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Article Record. Reenact. Recycle. Notes on Shindo¯ Kaneto’s Documentary Styles

Lauri Kitsnik

Graduate School of Human and Environmental Studies, Kyoto University, Yoshida-nihonmatsu-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8501, ; [email protected]

 Received: 24 December 2018; Accepted: 15 March 2019; Published: 22 March 2019 

Abstract: In his work, the filmmaker Shindo¯ Kaneto sought to employ various, often seemingly incongruous, cinematic styles that complicate the notions of fiction and documentary film. This paper first examines his ‘semi-documentary’ films that often deal with the everyday life of common people by means of an enhanced realist approach. Second, attention is paid to the fusion of documentary and when reenacting historical events, as well as the subsequent recycling of these images in a ‘quasi-documentary’ fashion. Finally, I uncover a trend towards ‘meta-documentary’ that takes issue with the of filmmaking itself. I argue that Shindo’s¯ often self-referential work challenges the boundaries between fiction and non-fiction while engaging in a self-reflective criticism of cinema as a medium.

Keywords: authorship; documentary film; hibakusha; Japanese cinema; Mizoguchi Kenji; non-fiction; semi-documentary; Shindo¯ Kaneto

1. Introduction An already established screenwriter, Shindo¯ Kaneto (1912–2012) spent most of the 1950s struggling to make his name as a film director. After debuting with the autobiographical Story of a Beloved Wife (Aisai monogatari, 1951), he mostly worked as an independent, with brief stints of being hired by major studios. An amalgam of and social that soon became a defining feature of his works puzzled critics and it was not until the experimental semi-documentary, (Hadaka no shima, 1960), that he was able to gain a reputation for directing. Although this trend became clearer in his later work, from early on, Shindo¯ sought ways to mix fiction and documentary styles, recording as well as reenacting, especially when making films based on true events. In his influential study on 1950s Japan, Toba Koji¯ characterized it as the age of kiroku (record, document). Toba(2010, p. 9) points out five closely related cultural phenomena that were part of the ‘kiroku boom’: amateur writing about everyday life, news reportage, documentary film, photography and shows. This was also when young filmmakers such as Hani Susumu (1928) and Tsuchimoto Noriaki (1928–2008) joined Iwanami Productions (Iwanami Eiga), a major vessel for subsequent developments in Japanese documentary film. It is against this background that Shindo¯ began his long directing career that comprises both fiction and non-fiction works. The aim of this paper is to examine how and why Shindo¯ employed a variety of documentary styles in his films, whether it was for attaining heightened realism, forging and reusing images of historical events, or pursuing a (self-)critique of the act of recording and reporting in visual media.

2. Semi-Documentary In Kiroku eigaron (On Documentary , 1940), one of the first studies on the subject in Japan, the seminal film theorist, Imamura Taihei, discusses and provides examples on how documentary

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Arts2. Semi-Documentary2019, 8, 39 2 of 12 In Kiroku eigaron (On , 1940), one of the first studies on the subject in Japan, stylethe seminal is beginning film theorist, to emerge Imamura in Japanese Taihei, cinema. discu ‘Whatsses and can provides be found examples... is the on stripping how documentary of the usual fictionalstyle is beginning [kakoteki¯ ] elementsto emerge and in Japanese simple but cinema. deep-rooted ‘What yearningcan be foundtowards … is documentary the stripping film. of( Imamurathe usual 1940fictional, p. 43)’[kak Heōteki singles] elements out recent and workssimple bybut major deep-rooted directors yearning such as Kumagaitowards Hisatora,documentary Shimazu film. Yasujir(Imamurao,¯ Shimizu 1940, p. Hiroshi, 43)’ He Tasaka singles Tomotaka out recent and wo Uchidarks by Tomu.major directors Imamura such pays as particular Kumagai attention Hisatora, to theShimazu latter’s YasujirA Thousandō, Shimizu and One Hiroshi, Nights Tasaka in Tomotaka(Toky¯ o¯ sen’ichiya, and Uchida 1938). Tomu. Imamura pays particular attention to the latter’s A Thousand and One Nights in Tokyo (Tōkyō sen’ichiya, 1938). Uchida Tomu shoots the movements of a gravel-collecting machine for an almost involuntarilyUchida Tomu long shoots time. the The movements are looking of a gr atavel-collecting the machine from machine a far-away for an riverbank. almost Peopleinvoluntarily looking long at a time. machine The fromactors afar are are looking actors at who the havemachine retreated from froma far-away being riverbank. in front of People looking at a machine from afar are actors who have retreated from being in front of the camera. Along with the final scene depicting gymnastics, here is clearly a strong dislike the camera. Along with the final scene depicting gymnastics, here is clearly a strong dislike towards drama. Also, the film’s is entirely devoid of necessity. This is an expression of towards drama. Also, the film’s plot is entirely devoid of necessity. This is an expression of resistance to story, drama and fiction. (Imamura 1940, p. 43, author’s translation) resistance to story, stage drama and . (Imamura 1940, p. 43, author’s translation) II havehave previously previously examined examined (Kitsnik (Kitsnik 2018 2018)) how ho thew over-long the over-long and repetitive and repetitive sequences sequences in Shind o’s¯in TheShind Nakedō’s The Island Nakedrelate Island to earlier relate works to earlier such works as Uchida’s such asnext Uchida’s film, nextEarth film,(Tsuchi, Earth 1939), (Tsuchi, 1939), over ashot period over ofa period one year of one and year simultaneously and simultaneously to A Thousand to A Thousand and One and Nights One Nights in Tokyo. in Tokyo.Shind Shindo’s¯ firstō’s substantialfirst substantial assignment assignment as a as screenwriter a screenwriter had had actually actually been been with with the the elder elder director, director, althoughalthough the projectproject thatthat includedincluded taking a trip to ManchuriaManchuria and going through a number of rewrites ultimately came to nothing. However, Shindo’sō¯ ’s of long scenes of repeated gestures that continued toto the the point point of of meaninglessness meaninglessness should should be beconsidered considered as a as defining a defining feature feature of his of work his workand this and ‘semi- this ‘semi-documentary’documentary’ style can style be candelineated be delineated to the trend to the Im trendamura Imamura is describing is describing in prewar in Japanese prewar Japanese cinema. cinema.Perhaps Perhapsthe most the notorious most notorious example example of this ofapproach this approach can be can encountered be encountered at the at beginning the beginning of The of TheNaked Naked Island Island (See(See Figure Figure 1),1), where where a a peasant peasant couple couple (Otowa (Otowa Nobuko Nobuko and and Tonoyama Tonoyama Taiji)Taiji) livingliving onon a small island without a clear water source is repeatedlyrepeatedly going through the slow and tedious process of carrying bucketsbuckets upup aa steepsteep slopeslope inin orderorder toto waterwater sweetsweet potatopotato plantsplants atat thethe summit.summit.

