Supporting Information

Petraglia et al. 10.1073/pnas.0810842106 SI Text Although the available hard evidence for vegetation in the Paleovegetation Reconstruction. Microlithic technologies occur region is limited, the correlation between available pollen data- during the transition from the terminal phase of Oxygen Isotope sets and global climatic proxies provides a basis for reconstruct- Stage (OIS) 3 as climatic conditions moved toward the full glacial ing vegetation patterns in contrast to modern () inter- of OIS 2. This climatic shift is tied to the downturn from the peak glacial and Last Glacial Maximum conditions. The general on Northern Hemisphere summer insolation (Fig. S1). This shift contrasts between these periods have been reconstructed by is expected to see a strong reduction on summer (southwest) Adams and Faure (14) on the basis of a pan-Asian dataset. Our monsoon rainfall (1, 2). The decrease in summer monsoons and reconstruction approximates a halfway point between these 2 drying is reflected in several regional datasets, including high extremes. However, rather than using the broad and inaccurate dust-particle spikes and d18O drops in the Dunde Ice Cap modern vegetation baseline of Adams and Faure (14), we have (Qinghai, ) and Guliya Ice Cap (Tibet) (3, 4). But this started from the more detailed South Asian vegetation maps of period is also characterized by abrupt oscillations in temperature Puri et al. (15) and Asouti and Fuller (11), taking into account on a Ϸ200 year cycle (4). Vegetation zones would have been correlations with topography, underlying geology and individual reshuffled during this period, and it is likely that semiarid South Asian tree species ecologies (Fig. S2). These correlations tropical zones had nonanalogue ecosystems, as is postulated for were assessed by comparing maps by eye, but nevertheless permit during this period (5, 6). Nevertheless, comparisons with a more precise model of potential vegetation zones than the basic interglacial conditions and glacial maxima conditions recorded maps of Adams and Faure (14). The resulting vegetation model in a few long pollen sequences from the Arabian sea near South (Fig. 2) presents a plausible hypothesis to account for the (7) and southern Arabia (8) provide guidance on recon- available paleoclimatic and paleobotanical evidence. The basis structing the vegetation. Under glacial maxima conditions (ca. for the 5 vegetation zones in our reconstruction are as follows: 20 and 60 ka), drier conditions are marked by high values of the Zone 1. This zone represented an extended Thar Desert zone of salt-tolerant desertic indicators Chenopodiaceae/Amaran- desertic and desert-margin vegetation, which is expected to thaceae, although these may also result from depressed sea levels support little or no forager population and therefore, together and the expansion of saline marshes with lower sea levels and a with extensive desertic areas reconstructed for the Iranian shift in inputs biased toward the northeast winter monsoon, plateau and Arabia, to create a disjunction between bringing greater input from the Thar Desert. Despite this aridity, populations in India and those in westernmost Asia. We expect it is clear from the presence of evergreen tropical taxa that wet the contours of this zone to follow the general pattern of modern evergreen forests persisted, probably in refugia in and rainfall contours but to take in more of them, reflecting reduced the southwestern parts of the Indian peninsula, comparable with precipitation over the entire region, with the exception of the the rain forest refugia of Sundanland shelf of Southeast Asia (see area around Mt. Abu, Rajasthan, which, due to its high elevation, ref. 9). The presence of refugia in southern South Asia are is expected to have higher amounts of rainfall than its surround- implied by the presence of endemic tropical evergreen taxa ing lowlands and to remain, as it is today, an island of lusher disjunct from sister taxa in Assam and mainland Southeast Asia vegetation. In addition, we reconstruct an expected desert in the (10, 11) as well as by evidence from the continuous presence of Southern Deccan (Malnad zone) focused around modern Bel- the tropical evergreen Artocarpus seeds through the sequence at lary, as this area has the driest bioclimate in India outside the Beli-lena Kitulgala in Sri Lanka (12). During these periods Thar Desert (16) and is only marginally nondesertic. With grass pollen levels are low, suggesting a more-restricted distri- slightly less rainfall, it can be expected to be desertic. The bution of savannah grasslands than under recent conditions. Low Jwalapuram sites, therefore, represent the occupation of lusher values of Melastomataceae/Combretaceae (which include a savannah just east of the Bellary District. broad range of evergreen as well as dry deciduous taxa) and Zone 2. This zone represents a combined zone of savannah–scrub Moraceae/Urticaceae attests to the persistence of tropical rain (dry evergreen) vegetation (Acacia spp., Albizia, Capparis, some forest patches and deciduous woodland, presumably in a mosaic Anogeissus) and the drier elements of modern dry deciduous with some grassland and some semidesert vegetation. By con- woodlands (Anogeissus and Terminalia spp.). We reconstruct this trast, interglacials, such as the early Holocene, have much higher as a savannah–woodland mosaic. tree levels as well as wetland taxa (Cyperaceae) and coastal Zone 3. This area represents zones of the core dry deciduous and mangroves (Rhiphoraceae). wetter dry deciduous taxa, notably teak (Tactona grandis), more During the period of interest here—from ca. 35 to 25 ka—we Terminalia spp., and Hardwickia in some areas of Basaltic soil. can reconstruct a semiglacial-era mosaic. Most taxa show trends The boundaries of this and the previous zone follow contours similar to those of the glacial periods, e.g., declining grasses and closer to those between wetter and drier grades of dry deciduous evergreen forest taxa such as Piperaceae. However, there was woodlands today. some increase of total tree pollen, presumably mostly from Zone 4. This zone is the dry-to-moist deciduous woodland zone, tropical dry (deciduous) taxa, as well as a slight rise in the similar to the one above but having a higher dominance of evidence for freshwater wetland (Cyperaceae). Interestingly, Dipterocarpacaeae (Hopea, Shorea, Dipterocarpus) and less Tec- there is a complete absence of mangrove pollen. Taken together, tona, keeping with its more easterly distribution and modern these factors imply that interior regions had a developed mosaic west-to-east variation. of woodland, with patchy grassland and wetlands. The absence Zone 5. The Ganges plains and East Indian lowlands are expected of mangrove may hint at less attractive coastal environments to have been a mosaic of grassland, marshland, and river courses than existed earlier or under Holocene conditions. Also of with deciduous Dipetercarop forest made up of taxa of zone 4 interest is microcharcoal from the Sandynallah swamp, Palni above. This makeup is in keeping with the woodland elements of Hills (13), which implies that human groups practiced some these regions today in relation to adjacent upland forests. vegetation burning for maintaining the vegetation mosaic or Zone 6. This is the restricted zone of true moist deciduous forests, driving game. shifted west toward the higher rainfall of the northwest coast, but

