings Watch

The Second War for American Independence Increasingly, foreign affairs dominated American politics. Efforts to define an American cultural identity led to conflicts with both the Barbary states of North Africa and with Britain and France. When the latter two nations resumed their war in 1805, neither power was willing to respect the United States' rights as a neutral nation, and began to raid American shipping on the high seas and impress American sailors. American grievances were stronger against Britain, which had the more powerful navy. Reluctant to resort to force, Jefferson tried to use peaceful coercion by imposing an embargo on American trade with both countries. Some regions, especially New England, openly flouted the law, and eventually the Republican Party had to abandon this policy. James Madison, Jefferson's successor, came under mounting pressure from younger nationalistic Republicans, known as the War Hawks. The War Hawks grew increasingly indignant over British interference with American shipping and meddling with western Indians. When renewed efforts at peaceful coercion and negotiation failed, the U.S. finally declared war on Britain in order to preserve American rights and uphold national independence.

35 Americans proved woefully ill-prepared for war, however. Efforts to invade Canada failed dismally, the British occupied Washington and burned a number of government buildings, and only Andrew Jackson's victory at New Orleans redeemed American pride. Meanwhile, Tecumseh allied his followers with the British, seeing such an alliance as the western tribes' best chance to safeguard their lands. His death in battle ended his pan-Indian movement. Federalist leadership incited New England states to refuse to support the war, and the region's opposition culminated in the Hartford Convention of 1814, which rejected calls for disunion but proposed several constitutional amendments to reduce the South's political influence. Despite the country's many military failures, the war produced several long-term consequences. It broke the power of Tecumseh's movement, opening the way for white settlement of the Northwest. It destroyed the Federalist Party, which suffered irreparable damage due to its opposition to the war. Finally, it led to a groundswell of American nationalism. Note: For more information and a video presentation on the life and presidency of James Madison please visit the C-Span American Presidents website. The video program is from Montpelier - Montpelier Station,VA. Program guests include: Jack Rakove, Professor of History, Stanford University; Holly Shulman, Research Associate Professor, University of Virginia, and Co-Editor of the Papers of Dolley Madison; Kathleen Stiso Mullins, Executive Director, Montpelier; and Lynne Lewis, Senior Archaeologist, National Trust for Historic Preservation. We express our sincere appreciation to C-Span for making this educational resource available. Additional educational resources from C-Span include: • Discovering Madison -- Montpelier Video Watch • Madison and the Burning of Washington D.C. Watch • Madison Gravesites Watch • Dolley Madison at Montpelier Watch • Booknotes with Lance Banning on The Sacred Fire of Liberty Watch • Booknotes with Jack Rakove on Original Meanings Watch America Turns Inward This postwar nationalism emerged in the foreign policy of President James Monroe. The Transcontinental Treaty established the principle of American expansion to the Pacific, while the Monroe Doctrine proclaimed the New World's independence from Europe. American relations with Britain improved dramatically after 1815, as the two nations reached agreement on a number of long-standing differences. Britain's recognition of American sovereignty ended the threat of foreign interference in American affairs, bringing to a close the quest for independence from British control and interference that had begun with the Revolution. However, the Missouri crisis of 1819-1821, which brought the issue of slavery to the forefront of national politics for the first time, offered an example of the formidable challenges that remained for the American republic and its leaders.

36 Note: For more information and a video presentation on the life and presidency of James Monroe please visit the C-Span American Presidents website. The video program is from James Monroe Museum - Fredericksburg, VA. Guests include: Dan Preston, Project Director, James Monroe Papers; John Pearce, Director, James Monroe Museum; and David Voelkel, Assistant Director and Curator, James Monroe Museum. We express our sincere appreciation to C-Span for making this educational resource available. Additional Educational resources from C- Span include: • Monroe Bio Watch • Re-air of LIVE Monroe Programming Watch • Monroe Home in Ashland Highland Watch • The Papers of James Monroe Watch • Richard Norton Smith on Monroe and John Quincy Adams Watch • A Vignette on The Monroe Doctrine Watch

37 Fifth Area of Study: The Opening of America (1815-1850)

Suggested Reading Please read Chapter 10 of the recommended textbook.

