Future of Turkey IS TURKEY’S SECULAR TRADITION ERODING?

DECEMBER 2007 VOLUME 1, NUMBER 12 PAGES 295-322 WWW.GLOBALRESEARCHER.COM Future of Turkey IS TURKEY’S SECULAR TRADITION ERODING?

or centuries the crossroad between East and the West, Turkey today finds itself at a crossroad of its

own: The militant secularism installed in the 1920s by the country’s founding father, Ataturk, is being

challenged by an emerging middle class no longer willing to hide its Muslim beliefs. Meanwhile, the

religiously conservative party that has governed Turkey since 2002 is pushing the country toward mem- Fbership in the European Union, even though many Europeans don’t want Muslim Turkey in their Christian club. While Turkey is often seen as role model for how democracy can co-exist with Islam, the historical enmity between Arabs and their non-Arab former Ottoman over- lords limits the extent to which Turkey can be a stabilizing force in the region.

Adding to Turkey’s turmoil, its long friend- ship and military alliance with the United

States has been badly damaged by both the war in Iraq and a move in Congress to label as genocide the massacre of up to 1.5 million Armenians in 1915.

Waving Turkish flags and pictures of Ataturk — modern Turkey’s secular founder — demonstrators rally in Ankara last April 14 against Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan’s proposed run for the presidency, a traditionally secular post. Religiously conservative Erdogan decided not to run, but his equally religious colleague Abdullah Gul ran and won the Aug. 28 election.

PUBLISHED BY CQ PRESS, A DIVISION OF CONGRESSIONAL QUARTERLY INC. WWW.CQPRESS.COM FUTURE OF TURKEY

THE ISSUES SIDEBARS AND GRAPHICS

• Is Turkey’s commitment Turkey Links Europe to December 2007 297 to secularism fading? 298 Asia Volume 1, Number 12 • Should Turkey be admit- Today it has become a key energy transit point. MANAGING EDITOR: Kathy Koch ted to the European Union? [email protected] • Is Turkey key to stability in the Middle East? Religiosity Is on the Rise CONTRIBUTING EDITOR: Thomas J. Colin 299 One third of Turks say they [email protected] BACKGROUND are “totally religious” — a CONTRIBUTING WRITERS: Brian Beary, 6-point jump in six months. Peter Behr, Roland Flamini, Sarah Glazer, Rise of an Empire Samuel Loewenberg, Colin Woodard Is Turkish Support for EU 310 The Ottoman dynasty 300 DESIGN/PRODUCTION EDITOR: Olu B. Davis emerged in the 13th century. Membership Waning? Slightly over half of Turks ASSISTANT EDITOR: Darrell Dela Rosa support joining the European WEB EDITOR: Andrew Boney Looking Westward Union. 311 Ataturk set out to transform Turkey into a mod- Genocide Question Still ern, secular state. 302 Divides Turks, Armenians No one disputes hundreds of Liberalization thousands died. A Division of 312 Turkey began reforming Congressional Quarterly Inc. its economy in order to Chronology join the European Union 307 Key events since 1453. SENIOR VICE PRESIDENT/PUBLISHER: (EU). John A. Jenkins An Island Still Divided 308 DIRECTOR, LIBRARY PUBLISHING: The Cyprus problem seems Alix Buffon Vance URRENT ITUATION as intractable as ever. C S DIRECTOR, EDITORIAL OPERATIONS: Ann Davies Election Fallout 315 At Issue 313 Are U.S.-Turkish relations ONGRESSIONAL UARTERLY NC. The AKP enhanced its likely to improve soon? C Q I power in the July 2007 CHAIRMAN: Paul C. Tash parliamentary elections. Voices From Abroad VICE CHAIRMAN: Andrew P. Corty 322 Headlines and editorials from Choppy Waters around the world. PRESIDENT/EDITOR IN CHIEF: Robert W. Merry 313 Turkey’s bid to join the EU faces various obstacles. Copyright © 2007 CQ Press, a division of FOR FURTHER RESEARCH Congressional Quarterly Inc. (CQ). CQ re- Iraq’s Destabilizing Effect serves all copyright and other rights herein, 316 The Turks fear the United For More Information unless previously specified in writing. No part 319 Organizations to contact. of this publication may be reproduced elec- States favors greater auton- tronically or otherwise, without prior written omy for the Kurds. Bibliography permission. Unauthorized reproduction or 320 Selected sources used. transmission of CQ copyrighted material is a violation of federal law carrying civil fines of OUTLOOK The Next Step up to $100,000. 321 Additional articles. Crossroads Ahead CQ Global Researcher is published monthly online in PDF and HTML format by CQ 317 Turkey’s prosperity could Citing CQ Global Researcher push it towards secularism 321 Press, a division of Congressional Quarterly Sample bibliography formats. Inc. Annual full-service electronic subscrip- and social liberalism. tions for high schools are $300; subscrip- tions for all other institutions start at $450. For pricing, call 1-800-834-9020, ext. 1906. To purchase CQ Global Researcher electronic rights, visit www.cqpress.com or call 866-427-7737. Cover: AP Photo/Burhan Ozbilici