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 1of13 which is presumed to be lower than today and is inadequate for Core Types. Core types include single platform core, bifacially true evergreen rainforests. A parallel zone to the more seasonal flaked slabs, unifacially flaked cobbles/slabs, bidirectional core, rainfall areas of east and northwest Sri Lanka can be expected. multiplatform core, blade core, microblade core, pressure blade Zone 7. The Western Ghats evergreen rain forests are recon- core, pressure microblade core, bifacial core, core fragment, structed as a more limited refugial forest on the southwest, which bipolar core, discoidal core, Levallois core, pseudoLevallois would always have been highest in rainfall. A parallel zone is core, Levallois point core, recurrent Levallois core, and handaxe. reconstructed from southwest Sri Lanka. Zone 8. This zone represents higher elevation and rain forests with Retouched Flake Types. Retouched flake types include asymmetric more temperate elements, including taxonomic disjunctures backed, symmetric backed, broken backed, double backed (i.e., from the Himalayas. This includes the distinctive shoal elements both lateral margins), burin, retouched burin spall, double side of the Nilgiri hills today. The highest elevations of the hills may retouched, double end and side retouched, double side and end have been grasslands above the treeline. General parallels can be retouched, double side and double end retouched, retouched expected in the highest elevations of Sri Lanka. redirecting, end retouched, carinated end, double end, notched, The conditions in peninsular India should, however, be seen notched side/side and end/end/double side/double end/double together with the vegetation over a wider region. The drier and side and end, or double side and double end, ‘‘slug,’’ retouched cooler conditions would be expected to have made semideserting flaked piece, and retouched tabular piece. areas desert, and deserts grew. Thus desert regions of Arabia through and from the Thar Desert through much of Other Categories. Other categories include ochre, grindstone, would have been highly inhospitable. Many of these regions are grindstone topstone, fire cracked rock, manuport, and large habitable under wetter modern climatic conditions only through whole quartz crystals. a combination of specialized pastoralism and irrigation systems, such as the qanat (17). Under drier conditions, there would be Attribute Analysis. Attribute analysis of the flakes, retouched little on which hunter-gatherers could subsist in any numbers. flakes, and cores from Jurreru Valley open-air sites and rock- Pollen and plant macrofossils from Lake Zeribar in western Iran shelters followed methods outlined in detail in Clarkson (19) and suggest a mosaic of desert and shrubland already present at 35 Jones (20). Attribute analysis was performed on all-complete ka, with some trees restricted to sheltered valleys and stream and artifacts from Jwalapuram Locality 9 (JWP9) and on all- lake edges (18). Conditions became worse after 34 ka, when recovered artifacts from JWP 3, 21, and 23. Data for each artifact lake-margin vegetation disappeared, and indications are that was entered into the Lotus Approach relational database soft- Lake Zeribar was full of brackish water and experienced a drop ware. Up to 40 attributes were recorded on complete flakes, up to an additional 44 attributes on retouched flakes, and up to 43 in water level. Pollen suggests the regional presence of desert– attributes on cores. Simpler measurements were taken on broken steppe shrubs and virtually no woodland. The implication is that flakes (i.e., whatever was present and unaffected by the break the potential of the Iranian region to support larger game herds was measured) and flaked pieces (weight, length, and raw and human groups declined, and deserts like the Thar would material). have been larger and inhospitable. In this context, we expect Attributes