Learning Objectives When you have completed this Area of Study you should be able to: 1. Explain the nature of the market revolution and its importance to American economic growth after 1815. 2. Describe the transportation revolution and its impact on the economy. 3. State the role of the Supreme Court in promoting economic growth and investment. 4. Describe the impact of technology, the rise of factories, and the changing lives of workers in this period. 5. Describe the impact of the market revolution on American society and values, with particular attention to economic specialization, the concentration of wealth, the increased discipline of the clock, and the boom-bust cycle. 6. State the terms and significance of the Missouri Compromise. Area of Study Overview: When Washington became the first president of the United States in 1789, American society was divided into a small commercial sector along the seaboard and a larger semi-subsistence economy in the interior. The party battles that erupted in the 1790s reflected competing views of social and economic development. The Federalists hoped to create a commercial nation, while the Jeffersonian Republicans championed an agrarian, semi-subsistence republic. In the quarter-century after 1789, these two parts of the country developed economically and socially independent of one another. As white settlers began pouring across the Mountains, the lack of cheap land transportation prevented the integration of eastern and interior societies. But developments over the next generation would both link the regions together and transform America into an integrated commercial nation.

Presentations The video presentation for this Area of Study is entitled The Rise of Capitalism. The program explores how individual enterprise merged with technological innovation to launch the Commercial Revolution -- the seedbed of American industry. The program features the ideas of Adam Smith, the efforts of entrepreneurs in New England and Chicago, the Lowell Mills Experiment, and the engineering feats involved in Chicago's early transformation from marsh to metropolis. Please visit A Biography for America and select program 7. This presentation has been provided by Annenberg/CPB. The classroom lecture for this Area of Study is The Market Revolution (it's more

38 interesting than it sounds!) Presented by Dr. David Noon, University of Alaska- Southeast.

Websites Related to This Area of Study A previous Area of Study portrayed the new Republic as a nation divided between the semi-subsistence economy of the interior regions and the older commercial economy of the east. By contrast, "The Opening of America" depicts an era of opportunity and inclusion in a national market economy. One of the powerful integrating forces linking the isolated interior with the eastern seaboard was the new transportation system. Canals, steamboats, and eventually railroads, transformed the rural landscape and enabled inland farmers to move goods cheaply across land. Led by the Marshall court the Federal government promoted commercial risk taking, and the appearance of factories transformed the work place and workers' lives. The new economic order reflected a more mobile and competitive society, defined primarily by materialism and wealth. Though many Americans experienced the benefits of a single market, wealth was more unevenly distributed and sectional tensions increased. Web activities for this Area of Study will explore the new transportation system and the consequences of the Canal Age, take you to Lowell, Massachusetts, the center of textile manufacturing, and introduce foreign visitor's impressions of this new restless society.

Erie Canal, 1825 The New York Historical Society Web Activities 1. In 1825 the Erie Canal, connecting the great lakes with New York City, became an essential part of the economic revolution. The canal transformed the pastoral landscape pictured in the painting above and revolutionized the way goods moved across the land. What impact did the canal have on the region? What technologies made construction possible? How did the canal change the social map of the region? Find answers at these links. History of the Erie Canal at the National Canal Museum. History of the Erie Canal maintained by the University of Rochester Department of

39 History. The Erie Canal a Brief History at The New York State Canal System. Although the Erie Canal is the most famous, other regions promoted canal building. Study the map on page 259 of your text. Identify the region with the largest concentration of canals. Make a list of the states outside that region that built canals. Tour the following sites. Compare the information you find with your list. What states can you add? Why do you think some states were more willing to fund internal improvements projects? Pennsylvania Canals (follow internal links to other state canal systems). Illinois & Michigan Canal Virtual Tour Chesapeake & Ohio Canal National Historical Park Building the Commonwealth ~ Virginia's Board of Public Works (1816) promotes canal construction (magnify the images). 2. While canals transformed the landscape, the Lowell mills transformed the environment by harnessing the power of the Merrimack River. Lowell became the symbol of the textile industry in the United States. Based on paternalism and profits, and promoted as a model community, Lowell became the showplace of American industry. The factory town connected to the rural farm by recruiting the daughters of New England families as workers. Take an historical Web excursion to Lowell. First use the Early Industrialization Timeline to situate major turning points in American industrialization in an international perspective. Next read the essay "Seeds of Industry" (begin with the Prologue) at Lowell National Historic Park. Visit Early Industrialization in Lowell a virtual museum of Lowell images. Go to "Maps of Lowell" to note what changes occurred between 1821 and 1832. Go to Lowell Mills, read the first section "Factory Rules from the Handbook to Lowell, 1848," scroll down and read "Boarding House Rules." Now, visit a reconstructed Boardinghouse. Next, read excerpts from the account of a female factory worker, Harriet Robinson: Lowell Mill Girls. How accurate was the idyllic picture mill owners advanced? As competition increased conditions in the mills deteriorated. Return to Lowell Mills(scroll down) and read the two sections "Massachusetts Investigation into Labor Conditions" and "A Description of Factory Life by an Associationist in 1846." According to Lowell Mill Girls and the Rhetoric of Women's Labor Unrest how did the mill girls react? Finally, read Counterpoint: Workers and Industrialization, in your text p. 315. Did mill work improve women's status in the new market economy or make them victims? Did benefits out weigh hardships as Counterpoint suggests?