296 CQ Global Researcher Future of Turkey BY BRIAN BEARY

Islamic state. Though the party’s supporters are more overtly THE ISSUES religious and socially conser- urkey’s new religious- vative than the secularists who ly conservative presi- have ruled Turkey for most of Tdent Abdullah Gul had its modern history, they have a dilemma. Should he serve shown few signs so far of want- alcohol — which is forbid- ing to turn the country into den for Muslims — at his an Islamic theocracy. Most post-election celebratory party alarming were the AKP’s at- to assure his many skeptics tempts in 2004 — led by he is not a radical Islamist Prime Minister Recep Tayyip at heart? Or should he re- Erdogan — to draft a new frain from doing so to sig- penal code that would have nal to his grassroots sup- criminalized adultery. The party porters that publicly soon scrapped the clause, how- expressing one’s religion will ever, in the face of intense op- no longer be taboo in Turkey? position at home and abroad. But Gul is nothing if not While it is highly unlikely an agile politician, so he came that Turkey will morph into an up with a deft solution for Islamic theocracy along the lines AP Photo the party after his election New Turkish President Abdullah Gul, a devout Muslim, almost saw of Iran or Saudi Arabia, in which on August 28: Alcoholic bev- his presidential hopes dashed because his wife, Hayrunnisa, religious clerics hold political erages were served, but the wears a head scarf, which secularists insist is an Islamist political power, elements of Islamic law, statement.Turkish law forbids the wearing of religious symbols reception was held at 11.30 in public buildings. Despite Gul’s protestations,Turkey’s old elite or sharia, could seep into the a.m., a time when most guests still doubts his professed commitment to secularism. Turkish legal code. That would could be expected to decline not only undermine Turkey’s the offer of alcohol. 1 secular values but also dash In many countries such a decision April and May, which led Turkey’s equal- any hopes that the EU would accept would seem trivial, but in adamantly ly secularist constitutional court to effec- Turkey as a member. The EU’s Con- secular Turkey it could have serious tively invalidate the election. vention on Human Rights — which all political consequences. Indeed, Gul’s The secularists, who also domi- members must abide by — is incom- presidential hopes were nearly thwart- nate the military, passionately de- patible with sharia. It would also chill ed because his wife, Hayrunnisa, wears fend the system, created by the Turkey’s relations with the United States, a head scarf. Turkish law forbids the founder of modern Turkey, Mustafa which views Turkey as a bulwark against wearing of religious symbols in public Kemal — better known as Ataturk Islamic extremist movements in the re- buildings, and secularists insisted that (Father of the Turks). Turkey’s offi- gion. Turkey’s secular-orientated Arab Mrs. Gul’s fashion choice is an Islamist cial secularism insists not only on neighbors also would not be pleased, political statement because her scarf separation of church and state but nor would Israel, with which Ankara has “exposes no hair, and unlike other also on the church being subjugat- fostered friendly relations. scarves, covers part of the face and is ed and tightly controlled by the Most of the AKP’s support comes from pinned tightly to the head.” 2 state. Turkey’s Directorate of Reli- the new middle class that has emerged Gul managed to weather the storm gious Affairs, for instance, has about since Turkey’s economic liberalization of surrounding his wife’s attire and win the 75,000 officials who appoint and pay the past two decades, primarily in the election, but his wife stayed away from imams and issue sermons to be read “Anatolian tigers” — smaller cities in the his swearing-in ceremony to avoid con- at Turkey’s 76,000 mosques. 3 Asian part of Turkey like Denizli, Kay- troversy. Yet Turkey’s old elite, including But the secularists fear Gul’s col- seri, Sivas, Konya and Gaziantep — that the main opposition Republican People’s leagues in the ruling Justice and De- have experienced rapid economic growth. Party (CHP), still doubt Gul’s commitment velopment Party (AKP) — which Many former residents have immigrated to secularism. The CHP boycotted the ini- pulled off a stunning electoral victory to Istanbul, Turkey’s wealthiest city and tial parliamentary votes that Gul won in in July — want to turn Turkey into an by far its biggest, with a population of

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Turkey, long a source of cheap immi- Turkey Links Europe to Asia grant labor for Europe, now hosts rough- Straddling the Bosporus Strait, Turkey is often called Europe’s ly 3 million migrant workers — mostly Bulgarians, Romanians, Poles, Russians, gateway to Asia. As such, Turkey has become a major energy transit 4 point between Europe and the oil-rich Caspian Sea, with major oil Ukrainians, Iranians and Armenians. About 70,000 Germans have bought re- and gas pipelines crisscrossing the huge Muslim country, which is tirement homes in Turkey, while Irish nearly twice as big as California. and British nationals are buying holiday ROMANIA GEORGIA AZER. homes around Bodrum and Antalya in BLACK SEA Nabucco (Gas) such large numbers that house prices are ARMENIA listed in euros and British pounds, rather BULGARIA Samsun AZER. than Turkish lira. Bosporus Erzurum Baku-Tbilisi- Parading up and down Istanbul’s Strait Erzurum (Gas) main shopping street, Istiklal Cadde- Istanbul Ankara Lake Burgas Van si, most women adopt Western dress codes: fitted jeans, strapless tops and Baku-Tbilisi- Dardanelles TURKEY even miniskirts. Yet many others don I Ceyhan (Oil) Sea of Marmara R IRAQ traditional Islamic garb, including the L A Izmir CeyhanG Tigris controversial, hair-hiding head scarves. D A O S And while the hectic buzz of the mar- T O R SYRIA kets and stalls conjures up images of an Arab bazaar, the ubiquitous use of GREECE Nicosia Pipeline proposed or the Latin alphabet on street signs and MEDITERRANEAN Crete LEBANON under construction restaurant menus reminds one that SEA CYPRUS Operational pipeline Beirut Damascus Turkey still orients itself primarily to the West. Istanbul is scheduled to as- Turkey at a Glance sume the EU-backed title of European “culture capital” during the year 2010. President: Abdullah Gul In fact, in an ironic twist, says Brook- Prime Minister: Recep Tayyip Erdogan ings Institution Turkish scholar Omer Population: 72.5 million Taspinar, the AKP and its supporters lately have become “more pro-West- Area: 314,427 square miles ern and pro-globalization, while the Religion: 98 percent Muslim, mostly Sunni. Jews, Armenian Christians and military and the Kemalist [secularist] Greek Orthodox make up the other 2 percent. establishment have become more in- Life expectancy: Males: 68.9 years; females: 73.8 years sular and more nationalist and resentful of the EU [European Union] and the GDP per capita: $6,487 (2007) U.S.” 5 In addition, the AKP, more than GDP growth rate: 6.1 percent (2006) any previous Turkish government, Inflation: 7.7 percent has engaged in peacemaking efforts with its Middle Eastern neighbors, rais- Unemployment: 8-10 percent (2007) ing hopes that Turkey could become Employment rate: 45.9 percent, overall, only 23.8 percent for women a major peace broker in the region. “Turkey is ideally suited for the role Sources: Central Bank of Turkey, European Commission, Eurostat, Political Handbook of The of honest broker because we are the World 2007, Turkish Embassy to the United States, Turkish Industrialists and Businessmen’s only country in the region with links to Association, Turkish Statistics Institution, Turkish Undersecretariat for Foreign Trade every single actor,” says Burak Akcapar, Turkish deputy chief of the mission to more than 12 million, making it Europe’s tensive and modern public transport net- the United States. “We don’t like them largest city by far. work, shops on every street selling every all, but they all talk to us because we Evidence of Istanbul’s prosperity conceivable type of consumer gadget. are equal distance from everyone.” Strong abounds: new, expensive cars, an ex- Moreover, the economy is so strong that economic ties, too, with fellow Muslim

