DOCSLIB.ORG

The Decline in Mortality in Philadelphia from 1870 to 1930: the Role of Municipal Services

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Decline in Mortality in Philadelphia from 1870 to 1930: the Role of Municipal Services The Decline in Mortality in Philadelphia from 1870 to 1930: The Role of Municipal Services HE CHRISTMAS SEASON of 1880 should have been a happy occasion for Charles and Caroline Kautz. Charles, a German T immigrant in his mid-forties, had operated a three-person bakery in the Moyamensing section of Philadelphia over a decade. Caroline, several years his junior and his wife of over fifteen years, had married him during her teens and soon assumed the responsibilities of parenthood. Though Pennsylvania born, Caroline also came from German stock and, with her husband, worshipped at a loc&l German Lutheran church. Caroline and Charles Kautz and their three sons and three daughters must have eagerly anticipated a joyous holiday cele- bration. But it was not their fate to enjoy this Christmas. In three and one-half weeks from late November to mid-December, smallpox took the lives of five of the six Kautz children. Six-year-old Clara died on November 20, followed by Albert (aged 2) two weeks later, then Edward (aged 4) on December 10, Charles (aged 8) on December 11, and Bertha (aged 10) on December 14. Only twelve-year-old Sophia survived. Burial in the Lutheran church cemetery followed each of the deaths in numbing succession. The tragedies that befell the Kautzes over a century ago illustrate in a concrete way part of the enormous gap separating the twentieth and the nineteenth centuries in America. Epidemic diseases, childhood death, and low adult life expectancies dominated life. Indeed, in the space of a decade, the Kautzes had witnessed smallpox epidemics in Philadelphia in 1871-72 and 1876 prior to the 1880-81 epidemic that devastated their family. The difference between the two centuries is often meas- *This research was done at the Philadelphia Social History Project, Theodore Hershberg, director, with support from the Center for Population Research, National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (RO 1HD 12413) The PSHP gratefully acknowledges the funding it has received from the following federal agencies the National Institute of Mental Health, the National Science Foundation, and the National Endowment for the Humanities We also wish to thank William Kreider, Jeffrey Seaman, Wayne Dunlap, and Mara Weitzman for computer support, and Alicia Gilham for graphics and typing 154 CONDRAN, WILLIAMS, & CHENEY April ured in terms of the rapid diffusion of communications, transportation, and machine technologies throughout our society. These forces, with- out doubt, make our lives much different. But they are no more im- portant to us than the lengthening of adult life and the elimination both of frequent early death and the constant anticipation of epidemic dis- ease. Recurrent smallpox epidemics, for example, which in Philadel- phia alone took 4464 lives in 1871 and 1872 and 1760 lives in 1880 and 1881, seem to be remnants of a distant past.1 Illnesses that rarely confront us today were frequently present only a century ago.2 Yet, as significant as the reduction in mortality has been, scholars still search for the reasons for the "mortality transition." Rising personal income, improved diet, better sanitation and personal hygiene, public health activities, advancing medical technology, are offered as com- peting, complementary, or interacting explanations.3 How any or all of these factors affect the propensity for a disease to be present in the en- vironment (exposure), or for a given population to avoid infection from a disease which is present (resistance), or for survival when individuals contract a disease (case survival) is also open to considerable debate. Although the origins and sources of the mortality transition are not fully understood, scholars have developed a commonly accepted por- trait of the change. It occurred during the nineteenth and early twen- tieth centuries in most of Europe, the United States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. In American cities, for example, mortality levels were high at the beginning of the nineteenth century and remained high for most of the century. Although mortality rates for some age groups 1 City of Philadelphia, Ftrst Annual Message of Edwin S. Stuart, Mayor of the City of Philadelphia with Annual Report of Abraham M. Settler and the Annual Report of the Board of Healthfor the year ending December 31, 1891 (Philadelphia, 1892), 508. 2 In a recent review of Robert Gottfried's book on the Black Death, William H. McNeill takes a much longer view of how "the disappearance of epidemic disease as a serious factor in human life" "separate(s) us from our ancestors." See "The Plague of Plagues," The New York Review of Books, XXX (July 21, 1983), 28-29. 