recorded focused on recording provenience, raw- human populations from throughout the Middle East to decline material type, heat damage, as well as characterizing the metrical and groups to move to refugia areas, such as those in and dimensions of artifacts (for flakes and retouched flakes, percus- the Levant on the one hand, and peninsular India, with its sion axis length, proximal, medial and distal widths, thickness at attractive mosaic of tropical deciduous woodlands, grasslands, midpoint, platform width and thickness, and exterior platform and wetlands on the other. South Asia can be expected to have angle; for cores, length, width and thickness according to the last seen immigration as these conditions set in, making genetic and face to be flaked, platform width and thickness, length of the cultural diversity higher within the subcontinent. These obser- longest worked face, thickness of the base of the core, and the vations imply that the region from Iran to the Thar Desert forms length and width of the longest and last 4 flake scars, as well as a virtual barrier between human populations in West Asia and their corresponding face length and termination type), the South Asia, whereas within South Asia, the environmental nature of retouch [3 measures of Kuhn’s (21) geometric index of mosaic, climatic fluctuations on a ca. 200 year cycle, and unifacial reduction (GIUR)], retouched edge angle, retouch type increased competition between human groups might have all (heavily hinged/stepped or feather), retouch location and inva- contributed to local subsistence and technological innovation. siveness [recorded for up to 16 segments after Clarkson (22)], retouch order (dorsal or ventral only, dorsal or ventral first, Lithic Technological Analysis alternating, bidirectional, or more complex patterns) the pattern Classification. The lithic assemblages from the Jurreru Valley of dorsal flake scars (on flakes) and exterior surface flaking (on were all sorted and classified by the same group of researchers cores) (i.e., scars deriving from proximal/platform, left, right, (Chris Clarkson, Sacha Jones, Ceri Shipton, Jinu Koshy, Clair distal, radial, weakly radial, bidirectional, or a specified combi- Harris, Kate Connell), all of whom were supervised by Clarkson nation, the presence of retouch on or removing the platform and used the same methods (see refs. 19, 20). Lithics were first surface, the number, size, position and width/depth of notches), sorted into major technological categories (cores, flakes, re- general features of the platform and exterior surfaces (for flakes, touched flakes, flaked pieces, hammerstones, anvils, ochre, and termination type, initiation type, number of dorsal ridges run- nonartifacts). All artifacts were sorted into complete and broken ning Ͼ2/3 the length of the dorsal surface, number of dorsal fragments. These major technological components were further flake scars, type of platform preparation, type of platform divided into technological and typological elements. The full list surface, edge damage, edge rounding, cortex percentage, cortex of categories is provided below. type, cortex location, degree of patination and weathering, the presence and angle of old platform edges; for cores, number of Technological Flake Types. Flake types include flake, retouched elongate parallel flake scars, number of flake scars Ͼ15 mm that flake, bipolar flake, Levallois flake, pseudoLevallois flake, are not overhang removal scars, number of nonfeather termi- redirecting flake, ridge-straightening flake, burin spall, pot lid, nations, number of core rotations, final platform angle and the errailure flake, flaked piece, microblade (Ͻ4 cm), pressure blade number of final platform quadrants showing flake initiations) as (Ͼ4 cm), pressure microblade (Ͻ4 cm), blade (Ͼ4 cm), and well as the formal typology of the artifact (see above). Indices of Kombewa/Janus flake. retouch intensity were calculated by using methods described in