298 CQ Global Researcher countries like Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Egypt make Turkey a strategically im- Religiosity Is on the Rise portant player in the region. Until recently the secularists and the The percentage of Turks who are “totally religious” rose six Turkish military have been at the fore- percentage points — to 34 percent — in the first six months of 2007, front in Turkey’s bid to join the EU, reflecting rising support for Turkey’s new religiously conservative negotiations that began in October 2005. government (top). Most Turks, however, strongly agree that religion They saw EU membership as the cul- should remain in the private sphere (bottom). mination of their nearly century-long struggle to modernize the country. On a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 is “not religious at all” and But lately the Turkish military is less 10 is “totally religious,” where would you place yourself? keen on EU membership, largely because it realizes it would curtail the mil- Percentage of respondents itary’s ability to meddle in politics. The 35% 34% military believes its duty is to intervene 30 2006 28% if Turkey’s secular model is under threat 2007 to prevent Turkey slipping into Islam- 25 ic ways, as has happened elsewhere 20 18% 16% in the region — notably Iran. “The mil- 14% 15 13% itary sees Islam as the cause of Turkey’s 12% 11% 11% former decline. They look at the whole 10 9% 7% 8% Middle East as a failure,” says Taspinar. 5 3% 2% 2% 2% 2% The military retains strong support 4% 1% 1% among secular Turks for this very rea- 0 son. But according to Ali Aslan, Wash- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ington correspondent for the Turkish Grading Scale daily Zaman, “the military officers cannot effectively connect with ordinary On a scale from 1 to 10, where 1 is “don’t agree at all” and people and are relatively isolated. 10 is “totally agree,” how much do you agree or disagree That’s partly because most of them live with each of the following statements? in military-family-only housing com- plexes. They tend to take more of the Grading Scale cultural aspects of the West and less of 10 Do you agree that . . . the political ones, such as respect for 8 human rights.” 8.06 In Istanbul’s Topkapi Palace, home 7.25 6 6.56 6.86 to Ottoman sultans for centuries, a mu- 6.19 seum worker asks a tourist his nation- 4 ality. The man answers “French,” adding “Zidane” — the name of France’s most 2 2.42 famous football star — to clarify. The 0 museum worker seems only vaguely Sharia Islamic Schools Religion Activities Participation aware of Zidane, but, after pausing should extremists need to should be of Islamic of religious briefly, suddenly blurts out the name be our are a threat provide in the foundations leaders in “Sarkozy,” to which the French tourist government to our lives more private should be political life model religious sphere closely should be grins sheepishly and shuffles away. education controlled restricted Nicolas Sarkozy, France’s president since May, has become a household Source: The International Republican Institute, June 2007 name in Turkey since his emergence as the most vocal opponent of Turkey headed by Austria, whose capital Vi- Ottoman expansion in Europe — some- joining the EU. He leads a seeming- enna the Turks tried and failed to cap- thing the Austrians remember with ly growing chorus in Europe, spear- ture in 1683, marking the zenith of pride. Germany, Denmark and the

Available online: www.globalresearcher.com December 2007 299 FUTURE OF TURKEY

refusal to recognize the government of Is Turkish Support for EU Membership Waning? Cyprus, which joined the EU in 2004. Just over half of Turks support the country’s efforts to join the The island of Cyprus has been divided European Union (EU) (top). The percentage of Turks who think it’s a since Turkish troops invaded in 1974 in response to a Greek-government spon- bad idea has risen slightly. Economic development is seen as the most sored attempt to seize control of Cyprus. important benefit that EU membership would provide (bottom). Turkey recognizes and backs the Turk- ish Cypriot administration in the north, Is Turkish membership in the European Union good or bad? while the rest of the world considers the Percentage responding Greek Cypriot administration in the south 60% 53% 52% to be the island’s official government. 50 Nov. 2006 Several European countries support 40 June 2007 Turkey’s EU membership, however, 30 23% 26% including Spain, Italy, Sweden and most 18% 20 15% notably the United Kingdom. The British 10 see Turkey’s membership as a way to 0 prevent the EU becoming a super-state Good Bad Neither — believing the sheer size of an EU with Turkey in it would militate What are the most important benefits of against deeper integration. Meanwhile, Turkey’s affection for the European Union membership? United States, its longtime NATO ally, has plummeted. Although 52 percent Economic development, lower unemployment 23% of Turks viewed the United States fa- Free movement of citizens throughout Europe 13% vorably in 2000, today only 9 percent do — primarily due to the emergence Strengthen democracy 11% of a quasi-autonomous Kurdish state Increase Turkey’s international influence 10% on Turkey’s southeastern border with northern Iraq, precipitated by the U.S.- Reduce bribery and corruption 8% led liberation of Kuwait in 1991 and 7 Equal rights 5% the 2003 invasion of Iraq. The Kur- distan Workers’ Party (PKK), which has Increase social peace 5% killed thousands of Turks in a bloody Other 5% separatist campaign launched in 1984, is using northern Iraq as a base from Don’t know 19% which to stage its attacks. Turks are 0%5 10152025angry with the United States, which Percentage responding has some 165,000 troops in Iraq, for * Percentages may not total 100 due to rounding. neither clamping down on the PKK Source: International Republican Institute nor forcing the Kurdish-led administration in northern Iraq to do so. Netherlands are equally skeptical now cide to describe the annihilation of up Many Turks also were miffed by about Turkey’s EU membership. to 1.5 million Armenians beginning in Washington’s response to the Turkish Among other things, opponents of 1915, something a dozen countries around military’s April 2007 Internet posting of Turkey’s membership say its human rights the world and 40 U.S. states have rec- a memo threatening to intervene if they policies are not up to EU standards, es- ognized in recent years as genocide. felt Turkish secularism was under threat pecially Article 301 of the Turkish penal Turkish AKP parliamentarian Ege- by the Islamists. 8 Dubbed by some as code, which makes it a crime to insult men Bagis says, “We are changing the the world’s first “e-coup” — the memo “Turkishness.” The article — which civil article but it’s a touchy issue. Other recounted incidents in which secularism liberties advocates view as a license to European states have similar laws but was being undermined, such as girls at harass intellectuals — has been used to they are not interpreted the same.” 6 a public primary school wearing head punish anyone who uses the term geno- Another big sticking point is Ankara’s scarves and singing songs praising the

300 CQ Global Researcher Prophet Mohammed at an event co- sponsored by the Directorate of Reli- gious Affairs. 9 Although the EU immediately criticized the intervention, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Dan Fried said only, “We don’t take sides.” 10 Secretary of State Condoleezza Rice later aligned herself with the EU position, but for many the damage was already done. 11 However, Matthew Bryza, U.S. deputy assistant secretary of state for European and Eurasian affairs, remains unapologetic. “The military still has an important role in Turkish politics. It is not up to us to decide what that role should be,” he says. Bryza is married to Zeyno Baran, a scholar in European and Eurasian studies at the Hudson Institute, a conservative Wash- ington-based think tank, who predicted the military intervention months in advance, citing high-level sources in the Turkish military. Baran even sug- gested a coup could be good for Turk- ish democracy. 12 The e-coup came just as the Turk- ish parliament and constitutional court were locked in a bitter dispute over the procedure for electing a new president. The president’s role is more than symbolic in Turkey: He can proclaim martial law, hold a referendum on constitutional changes, grant par- dons and appoint judges. 13 Days after the e-coup, Prime Minister Erdogan called snap parliamentary elections for July. Drawing on its formidable, AP Photo/Serkan Senturk nationwide grassroots movement, the AKP Religious Turks protest in April over the Turkish military’s involvement in the upcoming racked up a remarkable electoral success: presidential election.The powerful pro-secular military said it was monitoring the election They won 46.6 percent of the vote, with with concern and might become even more openly involved in the process. 83 percent of voters turning out. 14 For Mark Parris, former U.S. ambas- rection in which the country is going: are not bothered by women being treat- sador to Turkey during the Clinton ad- ed by male doctors — a practice strict- ministration, the real winner in the whole Is Turkey’s commitment to secu- ly prohibited by Islamic fundamental- affair was democracy. “The fact that larism fading? ists — 65 percent do not object to the these elections were free, fair and peace- According to a recent poll by the wife of a government minister wearing ful is a tribute to the maturity of democ- International Republican Institute (IRI), a head scarf, something secularists strong- racy in Turkey. We should not take this an organization funded by the U.S. Con- ly oppose. On a scale of one to 10 — for granted,” he says. gress to promote democracy around the with one being the least supportive — In this pivotal moment in Turkish world, Turks remain secular but are less Turkish support for adopting Islamic history, these are some of the key hard-line about it today than in the past. law, or sharia, in Turkey stood at just questions being asked about the di- For instance, while 66 percent of Turks Continued on p. 304