40 3. Taking a barge on the Erie Canal and visiting Lowell became obligatory for Europeans touring the United States in the 1830's. European travelers -- scientists, writers, diplomats, artists -- came from all over Europe as tourists and observers. They provide important clues about what the American Republic represented to outside observers. Take notes as you follow links documenting the traveler's observations. Make a list of similarities and differences in routes taken, observations made, criticisms stated. Fanny Kemble , a British actress, married southerner Pierce Butler. Read selections from Kemble's detailed look at plantation slavery, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation. Swiss artist Karl Bodmer traveled across three-quarters of the North American continent, and was one of the most important artists to paint the American Indian. An English lady, Frances Trollope, wrote Domestic Manners of the Americans during her stay in America, 1827-1831, scroll down to chapter 32. Begin reading at the exchange between passengers on an Erie Canal boat. How does one passenger predict the Area of Study will be altered in five years? Skim through other excerpts from Domestic Manners of the Americans in order to include some of the other subjects considered on your list. Alexis de Tocqueville is the best know traveler of the era. The Democracy in America de Tocqueville project by American Studies Students at the University of Virginia is designed to give you insights on American life in 1831. It includes both primary and secondary materials. Go to Everyday Life and read a few paragraphs on each of the topical links. Follow the same procedure for Red, Black & White: Race in 1831. To travel with de Tocqueville go to Virtual Tour. Novelist Charles Dickens wrote American Notes: Observations made during a tour of the United States , 1842. Scroll down through the site to list the variety of topics Dickens' addresses. Read the entry for Lowell, Massachusetts, Winter 1842. How does he depict life in the mill community? English journalist Harriet Martineau became involved with the women's anti-slavery movement during her visit to America. Society in America, is both in the tradition of travel narrative and part of the reform literature of the era. Read the entries from Montgomery, Alabama, and from Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Compare Martineau's choice of subjects and observations with those of Dickens and Trollope. Finally, the comprehensive European Travelers in America: 1830-1840, will help you answer questions that cropped up as you investigated various travelers Review your list. What did European travelers think of Americans as reflected in the Websites examined in this activity? What common themes are found in their observations? Would the people they observed have agreed? Do You?

Additional Research Links

41 The Transportation Revolution An efficient transportation system was an essential component of the national system of markets that developed after 1815. Roads, steamboats, and railroads connected the nation. Maps like the 1826 Map of Reconnaissance charting the country between Washington and New Orleans were intended to promote internal improvements. Note the caption. The Road through the Wilderness: the Making of the National Road examines the roads' development from conception through construction and completion of the 113 mile stretch from Cumberland to Wheeling in 1811, and to Vandalia, Illinois by the 1830s. For more information visit The National Road a National Park Service site. Robert Fulton demonstrated his ship, the Clermont, in 1807, but The Invention of the Steamboat had the greatest effect on transportation on western rivers. View the Mississippi River at New Orleans, 1845. The Steam Engine Library at the University of Rochester includes a collection of historical documents relating to the history of the steam engine. See Makers of America, Robert Fulton: His Life and its Results (1891) by Robert H. Thurston. The First Meeting of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad Company, 1827, provides an eyewitness account of the ceremony opening the construction project. Such events symbolized the growth of the market economy and ritualized civic participation. Technological Advances Visit the Eli Whitney Museum and follow the contents links. Read about Whitney's struggles for patent protection. His failure led him to turn to musket manufacturing and the process that became the famed "American System of Manufacture." See also Inventing Change: The Whitney Legacy. The Industrial Revolution explains the process and its consequences in Europe and the United States. Samuel F. B. Morse's telegraph did for communications what rail and steam did for transportation. The Morse Papers are at the Library of Congress and offer access to the letterbooks, diaries, scrapbooks, clippings, and drawings of the inventor. View the six part Samuel F. B. Morse Preview. The New Nationalism Chief Justice John Marshall continued to use the power of the court to promote risk taking and economic growth. Go to Historic Supreme Court Decisions. The Cornell Law School site lists cases in alphabetical order. You will find the texts of Chief Justice John Marshall's celebrated decisions in McCulloch v. Maryland, Gibbons v. Ogden, Fletcher v. Peck. For the Dartmouth College v. Woodward case go to The Marshall Cases Index. Now return to the Tax Museum and read the entries for 1816, 1819, and 1820, to understand the fiscal policies the Marshall court advocated.