FigureFigure 1. 1. TheThe Naked Naked Island (Shind (Shindo¯ō Kaneto, Kaneto, 1960). 1960).

Physical laborlabor andand its its representation representation through through the the images images of routinelyof routinely repeated repeated gestures gestures can becan seen be inseen almost in almost all of Shindall ofo’s ¯Shind films.ō’s Infilms.Mother In (Haha,Mother 1963) (Haha, (See 1963) Figure (See2), aFigure middle-aged 2), a middle-aged couple, once couple, again playedonce again by Otowa played and by Tonoyama, Otowa and runs Tonoyama, a small printing runs a housesmall inprinting Hiroshima. house Their in Hiroshima. everyday chores Their includeeveryday operating chores include a number operating of machines a number in the of shack machines and then in the delivering shack and the productthen delivering in a shabby the three-wheeledproduct in a shabby van. In three-wheeled summer heat, theirvan. perspiringIn summer bodies heat, their are caught perspiring by the bo black-and-whitedies are caught cameraby the asblack-and-white suggestively as camera in The Nakedas suggestively Island. In theas autobiographicalin The Naked IslandTree Without. In theLeaves autobiographical(Rakuyoju,¯ 1986)Tree the whole peasant family (in contrast to The Naked Island, a wealthy one) is engaged in various acts of

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Without Leaves (Rakuyōju, 1986) the whole peasant family (in contrast to The Naked Island, a processingwealthy one) agricultural is engaged products in various (See acts Figure of processing3). Their agricultural New Year’s products Eve is spent (See preparingFigure 3). Their rice cakes New (mochi),Year’s Eve whereby is spent cookedpreparing rice rice is pounded cakes (mochi), into paste whereby and cooked then molded rice is intopounded smaller into buns. paste This and takes then placemolded in into a large smaller open buns. space This of the takes family place house, in a large with open all members space of the except family the house, patriarch with participating. all members Whenexcept autumnthe patriarch comes, participating. we find them When sitting autumn in the same comes, room, we peeling find them one basketsitting ofin persimmons the same room, after peelinganother. one Approaching basket of persimmons ethnofiction, after these another. images presentApproaching both the , livelihood these of the images family andpresent the wayboth communitythe livelihood is created,of the family while alwaysand the hinting way community at the seasonal is created, pattern while and ritualisticalways hinting at the of seasonalthe activities. pattern and ritualistic character of the activities.

FigureFigure 2. 2. MotherMother (Shind(Shindoō¯ Kaneto, 1963).1963).

FigureFigure 3. 3. TreeTree Without Without Leaves (Shind (Shindo¯ō Kaneto, Kaneto, 1986). 1986).

At thethe levellevel of of , narration, this this manner manner of presentingof presenting repeating repeating gestures gestures goes wellgoes beyondwell beyond the length the lengthconventionally conventionally allowed forallowed establishing for establishing shots in fiction shots films. in fiction In other . words, In what other is anticipatedwords, what to beis anticipatedan to insteadbe an exposition ends up taking instead on ends something up taki akinng on to something the function akin of miseto the en function scène. By of drawingmise en scène.attention Byto drawing the everyday attention activities, to the rather everyday than usingactivities, them rather for establishing than using characters them for and establishing situations, charactersthese sequences and situations, seem to providethese sequences a statement seem on to how provide the routinea statement of labor on how creates the routine meaning of tolabor the createseveryday meaning lives and to the hardships everyday of lives common and hardships people. In of the common last scenes people. of Shind In theo’s¯ last final scenes film, ofA Shind Postcardō’s (Ichimaifinal film, no A hagaki,Postcard 2011) (Ichimai (See no Figure hagaki,4), another2011) (See couple Figure ( otake ¯4), another Shinobu couple and ( ToyokawaŌtake Shinobu Etsushi), and

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Toyokawa Etsushi), much like the one in The Naked Island, is shown carrying water on yokes to start muchanew and like thecultivate one in theThe land Naked left Island behind, is shown by a disintegrated carrying water peasant on yokes family to start during anew the and last cultivate months the of landthe war. left behindIn this bypoignant a disintegrated allusion peasantto what family is perhaps during his the most last enduring months of directorial the war. In work, this poignant Shindō allusionreconfirms to whathis most is perhaps persistent his mostmetaphor enduring on human directorial existence work, Shindin a characteristicallyo¯ reconfirms his mostself-referential persistent metaphormanner. on human existence in a characteristically self-referential manner. Satōo¯ ((2006,2006, p.p. 147)147) hashas pointedpointed outout that,that, descendeddescended fromfrom anan impoverishedimpoverished agriculturalagricultural family,family, Shindōo¯ maintained the mindset he inherited from from there there for for his his entire entire career career as as a a filmmaker. filmmaker. Indeed, Indeed, many of his filmsfilms are directly related to depicting the plight of agricultural workers. Interestingly, Interestingly, the veryvery firstfirst recordrecord of of Shind Shindo’s¯ō’s writing, writing, an an unproduced unproduced screenplay he he entered entered in ain competition a competition by theby journalthe journalEiga hyEigaoron¯ hy(Filmōron Criticism), (Film Criticism),Farmers WhoFarmers Lost TheirWho Land Lost(Tsuchi Their oLand ushinatta (Tsuchi hyakush o ushinattao,¯ 1937), tellshyakush the storyō, 1937), of a tells village the that story is aboutof a village to be floodedthat is ab byout land to developersbe flooded toby make land waydevelopers for a new to watermake supplyway for fora new the water rapidly supply growing for the city rapidly of Tokyo. growing It was city based of Tokyo. on the It real-life was based case on of Ogouchithe real-life Village case ¯ thatof Ogouchi was gaining Village much that attentionwas gaining in themuch press attention at the time.in theOya press Soichi,¯ at the a time. prominent Ōya Sō non-fictionichi, a prominent writer, publishednon-fiction a writer, well-known published reportage a well-known in Chu¯o¯ Kor¯ reportageon¯ in August in 1937Chūō and Kō therōn Akutagawain August prize-winning1937 and the novelistAkutagawa Ishikawa prize-winning Tatsuzo¯ fictionalizednovelist Ishikawa it in Hikage Tatsuz noō mura fictionalized(Village Underit in Hikage a Shadow, no mura 1937) ((VillageTakeda 2017Under, pp. a Shadow, 9–10). There 1937) was (Takeda even 2017, a hit song,pp. 9–Kotei10). There no furusato was even(Home a hit Village song, Kotei at the no Bottom furusato of a (Home Lake), performedVillage at the by Bottom the popular of a Lake), singer performed Shoji¯ Taro.¯ by At the any popular rate, this singer site caughtShōji Tar theō. popularAt any rate, , this site ascaught well the as that popular of various imagination, writers as leaning well as towards that of various documentary writers style. leaning towards documentary style.