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Genocide Question Still Divides Turks, Armenians No one disputes hundreds of thousands died.

or Guler Koknar, the question of whether the massacre peared from her hometown, Diarbekir, the cousin remembered, of thousands of Armenians in 1915 was legally tanta- and gendarmes confiscated Armenians’ weapons. Then she awak- Fmount to genocide is not academic, it is personal. The ened one morning to find the body of her father, a Christian former Turkish diplomat is calmly expounding the Turkish view spice merchant, hanging outside the family’s home. “Two horse- when she suddenly breaks down, crying as she recalls how shoes were nailed to his feet . . . the hands were nailed hori- Armenian terrorists murdered Turkish diplomats — including a zontally on a board, which was meant to resemble a cross.” friend’s husband — in the 1970s and ’80s. Then she saw Turkish soldiers murder a group of Armenian Now working for the Turkish Coalition of America, Koknar women by dousing them with kerosene, setting them on fire has been lobbying to stop Congress from passing a resolution and forcing them to dance while their children were made to labeling as genocide the deaths of hundreds of thousands of watch and clap. Soon afterward, she and her neighbors were Christian Armenians. Just the evening before, the House For- rounded up for the long deportation march. During the grue- eign Affairs Committee had passed the resolution, leaving Kok- some ordeal, marchers were given no food or water, and many nar and many other Turks feel- died of starvation and exposure. ing they had been stabbed in Text of United Nations Convention on the The women were robbed and raped by Turkish soldiers and the back. Since then, intense Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of diplomatic pressure from Ankara local Kurds; the men were fre- Genocide, adopted Dec. 9, 1948: and the Bush administration has quently shot by gendarmes. 4 indefinitely postponed a floor “Genocide means any of the following acts committed with Alarmed missionaries and vote on the resolution. 1 intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, diplomats in Turkey recounted Although the resolution ap- racial or religious group, as such: horrific scenes that occurred along pears to be dead for this year, (a) Killing members of the group; the route. U.S. Ambassador to the damage had been done. (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members Turkey Henry Morgenthau Sr. ca- “What hurt me most is that not of the group; bled the State Department in 1915, one congressman we contacted (c) Deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of saying: “Deportation of and ex- had anything to say about the life calculated to bring about its physical destruction cesses against peaceful Armeni- more than one million Muslims in whole or in part; ans is increasing and from har- massacred by Armenians and (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births rowing reports of eye witnesses, others,” Koknar says, in refer- within the group; it appears that a campaign of ence to inter-ethnic slaughter (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to race extermination is in progress that took place in Eastern Ana- another group.” under a pretext of reprisal against tolia between 1912 and 1922. 2 rebellion.” His successor, Abram Anger over the genocide Elkus, cabled the State Depart- language is widespread in Turkey. “Any Turkish taxi driver or ment in 1916 that the Young Turks were continuing an “unchecked cleaning lady will spit rage about this,” says Norman Stone, a policy of extermination through starvation, exhaustion, and bru- history professor at Bilkent University in Ankara. At the heart tality of treatment hardly surpassed even in Turkish history.” 5 of the passion is the power of the word “genocide” itself, the The Turks claim many of the diplomatic cables and eye- most heinous crime against humanity. (See definition in box.) witness accounts cited by the Armenians today are either bogus “We are not monstrous,” says a Turkish engineer living in or wartime propaganda against Turkey, which joined the Cen- Belgium. tral Powers against the Allies in World War I. Yet no one denies that hundreds of thousands of Armeni- After the war ended, Turkish authorities put 1,300 men on ans either were murdered or died of hunger or exhaustion trial for the massacres of Armenians and executed some. 6 But after the Ottoman government, led by a group called the Young the three key leaders who allegedly masterminded the policy Turks, ordered all Armenians forcibly moved from Eastern Turkey fled the country. They were later tracked down in Germany, to a desert in what is now Syria. Death toll estimates range Italy and Central Asia and assassinated by a clandestine group from 200,000 to 1.5 million. sent by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. In his autobiographical book Black Dog of Fate, Armenian- Professor Stone says the deportations were provoked by the American author Peter Balakian recounts some of the horrors 1912 Balkan wars, when millions of Turks were “ethnically cleansed” surrounding the events, as told from the perspective of a cousin from southeastern Europe. 7 Some Armenians provoked the de- who survived the deportations. 3 First, Armenian men disap- portations by ganging up with Russian forces and slaughtering