3 See for example. Thomas McKeown, The Modern Rise of Population (New York, 1976), 128-142, Thomas McKeown and R.G. Record, "Reasons for the Decline of Mortality in England and Wales during the Nineteenth Century," Population Studies, XVI, no 2 (July, 1962), 94-122, Samuel H. Preston and Etienne van de Walle, "Urban French Mortality in the Nineteenth Century," Population Studies, XXXII, no. 2 (July, 1978), 275-297, Gretchen A Condran and Rose A. Cheney, "Mortality Trends in Philadelphia Age- and Cause- Specific Death Rates 1870-1930," Demography, 9, no 1 (February, 1982), 97-123. 1984 MORTALITY IN PHILADELPHIA FROM 1870 TO 1930 155 and from some diseases (e.g., cholera and typhus) began declining earlier, a substantial and sustained decline in overall mortality levels did not begin until late in the nineteenth century.4 The changes in mortality rates in Philadelphia closely paralleled in both timing and magnitude those in other large cities of the United States and in urban areas in other industrializing nations.5 These trends can be traced fairly well after 1860 when the official registration of deaths with the issuance of a death certificate began. The deaths were aggregated and published in annual reports of the Board of Health and included in the mayor's yearly report. The published data provide a classification of the deaths by age and cause for the total population of the city. In addition, deaths by cause are published for the wards within the city. Using an average of these registration data for three years sur- rounding each federal decennial census date from 1870 to 1930 and base population figures from the decennial censuses, one can observe the pattern of mortality change.6 The description of changing mortality is expressed in two ways: as the probability that an individual in a par- ticular age group will die during a given five-year age period and as the expectation of life at selected ages. For each year, the expectation of life for a given age is the average number of years that would be lived by a hypothetical group of persons who reached that age in the year and who were subjected to that year's probabilities of dying at each subsequent age. The magnitude of the overall mortality decline in Philadelphia is apparent for all age groups (see Table 1). In 1870, for example, about 175 of every 1000 children born never survived to their first birthday. 4 Gretchen A. Condran and Eileen Crimmins, "Mortality Differentials between Rural and Urban Areas of States in the Northeastern United States, 1890-1900," Journal of Historical Geography, 6, no 2 (April, 1980), 179-202, Robert Higgs, "Mortality in Rural America, 1870-1920: Estimates and Conjectures," Explorations in Economic History, 10, no. 2 (1973), 177-193. 5 Gretchen A. Condran and Rose A. Cheney, 98-99. 6 The values of \(\Q in Table 1 were estimated using the values of 4q i fit to South Model Life Tables. For a full explanation of the estimating procedure see Gretchen A. Condran and Rose A. Cheney, 91-102. H6 U>M)i\\S WIHIWfN «, lH)\n »t 1 r =?• -!• V t r X> — r^ uC O\ tr t »«•< .J j •*$ 1 I* HI* CO <^ ™t -3 I fi 0\ /• r E \C 4 c 0 1 urn™ Hi" ffl- •rt V if t- **« t / *™ S a, ^ c 1 "^ r ri S ™. 0 £s ^^ ™« a* & X> -u (•"I *<• X -1 r 4 r- """? — c Ci £1 \5 3 j& 13 r* V DO C I - !> r VC £ O \0 r-- i» c J^I r^ —* &" =-* x> > -1. ? "^ .A, if* vi £ ? X C S •/ 0 r- —. r «-. >i _ r ^ C ™*. ^«- cr *=» +™* 0 =v4- ^ £, ?u S Q a- ^ r r> ^C J 1 •** 3^ ^f 0" 5- ^, as r "^ +** !t ^4. "™ t •JO fid / £ »»< C z # 1984 MORTALITY IN PHILADELPHIA FROM 1870 TO 1930 157 By 1930, fewer than 15 of every 1000 infants perished during the first year of life—a decline of about 175 percent in the probability of dying. Indeed, the late nineteenth century was still a difficult time for all children. Over a third of all infants born in 1870 died before they were ten. Sixty years later, about a tenth did not survive to that age, a sub- stantial improvement in life chances. Young adults also suffered from a harsh mortality regime in 1870—114 of every 1000 individuals reaching age 20 never lived to age 30—but by 1930 less than 20 of 1000 twenty-year olds died within ten years. The elderly also enjoyed a moderation in their mortality rates. In 1870, about 320 of every 1000 individuals reaching 60 years of age died within the next decade; by 1930, the corresponding figure was 183. The declines in infant mortality were particularly important for raising life expectancies between 1870 and 1930. At birth in 1870 an individual could expect on average to reach age 40; by 1930, an infant could expect to reach age 58—an increase in life expectancy of about 46 percent.