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 2of13 Clarkson (22) and Clarkson and Hiscock (23). Indices of retouch of longer blades extends beyond this, but these artifacts are type and shape were calculated by using procedures followed in always rare at JWP9 (blades:microblades ϭ 1:22). Clarkson (24). Indices of flake shape were calculated by using The frequency distribution of microblade lengths also closely procedures discussed in Clarkson and O’Connor (25) for elon- matches that for backed artifacts from JWP9 (Fig. S6B), almost gation, cross-sectional shape and the angle of contraction or all of which are Ͻ40 mm in length. The mean for backed artifacts expansion of flake lateral margins. is 3 mm lower than for microblades, indicating that backed artifacts are slightly smaller on average than microblades, as Definitions of Classes (Fig. 3). Both ‘‘microblade’’ and ‘‘’’ would be expected if microblades were retouched and slightly are relative terms relating to the size of artifacts (26), and shortened to make backed artifacts. Microblade cores are defined as cores with more than 2 definitions vary widely in the literature according to region and elongate, parallel flake scars Ͻ4 cm long on the same core face. individual researcher. Microblade definitions vary in both the Platform type is not important to this definition, but microblade length and width cutoffs used. Some authors employ definitions Ͻ cores frequently exhibit faceted platforms. Microblade cores that emphasize very small blades (i.e., 25 mm in length) were frequently discarded when large-step terminations ap- (27–29), whereas others see the narrowness of the blades as a peared on the core face. Some microblade cores were also flaked defining characteristic. Width cutoffs of 10–11 mm are common bidirectionally. Many microblade cores were likely rotated after (30–32), but others suggest widths of less than 10 mm as a cutoff step terminations began to appear on the core face, resulting in (33), or even as narrow as 5–7 mm (28, 34). At the other end of rotated cores that sometimes exhibit truncated sections of the spectrum, several authors also accept microblades as having microblade scars on 1 or more faces. lengths up 40–50 mm (30, 34–36). Single and multiple platform cores are defined as nuclei (i.e., The variability in microblade definitions reviewed above showing only negative scars and no positive bulbar features) highlights the arbitrary and necessarily problem-focused nature from which 3 or more flake scars Ͼ15 mm in length have been of classifications in relation to a particular set of phenomena struck. Single platform cores show flaking oriented in a single (37). All class definitions for phenomena that show continuous direction from a cortical platform, or a platform formed from a variation are imposed and arbitrary in one sense, and we weathered, broken or single (negative) conchoidal surface. therefore choose to develop our own definition of relevance to Multiplatform cores show signs of rotation of the core with flake the Indian Microlithic record, rather than adopt definitions from scars initiated from multiple platforms at different orientations other regions that may have less relevance to the Indian Palaeo- to one another. Burins are defined as flakes whose lateral margins have been lithic. partially or completely spalled off by blows directed along the Therefore, microblades are defined in this study as elongate Ͼ lateral margin. Platforms for burin blows typically comprise flakes (i.e., length:width 2:1), wider than they are thick, with steep retouched edges or notches, breaks or other burins scars. less than 20% dorsal cortex, and exhibiting 1 or more dorsal Retouched flakes and notches (i.e., scrapers) are defined as ridges running roughly parallel to the percussion axis, with a flakes that show retouching on 1 or more margins that is not percussion axis length of less than 40 mm. This size cutoff is bidirectional backing, invasive unifacial or bifacial retouching to arbitrary at one level, but nevertheless represents a natural form a point, or burinate retouch of the lateral margins. falloff in the frequency distribution of elongate flake lengths at Backed artefacts are defined as flakes whose lateral margins the microlithic site of JWP9 (Fig. S6A). A 40-mm length cutoff (usually 1 but sometimes 2 or more) have been partially or also coincides with the upper bound for 2 standard deviations completely steeply retouched by using either bidirectional flak- above the mean for elongate flake length at the site. A small tail ing or very steep and often stepped dorsal retouch.