42 Prosperity and Anxiety For another view on the issue of slavery in the new territories see Missouri Compromise at PBS "Africans in America" (link to full text of the document). The Postal System The development of the postal system had a profound social impact, promoting commerce, mass communication, and new forms of transportation. To explore this phenomenon first visit the United States Postal Service Website tracing the postal service from colonial times to establishment under the Articles of Confederation. The Postal Role in U.S. Development describes the systems early years. Area of Study Summary This Area of Study examined the fundamental economic changes that occurred during the quarter-century after 1815 and traced the connection between these changes and the alteration of American values and society. The career of Chauncey Jerome illustrates many of the Suggested Reading's themes. The new market society depended on a stricter sense of time, and by providing inexpensive, mass-produced clocks and aggressively marketing them in the United States and even around the world, Jerome gained fame and wealth. However, the ups and downs of his career also demonstrated how fleeting success could be in the new boom-and- bust economy, as Jerome lost everything near the end of his life and died in poverty. The Market Revolution The development of widespread markets fundamentally transformed the nature of economic opportunity in the United States, a change in which government played an important role. After 1815, Congress enacted the program of the "new nationalism," including a protective tariff, a national bank, and federal aid for internal improvements, which primarily meant the development of canals, steamboats, and eventually railroads. The resulting transportation revolution stimulated economic growth by enabling producers to transport goods cheaply over land for the first time. The Supreme Court under John Marshall furthered this trend by adopting a pro-business stance that encouraged investment and risk-taking. Corporations increasingly became an important form of business organization to which the courts offered special legal protections and encouragements. A Restless Temper Economic expansion generated social and intellectual change. Eager to succeed in the new competitive markets, Americans became a restless people, driven by dreams of wealth and haunted by fears of failure. During this period, they moved constantly, pouring steadily westward or flocking to the burgeoning cities in search of opportunity. The majority of new western settlers were farmers, but speculators bought much of the available land, inciting a boom and bust cycle that caused prices to swing up and down with the economy. At the same time, truly significant cities developed in not just the older regions of the country, but in the West as well. The Rise of Factories

43 As markets developed, entrepreneurs reorganized their operations to increase production. For the first time, factories developed in the United States, beginning with the textile industry. Eventually all operations (from opening the cotton bales to weaving the cloth) were combined on one site, with the work done largely by machines tended by semi-skilled operators. Lowell, Massachusetts, became the center of the textile industry and the symbol of this new mode of production. Factory work imposed a new discipline, oriented around the clock and strict schedules, on previously rural residents. In other sectors of the economy, the production process was reorganized without machinery. The shoe industry, for example, broke production down into a series of steps, with workers performing one step in the production process, though all of the work was still done by hand until the 1850s. Convinced that labor was losing its traditional status, workers increasingly protested against these changes by organizing unions, issuing political demands, going on strike, and even creating alternative ways, such as jumping waterfalls, to exhibit their unique skills. The union movement flourished briefly in the 1830s, only to be destroyed by the depression that began in 1837. Social Structures of the Market Society As opportunities for profit expanded, wealth became more unequally distributed in American society. The rich became richer and controlled a larger proportion of the nation's total wealth. Nevertheless, the belief in opportunity and social mobility remained widespread. In reality, while white Americans still had the opportunity to improve their status, actual social mobility became more limited in this period. In addition, status increasingly came to depend upon wealth, rather than family ties or education. As a result, Americans frantically pursued material goods and success. The workings of the market revolution appeared in many of the changes occurring in American society, including the separation of the commercial and the now economically based residential Area of Studies of Kingston, New York; the development of commercial agriculture in Sugar Creek, Illinois; and the careers of mountain men, who entered the fur trade hoping to achieve wealth and status back home.

44 If you are satisfied with the results of your self evaluation, please proceed to the next Area of Study: The Rise of Democracy [1824-1840].

Sixth Area of Study: The Rise of Democracy [1824-1840]

Suggested Reading Please read Chapter 11 of the recommended textbook.

Learning Objectives When you have completed this Area of Study you should be able to: 1. Describe the new democratic system of politics and give the reasons for its emergence in the 1820s, distinguishing between the policies and supporters of the Democrats and Whigs. 2. Explain the relationship between equality and opportunity, and the importance of these values in the new democratic political system. 3. Explain the status of Indians and blacks in the Jacksonian period, and the relationship of racism to democratic politics. 4. Explain the nullification crisis and the development of the nationalist and state sovereignty interpretations of the Constitution. 5. Explain the significance of the banking issue and its impact on the development of the Jacksonian party system. Area of Study Overview: The development of a national market after 1815 transformed the American economy and society. But a second series of fundamental changes accompanied the market revolution: political changes that are often referred to as the rise of democracy. Democracy had not been valued particularly highly by the Revolutionary generation. To be sure, the United States in 1789 had widespread suffrage by European standards. But politics in the early Republic, despite the attack on aristocracy (Chapter 7), still exhibited a strong elitist strain. Leadership remained in the hands of economic and social elites, appeals to the masses were restrained, popular participation—though increasing—was limited, and politics played only a minor role in most people’s lives. All of this changed in the Jacksonian period, as the earlier, more restrained style of politics gave way to the exuberant spirit of democracy.