FigureFigure 4. 4. AA Postcard Postcard (Shind(Shindo¯ō Kaneto,Kaneto, 2011).2011).

Shindōo¯ went to Ogouchi on what he calls ‘scenario hunting’ as early as summer 1936. He later wrote that despite despite taking taking extensive extensive walks walks there, there, he he ha hadd no no interest interest in infinding finding about about the thereal real life lifeof the of thevillage village—simply—simply seeing seeing it was it enough was enough for him for to him construct to construct drama dramanecessary necessary for his screenplay for his screenplay (Shindō (1993,Shind p.o¯ 199373)., This p. 73). statement This statement at once at oncereveals reveals Shind Shindō’s o’s¯complex complex and and paradoxical paradoxical attitude attitude towards towards documentary filmmaking.filmmaking. Shind ōo¯ discloses his view view on on documentary documentary more more precisely precisely in in a a short short , essay, ‘The‘The documentingdocumenting naturenature ofof film’film’ (Eiga no kirokusei, 1962), where he posits posits that that the the term term ‘non-fiction’ ‘non-fiction’ is basically meaningless meaningless due due to to the the involvement involvement of of the the author author (sakka (sakka),), deemingdeeming any filmfilm fictional fictional by default ((ShindShindōo¯ 19811981,, p. 47). 47). By By claiming claiming so, so, Shind Shindōo¯ underlines underlines how how the the viewpoint of the author interrupts and complicates complicates the the proposed proposed actuality actuality of of any any cinematic cinematic text. text. In In the the following following sections, sections, I will examine how Shindō has woven this understanding into the film texts themselves in various

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Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 12 I will examine how Shindo¯ has woven this understanding into the film texts themselves in various ways, bothboth by by enmeshing enmeshing different different cinematic cinematic modes mo ofdes representation of representation and inscribing and inscribing his own presencehis own aspresence the filmmaker. as the filmmaker.

3. Quasi-Documentary In hishis fictionfiction films,films, ShindShindoō¯ pursued a semi-documentarysemi-documentary style that enabled him to depict the everyday with heightened realism. Examining how Shind ōo¯ approached the representation of intense and controversial historic events reveals yet anothe anotherr layer of his his engagement engagement with with documentary documentary film. film. (In)famously,(In)famously, a a number number of of his his works, works, such such as Childrenas of Hiroshima(Genbaku (Genbaku no ko, 1952) no ko, and 1952)Sakuratai and 8.6Sakuratai(Sakuratai 8.6 chiru,(Sakuratai 1988), chiru, relate 1988), to the relate atomic to bombings the atomic of bombings his hometown, of his Hiroshima. hometown, Another Hiroshima. film, LuckyAnother Dragon film, No. Lucky 5 (Daigo Dragon fukury No. umaru,¯5 (Daigo 1959), fukury is aboutūmaru, the 1959), crew is of about the eponymous the crew of fishing the eponymous vessel that wasfishing exposed vessel to that atomic was fallout exposed from to nuclear atomic testing.fallout Infrom these nuclear films, Shindotesting. alternatesIn these films, documentary Shindo footagealternates with documentary reenacted sequences, with which reenacted makes se themquences, semi-documentaries which makes them in the semi-documentaries most literal sense, asin the well most as enabling literal sense, their as retrospective well as enabling labelling their as retrospective orlabelling docufiction. as docudrama or . The passagepassage from fromChildren Children of Hiroshima of Hiroshima(1952) (1952) that recreates that recreates the atomic the explosion atomic explosion and its immediate and its aftermathimmediate with aftermath a Soviet with a Soviet influence, montage highly influe stylizednce, highly shots of stylized blood-mired shots and of disfiguredblood-mired bodies, and isdisfigured certainly bodies, the most is renownedcertainly the and most discussed renowned one of and Shind discussedo’s¯ many one versions of Shind ofō the’s many disastrous versions event. of Athe frame disastrous story event. about A a teacherframe story (Otowa) about who a teacher visits the(Otowa) cityin who order visits to findthe city her in students order to and find their her familiesstudents leadsand their to a flashbackfamilies leads when to she a is standing wh nexten toshe the is A-Bombstanding Dome.next to Accompanied the A-Bomb Dome. by the premonitoryAccompanied ticking by the of premonitory clocks, the city ticking symphony-like of clocks, the calm city and symphony-like relaxed images calm of and the everydayrelaxed images life of Hiroshimaof the everyday and its life citizens of Hiroshima suddenly and transforms its citizens into suddenly a series oftransforms scenes which, into ina series their paceof scenes andvisceral which, horror,in their are reminiscent and visceral of the horror, Odessa are Steps remi sequenceniscent fromof theBattleship Odessa PotemkinSteps sequence(Bronenosets from Potyomkin,Battleship 1925,Potemkin Sergei (Bronenosets Eisenstein) (See Potyomkin, Figure5). 1925 The, closeupSergei Eisenstein) of the hand (See of a Figure clock that 5). hitsThe 8.15closeup acts of as the a trigger hand forof a the clock transition that hits from 8.15 oneacts as a trigger to the other.for the transition from one mode to the other.