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The T-SPOT.TB Test Frequently Asked Questions
    General tuberculosis information T-SPOT.TB Test description and Frequently asked performance questions T-SPOT.TB Test performance characteristics T-SPOT.TB advantages over tuberculin skin test T-SPOT.TB test results T-SPOT.TB methodology Screening control programs Contact investigations References References Table of contents General tuberculosis information Tuberculosis: Definition, infection and disease 1. What is the scale of the TB problem? 2. How is TB spread? 3. What is TB infection (Latent Tuberculosis Infection “LTBI” or “latent TB”)? 4. What is TB disease (“active TB”)? 5. Are certain groups of individuals at an increased risk of exposure to Mycobacterium tuberculosis? 6. Are certain individuals at an increased risk of progressing from latent TB infection to TB disease? 7. How important is treatment for TB disease? 8. Why is the treatment period for TB disease so long? 9. How important is treatment for TB infection (“LTBI” or “latent TB”)? TB detection 10. Is there a test for the detection of TB infection (“LTBI” or “latent TB”)? • Tuberculin Skin Test (TST) • Interferon-Gamma Release Assays (IGRA) 11. Is there a test for the detection of TB disease (“active TB”)? 12. What are the limitations of the TST? Bacille Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination 13. What is the BCG vaccination? T-SPOT.TB test description and performance 14. What is the intended use of the T-SPOT.TB test? 15. Why does the T-SPOT.TB test measure interferon-gamma? 16. Does the T-SPOT.TB test differentiate between latent TB infection and TB disease? 17. What data is there to support the T-SPOT.TB test in clinical use? 18.
    [Show full text]
  • Quaker ^Hcerchants And'theslave Trade in Colonial Pennsylvania
    Quaker ^hCerchants and'theSlave Trade in Colonial Pennsylvania JL MERICAN NEGRO slavery has been the object of frequent exam- /\ ination by scholars. Its growth and development, beginning X A^ with the introduction of the first Negroes into English North America and culminating in its abolition during the Civil War, have been traced in much detail. To be sure, scholars do not always agree in their descriptions and conclusions, but certainly the broad out- lines of Negro slavery as it existed in North America are well known.1 Slavery in colonial Pennsylvania has also had its investigators. These researchers have tended to place a great deal of emphasis upon Quaker influence in the Pennsylvania antislavery movement. Friends in general and Pennsylvania Quakers in particular are credited, and it would seem rightly so, with leading the eighteenth- century antislavery crusade. It was in the Quaker colony that the first abolition society in America was founded; the roll call of im- portant colonial abolitionist pamphleteers is studded with the names of Pennsylvania Friends—William Southeby, Ralph Sandiford, Benjamin Lay, and Anthony Benezet among them.2 The rudimentary state of our knowledge of the colonial slave trade, as distinct from the institution of slavery, becomes apparent when one examines the role of the Philadelphia Quaker merchants in the Pennsylvania Negro trade. Little recognition has been accorded the fact that some Quaker merchants did participate in the Negro traffic, even as late as the middle of the eighteenth century. Nor has 1 A recent study of slavery in America, which reviews the work that has been done on the problem and also introduces some valuable new insights, is Stanley Elkins, Slavery: A Problem in American Institutional and Intellectual Life (Chicago, 111., 1959).