302 CQ Global Researcher Muslims in surrounding villages in the months prior to the de- to the U.S. government’s forcible relocation of the Cherokee Indi- portations. The ethnic hatred had begun many decades earlier ans from Georgia to the Indian Territory (modern-day Oklahoma) when new Christian-dominated nations like Greece, Bulgaria and in 1838 along what the Indians called the “trail of tears.” Serbia gained their independence from the Ottoman Empire. 8 The Jewish community has been split over the Armenian geno- The Armenian massacres have been heatedly debated for near- cide question; while it has a long history of friendly relations with ly a century, with the Armenians charging Turkey with rewriting Armenians, it is reluctant to antagonize Turkey, perhaps Israel’s history and financing studies and professorships — some at pres- only friend in the Middle East. 11 A dozen countries around the tigious U.S. institutions — that deny the genocide. Turkey also world have passed Armenian genocide resolutions, the most con- blocks neutral scholarship on the subject inside Turkey, accord- troversial being a vote by the French lower house in October ing to the Armenians, by making it a crime (“insulting Turkish- 2006 to make it a criminal offense to deny the genocide. 12 ness”) to use the term “genocide” to describe the campaign. Amanda Akcakoca, a researcher at the Brussels-based Eu- Turks, on the other hand, say the Armenian diaspora uses the ropean Policy Centre, sees a long road to reconciliation. “For genocide issue as a glue to bind their community. “They took the 80 years, nationalistic education in Turkey has drilled into peo- Holocaust example and increased the numbers of dead from 250,000 ple that there was no genocide. It will take over a decade to to 2 million,” says Bahadir Kaleagasi, a spokesman for the Turk- come to terms with what happened.” ish Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association in Brussels, Bel- For his part, Hamparian dismisses calls for more confer- gium. “We have 100,000 Armenians working in Turkey, mostly car- ences, saying it is “like the tobacco industry having a confer- ing for children or the elderly. They do not support this resolution.” ence entitled ‘is cigarette-smoking bad for you?’ It will roll back But Aram Hamparian, executive director of the Armenian the clock 50 years.” National Committee of America (ANCA), says Armenians in Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan is equally res- Turkey are afraid to speak out, wishing to avoid the fate of olute: “If there has been a crime, we are ready to settle our ac- Hrant Dink, a popular Armenian journalist murdered by a Turk- counts with our history. But we know that this is not the case.” ish nationalist in January. Dink’s son Arat was convicted in Oc- Echoing the views of many Turks on this issue, he insisted, “Our tober of insulting Turkishness after he republished an interview values do not allow our people to commit genocide.” 13 his father gave to Reuters in 2006 in which he called the massacres genocide. 9 Similarly, Hamparian claims, the Patriarch of 1 Colby Itkowitz, “Support Fades for Armenian Resolution,” CQ Weekly, the Armenian Church in Istanbul doesn’t back the U.S. geno- Oct. 22, 2007. 2 Koknar’s main source for this assertion is the work of American history Pro- cide resolution because he fears for his flock’s safety. fessor Justin McCarthy from the University of Louisville, Ky., who wrote the Of the Turkish diplomatic offensive to stop the Armenian book Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleansing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922 genocide resolution in the U.S. Congress, Hamparian says (1996). McCarthy has denied that the massacres perpetrated against Armeni- ans in 1915 constituted genocide. adamantly: “Turkey is acting like a bully, throwing temper 3 Peter Balakian, Black Dog of Fate (1997). tantrums. You have got to stand up to bullies.” 4 Ibid., pp. 211-221. Burak Akcapar, deputy chief of mission at the Turkish Em- 5 “Fact Sheet: Armenian Genocide,” Knights of Vartan Research Center, Uni- bassy in Washington, is adamant there was no genocide. “Read versity of Michigan-Dearborn, www.umd.umich.edu/dept/armenian/facts/geno- the 1948 Geneva Convention. None of the criteria has been met. cide.html. 6 Norman Stone, “Armenian story has another side,” Chicago Tribune, Oct. No one has taken this to court. We do not accept that the rulers 16, 2007, www.chicagotribune.com/news/opinion/chi-oped1016en- of the Ottoman Empire tried to eradicate a people just because doct16,0,900339.story. they were that people,” he says. Akcapar is “baffled by the num- 7 Ibid. ber of works written by scholars who have not spent any time 8 See Taner Akcam, A Shameful Act (2006), pp. 139-140. studying the Ottoman archives, who just quote from each other.” 9 See statement on the conviction on Reporters Without Borders Web site, Oct. 12, 2007, www.rsf.org/article.php3?id_article=23958. The House genocide resolution quotes a 1939 speech by 10 Text of House resolution is at http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/D?c110:1:./ Adolf Hitler, in which he dismisses objections to his plans to temp/~c110gF1EMZ::. invade Poland by saying, “[w]ho, after all, speaks today of the 11 See Ron Kampeas, “Turkey wants genocide commission,” JTA (The Global annihilation of the Armenians?” The U.S. Holocaust Memorial News Service of the Jewish People), April 23, 2007, www.jta.org/cgi-bin/iowa/news/article/20070423turkscommission.html. Museum cites that quote, according to the congressional reso- 12 See Armenian National Committee of America (ANCA) Web site, at lution, as laying the groundwork for the Holocaust. The quote’s www.anca.org/assets/pdf/misc/Trade_Charts.pdf. Also see Mark Tran, authenticity has been disputed, however, by various scholars, “French MPs pass Armenian genocide,” The Guardian, Oct. 12, 2006, as no official transcript of the speech was published. 10 www.guardian.co.uk/france/story/0,,1920624,00.html. 13 Erdogan’s comments are from an interview on the “Charlie Rose Show,” Mark Parris, a former U.S. ambassador to Turkey, thinks the res- PBS, Sept. 27, 2007, www.charlierose.com/shows/2007/09/27/1/a-conversa- olution is a bad idea. “It is always dubious to legislate another tion-with-the-prime-minister-of-turkey, and from an address to the National country’s history,” he says. Parris compares the Armenian massacres Press Club in Washington, D.C., Nov. 5, 2007.

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Continued from p. 301 nation has been watching the behav- prevail or transform Turkey along de- 2.42, while support for keeping religion ior of centers of evil who systematically mocratic lines. I hope the latter materi- in the private sphere was 8.06. 15 Only try to corrode the secular nature of the alizes,” he says. 2.3 percent of Turks voted for the anti- Turkish Republic. Nefarious plans emerge Yet President Gul flatly denies that Western, Islamic fundamentalist Felicity in different forms every day.” 19 the AKP has a secret Islamic agenda. Party in the July 2007 elections. Soner Cagaptay, Turkish policy re- “Is this an Eastern country’s legal sys- In fact, more than either secularism searcher at the Washington Institute for tem? Is this sharia? No, it is the Eu- or Islamism, patriotism is the most po- Near East Policy, agrees Turkey’s sec- ropean laws! We are upgrading this tent force in Turkey today. When asked ular tradition faces a serious challenge. country. We are the real reformers,” how nationalist they were on a scale The traditional model, he says, is aimed he has said. 20 of one to 10, 50 percent of Turks gave at ensuring “freedom from religion as In the same vein, Akcapar at the themselves a 10. 16 opposed to freedom of religion” by Turkish embassy says, “If there is a Yet many fear the AKP will lead confining religion to the private sphere. hidden agenda, then I have yet to see Turkey down the wrong path. The Yet changes to the education system it. We will never become an Islamic Hudson Institute’s Baran writes that are undermining this model, with more Republic because the Turkish people Turks view Prime Minister Erdogan as and more children being sent to reli- will never accept it. I have faith in my own people.” Likewise, Prime Minister Erdogan has said, “We have always been against extremism. The middle of the road is the correct way to go.” 21 Amanda Akcakoca, a researcher at the Brussels-based European Policy Centre think tank, thinks Gul means what he says. “Islam in Turkey is a more peaceful, private thing than it is in Iran,” she says. “Gul has been more fanatical in the past, but he has realized the political realities.” As for Mrs. Gul, Akcakoca says, “we will have to see. So far she has been hiding behind pillars and posts. For her

AFP/Getty Images/Eric Feferberg to appear in a government building Turkish Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdogan, left, meets last Sept. 24 with French President wearing a head scarf would be diffi- Nicolas Sarkozy, who is leading opposition to Turkey’s membership in the European Union. cult to deal with.” He proposes Turkey join on a “privileged” basis, not as a full member. The State Department’s Bryza does not believe Turkey’s commitment to an Islamist, and the previous president gious schools to be trained as imams. secularism is fading either. But he says has warned that Erdogan’s govern- “It is becoming an alternative, parallel the society is going through “an iden- ment “is broadening its fundamental- school system,” he says. tity crisis.” The Turkish people are deeply ist platform day by day.” 17 If a coup Cagaptay is also disturbed at how questioning “how to get a right mix of were to happen, she has said, “it the AKP has successfully portrayed Islamic, Anatolian values and tradition- would not necessarily translate to a the disputed April presidential elec- al secular democratic values.” As for the non-democratic Turkey . . . [but tion as an effort by secularists to pre- AKP having a hidden agenda, he says: would] simply mean the end of Turkey’s vent election of a religious president. “as a party in government I am con- current ‘Islamist experiment’ and a re- “This is a very dangerous trend be- vinced it does not. In each individual’s turn to a more conservative govern- cause secularism is being identified heart of hearts, who knows?” ment — stalwartly secular, yes, but a with atheism,” he says. Former U.S. Ambassador Parris says democracy nonetheless.” 18 Mustafa Elekdag, an opposition party while religion is playing a more promi- Her views echo those of the chief parliamentarian, feels the country is at a nent role in public life, he likens it to of the Turkish military, General Yasar crossroads. “The AKP may either reck- what the religious right has been Buyukanit, who has proclaimed “our lessly allow its own Islamic instinct to doing in United States for decades.