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Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 4of13 Fig. S1. Correlated climatic data for the past 110,000 years relevant to South Asia, indicating the conditions prevalent at the time of the South Asian microlithic transition (vertical gray band, 35–30 ka). Note the presence of previous, similarly dramatic environmental shifts. (Top) Monsoon rainfall index from the equatorial Atlantic based on deep-sea sediment core RC24–07 (2). (Middle) Vegetation groups from core MD 76135 near Arabia (after 8); (Bottom) Selected pollen spectra from South Indian core SK-128A-30 (after 7).

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 5of13 Fig. S2. Baseline vegetation maps used for qualitative vegetation reconstruction for ca. 35–30 ka (Fig. 2). Top inset maps are from Adams and Faure (14) and represent a pollen-based reconstruction of continent-wide Eurasian vegetation patterns at the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) and modern potential vegetation. Note that the latter is highly generalized and imprecise, in comparison with more accurate maps of modern Indian vegetation, such as that in the main map (after 11). For example, the Ganges basin should be more a part of zone 3 than zone 2, and the boundary between 3 and 4 is inaccurate in the northern peninsula. In our reconstruction, we have modified the Adams and Faure vegetation maps by reference to this more accurate modern baseline and then judged an approximate halfway point between Late Holocene and LGM conditions to approximate those of ca. 35–30 ka. [Inset maps reprinted from Journal of Archaeological Science, Vol 24, No. 7, JM Adams, H Faure, Preliminary vegetation maps of the world since the Last Glacial Maximum: An aid to archaeological understanding, pp 623–647, 1997 with permission from Elsevier.]

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 6of13 Fig. S3. Jwalapuram Locality 9 rock-shelter stratigraphy. Microlithic artifacts occur in3mofstratified deposits, in association with radiocarbon ages. This rock-shelter is the most securely dated and stratified site in India with microlithic artifacts.

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 7of13 Fig. S4. Sequence of major lithic technological changes at the Patne site. From oldest to youngest, the periods represented, using Sali’s terminology, are: Advanced Middle Paleolithic (AMP); Early Upper Paleolithic (EUP); and 3 successive phases of Late Upper Paleolithic (LUP). The chart indicates the shift to backed microlithic technology in the Late Upper Paleolithic at ca. 30 ka, with prior introduction of microblades and increased burination in the Early Upper Paleolithic period mirroring microlithic developments seen in the Jurreru Valley.