    [Show full text]
  • Family Chronicles, Prepared by Lilian Clarke, the Old Market, Wisbech, Have Made Their Appearance (Pf- by 5^, 103 Pp., 58
    jfrien&0 in Current JJi The Quakers in the American Colonies (London: Macmillan, 8£ by , pp. 603, i2s.). In the third volume of the Rowntree series which is, however, the second in order of issue, Dr. Rufus M. Jones, assisted by Dr. Isaac Sharpless and Amelia Mott Gummere, has produced a valuable addition to Quaker historical literature. His subject is divided into five sections, dealing respectively with New England, New York, the Southern Colonies, New Jersey and Pennsylvania. With the persecutions under­ gone by Friends in New England, culminating in the execution at Boston of William Robinson, Marmaduke Stevenson, William Leddra, and Mary Dyer, readers of the THE JOURNAL will be familiar. Penn's " Holy Experi­ ment " again is more or less known to all. The extent to which Friends participated in the government of the five geographical areas mentioned above, with the exception of Pennsylvania and even there it is associated chiefly with William Penn is not a matter of such common knowledge. The impression left on the mind of the reader after perusal of the book is that " The Quakers as makers of America " is no mere phrase, but the embodiment of a great historical truth. Especially interesting is the story of Quaker government in Rhode Island, under the Eastons, Coddington, Clarke, Bull, the Wantons, Hopkins, and others, perpetually confronted as they were with the difficulty of steering a clear course between adhesion to their peace principles on the one hand, and their responsibility for the safety of the colony on the other. Here, as elsewhere, the dis­ charge of civil duties did not prevent participation in the work of the religious body to which they were so loyally attached.
    [Show full text]
  • Genealogical Sketch of the Descendants of Samuel Spencer Of
    C)\\vA CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY 924 096 785 351 Cornell University Library The original of this bool< is in the Cornell University Library. There are no known copyright restrictions in the United States on the use of the text. http://www.archive.org/details/cu31924096785351 In compliance with current copyright law, Cornell University Library produced this replacement volume on paper that meets the ANSI Standard Z39.48-1992 to replace the irreparably deteriorated original. 2003 CORNELL UNIVERSITY LIBRARY : GENEALOGICAL SKETCH OF THE DESCENDANTS OF Samuel Spencer OF PENNSYLVANIA BY HOWARD M. JENKINS AUTHOR OF " HISTORICAL COLLECTIONS RELATING TO GWYNEDD," VOLUME ONE, "MEMORIAL HISTORY OF PHILADELPHIA," ETC., ETC. |)l)Uabei|it)ia FERRIS & LEACH 29 North Seventh Street 1904 . CONTENTS. Page I. Samuel Spencer, Immigrant, I 11. John Spencer, of Bucks County, II III. Samuel Spencer's Wife : The Whittons, H IV. Samuel Spencer, 2nd, 22 V. William. Spencer, of Bucks, 36 VI. The Spencer Genealogy 1 First and Second Generations, 2. Third Generation, J. Fourth Generation, 79 ^. Fifth Generation, 114. J. Sixth Generation, 175 6. Seventh Generation, . 225 VII. Supplementary .... 233 ' ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS. Page 32, third line, "adjourned" should be, of course, "adjoined." Page 33, footnote, the date 1877 should read 1787. " " Page 37, twelfth line from bottom, Three Tons should be "Three Tuns. ' Page 61, Hannah (Shoemaker) Shoemaker, Owen's second wife, must have been a grand-niece, not cousin, of Gaynor and Eliza. Thus : Joseph Lukens and Elizabeth Spencer. Hannah, m. Shoemaker. Gaynor Eliza Other children. I Charles Shoemaker Hannah, m. Owen S. Page 62, the name Horsham is divided at end of line as if pronounced Hor-sham ; the pronunciation is Hors-ham.
    [Show full text]
  • Martin's Bench and Bar of Philadelphia
    MARTIN'S BENCH AND BAR OF PHILADELPHIA Together with other Lists of persons appointed to Administer the Laws in the City and County of Philadelphia, and the Province and Commonwealth of Pennsylvania BY , JOHN HILL MARTIN OF THE PHILADELPHIA BAR OF C PHILADELPHIA KKKS WELSH & CO., PUBLISHERS No. 19 South Ninth Street 1883 Entered according to the Act of Congress, On the 12th day of March, in the year 1883, BY JOHN HILL MARTIN, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C. W. H. PILE, PRINTER, No. 422 Walnut Street, Philadelphia. Stack Annex 5 PREFACE. IT has been no part of my intention in compiling these lists entitled "The Bench and Bar of Philadelphia," to give a history of the organization of the Courts, but merely names of Judges, with dates of their commissions; Lawyers and dates of their ad- mission, and lists of other persons connected with the administra- tion of the Laws in this City and County, and in the Province and Commonwealth. Some necessary information and notes have been added to a few of the lists. And in addition it may not be out of place here to state that Courts of Justice, in what is now the Com- monwealth of Pennsylvania, were first established by the Swedes, in 1642, at New Gottenburg, nowTinicum, by Governor John Printz, who was instructed to decide all controversies according to the laws, customs and usages of Sweden. What Courts he established and what the modes of procedure therein, can only be conjectur- ed by what subsequently occurred, and by the record of Upland Court.