304 CQ Global Researcher Asked if Gul, the first Turkish Presi- designated Turkey a “candidate” for full stage by developing a common secu- dent with Islamist roots, will appoint membership in 1999 but delayed for- rity and defense policy. 27 It makes no religious people to the Turkish bu- mal talks until 2005, after Ankara difference that 97 percent of Turkey is reaucracy, Parris says “it will not be adopted major political and human in Asia, says Cakiralp, because “Europe like the Taliban taking control of rights reforms. The talks were partly has never been defined by geography, Afghanistan, more like the Patrick Henry suspended in December 2006 because but by values. We share those values.” College,” referring to the evangelical Turkey has refused to recognize Cyprus, Membership is vital to further inte- Christian university in Purcellville, Va. which became an EU member in 2004. grate the EU and Turkish economies, Ria Oomen-Ruijten, the European (See sidebar, p. 308.) 25 says Bahadir Kaleagasi, EU representa- Parliament’s designated expert or “rap- In the meantime, EU citizens have tive at the Turkish Industrialists’ and porteur” on Turkey, is convinced there remained skeptical about Turkey’s Businessmen’s Association (TUSIAD). is no danger the country will morph membership, and countries like France The EU-Turkey customs union estab- into a theocracy. “If you compare the and Germany recently began touting lished in 1996 — which abolished tar- scandal caused by President Gul’s wife a “privileged partnership” for Turkey iffs on industrial goods traded between wearing a head scarf with the fact that rather than full membership. A privi- the two — was an important step in in Britain the queen is head of both leged membership could allow Turkey this process, he says. Since establish- the state and the Church of England, to enjoy certain benefits — such as ment of the union, 47.7 percent of all the fuss seems a bit strange.” full integration into the EU’s single Turkey’s trade — worth $107 billion — Moreover, she adds, “I am a Catholic. market — but would not grant them is now transacted with the EU. 28 I put the inspiration of my religion voting rights or representation in the But the 1996 accord left some loop- into daily life. But that does not mean EU Parliament, the European Com- holes. “We are not included in free I follow the pope on everything. We mission or Council of Ministers. trade agreements the EU concludes, do not want to forbid someone from The Turkish government remains com- which means Turkey must negotiate being religious.” mitted to securing full EU membership, on its own,” says Kaleagasi. For in- but the Turkish population has grown stance, right now the United States Should Turkey be admitted to the increasingly bitter by what it sees as the “can impose quotas on Turkish tex- European Union? EU’s shoddy treatment. tiles but not on EU products.” On paper, Turkey’s EU train is mov- Ironically, the ruling AKP party, Kaleagasi dismisses fears of mem- ing. If a referendum on EU membership which has Islamic roots, has done more bership triggering a wave of Turkish em- were held today, 58 percent of Turks than its secularist predecessors to ad- igration to other EU countries. “This may would say yes, 30 percent no, accord- vance Turkey’s EU hopes. “The EU is happen whether we join or not,” he ing to a June 2007 poll. 22 But Turkish the maximum, ultimate peace project,” says. “It is not a reason to keep us out.” enthusiasm appears to be waning as the explains Turkish diplomat Akcapar, And the EU can adopt transitional peri- accession talks have bogged down: In citing the EU’s record of preserving ods during which there is limited labor 2004 Turkish support for EU member- peace and stability in Europe since the movement for Turks, he says, just as it ship was at 73 percent. 23 end of World War II. did for previous EU enlargements. Turkey’s journey to EU member- The European Commission also sup- But Akcakoca, the researcher at the ship has followed a long and wind- ports Turkey’s bid. Membership can European Policy Centre, is not so sure ing road, in part because the Christ- make Turkey “a stronger democracy Turkey’s actual membership is what ian EU countries were nervous about and a more vibrant society,” said EU really counts. “If you asked me a year admitting a huge Muslim country that Enlargement Commissioner Olli Rehn, ago, I would have said membership had not liberalized its economic or po- as well as “a beacon to all the mod- was the key,” she says. “But now I litical structures. 24 erates in the Muslim world.” 26 see the process of negotiating acces- Turkey first applied for associate Caglar Cakiralp, spokesperson for sion as more important because it is membership to the EU’s predecessor, Turkey’s EU delegation, says having the catalyst for reforms in Turkey.” the European Economic Community Turkey inside will change the “mis- Even if full membership is indis- (EEC), in 1959. After gaining associate leading” image that the EU is a Chris- pensable, she is not so sure it will membership in 1963, it applied for full tian club. And Turkey’s 500,000-strong happen. “Public opinion does not sup- membership 20 years ago and in 1996 uniformed forces — the ninth largest port it,” she says. “Turkey has a bad entered into a customs union with the in the world — would be a major asset image in Europe. People think of it as EU that helped boost economic inte- to the EU, which is trying to make its being weak on human rights, women’s gration of the two economies. The EU military presence felt on the world rights, of soldiers marching.” In addi-