Presentations The audio presentation for this Area of Study, Andrew Jackson and the Power of the Presidency is provided through the generosity of the Ashbrook Center for Public Affairs at Ashland University. The presenter is Dr. David Tucker.

45 One of the presidents who served during the time period covered by this Area of Study was John Quincy Adams .He served in the House of Representatives for 17 years and remains the only president to hold office in the House after his presidential term expired. During his House tenure, he was an opponent of slavery. By the time he died, he was known as a champion of freedom of speech. For more information and a video presentation on the life and presidency of John Quincy Adams please visit the C-Span American Presidents website. The video program is from Massachusetts Historical Society (MHS) - Boston, MA. Guests Include: Lynn Hudson Parsons, author, John Quincy Adams Professor, SUNY-Brockport; William Fowler, Director, Massachusetts Historical Society; Celeste Walker, Associate Editor, Adams Papers, MHS. We express our sincere appreciation to C-Span for making this educational resource available. Additional educational resources from C-Span include: • John Quincy Adams Bio Watch • John Q. Adams and the Congressional Cemetery Watch • John Q. Adams and the Smithsonian Institution Watch • Author Paul Nagel, John Quincy Adams: A Public Life, A Private Life Watch • John Adams Birthplace Watch • James Monroe and John Quincy Adams Watch

Websites Related to this Area of Study As Andrew Jackson made his way east from Tennessee in early 1829 he looked out on a different world than that seen by the presidential traveler in chapter 8. National markets and economic expansion now linked farmers as well as urban residents to an international economy having little in common with the ideals of Crevecoeur. Americans, responding to the commercial forces transforming society, came to think differently about the role of government. In place of the revolutionary generation, a raucous new political system had begun to emerge, dominated by Jackson and reflected in the new democratic culture he personified. As citizens searched for ways to accommodate increasing tensions they came to define equality as equality of opportunity. Brash, self-confident, and unashamedly racist, they insisted that government must safeguard this ideology -- but, not for everyone. In an era when new national parties united most Americans, conflicting forces still excluded women, African and Native Americans. The web activities for this Area of Study center on Jackson as a symbol of the new democratic culture and its contradictions. Additional research links encourage you to pursue other topics associated with two decades of remarkable change in American life.

46 Andrew Jackson Travels to Washington, 1829 Library of Congress Web Activities 1. When Andrew Jackson traveled from his home, the Hermitage, to the White House, he was the first elected president from west of the Appalachians. He was to become the only president for which an era, the Age of Jackson, was named. Study the image above. How does this image differ from the illustration in chapter 8? Describe the people in the crowd gathered to welcome Jackson. What was Jackson's appeal to them? Was the attraction based on his political philosophy, his new political style, or both? Who at the Red Eagle Tavern did not vote for Jackson? Read The First Roughshod President: The American Franchise. What changes in the franchise made Jackson's claim that he was the people's representative possible? Was he? View an artist's version of inaugural events. Go to By Popular Demand: Portraits of the Presidents and First Ladies, scroll down to "Jackson," select "Inauguration, 1828." Magnify "The President's Levee, or all Creation going on." Why did the event horrify old Federalists? Read Jackson's first inaugural address, delivered in March, 1829, for clues to what he might have said to the audiences that greeted him during his journey and at the White House. What are his views on the "rights of the separate states" and "management of the public revenue"? What policy does he "desire to observe toward the Indian tribes"? Does the address offer any hint of the great confrontations on states rights, the bank, or Indian removal, to come? Nine months later Jackson reported the State of the Nation to Congress. Scroll through the document to read sections on the "modification of the tariff," "State sovereignty," "the ulterior destiny of the Indian tribes," "the charter of the Bank of the United States"? How do Jackson's positions on each reflect the views of "the Common Man"? 2. In the 1830s Andrew Jackson not only dominated American politics, he became an important symbol of the new democratic culture. The only American president for which an era