FigureFigure 5. 5. ChildrenChildren of of Hiroshima (Shind (Shindo¯ō Kaneto, Kaneto, 1952). 1952).

Shindoō¯ revisitedrevisited thethe eventsevents ofof thesethese August August days days decades decades later later in inSakuratai Sakuratai 8.6 ,8.6 which, which focuses focuses on theon the eponymous eponymous travelling travelling theatre troupe troupe unlucky unlucky to have to beenhave performingbeen performing in Hiroshima in Hiroshima on that on fateful that day.fateful In thisday. part-documentary In this part-documentary film, a series film, of a interviews series of withinterviews the victims’ with colleaguesthe victims’ and colleagues friends (most and offriends them (most notable of Japanese them notable actors) Japanese are effortlessly actors) alternated are effortlessly and juxtaposed alternated with and reenacted juxtaposed footage with ofreenacted the attack footage and its of consequences, the attack and including its conseque the painfulnces, including deaths of thethe twopainful prominent deaths membersof the two of Sakuratai,prominent Maruyamamembers of Sadao Sakura (1901–1945)tai, Maruyama and Sadao Sonoi (1901 Keiko–1945) (1913–1945), and Sonoi on Keiko 16 and (1913 21 August–1945), on 1945, 16 and 21 August 1945, respectively. Besides documentary footage of various radiation victims, there is also a scene from The Rickshaw Man (Muhōmatsu no isshō, 1943, Inagaki Hiroshi) in which Sonoi had starred. In contrast to the interviews shot in color, the reenacted scenes are presented in a

Arts 2019, 8, 39 6 of 12 respectively. Besides documentary footage of various radiation victims, there is also a scene from The Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 12 Rickshaw Man (Muhomatsu¯ no issho,¯ 1943, Inagaki Hiroshi) in which Sonoi had starred. In contrast to themarkedly interviews grainy shot black in color, and white the reenacted cinematography, scenes are having presented the inappearance a markedly of grainy Japanese black films and from white a cinematography,few decades earlier. having the appearance of Japanese films from a few decades earlier. The scene in Sakuratai 8.6 8.6where where severalseveral peoplepeople whowho havehave survivedsurvived thethe explosionexplosion are making an effort effort to to crawl crawl clear clear from from the the rubble rubble and and help help each each other other is presented is presented in a inmuch a much more more realist realist style stylethan thanthe montage the montage sequence sequence in Children in Children of Hiroshima of Hiroshima, which, which has has sometimes sometimes been been criticized criticized for for its emotional detachment. Curiously, Curiously, pa partsrts of of the the sequence, sequence, such such as as ch childrenildren playing playing in in water, water, a baby crawling over the floor floor and a withering sunflower, sunflower, are borrowed from the earlier film, film, in effect recycling oneone reenactmentreenactment alongside alongside the the new new one. one. Something Something similar similar happens happens in inA A Postcard Postcard, where, where the finalthe final stages stages of theof the war war are are represented represented by by a briefa brief passage passage with with the the same same clock, clock, treatedtreated asas if already a form of documentary footage (See Figure6 6).). ThisThis isis thethe pointpoint wherewhere semi-documentarysemi-documentary atat thethe samesame time becomes quasi-documentary that mixes re ready-madeady-made ‘documentary’ footage with Shind ōo’s¯’s new ‘semi-documentary’‘semi-documentary’ passages. passages. Ostensibly, Ostensibly, this this is is also also done done out out of convenienceof convenience because because the the director director can usecan whateveruse whatever is readily is readily available available in his in personalhis personal archive. archive.

FigureFigure 6. 6.ChildrenChildren of of Hiroshima Hiroshima (Shind(Shindo¯ō Kaneto,Kaneto, 1952);1952) /AA PostcardPostcard(Shind (Shindo¯ ō Kaneto, Kaneto, 2011). 2011).

Another example from from SakurataiSakuratai 8.68.6 thatthat isis eveneven moremore tellingtelling ofof ShindShindo’sō¯ ’s self-conscious with the cinematic medium shows a search party, two men in uniforms, entering a large building, one of the few still erect after the . As they walk in, the camera pans to reveal film film lighting equipment as well as a huge canvas with a life-sizelife-size photo of the destroyed cityscape of Hiroshima standing against the wall (See Figure 77).). TheThe ensuingensuing actionaction thenthen takestakes placeplace inin aa stagestage playplay fashion,fashion, employing the photo as backcloth. By underlining artificiality artificiality and providing yet another mode of representation enmeshedenmeshed with with theatre theatre that that makes makes the the film film medium medium itself itself literally literally visible, visible, Shind o¯Shind pointsō atpoints the inevitabilityat the inevitability of staging of staging in cinema in ci andnema the and impossibility the impossibility of non-fiction. of non-fiction.

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FigureFigure 7. 7.SakurataiSakuratai 8.6 8.6 (Shind(Shindōo¯ Kaneto, Kaneto, 1988). 1988).