    [Show full text]
  • History of Tuberculosis and Tuberculosis Control Program in Turkey
    In Focus History of tuberculosis and tuberculosis control program in Turkey Indian) and 4 (X, Haarlem, LAM [Latin-American Mediterranean]). In Turkey, the latest evolved lineage 4 has been most dominant. Current evidence might suggest migratory movements over the past 35,000–89,000 years from Africa spread four main lineages into Eurasia, while the remaining two phylogenetically ‘ancient’ lineages Cengiz Cavu¸ so¸ glu stayed in Africa. These lineages were later spread to the Sub-Indian Ege University Faculty of Medicine Department of Medical Microbiology continent and from there into Europe, sub-Saharan Africa and Mycobacteriology Laboratory America, following a wave of reverse Homo sapiens migrations and Bornova, Izmir,_ Turkey Email: [email protected] conquests. Analysis of known mutation rates of the M. tuberculosis reveals that the differences among strains started to appear 250– 1000 years ago3–9. Tuberculosis (TB) is debatably the most infectious disease Tuberculosis was initially documented over 5000 years ago in with highest rate of causalities throughout human history. Ancient Egypt; characteristic Pott deformations of TB were detected The Ottoman Empire also had the profound effect of the in mummies, and even represented in Ancient Egyptian art. disease; however, following the establishment of the Repub- Recently, DNA of M. tuberculosis was amplified from mummy lic of Turkey in 1923 effective TB control programs were tissues providing confirmatory evidence. There are documents implemented at times jointly with the WHO. From 1949 dating back 3300 years in India, and 2300 years in China and onwards, significant reduction in disease incidence and archaeological evidence from the Andes also confirm the existence death rates in Turkey was recorded due to the significant of pre-Columbian tuberculosis.
    [Show full text]
  • GLOBAL TUBERCULOSIS REPORT 2018 Global Tuberculosis Report 2018
    global TUBERCULOSIS REPORT 2018 GLOBAL TUBERCULOSIS REPORT 2018 Global Tuberculosis Report 2018 ISBN 978-92-4-156564-6 © World Health Organization 2018 Some rights reserved. This work is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 IGO licence (CC BY- NC-SA 3.0 IGO; https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0/igo). Under the terms of this licence, you may copy, redistribute and adapt the work for non-commercial purposes, provided the work is appropriately cited, as indicated below. In any use of this work, there should be no suggestion that WHO endorses any specific organization, products or services. The use of the WHO logo is not permitted. If you adapt the work, then you must license your work under the same or equivalent Creative Commons licence. If you create a translation of this work, you should add the following disclaimer along with the suggested citation: “This translation was not created by the World Health Organization (WHO). WHO is not responsible for the content or accuracy of this translation. The original English edition shall be the binding and authentic edition”. Any mediation relating to disputes arising under the licence shall be conducted in accordance with the mediation rules of the World Intellectual Property Organization. Suggested citation. Global tuberculosis report 2018. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2018. Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. Cataloguing-in-Publication (CIP) data. CIP data are available at http://apps.who.int/iris. Sales, rights and licensing. To purchase WHO publications, see http://apps.who.int/bookorders. To submit requests for commercial use and queries on rights and licensing, see http://www.who.int/about/licensing.