47 -- "The Age of Jackson" -- is named, Jackson championed the common man, strengthened the office of the presidency, and reshaped the nation's political system. Was Jackson's insistence that he reflected the best interests of the people accurate? How did Jackson's understanding of politics prompt his actions in the nullification crisis and his decision to destroy the Second Bank of the United States? Follow links to investigate these issues. Andrew Jackson "Champion of the Kingly Commons" suggests that Jackson symbolized his time because he represented the ideology of an entire generation. Follow the links to Society, Image, and Rhetoric. Be sure to look closely at the images. Study the primary documents on nullification and the bank. How does John C. Calhoun frame his argument? What language does Jackson use to persuade Americans to reject Calhoun's position? How does the President's rhetoric and views on states rights in nullification change in his bank veto message? South Carolina Ordinance of Nullification , November 24, 1832 President Jackson's Proclamation Regarding Nullification, December 10, 1832 (scroll down almost to the end and begin reading at "I have urged you") Andrew Jackson, Bank Veto Message, June 10, 1832 Go to The Second American Party System and the Tariff. Read the entries for 1828 to 1833 to trace how the tariff became, instead of a source of funding, a point of contention between regions. Andrew Jackson and the Bank War provides a twelve part analysis. Go to Treasures of Congress Exhibit: Conflict with the Executive the Bank War, magnify the "King Andrew the First" cartoon. Compare this cartoon with the one in your text on page 351. How did Jackson's iconic status serve him during the crisis over Nullification and the bank war? 3. The emergence of democracy in America was accompanied by an intensifying racism. The demand for prime cotton land and slaves fostered new attitudes toward Indian people and increased the pace of removal. Discrimination and hostility toward free African Americans sharpened. What do you think is the relationship between an increase in racism and an era associated with rise of democracy? Did Jackson's Indian removal policy have broad public support? Study the map on page 342 of your text. Why was there greater urgency for the removal of southern tribes than northern? Find answers at these links. To begin the activity, view New Perspectives on the West timeline to provide context on Indian removal. After entering click on "Events". Select the decade 1830 - 1840 and follow events. Compare this chronology with a narrative account The United States in the Jackson Era. How does treatment of events in the west differ on each site? Next read an excerpt from "Mobilizing Women, Anticipating Abolition: The Struggle against Indian Removal in the 1830s" by Mary Hershberger, Journal of American History, June 1999 (full text available at your library). Hersberger's examination of the first national women's petition campaign argues that not only was public opposition to

48 removal intense, Jackson had not anticipated how difficult securing Congressional passage for the Indian Removal Act would be. According to Hersberger which segments of society opposed removal and why? Which regions of the country? What two rationales for removal did Jackson offer? Examine the two Supreme Court decisions against Jackson's position, decisions he ignored. Cherokee Nation v. Georgia , 1831 Worcester v. Georgia , 1832 Follow the removal process through these links: Extract from Andrew Jackson's Seventh Annual Message to Congress, December 7, 1835 Treaty of New Echota , December 29, 1835 Major General Winfield Scott's Address to the Cherokee Nation, May 10, 1838 The Trail of Tears , 1838-39 How did free African Americans experience discrimination in the Jackson era? According to Free Blacks in the Antebellum Period how did free African Americans faced with such hostility participate in American society? Compare the documents on this site with those at Blackface Minstrelsy 1830-1852 (follow the first two links). Read the last two paragraphs in Recreation, Alexis de Tocqueville's observations on attending the theater and a quadroon ball. Do you agree with the statement "The power of racism in Jacksonian America stemmed at least in part, from the fact that equality remained part of the nation's creed while it steadily receded as a social reality" (346). 4. Finally, what do you think Jackson's Impact and Legacy was? For the President's own point of view read the State of the Nation section in his "Farewell Address." Counterpoint (337-338), asks "How Democratic Was Jacksonian Democracy"? Do you agree that, "Politicians' self-proclaimed identity with the people was more symbolic than real"? Or, do you think "Jacksonian Democracy" was real, and "reflected public opinion rather than the wishes of the elites"? What evidence did you find in the Web sites you visited to support your answer?