WhereasWhereas human human figures figures on on the the verge verge of of disintegra disintegrationtion surely surely allow allow for for some some striking striking cinematic cinematic images,images, the the depiction depiction of of the the consequences consequences of of the the atomic atomic bomb bomb has has never never been been the the only only device device for for ShindShindōo¯ when when commenting commenting on on the the main main trauma trauma of of his his generation, generation, the the Pacific Pacific War. War. There There is is also also a a much much moremore intimate intimate and and subdued subdued image image that that he he has has relied relied on on (and (and recycled) recycled) in in a anumber number of of films. films. In In TheThe StoryStory of of a Beloved Wife Wife(1951), (1951), while while the the ShindShindo-like¯ō-like protagonistprotagonist (Uno J ūukichi)¯kichi) is is trying trying to to finish finish his his finalfinal draft draft of of a a script, script, people people have have gathered gathered outside outside on on the the street street to to wave wave flags flags and and sing sing songs songs to to bid bid farewellfarewell to to a a young young man man from from the neighborhood whowho hashas receivedreceived hishis conscription conscription orders. orders. ‘Banzai’ ‘Banzai’ is isshouted shouted but but the the general general mood isis somber.somber. AA fewfew scenes later, heavy rain is is falling falling on on the the same same street street whilewhile there there is is a a silent silent funeral funeral parade parade for for the the young young soldier soldier who who has has returned returned home home in in a a small small white white woodenwooden box box carried carried by by his his mother. mother. AA somewhat somewhat more light-heartedlight-hearted andand humorous humorous as as well well as explicitlyas explicitly political political use use of the of samethe same motifcan be can found be found in The in Strange The Strange Story of Story Oyuki of(Bokut Oyukio¯ kidan, (Bokut 1992).ō kidan, This 1992). time, This the singing time, the and singing hoorays and are hooraysconducted are byconducted the prostitutes by the livingprostitutes in the living Tamanoi in the red-light Tamanoi district, red-light contrasted district, with contrasted documentary with documentaryfootage of the footage prime ministerof the prime Toj¯ o¯ Hidekiminister on T aōj militaryō Hideki parade on a military greeting parade schoolboys greeting who schoolboys have joined whothe armyhave joined (See Figure the army8). Shind (See Figureo¯ revisited 8). Shind this motifō revisited once morethis motif in A once Postcard more, again in A inPostcard an ironic, again vein, inwith an aironic hint ofvein, black with humor. a hint The of elderblack son humor. of a peasant The elder family son receivesof a peasant his orders family and receives is given his a farewellorders andceremony is given in a frontfarewell of the ceremony family house.in front In of thethe nextfamily scene, house. the In same the next people scene, walk the into same the people same frame,walk intothis the time same in silence frame, and this carrying time in asilence small woodenand carrying box containing a small wooden the soldier’s box containing bones. Not the before soldier’s long, bones.the younger Not before brother long, is alsothe drafted,younger andbrother all the is ritualsalso drafted, are repeated and all in the an identicalrituals are manner, repeated frame in an by identicalframe. Shind manner,o¯ is repeatingframe by aframe. common Shind tropeō is of repeating wartime cinemaa common with a critical of wartime distance cinema by establishing with a criticala stark distance contrast by between establishing the clamorous a stark contrast farewell between paid to the the clamorous soldier and farewell the silent paid homecoming to the soldier of andhis remains.the silent homecoming of his remains.

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FigureFigure 8. 8. TheThe Strange Strange Story ofof Oyuki Oyuki(Shind (Shindo¯ ō Kaneto, Kaneto, 1992). 1992).

AA PostcardPostcardtakes takes as as its its premise premise Shind Shindo’s¯ ō own’s own real-life real-life experience experience ofspending of spending the lastthe last days days of the of warthe war in cleaning in cleaning duty duty while while the the rest rest of hisof his unit unit was was killed killed in in combat. combat. However, However, this this is is not notthe the onlyonly occasionoccasion whenwhen hehe hashas linkedlinked hishis ownown life with cinema and semina seminall events in modern Japanese history. history. ShindShindo’s¯ō’s two-volumetwo-volumeHistory History of of Japanese Japanese Scenario Scenario(Nihon (Nihon shinarioshi shinarioshi,(Shind, (Shindo¯ 1989))ō 1989)) is organized is organized along timealong frames time frames that seem that to seem overlap to overlap conspicuously conspicuou withsly that with of his that own of his life own and involvementlife and involvement in the film in industry.the . The book The starts book with starts the with infamous the infamous Zigomar Zigomar incident incident in 1912, in the 1912, year the Shind year o¯Shind wasō born was andborn the and blurb the blurb on the on cover the cover of the of book the ambiguouslybook ambigu characterizesously characterizes it as ‘the it as first ‘the autobiography first autobiography of/in Japaneseof/in Japanese film’ (Nihon film’ eiga(Nihon no hajimeteeiga no no hajimete jijoden). no Among jijoden). comparable Among attemptscomparable at the attempts historiography at the ofhistoriography Japanese cinema, of Japanese it bears closecinema, affinity it bears to oshima ¯close affinity Nagisa’s to Ō documentary,shima Nagisa’s100 documentary, Years of Japanese 100 Cinema Years (1995),of Japanese with itsCinema often criticized(1995), with gesture its often to include criticized most gesture of the to director’s include most own filmsof the within director’s the surveyown films up towithin the point the survey when theyup to seem the point to be structuringwhen they seem the entire to be history. structuring In the the final entire section, history. I will In examinethe final howsection, Shind I willo,¯ in examine those works how Shind more readilyō, in those classifiable works more as documentaries, readily classifiable often as actively documentaries, infiltrates often and interruptsactively infiltrates the very and text interrupts by inscribing the himselfvery text as by the inscribing author of himself the film. as the author of the film.