    [Show full text]
  • White Plague, White City: Landscape and the Racialization of Tuberculosis in Washington, D.C
    W&M ScholarWorks Undergraduate Honors Theses Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects 4-2019 White Plague, White City: Landscape and the Racialization of Tuberculosis in Washington, D.C. from 1846 to 1960 Ivie Orobaton Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarworks.wm.edu/honorstheses Part of the African American Studies Commons, Social History Commons, and the United States History Commons Recommended Citation Orobaton, Ivie, "White Plague, White City: Landscape and the Racialization of Tuberculosis in Washington, D.C. from 1846 to 1960" (2019). Undergraduate Honors Theses. Paper 1378. https://scholarworks.wm.edu/honorstheses/1378 This Honors Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Theses, Dissertations, & Master Projects at W&M ScholarWorks. It has been accepted for inclusion in Undergraduate Honors Theses by an authorized administrator of W&M ScholarWorks. For more information, please contact [email protected]. 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS Page Introduction: Why Tuberculosis? Why Washington, D.C.?......................................................3-7 Chapter 1: The Landscape of Washington, D.C. and the Emergence of Tuberculosis in the City …………………………………………………………………………………………………8-21 Chapter 2: Practical Responses to the Tuberculosis Issue (1846-1910)…………………….22-37 Chapter 3: Ideological Debates Around the Practical Responses to Tuberculosis (1890-1930) …….………………………………………………………………………………………….38-56 Conclusion: The Passing of the Debate and the End of Tuberculosis in the City (1930-1960) ………………………………………….…………………………………………………….57-58
    [Show full text]
  • Absconding Servants, Anxious Germans, and Angry Sailors
    ABSCONDING SERVANTS, ANXIOUS GERMANS, AND ANGRY SAILORS: WORKING PEOPLE AND THE MAKING OF THE PHILADELPHIA ELECTION RIOT OF 1742 Michael Bradley McCoy University ofPittsburgh fortnight before the Philadelphia Election of 1742, a weathered seaman named John Spence advised Quaker merchant Thomas Lloyd that a mob of sailors could help the Quakers defeat their political adversaries, the Proprietary Party. "In a jocular Manner," Spence told Lloyd "that if the Quakers would give him fifteen hundred acres of land, they should have the Election." After three years of bitter intra-elite division sparked by theWar forJenkins' Ear, Lloyd probably entertained the offer.Repulsed, however, by the mariner's audacity, Lloyd quickly retorted, "It was not to or nor was in.. .Spence's power help hinder" any party, it his place. Indeed, while laborers like Spence represented a growing segment of the urban population, inadequate taxable wealth meant most could not participate directly within the polity. Likely, maritime laborers represented from ten to and as much as twenty or twenty-five percent of the population, making them the single largest group of wage laborers.1 Given their mobility, wage fluctuations, and the inconsistency of employment, they PENNSYLVANIA HISTORY: A JOURNALOF MID-ATLANTIC STUDIES, VOL. 74, NO. 4, 2OO7 Copyright ? 2007 The Pennsylvania Historical Association This content downloaded from 128.118.152.206 on Mon, 2 Feb 2015 11:45:36 AM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions PENNSYLVANIA HISTORY tax were underrepresented on the city's rolls. Because of their economic situation, "very few" mariners were "worth [the] Fifty Pounds" required for participation in Pennsylvania politics.2 Yet this year sailors would participate, and, wryly, Spence told Lloyd: "If clubs would not do.
    [Show full text]
  • The Tuberculosis Movement and Its Effect on Mortality
    DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES IZA DP No. 10590 Was the First Public Health Campaign Successful? The Tuberculosis Movement and its Effect on Mortality D. Mark Anderson Kerwin Kofi Charles Claudio Las Heras Olivares Daniel I. Rees FEBRUARY 2017 DISCUSSION PAPER SERIES IZA DP No. 10590 Was the First Public Health Campaign Successful? The Tuberculosis Movement and its Effect on Mortality D. Mark Anderson Daniel I. Rees Montana State University and IZA University of Colorado Denver and IZA Kerwin Kofi Charles University of Chicago and NBER Claudio Las Heras Olivares Banco de Chile FEBRUARY 2017 Any opinions expressed in this paper are those of the author(s) and not those of IZA. Research published in this series may include views on policy, but IZA takes no institutional policy positions. The IZA research network is committed to the IZA Guiding Principles of Research Integrity. The IZA Institute of Labor Economics is an independent economic research institute that conducts research in labor economics and offers evidence-based policy advice on labor market issues. Supported by the Deutsche Post Foundation, IZA runs the world’s largest network of economists, whose research aims to provide answers to the global labor market challenges of our time. Our key objective is to build bridges between academic research, policymakers and society. IZA Discussion Papers often represent preliminary work and are circulated to encourage discussion. Citation of such a paper should account for its provisional character. A revised version may be available directly from the author. IZA – Institute of Labor Economics Schaumburg-Lippe-Straße 5–9 Phone: +49-228-3894-0 53113 Bonn, Germany Email: [email protected] www.iza.org IZA DP No.