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 8of13 Fig. S5. Radiocarbon database for South Asian sites associated with microlithic industries (compiled from refs. 38, 39, and ages reported in Table S1; n ϭ 122 calibrated radiocarbon ages).

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 9of13 Fig. S6. Frequency graphs of elongate flake lengths at the Locality 9 rockshelter. (A) Microblade lengths indicating a distinct drop-off at Ϸ40 mm, coincident with the 2 standard deviation cutoff of 39.81 mm. (B) Backed artifact lengths also fall within the 40-mm range. These data support the India-specific definition used in this article of microblades being Ͻ40 mm.

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 10 of 13 Table S1. Late Pleistocene chronometric ages Site Material Layer Type Age (cal BP) Sample; CRA Source

Patne Ostrich eggshell IID Radiocarbon 30391–29763 GRN 7200; 43 25000 Ϯ 200 Fa Hien Cave Charcoal 5 Radiocarbon 38873–36083 Beta-33294; 12 (95.1% 33070 Ϯ 410 probability) Fa Hien Cave Charcoal 4a Radiocarbon 38187–34993 Beta-33296; 12 (93.7% 32060 Ϯ 630 probability) Fa Hien Cave Charcoal 4 Radiocarbon 35039–33977 Beta-33299; 12 (89.9% 30060 Ϯ 380 probability) Fa Hien Cave Charcoal 4 Radiocarbon 29983–28573 Beta-33295; 12 (92.1% 24470 Ϯ 290 probability) Batadomba-lena Charcoal Sq. 16; 7c, 280 cm Radiocarbon 39415–30323 PRL-857; 28510 ϩ 12 (95.1% 2150, Ϫ1710 probability) Batadomba-lena Charcoal Sq. 15; 7b Radiocarbon 29473–26087 BS-784; 23030 Ϯ 670 12 (94.9% probability) Batadomba-lena Charcoal 7b Radiocarbon 25701–22996 Beta-33282; 12 (94.6% 20320 Ϯ 500 probability) Batadomba-lena Charcoal Sq. 17; 7b, 240 cm Radiocarbon 26987–23287 PRL-920; 20730 ϩ 12 (95.3% 760, Ϫ690 probability) Batadomba-lena Charcoal 7a Radiocarbon 20033–18866 Beta-33281; 12 16220 Ϯ 330 Batadomba-lena Charcoal Sq. 16H; 6b, 215 cm Radiocarbon 20487–17539 PRL-858; 15830 ϩ 12 680, Ϫ580 Batadomba-lena Charcoal Sq. 16H; 6a, 200 cm Radiocarbon 18491–16171 PRL-859; 14280 ϩ 12 380, Ϫ370 Batadomba-lena Charcoal Sq. 16H; 5, 170 cm Radiocarbon 17547–14901 PRL-860; 13510 ϩ 12 450, Ϫ430 Batadomba-lena Charcoal Sq. 16K; 4b, 100 cm Radiocarbon 16905–14109 PRL-856; 13140 ϩ 12 490, Ϫ460 Batadomba-lena Charcoal Sq. 16K; 4a, 50 cm Radiocarbon 14498–12797 PRL-855; 11530 ϩ 12 340, Ϫ420 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIa(2) Radiocarbon Ͼ26425† Beta-18439 12 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal - - 32251–26701 PRL-1015; 24520 ϩ 38 (94.5% 1500, Ϫ1270 probability) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIa(3) Radiocarbon 25031–24220 Beta-33283; 12 (87.9% 20560 Ϯ 130 probability) Beli-lena Kitulgala Burnt earth IIIa(3) TL 18565 Ϯ 2610 BTL-17b 12 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIb(1) Radiocarbon 23614–21525 Beta-18441; 12 18900 Ϯ 350 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIb(1) Radiocarbon 22516–19971 PRL-1013; 17870 ϩ 12 570, Ϫ530 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIc(1) Radiocarbon 21646–20506 Beta-18442; 12 17810 Ϯ 170 Beli-lena Kitulgala Burnt earth IIIc(1) TL 17217 Ϯ 3300 BTL-156 12 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIc(2) Radiocarbon 22042–20838 Beta-18443; 12 18050 Ϯ 180 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIc(2) Radiocarbon 21366–18521 FRA-164; 12 16400 Ϯ 650 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIc(2) Radiocarbon 19866–18448 FRA-163; 12 (92.0% 15780 Ϯ 400 probability) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal - - 17916–19046 PRL-1011; 14100 ϩ 38 300, Ϫ290 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IIIc(3) Radiocarbon 15974–15188 Beta-33285; 12 13150 Ϯ 90