Available online: www.globalresearcher.com December 2007 305 FUTURE OF TURKEY

there is a widespread belief among Turks — and pro-Turk Europeans — that sectarian distrust is fueling the opposition to its membership. According to EU Turkey rapporteur Oomen-Ruijten, while most MEPs support continuing accession talks, a strong minority is opposed. “I am not such a fan of EU membership for Turkey,” she says. “But the European governments have made it a candidate country, and we must follow the process. You cannot change the goalposts during the game.” But major obstacles still must be overcome before Turkey can be let in, she points out. “Do we have the financial capacity to absorb them?” she asks. “Money is not the decisive point, but it is a problem. We also have to persuade our citizens. They feel the last enlargement went too fast and do not understand why we are starting talks with Turkey already.” 31 Only 22 percent of Europeans feel Turkey joining the EU would be a good thing, while 31 percent see it as a bad thing, with 42 percent viewing it as nei- Getty Images/Yoray Liberman Getty Images/Yoray A modern mall shows why Istanbul has becomes a tourism destination, with upscale ther good nor bad, according to a re- nightclubs, restaurants and hotels to accompany the ancient city’s monuments. cent survey by the German Marshall Fund of the United States. Support for tion, she says, Turkey’s image has any European state may apply to join. Turkey has been consistently low in re- been adversely affected by the “war But Turkey is not a European state — cent years, with French and German re- on terror” since the Sept. 11, 2001, ter- at least a large part of it. Turkey has a spondents the most negative. 32 rorist attacks in the United States and very different culture.” 29 Turks, too, seem to be falling out of subsequent terror attacks in Europe by His Christian Democrat MEP col- love with Europe. Feelings of “warmth” radical Muslims. Some people suspect league Markus Ferber adds: “In the towards the EU, measured on a scale that Turkey must have Islamic funda- long run, a ‘privileged partnership’ will from one to 100, plummeted from 45 to mentalist tendencies because it is over- benefit both the EU and Turkey the 26 in the past year. Only 26 percent whelmingly Muslim, she says. most. Being a full member will weak- thought Turkey would join — as op- Politicians like French President en their links.” 30 Given current pop- posed to them wanting it to join — while Sarkozy are tapping into that Turko- ulation growth trends, if Turkey were 54 percent of Turks said EU leadership phobia, and some are even feeding it. to join, it would soon surpass Ger- on the world stage was undesirable. 33 For example, it is not uncommon to many as the most populous EU mem- Turks are particularly annoyed that see candidates in countries like Bel- ber state, most likely giving Turkey they still need a visa to come to the gium and France professing opposition the greatest voting power in the EU EU. “It is almost like organized crime,” to Turkey’s membership on campaign Council of Ministers. That both Ferber says Kaleagasi. “You pay money. The leaflets in municipal elections. and Nassauer are from the Christian embassies ask you private information Hartmut Nassauer, a German Chris- Democrat party is no coincidence. about your wealth, family and social life. tian Democrat member of the European While few European politicians open- It can take weeks — even for business Parliament (MEP), leaves no doubt as ly say they do not want Turkey in the people going to a conference. Most Turks to where he stands. “The EU treaty says EU because it is a Muslim country, Continued on p. 308

306 CQ Global Researcher Chronology

February 1945 1983 1453-1922 Turkey joins the victorious Allies Turgut Ozal becomes prime minister Ottoman Empire emerges — in World War II, cementing its and starts reforming the economy. eventually stretching from Westward orientation. Yemen to Hungary and from 1984 Iran to Spain. • Kurdish nationalists in southeastern Turkey begin violent campaign for 1453 independence led by the Marxist Byzantine Empire collapses after 1946-1982 Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK). Mehmet the Conqueror captures Multiparty democracy develops, Constantinople, renaming it periodically punctuated by mili- 1990 Istanbul. tary interventions. Turkey joins U.S.-led coalition to expel the Iraqis from Kuwait. 1520 1952 Suleyman the Magnificent begins his Turkey joins North Atlantic Treaty 1999 44-year reign. Organization. Turkey applies for full European Union membership. 1683 1960 Ottomans reach, but do not enter, Military seizes control amid civil 2001 Vienna, Austria, marking the zenith unrest due to worsening economic Banking crisis causes temporary of their territorial conquests. conditions. economic collapse; GDP shrinks, inflation soars and the currency 1876 1961 rapidly depreciates. Intellectuals known as the “Young Three former government ministers Ottomans” draft the empire’s first are hanged. Military government 2002 modern constitution, setting reestablishes civilian rule. The AKP — a political party with Turkey on a Westward course. Islamic roots yet Western-orientated 1974 economic and foreign policies — 1915 Turkish troops occupy northern wins parliamentary elections and en- Up to 1.5 million Armenians die Cyprus in response to an abortive acts reforms to boost human rights during forced deportation to Syria. Greek-sponsored coup. and promote economic liberalization.

1918 1980 2003 Victorious World War I allies carve Deteriorating economic conditions Turkey refuses to help the United up the Ottoman empire, some of and intense political violence provide States invade Iraq. which is later regained in the pretext for army to seize power, im- Turkish War of Independence pose martial law. 2005 (1919-1923). EU starts membership talks with 1982 Turkey. • Voters approve new constitution aimed at eventually restoring civil- 2007 ian rule, with the military retaining PKK attacks on Turks intensify 1923-1945 strong influence. from base in Northern Iraq. A Turkey’s leader Mustafa Kemal president whose wife wears a (Ataturk) pushes through • head scarf is elected, signaling Westernizing and secularizing emergence of a new ruling elite reforms. more willing to publicly display 1983-2008 religious beliefs. Turkey recalls its 1928 Economic liberalization brings ambassador to Washington after a Arabic script is replaced with a prosperity and political stability. U.S. congressional committee rec- Latin-inspired Turkish alphabet. ognizes as genocide the 1915 Ar- menian massacre.

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Continued from p. 306 greater because the European public leaving a legacy of lingering distrust drop the application procedure because has not been properly informed of the and resentment. Much of it has dissi- they do not have all the documents or benefits of us joining.” pated since the end of the Cold War, because they feel insulted,” he says. because Turkey is less focused on com- Akcapar says: “We are getting fed Is Turkey key to stability in the bating the Soviet military threat it per- up with the way the EU mishandles Middle East? ceived on its doorstep and can now our membership process. No matter During the Ottoman era Turks ruled devote more resources to promoting what we do, the resistance becomes over their Arab and Persian neighbors, peace and stability in the Middle East. An Island Still Divided The Cyprus problem seems as intractable as ever. yprus has been divided since 1974, when Turkish troops “Turkish and Greek Cypriots were living apart long before invaded the eastern Mediterranean island nation to pro- 1974,” insists Hilmi Akil. As early as 1963, he says, Turkish Ctect Turkish Cypriots during a Greek-led coup attempt. Cypriots were “forced” out of the Cypriot government and at- In the years leading up to the invasion, relations between the tacked by Greek Cypriots, triggering the first deployment of Greek-speaking Orthodox majority and the Turkish-speaking U.N. peacekeepers. Today, the presence of Turkish troops Muslim minority had deteriorated sharply and violent clashes “makes us feel safe,” he says. were common. Only 500 Greek Cypriots live Today, the island — with a in the TRNC — an entity only population of nearly 1 million Turkey recognizes — but Greek — remains heavily militarized, Cypriots own 78 percent of the with the north patrolled by some private property in the north. 2 43,000 Turkish troops and The Greek Cypriots who fled south 24,000 Greek, British, U.N. and in 1974 should be compensated Greek and Turkish Cypriot mil- for having lost their property, Akil itary personnel. 1 Some 260,000 concedes, but he argues that each Turks and Turkish Cypriots live community should compensate on the north side of the so- its own people rather than pay- called Green Line — the buffer ing for damages inflicted on the zone separating the two sec- other community. “My house was tors — and 650,000 Greek on the Green Line. It has been Cypriots live on the southern erased,” he says. “Who is going two-thirds of the island. to compensate me?” AP Photo/Petros Karadjias AP Photo/Petros In a referendum on April Cypriot soldiers patrol the U.N. buffer zone (Green Line) that According to Demetris Chris- 24, 2004, Cypriots rejected a divides the Greek and Turkish Cypriot sectors of Cyprus.The island tou, a Greek Cypriot software de- United Nations plan to reunify has been divided since Turkish troops occupied the north in 1974. veloper living in the United States, the island, a measure support- the invasion took everyone by ed by 76 percent of Turkish Cypriots. So, when Cyprus joined the surprise. “People fled quickly. If you were forced out of your European Union a week later, only the Greek Cypriot-dominated home just 30 years ago, of course you’d want it back,” he says. south became part of the EU because the EU does not recognize Akil says the Greek Cypriots’ preference is to return to the the Turkish Cypriot administration in the north. Thus, in a dra- north to occupy their land. In the interim, up to 200,000 Turks matic role reversal, Greek Cypriots were tarred with the obstruc- from mainland Turkey — called “the settlers” by the Greek tionist brush, while Turkish Cypriots were seen as the victims. Cypriots — have immigrated to northern Cyprus. 3 Cyprus’ Ambassador to the United States, Andreas Kakouris, Although Turkish and Greek Cypriots are very European- says the U.N. plan “would not have reunited us” because it pro- oriented, the Turkish settlers come mainly from the poor parts posed a “very loose” federal structure. He also rails against pro- of Anatolia, says Christou. “When I visited, I could easily tell visions that would have allowed Turkey to keep 650 troops in them apart.” Cyprus and required the Greek Cypriot administration — not the Randy Johnson, a U.S. government worker who recently visit- Turkish Cypriots — to compensate the 160,000 Greek Cypriot ed Cyprus as a tourist, says shops in the Greek areas are more refugees who lost their property during the Turkish invasion. modern than in the Turkish region, but he found the Turkish Cypri- In Washington, the representative of the Turkish Republic ots friendlier. “I think it was because they were not so used to of Northern Cyprus (TRNC) points to an old map of Cyprus. seeing tourists.”