Additional Research Links Before and After Jackson John Quincy Adams: The Diplomat President is a good biography, see especially the section on the elections of 1828. Less than two years after losing his bid for reelection to Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams won a landslide election to the U.S. House of Representatives. See John Quincy Adams' Congressional Career , an essay by Casey Olson. Martin Van Buren: The Political Party President was a skilled politician and party

49 organizer, but took office as the nation entered a depression. The American Currency Exhibit at the San Francisco Federal Reserve Bank, suggests problems Americans had during the "Free Banking Era" that followed Andrew Jackson's destruction of the Second Bank of the United States. The Jacksonian Party System The American Whig Party ~ two sections, one on background another on the party's collapse, includes internal links to key figures. A short biography of Henry Clay, Whig leader, is maintained by Ashland: The Henry Clay Estate. The site also has links to other primary and secondary source material on Clay and a digital image of Clay's will. William H. Harrison: The "Log Cabin" Campaign President , was one of two Whig Party candidates to be elected president. The 1840 Campaign is considered the first modern campaign in American history. Visit American Votes: Presidential Campaign Memorabilia at the Duke University Special Collections Library and click on the "Log Cabin and Hard Cider" campaign of 1840 to see why. Democratic Culture The Democracy in America de Tocqueville project (introduced in chapter 10) by American Studies Students at the University of Virginia provides insights on American life in 1830s and includes both primary and secondary materials. Go to Everyday Life and view sections on "Housing," "Domestic Life," and "Work." Two online supplementsto Daily Lives: Clothing and Fashion, 330-331, are Fashion, and Godey's Lady's Book, January, 1850. Sarah Josepha Hale edited the Lady's Book for over forty years. Read Amy Condra Peters' article Godey's Lady's Book and Sarah Josepha Hale: Making Female Education Fashionable , The Student Historical Journal, Loyola University, 1992-93. Male Suffrage in Europe and Latin America Universal manhood suffrage came gradually in Europe and the new Latin American republics. See the franchise terms of the English 1832 Reform Act. On the Continent the democratic revolutions of 1848 led to the Belgian Electoral Law and in 1824 the Constitution of the Mexican United States granted broad suffrage. In The Process of Mexican Independence (American Historical Review, February, 2000), second section, Virginia Guedea examines the expansion of the franchise in New Spain and the relationship of that process with the political events transforming Spain as well (full text available at your library).

Area of Study Summary The suggested reading assignment for this Area of Study began with an account of

50 Franklin Plummer, a Mississippi politician whose public career mirrored the new features of democratic politics. Born without the advantages of elite society, Plummer rose to power by portraying his opponents, including the hapless Powhatan Ellis, as aristocratic snobs indifferent to ordinary folk. A brilliant if unscrupulous campaigner, Plummer knew how to cater to popular tastes and portray himself as one of the people. His rise and eventual fall (when he began to act like an aristocrat himself) illustrated how profoundly American politics had changed since the time of Hamilton and Jefferson. Equality and Opportunity Expanded economic opportunity challenged the concept of equality because it allowed some citizens the chance to become much richer than others. Consequently, the Jacksonian generation had to confront in its political affairs the fundamental tension that existed between those two basic American values: opportunity and equality. The democratic party system sought to preserve both equality and opportunity by defining equality to mean equality of opportunity rather than condition, and by safeguarding opportunity through the exercise of government power. The Political Culture of Democracy This new emphasis on democracy arose in response to the Panic of 1819 and became symbolized in the person of Andrew Jackson. A rough product of the southern frontier, Jackson lacked the usual background and training of presidential candidates, but his strong showing in the 1824 election, in which he finished first in the popular vote, established his popularity. Democracy manifested the popular belief in equality and opportunity. The Anti-Masonic movement, which began in New York in 1826 and spread to a number of other states, demonstrated a growing resistance to any special privileges that might subvert equality. The Anti-Masons eventually joined the National Republicans, led by John Quincy Adams and Henry Clay, in the new Whig party. Jackson's supporters took the name Democrats. The hard times produced by the Panic of 1819 also brought forth a clamor for government policies to provide relief as well as the demand for a more open and responsive political system. For the first time, politics seemed relevant to many people's lives, and as a result popular participation in elections soared. The new political culture of democracy included the use of conventions to nominate candidates, the championing of "the people" against "aristocracy," the adoption of white manhood suffrage, the acceptance of political parties as essential for the working of the constitutional system. As campaign pageantry gained prominence, politics became mass entertainment involving men, women, and children, although voting remained solely a privilege of males (and in most states of white males). Jackson's Rise to Power Personally cold and stiff, John Quincy Adams did not fit into this democratic system and failed to generate any popular enthusiasm. In 1828 Jackson defeated Adams for the presidency. Much more comfortable with these democratic changes than his predecessor, Jackson rose to power by portraying himself as a representative of the people, sensitive to their