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 11 of 13 Site Material Layer Type Age (cal BP) Sample; CRA Source

Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IVb(2) Radiocarbon 16060–15273 Beta-33286; 12 13210 Ϯ 80 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; IVb(2) Radiocarbon 15222–13246 BS 294; 12103 Ϯ 390 12 (lower) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal IVb(3) Radiocarbon 13890–13535 Beta-33287; 12 (94.3% 11860 Ϯ 70 probability) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; Va(1) Radiocarbon 15258–14154 BS 293; 12607 Ϯ 160 12 (middle) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; Va(2) Radiocarbon 14282–13236 BS 292; 11866 Ϯ 220 12 (upper middle) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; Va(3) Radiocarbon 15571–13308 PRL-861; 12260 ϩ 12 (lower middle) 450, Ϫ420 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 11G; Va(3) Radiocarbon 14911–13564 FRA-91; 12 (lower) 12133 Ϯ 220 Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; Va(3) Radiocarbon 14384–13289 BS 291; 11917 Ϯ 210 12 (lower) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; Va(3) Radiocarbon 14152–13351 BS 290; 11897 Ϯ 180 12 (lower) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; Va(3) Radiocarbon 12883–12042 BS 288; 10588 Ϯ 170 12 (upper middle) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; Va(3) Radiocarbon 12851–11957 BS 287; 10506 Ϯ 170 12 (upper) (94.0% probability) Beli-lena Kitulgala Charcoal Sq. 10G; Va(3) Radiocarbon 12699–11597 BS 289; 10310 Ϯ 160 12 (lower middle) (91.7% probability) Site 49 (Bundala) Latosolic dune III (1.7m below TL 28300 Ϯ 4300 - 42 sands surface) Site 49 (Bundala) Latosolic dune III (1.1m below TL 22700 Ϯ 3400 - 42 sands surface) Site 50 Latosolic dune III (4m below TL 74000 Ϯ 11000 - 42 (Patirajavela) sands surface) Site 50 Latosolic dune III (4m below TL 64400 Ϯ 9700 - 42 (Patirajavela) sands surface) Site 50 Latosolic dune III (1.8m below TL 28500 Ϯ 4300 - 42 (Patirajavela) sands surface) Jwalapuram Loc 3 Sediment Under Toba Ash OSL 77000 Ϯ 6000 JLP3A-200 44 Jwalapuram Loc 3 Sediment Above Toba Ash OSL 74000 Ϯ 7000 JLP3–380 44 Jwalapuram Loc Sediment 150 cm below OSL 38000 Ϯ 2000 JLP21B-80 45 21 surface Jwalapuram Loc Sediment 200 cm below OSL 38000 Ϯ 3000 JLP21B-30 45 21 surface Jwalapuram Loc Shell, Stratum C, 80 cm Radiocarbon 11967–11398 OxA-16282; 46 9* aragonite, (AMS) 10090 Ϯ 50 snail Jwalapuram Loc 9 Charcoal Unit 1, Stratum D, Radiocarbon 12400–12074 PWD12; 10390 Ϯ 45 46 74–81 cm (AMS) (86.8% probability) Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell aragonite, N3, Stratum C, Radiocarbon 12397–12075 OxA-15192; 46 snail 115–121 cm (AMS) (90.8% 10385 Ϯ 40 probability) Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell, N3, Stratum C, Radiocarbon 12395–12053 OxA-15193; 46 aragonite, 115–121 cm (AMS) (94.2% 10370 Ϯ 40 snail probability) Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell aragonite, N3, Stratum C, Radiocarbon 14592–13991 OxA-14828; 46 snail 110–120 cm (AMS) 12290 Ϯ 60 Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell, N3, Stratum C, Radiocarbon 14455–13959 OxA-15194; 46 aragonite, 115–121 cm (AMS) 12265 Ϯ 55 bivalve Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell, Stratum C, 145 cm Radiocarbon 15215–14691 OxA-16281; 46 aragonite, (AMS) 12685 Ϯ 60 snail Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell aragonite, N3, Stratum C, Radiocarbon 20274–19897 OxA-14830; 46 snail 180–190 cm (AMS) 16940 Ϯ 75