4.4. Meta-DocumentaryMeta-Documentary ArguablyArguably ShindShindo’s¯ō’s mostmost solidsolid achievementachievement asas aa documentarydocumentary filmmakerfilmmaker isis thethe featurefeature hehe mademade aboutabout hishis one-timeone-time mentor,mentor, MizoguchiMizoguchi KenjiKenji (1898–1956).(1898–1956). ShotShot overover manymany yearsyears duringduring variousvarious otherother projects,projects,Kenji Kenji Mizoguchi: Mizoguchi: The The Life Life of a Filmof a DirectorFilm Director(Aru kantoku (Aru kantoku no shogai:¯ no sh Mizoguchiōgai: Mizoguchi Kenji no Kenji kiroku, no 1975)kiroku, was 1975) very was well very received well received upon its upon release its release and placed and placed first in first the annualin the annualKinema Kinema junpo¯’s junp critics’ō’s poll—thecritics’ poll first—the such first distinction such distinction for Shind foro¯ (heShind wonō (he again won with againA Postcard with A inPostcard 2011). Notably,in 2011). the Notably, word kirokuthe wordis used kiroku in the is used film’s in original the film’s title original as if to title suggest as if that,to suggest this time, that, Shindthis time,o¯ has Shind finallyō has managed finally tomanaged simply ‘record’to simply without ‘record’ relying without on reenactments.relying on reenactments. Compared Compared to the films to previously the films discussed,previously thediscussed, approach the is indeedapproach more is indeed straight-forward more straight and-forward mostly operates and mostly within operates the within conventions the genre of documentaryconventions of film. documentary film. ItIt isis evidentevident from Kenji Mizoguchi: The Life ofof aa FilmFilm Director Directorthat that Shind Shindo¯ō reveres reveres MizoguchiMizoguchi but,but, atat thethe samesame time,time, seemsseems allall tootoo eagereager toto exposeexpose thethe manman behindbehind thethe cameracamera withwith allall hishis humanhuman flaws.flaws. The film film is is structured structured around around a a string string of of interviews interviews conducted conducted with with an an impressive impressive lineup lineup of ofMizoguchi’s Mizoguchi’s collaborators, collaborators, often often shot shot with with the the interviewer’s interviewer’s shoulder visible, makingmaking ShindShindo’s¯ō’s authorialauthorial presence presence ubiquitous ubiquitous (Figure (Fig9ure). As 9). an interviewer,As an interviewer, Shind o¯ emergesShindō asemerges a relentless as interrogator,a relentless persistentlyinterrogator, forcing persistently his witnesses forcing his to givewitnesses away to ground. give away For instance,ground. For he isinstance, teasing he out is testimonies teasing out fromtestimonies the actresses from whothe hadactresses problematic who had relationships problematic with relationships Mizoguchi, suchwith as Mizoguchi, Irie Takako such (1911–1995) as Irie Takako (1911–1995) and, notably, Tanaka Kinuyo (1909–1977). Towards the end of the film, Shindō keeps pushing Tanaka towards a confession she probably would not even be able to make about the

Arts 2019, 8, 39 9 of 12

Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12 Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 12 and, notably, Tanaka Kinuyo (1909–1977). Towards the end of the film, Shindo¯ keeps pushing Tanaka exact nature of her relationship with Mizoguchi. Shindō used material from this interview for writing towards a confession she probably would not even be able to make about the exact nature of her exactTanaka nature Kinuyo: of her The relationship (Sh withōsetsu Mizoguchi. Tanaka Kinuyo, Shindō 1983), used material subsequently from thismade interview it into the for filmwriting An relationship with Mizoguchi. Shindo¯ used material from this interview for writing Tanaka Kinuyo: TanakaActress (JoyKinuyo:ū, 1987) The by Novel Ichikawa (Shō setsuKon, whereTanaka scenes Kinuyo, from 1983), various subsequently films are reenacted made it into with the Yoshinaga film An The Novel (Shosetsu¯ Tanaka Kinuyo, 1983), subsequently made it into the film An Actress (Joyu,¯ 1987) ActressSayuri as (Joy Tanaka.ū, 1987) by Ichikawa Kon, where scenes from various films are reenacted with Yoshinaga bySayuri Ichikawa as Tanaka. Kon, where scenes from various films are reenacted with Yoshinaga Sayuri as Tanaka.

Figure 9. Kenji Mizoguchi: The Life of a Film Director (Shindō Kaneto, 1975). FigureFigure 9. 9.KenjiKenji Mizoguchi: Mizoguchi: The The Li Lifefe of aa FilmFilm Director Director(Shind (Shindo¯ Kaneto,ō Kaneto, 1975). 1975). Shindō appears again as an interviewer in A Paean (Sanka, 1972), shot around the same time as A Paean KenjiShind Mizoguchi:ōo¯ appears The again Life as of an an a interviewer interviewerFilm Director in in A. PaeanHowever, (Sanka,(Sanka, this 1972), 1972),film is shotshot an aroundadaptation the same of Tanizaki time as Kenji Mizoguchi: The Life of a Film Director KenjiJun’ichir Mizoguchi:ō’s ,The Life A Portrait of a Film of ShunkinDirector. However, (Shunkinsh. However, this filmō ,this is1933), an film adaptation and is thean directoradaptation of Tanizaki is made of Jun’ichir Tanizaki parto’s ¯of A Portrait of Shunkin shortJun’ichirthe multilayered story,ō’s short fictional story, A world Portrait(Shunkinsh of theof Shunkinoriginalo,¯ 1933), plot(Shunkinsh that and comprises theō director, 1933), various and is made the conflicting director part of the is sources made multilayered part telling of fictionalthe multilayeredsame world story ofof fictional thethe originalblind world koto plot of teacher, the that original comprises Shunkin, plot various that and comprises her conflicting faithful various servant, sources conflicting Sasuke. telling thesourcesIn a same sequence telling story koto ofthewhere the same blindthe story author ofteacher, the(Shind blind Shunkin,ō) kotois interviewing teacher, and her Shunkin, faithful Shunkin’s servant, and maidher Sasuke. faithful Teru In(Otowa),servant, a sequence Sasuke.the shot/reverse where In a the sequence author shot (Shindwheretechnique o)¯the is suddenlyauthor interviewing (Shind reveals Shunkin’sō) bloodis interviewing gushing maid Teru from Shunkin’s (Otowa), the ed gemaid the of his shot/reverse Teru mouth (Otowa), (See shot Fi thegure technique shot/reverse 10). By suddenlyway shotof a revealstechniquewry commentary blood suddenly gushing on reveals his from own blood the work edge gushing as of a hisfilmmaker, from mouth the (See Shind edge Figure ōof seems his 10 mouth). to By be way (Seealluding of Fi agure wry to the10). commentary complexitiesBy way of on a hiswryof this own commentary role work that as a neveron filmmaker, his comes own work Shindwithout aso¯ seemsa filmmaker,strong to beauthorial alluding Shind ōinvestment toseems the complexities to beor alluding violence of to thisinflicted the role complexities that upon never its comesofsubject. this withoutrole that strong never authorial comes without investment strong or violence authorial inflicted investment upon itsor subject.violence inflicted upon its subject.