51 interests. In terms of actual governance, Indian removal, nullification, and banking were the three major problems Jackson confronted as president. In dealing with each, he left his distinctive mark on American politics. Democracy and Race Democracy strengthened racism in American society. African Americans remained largely excluded--and Indians entirely so--from the new democratic system. As a result, the position and rights of both groups seriously deteriorated in this period. The federal government dispossessed Indians east of the Mississippi of their lands and forced them to migrate to new lands across the river. Even southern tribes such as the Cherokee that had adopted white ways could not prevent their own removal. Most black Americans remained in slavery, but even free men and women were subject to harsh discrimination and led lives of hardship and exclusion. Democracy and racism became increasingly linked, in part because racism offered whites a refuge from the uncertainties of living in a market-oriented, supposedly egalitarian society. The Nullification Crisis The rise of democracy also involved the concentration of power in the federal government. This process emerged most clearly in the nullification crisis, in which South Carolina, economically depressed and fearful about the future of slavery, endorsed Calhoun's theory that states, through popular conventions, could eradicate any federal laws in which the state believed Congress had exceeded its constitutional authority. The crisis pitted Andrew Jackson, determined to enforce federal power and the tariff, against the state of South Carolina. In the end a compromise negotiated by Clay and Calhoun gradually lowered the tariff and ended the crisis.

The Bank War Jackson also moved to destroy the Second Bank of the United States. He feared the great power wielded by the bank, under the control of private investors, over state banks and the national economy. When the bank's president, Nicholas Biddle, refused to compromise, Jackson vetoed the bill rechartering the bank. He then crippled the bank further by refusing to deposit federal funds (as was required by law) in the bank. The national bank went out of business in 1836, without a national banking system to replace it. By the time he left office, Jackson greatly strengthened the office of the presidency in the American political system. He used the veto to control Congress, insisted he championed the interests of the people, and converted his reelection campaign into a referendum on his policies. Note: For more information and a video presentation on the life and presidency of Andrew Jackson please visit the C-Span American Presidents website. The video program is from The Hermitage - Hermitage, TN. Program guests include: Robert Remini, Author, "Andrew Jackson" a three volume biography; Marsha Mullin - Hermitage Curator We express our sincere appreciation to C-Span for making this educational resource available. Additional

52 educational resources from C-Span include: • Historian Doug Brinkley on "Jackson and the Battle of New Orleans" Watch • Andrew Jackson Papers at the Library of Congress with Gerard Gewalt Watch • Vignette on Jackson's career in the U.S. Senate Watch • Vignette on Jackson's disputed birthplace Watch • Booknotes with John Marszalek on The Petticoat Affair Watch • Vignette on the "Attempted Assassination of Andrew Jackson." Watch • Author and Historian Richard Norton Smith on American Presidents Watch Van Buren and Depression Martin Van Buren, Jackson's hand-picked successor, took office just as the nation entered a severe depression. Consequently, Van Buren devoted most of his term to economic questions, which he dealt with ineffectually. Blaming the Democrats for the hard times and exploiting the new democratic politics, the Whigs gained national power for the first time in 1840. Note: For more information and a video presentation on the life and presidency of Martin Van Buren please visit the C-Span American Presidents website. The video program is from Martin Van Buren National Historic Site - Kinderhook, NY. Guests Include: Michael Henderson, Superintendent, Van Buren National Historic Site, Patricia West, Curator, Van Buren National Historic Site, and Mary Leigh Pell Whitmer, Van Buren Descendant We express our sincere appreciation to C-Span for making this educational resource available. Additional educational resources from C-Span include: • Historians Doug Brinkley and Richard Norton Smith on Martin Van Buren Watch • Vignette on Martin Van Buren with Senate Historian Don Ritchie Watch • Historian David McCullough on "Power and the Presidency." Watch The Jacksonian Party System In the new system that developed, Democrats became the party that feared the commercialization of American society and wanted government to guard against monopolies and not interfere with individuals' moral beliefs. Whigs, on the other hand, were more comfortable with the mechanisms of the market, and advocated an active government to promote economic growth. They defended the need for banks and paper money in the new commercial economy, and insisted that government regulate the morals of society. Whigs built greater strength among the business class, but both parties drew support from workers and farmers. Attitudes toward the market, rather than wealth, distinguished Whigs from Democrats. Yet Democratic efforts to escape the consequences of the market, while preserving its benefits and wealth, were doomed. No party could roll back the market--or democracy.

53 terms, key events, and people and places. These are excellent knowledge assessment tools.

Self Examination Please review the learning objectives set forth at the beginning of this Area of Study. Are you able to do what they suggest? If so, please try the computer scored multiple choice quiz. There are also fill-in-the- blanks and short answer practice quizzes. If you are having difficulty with these you should re-read your text, paying specific attention to important names, places and events. If are satisfied with your results, you are probably ready to take the AMH 241.2 Examination on The Creation of a New Republic. Please thoroughly review your text and study materials before taking this exam. Thank you for allowing Pilgrim Seminary to be part of your educational journey. We look forward to seeing you in another program of study soon.