!2011 Colleen Bevin Kennedy-Karpat ALL RIGHTS RESERVED EMPIRE AND EXOTICISM IN FRENCH FICTION CINEMA, 1930-1939 by COLLEEN BEVIN KENNEDY-KARPAT A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Graduate Program in French written under the direction of Alan Williams and approved by ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ ________________________ New Brunswick, New Jersey January, 2011 ABSTRACT OF THE DISSERTATION Empire and Exoticism in French Fiction Cinema, 1930-1939 By COLLEEN B. KENNEDY-KARPAT Dissertation Director: Alan Williams Although exoticism is a prominent trope in French cinema of the 1930s, scholarly examinations of its deployment in narrative cinema have focused almost exclusively on colonial representations. While the colonies were undeniably important to the interwar imaginary, there remain many fiction films whose action takes place outside the realm of Western empire. Despite their lack of formalized imperial ties, these non-colonial exoticist films rely on narrative strategies that convey the ideological and/or cultural superiority of Western values. Thematically and ideologically, then, exoticist cinema merits a more inclusive criteria, one that looks beyond the fact of territorial affiliation with Western empire in order to examine how inter- and transcultural narratives figure the East-West divide on screen. Using films and related contemporary discourse, this project aims to redefine the exotic in order to account for both colonial and non-colonial forms. In addition, this study identifies and analyzes recurring figures, plot devices, and narrative outcomes that dominate French exoticist film cycles between the arrival of synchronized sound in France and the outbreak of World War II in Europe. ii Acknowledgements I would like to thank the Graduate School-New Brunswick for the fellowship that made it possible to conduct research in Lyon and Paris during the 2008-09 academic year. For their patient assistance in helping me view many of the films and documents referenced in this work, I thank Armelle Bourdoulous and the staff of the Bibliothèque Raymond Chirat at the Institut Lumière in Lyon along with Hermine Cognie and her colleagues at the Centre National Cinématographique archives in Bois d’Arcy and their satellite office in the Bibliothèque Nationale in Paris. I owe an enormous debt of gratitude to Alan Williams and Derek Schilling, both for their insightful comments at multiple stages of this project’s development and for conducting the graduate courses at Rutgers that inspired me to pursue the study of cinema. Many thanks as well to Sandy Flitterman-Lewis and Jimmy Swenson for their contributions to the project as part of the dissertation committee. Thanks are also due to many others who have pointed me in useful directions over the course of my research: Richard Serrano, Matt Matsuda, Doug Slaymaker, Philip Dine, Katie Golsan, Michael B. Miller, and Ahmet Gürata. I also benefited immensely from the chance to present early work at conferences, for many of which the Graduate School at Rutgers generously provided a significant portion of the necessary travel funds. Thanks to the conference organizers and to the Graduate School for allowing me to share my work in these supportive, collegial environments. Finally, my heartfelt thanks to my friends Bénédicte Lebéhot, Jodie Barker, Sheavon Mason and Renée Troiano for their support, friendship, and camaraderie throughout the research and writing process. iii Dedication To my parents and my husband. iv Table of Contents Abstract ii Acknowledgements iii Dedication iv Table of Contents v Tables vii INTRODUCTION: The Exotic Imaginary in 1930s France 1 Theorizing the Exotic Industry and Exoticism Goals and Range of the Current Study Approach and Outline PART ONE: Men Outside the Mainstream 1) Jean Gabin, le Cafard, and Western Solidarity 33 La Bandera (1935): Cultural Cohesion and Colonial Mercenaries Pépé le Moko (1937) and the Multiethnic Exotic Le Messager (1937), or the Failure to Adapt 2) Assimilation Anxiety and Rogue Colons 77 Men Who “Stayed Too Long”: Rogue Colons El Guelmouna, marchand de sable (1931): Rivalry in Rural Algeria Amok (1934): Cultural Readmission, at a Price L’Esclave blanc (1936): A Segregationist Parable PART TWO: Romancing the Exotic 3) Tragedy and Triumph for Interracial Love 131 Lasting Love: Caïn, aventure des mers exotiques (1930) and Baroud (1932) Triumph and Tragedy: Le Simoun (1933) and Yamilé sous les cèdres (1939) Women’s Agency and Exoticist Romance 4) Métissage and Cultural Repatriation 160 European Frog, Exotic Prince: La Dame de Malacca (1937) (Re)claiming French Identity in La Maison du Maltais (1938) v “Une Occidentale