FigureFigure 10. AA Paean Paean (Shind(Shindo¯ō Kaneto,Kaneto, 1972).1972). Figure 10. A Paean (Shindō Kaneto, 1972). Elsewhere ((KitsnikKitsnik 20182018),), I have argued that Shindo’sō¯ ’s voice and physical features that appear to belongElsewhere to a rural (Kitsnik laborer 2018), become I have the argued site of authenticityauthen that Shindticityō ’s that voice supports and physical the perception features that of his appear filmsfilms asto semi-documentaries.belong to a rural laborer In the become examples the site above, of authen by bringingbringingticity that the documentaristsupports the perception to the screen, of his not films unlike as fellowsemi-documentaries. filmmakersfilmmakers WernerWerner In the Herzog,Herzog, examples NickNick above, BroomfieldBroomfield by bringing oror MichaelMichael the documentarist Moore,Moore, ShindShind too¯ō the alsoalso screen, takes a not step unlike from self-referencefellow filmmakers toto self-reflexion self-reflexion Werner Herzog, and, and, by Nick so by doing, Broomfield so doing, moves or towardsmoves Michael towards what Moore, could what Shind be calledcouldō also meta-documentary. takesbe called a step meta- from Inself-referencedocumentary. Japan, Shind toIno¯ Japan,self-reflexion was not Shind aloneō wasand, inpositioning not by aloneso doing, in himself positioning moves as an towardshimself unreliable aswhat an author: unreliable could suffice be author: called to think sufficemeta- of Imamuradocumentary.to think of Sh Imamuraohei’s¯ In Japan, screen Shō hei’sShind role screenō in was his rolenotA Man inalone his Vanishes Ain Man positioning (NingenVanishes himself j ohatsu,¯(Ningen as 1967). janōhatsu, unreliable Paradoxically, 1967). author:Paradoxically, it suffice seems toit seemsthink of that Imamura the more Sh ōShindhei’s ōscreen approaches role in hisdocumentary A Man Vanishes film proper (Ningen, the jō hatsu,more the 1967). focus Paradoxically, shifts to the itauthor seems and that the the agency more Shindof filmmaking.ō approaches documentary film proper, the more the focus shifts to the author and the agency of filmmaking.

Arts 2019, 8, 39 10 of 12 that the more Shindo¯ approaches documentary film proper, the more the focus shifts to the author and Arts 2019, 8, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 12 the agency of filmmaking. Although very much much invested invested in in trying trying out out various various documentary documentary styles, styles, Shind Shindō o¯displays displays a a(self-)critical (self-)critical stance stance towards towards the the act act of of recording. recording. InIn fact, fact, one one of ofShind Shindō’so’s¯ thematic thematic preoccupations preoccupations is isthe the role role he heassigns assigns to tomedia media reporting, reporting, both both as aspart part of offilm’s film’s context context and and narrative narrative device. device. A Acharacteristic characteristic example example of ofthis this can can be befound found in inLiveLive Today, Today, Die Die Tomorrow! Tomorrow! (Hadaka no j ūuky¯kyūusai,¯sai, 1970), a filmfilm based on the life and crimes of the spree killer (and later novelist) Nagayama Norio, named Yamada Michio in the film.film. After newspaper headlines headlines report report Yamada’s Yamada’s capture, capture, his his mother, mother, Take (Otowa),(Otowa), ledled byby aa police officer,officer, isis shownshown gettinggetting offoff aa train.train. The platform is swarmed with news reporters and photographers who all all try to get a hold of her for any comment about about her her son’s son’s past. past. In orderorder toto dodo so,so, theythey runrun in in flocks flocks over over the the tracks, tracks, climb climb over over fences fences and and follow follow her her down down the the stairs stairs to theto the waiting waiting lobby. lobby. All thisAll isthis captured is captured by a violently by a violently shaking shaking hand-held hand-held camera thatcamera adds that both adds intensity both andintensity a documentary and a documentary feel to the sequence.feel to the The sequence. mother, lookingThe mother, very tired,looking is eventually very tired, cornered is eventually by the memberscornered ofby thethe press members and pushed of the againstpress and a wall. pushed A montage against of a closeups wall. A frommontage different of closeups angles shows from thedifferent mother angles closing shows her eyesthe mother and fainting, closing while her eyes the and camera fainting, lights while keep the flashing camera over lights her palekeep faceflashing (See Figureover her 11 ).pale The homicidalface (See Figure acts committed 11). The by homi Yamadacidal at acts once committed become thematized by Yamada alongside at once the become violent behaviorthematized of thealongside press craving the violent to report behavior them. of the press craving to report them.

FigureFigure 11. 11. LiveLive Today, Today, Die Tomorrow!Tomorrow!(Shind (Shindo¯ ō Kaneto, Kaneto, 1970). 1970).

When making filmsfilms onon factualfactual materialmaterial suchsuch asasLive Live Today, Today, Die Die Tomorrow! Tomorrow!or Lucky or Lucky Dragon Dragon No. 5, ShindNo. 5,o¯ Shind includesō includes the way the these way events these wereevents witnessed were witne andssed reported and reported at the time, at the turning time, media turning coverage media intocoverage a crucial into parta crucial of the part film’s of the narration. film’s narration. By so doing, By so doing, Shindo¯ Shind revealsō reveals an affinity an affinity withthe with work the ofwork fellow of fellow filmmakers filmmakers such assuch Matsumoto as Matsumoto Toshio Toshio (1932–2017) (1932–2017) and Oshima¯ and Ōshima Nagisa Nagisa (1932–2013) (1932–2013) who, inwho, addition in addition to working to working with bothwith fictionboth fiction and documentary, and documentary, often often employed employed topical topical issues issues and their and mediatheir media representation representation in their in films.their films. In Lucky In Lucky Dragon Dragon No. 5, No. it is 5 through, it is through the gradual the gradual uncovering uncovering of the evidenceof the evidence by the pressby the that press we that first we find first out find about ou thet about consequences the consequences of what occurred of what tooccurred the ship to crew the exposedship crew to exposed nuclear falloutto nuclear near fallout Bikini Atollnear Bikini in 1954 Atoll and, in upon 1954 reading and, upon a newspaper, reading a so newspaper, does the crew so (Seedoes Figure the crew 12). (See After Figure the ship’s 12). captainAfter the (Uno) ship’s is taken captain to a (Uno) hospital is intaken Tokyo to fora hospital treatment, in weTokyo receive for informationtreatment, we about receive the changesinformation in his about medical the changes condition in by his scenes medical that condition cross- by between scenes his that hospital cross- roomcut between and reports his hospital on radio. and When reports his on health the ra suddenlydio. When deteriorates, his health suddenly the bed is deteriorates, surrounded the by doctorsbed is surrounded while the reporters by doctors wait while at the the staircase; reporters when wait at the the patient’s staircase; wife when arrives the patient’s at the hospital, wife arrives she is followedat the hospital, by a crowd she is offollowed reporters. by a When crowd the of captainreporters. regains When consciousness, the captain regains this information consciousness, is once this againinformation transmitted is once by again the image transmitted of a reporter by the runningimage of upa reporter the stairs running and telling up the his stairs colleagues and telling about his it; later,colleagues when about he finally it; later, succumbs when he to finally the radiation succumbs disease, to the radio radiation is the disease, first to make radio the is the announcement. first to make the announcement.