    [Show full text]
  • "Philadelphia*S <J)(Cunicipal Corporation
    "Philadelphia*s <J)(Cunicipal Corporation, 1701-1776 URING the colonial period two American cities, New York and Philadelphia, were nominally governed by municipal D corporations closely resembling their English models, and displaying many of the same deficiencies but little of the vitality that still characterized some of their English counterparts. The Philadel- phia Corporation was a close one, entirely self-perpetuating. During its seventy-five-year existence (1701-1776), it became ever more closely bound to its own interests as a legal entity and thus more estranged from the interests of the inhabitants of Philadelphia. Under its charter, the Corporation received powers that were static and somewhat antiquated. As a consequence, the increasing size of the city and the complexity of urban life left the Corporation iso- lated, further and further out of touch with public opinion, while the actual government of Philadelphia went piecemeal into the hands of boards of commissioners, wardens, overseers, and the like. These derived their authority from the Pennsylvania Assembly rather than from the municipal charter.1 The Philadelphia Corporation played second fiddle to the pro- vincial government on every count. It suffered from the Assembly's presence in Philadelphia and from its tendency to interest itself in the details of the city government. E. S. Griffith, a historian of city government, has stated that this situation was common in the colonies: "In many instances, notably in the capital cities, the assembly appeared to regard itself as the actual government of the town, solemnly considering details which might more properly have been delegated—and which in fact in some instances had actually 1 The actual government of Philadelphia by these boards is a related study, one that has not as yet been done except in the general terms of Carl Bridenbaugh's two books, Cities in the Wilderness and Cities in Revolt.
    [Show full text]
  • Module 1: Transmission and Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis
    Module 1: Transmission and Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis Slide 1: (Title Slide.) Self-Study Modules on Tuberculosis, 1-5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Division of Tuberculosis Elimination, 2016. Slide 2: CDC Self-Study Modules on Tuberculosis, 1-5 • Module 1: Transmission and Pathogenesis of TB • Module 2: Epidemiology of TB • Module 3: Targeted Testing and the Diagnosis of Latent TB Infection and TB Disease • Module 4: Treatment of Latent TB Infection and TB Disease • Module 5: Infectiousness and Infection Control Slide 3: (Title Slide.) Self-Study Modules on Tuberculosis: Transmission and Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis Slide 4: Module 1: Objectives At completion of this module, learners will be able to 1. Describe the history of tuberculosis (TB). 2. Explain how TB is spread (transmission). 3. Define drug-resistant TB. 4. Explain the difference between latent TB infection (LTBI) and TB disease. 5. Explain how LTBI and TB disease develop (pathogenesis). 6. Describe the classification system for TB. Slide 5: Module 1: Overview • History of TB • TB Transmission • Drug-Resistant TB • TB Pathogenesis • Progression from LTBI to TB disease • Sites of TB disease • TB Classification System • Case Studies Slide 6: (Title Slide.) History of TB Slide 7: History of TB (1) • TB has affected humans for millennia • Historically known by a variety of names, including: o Consumption o Wasting disease o White plague • TB was a death sentence for many • [IMAGE: Red Cross Christmas Seal Campaign vintage image circa 1919. Image says “The Next to Go. Fight Tuberculosis.” Image credit: National Library of Medicine.] Slide 8: History of TB (2): Scientific Discoveries in 1800s • Until mid-1800s, many believed TB was hereditary • 1865 Jean Antoine-Villemin showed TB was contagious • 1882 Robert Koch discovered M.
    [Show full text]