tombée en plein harem turc”: L’Esclave blanche (1939) Redefining Exoticist Romance PART THREE: France Imagines the Far East 5) Shanghai Fantasies and the Geishas of Joinville 207 The Seductions of Shanghai: Mollenard (1938) and Le Drame de Shanghaï (1938) The Geishas of Joinville: Ophüls, Farkas, and the Japanese Cycle 6) Sessue Hayakawa’s French Resurrection, 1936-1939 242 A Legend Revised, a Legacy Reborn: Forfaiture (1937) Bringing the Other Back Home: Patrouille Blanche (1939/1942) The Exotic Father: Macao, l’enfer du jeu (1939/1942) CONCLUSION: Exoticism of the Occupation and Beyond 281 The Patriotic Expatriate: L’Homme du Niger (1939) Imperial Stasis: Malaria (1943) The Exoticist Legacy: Indochine (1992) and Beyond Appendix I: Lyrics to “J’attends quelqu’un” 296 Appendix II: Interracial Couples in French Cinema of the 1930s 298 Bibliography 299 Filmography 305 Curriculum vitae 308 vi Tables Table 1: Crisp’s cinéma colonial versus exoticist cinema. 23 Table 2: Top Box Office Earnings for Exoticist Films, 1930-1939 28 vii 1 INTRODUCTION The Exotic Imaginary in 1930s France La sensation de l’Exotisme […] n’est autre que la notion du différent ; la perception du Divers ; la connaissance que quelque chose n’est pas soi-même ; et le pouvoir d’exotisme, qui n’est que le pouvoir de concevoir autre [sic]. - Victor Segalen, Essai sur l’exotisme Cinema’s fascination with the exotic began almost as soon as the medium was born. Many of the early documentary short films – the vues – produced by the Lumière brothers’ film company aimed to capture the same kinds of scenes that previous media could only describe in words or depict within a fixed image. Abel confirms that these travelogue-style films made up a sizeable portion of the Lumières’ productions before the advent of narrative cinema, adding that early narratives also capitalized on “exotic” settings like Russia and Corsica to tell stories more lurid than the French bourgeoisie would accept within their national borders (Ciné 91, 145-50). The idea that French taboos could be more safely played out in a foreign setting was thus established fairly quickly in the normalization of film narratives. By the 1920s, narrative cinema had embraced the dramatic potential of the exotic, including colonial as well as entirely foreign territories as possible settings. In 1921, the runaway success of Jacques Feyder’s L’Atlantide solidified for the French public the theme of exotic conquest with a distinctly imperial register. A sensation among French filmgoers, L’Atlantide 2 became the foundation for what has been known as the cinéma colonial and wielded influence over other, related subgenres whose influence persisted at least until the Occupation. Adapted from a popular novel by Pierre Benoit, the film’s appeal stems from both the alluring subject matter and Feyder’s sheer ambition; he was the first French director to insist on location shooting in the colonial Sahara, a gamble that galled the contemporary French film industry. But Feyder’s strategy paid off in spades as critics and spectators elevated the film to epic status – at last, the French had reason to crow over a homegrown blockbuster whose scope and accomplishment presented an effective challenge to the ubiquitous products of an increasingly dominant Hollywood. The aesthetic pleasure, intellectual curiosity, and technical challenge that made the Sahara attractive to ambitious filmmakers like Feyder intertwined with the thorny politics of empire. French colonies were thrust into the limelight, giving their administrations an opportunity to promote the colonial ideal under the guise of exotic adventure and illicit romance in an enticingly foreign (and potentially hostile) setting. Cinema was hardly alone in catering to the widespread public taste for the exotic. Popular novels with exotic overtones enjoyed notable success, and many such books barely had time to find a readership before their stories were snapped up for a screen adaptation, as was the case for Benoit’s L’Atlantide. In addition to novels, the music hall also staged interpretations of an appealing exotic in a variety of shows during the interwar period, several of which have become legendary for their sensationalism. The Revue nègre was one such show, and after a 1925 début in Paris its notoriety helped launch the French career of American-born dancer and performer Josephine Baker. Her rise to superstardom 3 in France quickly transcended the medium of the music hall, and after the coming of sound she starred in two films: Zouzou (Allégret 1934) and Princesse Tam Tam (Gréville 1935). While illustrative of the star image that Baker cultivated among the French public, nevertheless