Arts 2019, 8, 39 11 of 12

Arts 2019,, 8,, xx FORFOR PEERPEER REVIEWREVIEW 11 of 12

FigureFigure 12.12. LuckyLucky DragonDragon No.No. 55 (Shind(Shindoō¯ Kaneto, 1959)1959) 1959)...

ByBy making making the the act act of of reportingreporting such a a visible visible presence presence on on the the screen, screen, Shind Shindō isis oinin¯ is factfact in makingmaking fact making anan aninquiry inquiry into into media media ethics. ethics. In the In thecase case of Lucky of Lucky Dragon Dragon No. No.5,, itit couldcould 5, it could bebe arguedargued be argued thatthat thethe that presspress the waswas press wasworking working within within the the confines confines of public of public interest. interest. After After all, it all,was it the was first the to first bring to the bring devastating the devastating facts factsof ofnuclear nuclear fallout fallout encountered encountered by the by thefishing fishing crew crew toto thethe to attentionattention the attention ofof thethe of public.public. the public. However,However, However, itsits itstreatment treatment of of the the captain’s captain’s struggle struggle for for his his life, life, although although clearly clearly sympathetic sympathetic to tothe the victim victim and and his his family, contains clear hints of sensationalism. The latter tendency becomes much more evident in family,family, contains contains clear clear hints hints of sensationalism.of sensationalism. The The latter latter tendency tendency becomes becomes much much more more evident evident in filmsin films such as Live Today, Die Tomorrow! and The Strange Story of Oyuki. In the latter, an adaptation suchfilms as suchLive Today,as Live Die Today, Tomorrow! Die Tomorrow!and The Strangeand The StoryStrange of OyukiStory .of In Oyuki the latter,. In the an latter, adaptation an adaptation of Nagai of Nagai Kafū’s (1879–1955) A Strange Tale from the East of the River (Bokutō Kidan, 1937), the Kafofu’s¯ Nagai (1879–1955) Kafū’s (1879A Strange–1955) TaleA Strange from the Tale East from of the the River East(Bokut of theo¯ River Kidan, (Bokut 1937),ō theKidan, timeline 1937),of the this timeline of this semi-autobiographical story is extended all the way to Kafū’s (Tsugawa Masahiko) semi-autobiographicaltimeline of this semi-autobiographical story is extended story all the is way extended to Kaf allu’s¯ the (Tsugawa way to Kaf Masahiko)ū’s (Tsugawa death. Masahiko) The famous death. The famous last photograph taken by the yellow press, where the already deceased Kafū isis lastdiscovered photograph face taken down by on the the yellow floor of press, his room, where is the reenacted already in deceased meticulous Kaf udetail¯ is discovered (See Figure face 13). down In ondiscovered the floor of face his room,down on is reenactedthe floor of in his meticulous room, is reenacted detail (See in Figure meticulous 13). In detail contrast, (See KenjiFigure Mizoguchi: 13). In contrast, Kenji Mizoguchi: The Life of a Film Director begins with Shindō enteringentering thethe KyotoKyoto hospitalhospital The Life of a Film Director begins with Shindo¯ entering the Kyoto hospital where Mizoguchi died, where Mizoguchi died, after which the picture of the walking director abruptly halts while the after which the picture of the walking director abruptly halts while the soundtrack goes on and soundtrack goes on and provides a conversation with a hospital staff member who will not the provides a conversation with a hospital staff member who will not grant the crew admission to the crew admission to the premises. By way of compromise, Shindō agreesagrees toto simplysimply shootshoot aa scenescene ofof thethe premises. By way of compromise, Shindo¯ agrees to simply shoot a scene of the empty corridor. empty corridor.

Figure 13. The Strange Story of Oyuki (Shindō Kaneto, 1992). FigureFigure 13. The Strange Story of OyukiOyuki(Shind (Shindo¯ō Kaneto,Kaneto, 1992).

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5. Conclusions From early on in his long career, Shindo¯ Kaneto displayed a strong interest in working with material based on real-life events and employing a variety of documentary film styles. This preoccupation can be traced from his first screenplay all the way to his final film, between which Shindo¯ was invested in reproducing both the quiet drama of the everyday as well as controversial historical events. At the same time, Shindo¯ expressed an awareness of the limitations of the cinematic medium, where the authorial position necessarily overrides any attempt of objective recording, rendering the notion of non-fiction all but meaningless. Equipped with this understanding, Shindo¯ often mixed fiction and documentary styles in his films, whether reenacting events in a highly stylized manner or recycling the resulting footage in his own subsequent work. It could be argued that this propensity to challenge and blur the boundaries between different modes of representation was one of the causes for the inconsistency of his directorial career that, in various ways, sought to answer the dilemma of how to create drama by recording social reality.

Funding: This research was funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP17F17738). Conflicts of Interest: The author declares no conflict of interest.

References

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