Petraglia et al. www.pnas.org/cgi/content/short/0810842106 12 of 13 Site Material Layer Type Age (cal BP) Sample; CRA Source

Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell, M3, Stratum D, 245 Radiocarbon 30985–29966 OxA-20255; 46 aragonite, cm (AMS) 27250 Ϯ 130 bivalve Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell, M3, Stratum D, 235 Radiocarbon 32916–30520 OxA-20254; 46 aragonite, cm (AMS) 28370 Ϯ 130 bivalve Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell, N3, Stratum D, Radiocarbon 34305–33351 OxA-14829; 46 aragonite, 180–190 cm (AMS) 29400 Ϯ 190 bivalve Jwalapuram Loc 9 Shell, Stratum D, 230 cm Radiocarbon 34284–33350 OxA-16280; 46 aragonite, (AMS) 29360 Ϯ 170 snail

Radiocarbon ages are calibrated using the OxCal calibration program, version 4.0.5 (40). Ages Ͻ20,500 radiocarbon years have been calibrated with the IntCal 04 dataset. Ages Ͼ20,500 radiocarbon years have been calibrated with the Cariaco Basin dataset (41) by using the OxCal software; however, this is currently an estimate, as there is no agreed calibration curve for this period and comparison to different methods would give different results. Radiocarbon age ranges are for the 95.4% probability range unless otherwise specified. If the calibrated range is significantly multimodal, then the largest probability range is quoted. Thermoluminescence (TL) and optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) ages are determined directly in calendar years and therefore do not require calibration. The TL ages of Singhvi, et al. (42) are assigned estimated relative uncertainties of 15%, following the suggestion made by those authors. The assigned value accommodates only random, and not systematic, sources of error, so the total uncertainties will be larger. The uncertainties associated with the OSL ages include both random and systematic sources of variation. CRA ϭ conventional radiocarbon age. *Shell samples for radiocarbon dating were screened for potential diagenetic contamination in accordance with standard aragonite dating protocol used by the Oxford radiocarbon dating laboratory. Samples that did not meet the criteria for well-preserved aragonite were rejected for dating. A modern-day bivalve shell was also sampled from the Jurreru River (300 m south of the Locality 9 and ca. 30 m downslope). This was analyzed to test if there was any significant contribution in such shells from ancient carbon derived from the underlying geology of the Jurreru catchment. This sample yielded a carbon-14 assay of 1.0466% modern carbon (OxA15191), which is compatible with its collection date of 2004 and indicates that there is no significant contribution of ancient carbon to the modern shells. This is likely to have been the case for the similar shells from the archaeological context indicating no significant uptake of older carbon. † Uncalibrated.

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