308 CQ Global Researcher Cyprus Remains a Divided Nation Cyprus — slightly larger than Puerto Rico — has Both communities appear to be very religious, he says, de- scribing Orthodox Christian services being blared onto the streets been divided by the so-called Green Line since in the south and Turkish Cypriots in the north worshipping in 1974, when Turkey invaded. Some 260,000 a church they converted into a mosque after whitewashing over Turks and Turkish Cypriots live north of the buffer murals of saints. The head of the Cypriot Orthodox Church, zone and 650,000 Greek Cypriots to the south. Archbishop Makarios III, was president of Cyprus from 1960 until his death in 1977. The north is poorer than the south, which Akil attributes to TURKEY Mediterranian SYRIA the region’s isolation. Travel can be tricky because few coun- Sea tries accept Turkish Cypriot passports. Akil admits he could get Rizokarpaso a Cypriot passport from the government in the south, but he does not want to. “Some business people get them,” he says. “They need to be more pragmatic.” Kyrenia GREEN LINE Trade restrictions have prevented Turkish Cypriot folk dancers Nicosia from performing abroad and have stopped footballers from Polis playing in international matches, says Akil. EU pressure also Lamaca caused cancellation of direct flights from Northern Cyprus to Azerbaijan. Mount Olympus Vasilikos An EU regulation promotes north-south commerce inside Paphos Cyprus, but trade only amounted to $4.9 million in the past CYPRUS LEBANON year. 4 The capital, Nicosia, remains a divided city, with north- south mail and telephone calls routed via Turkey. Beirut Tensions are developing between the north and south over oil exploration in the south. 5 Asked if his government plans to give a share of oil revenues to Turkish Cypriots, Ambas- sador Kakouris responds curtly, “natural resources belong to a 1 See letter from Marios Matsakis, Cypriot member of the European Parlia- ment, to Hans-Gert Pottering, president of the European Parliament, Sept. 16, state, not a community.” 2007, www.cyprusweekly.com.cy/default.aspx?LocalNewsID=190. For popula- Greek Cypriot Foreign Minister Erato Kozakou-Marcoullis tion and other socio-economic data, see www.pio.gov.cy/mof/cystat/statis- also warned of another emerging issue recently: “Now Turkey tics.nsf/index_en/index_en?OpenDocument (Greek Cypriot) or www.devplan.org (Turkish Cypriot). openly supports a two-state solution, so there is a deteriora- 2 “European Commission report on aid to Turkish Cypriot community,” pp. 2, 6 tion of the situation.” 11, 12, Sept. 18, 2007, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2007/com The crux of the problem, Christou says, is a lack of strategic 2007_0536en01.pdf. thinking. “Cypriots do not know how to negotiate properly,” he 3 Government of the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus (TRNC), www.trncinfo.org. says. “They get too emotional. Others, like the U.S., can focus on 4 “Annual Report on the Implementation of Council Regulation (EC) 866/2004 their strategic interests.” of 29 April 2004 and the situation resulting from its application,” European Representative Akil admits he has not even met Ambas- Commission, Sept. 21, 2007, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/ sador Kakouris. And an international initiative launched in July en/com/2007/com2007_0553en01.pdf. 5 See lecture on Cyprus’ oil reserves by Achilles Skordas at Woodrow Wil- 2006 to restart unity talks has made little progress. Clearly, son International Center for Scholars, Washington, D.C., March 29, 2007. prospects of harmony reigning on an island that boasts being 6 Quoted from an interview with Joanna Boguslawska, Europolitics (a sub- the mythical birthplace of Aphrodite, the Greek Goddess of scription-only EU-affairs daily newspaper), Nov. 22, 2007. love, seem bleak.

Turkey has shown a willingness to “There are so many conflicts around exists in northern Iraq is directly linked engage with regimes that others are us, we cannot have an ostrich model to Turkey’s helpful stance,” he says. unwilling or reluctant to deal with di- of diplomacy where we pretend it does Northern Iraq is also heavily depen- rectly. For instance, it has maintained not affect us” says Akcapar. For instance, dent on good trade relations with Turkey, strong links with Israel while building he notes, Turkey has taken steps to help he adds. “Ninety percent of their elec- bridges to Hamas, the Islamic party improve relations between Israelis and tricity is supplied by Turkey. We export that won the Palestinian parliamentary Palestinians, between Afghanistan and $4 billion dollars of petroleum products elections in January 2006. Turkey also Pakistan, Pakistan and Israel and be- there,” says Akcapar. has sent peacekeeping troops to So- tween rival Sunni and Shia Muslim fac- The pro-Turkey camp in the EU malia, Bosnia, Kosovo and Albania. tions in Iraq. “Every hint of stability that agrees Turkey has a crucial role to

Available online: www.globalresearcher.com December 2007 309 FUTURE OF TURKEY play in stabilizing the Middle East. Italy But Cagaptay, of the Washington In- tended Ottoman domains into Albania and Sweden’s foreign ministers have stitute for Near East Policy, cautions that and lands adjacent to the eastern argued that is precisely why Turkey while Ankara may have strong sway over Mediterranean and Black Sea region. should be admitted to the club. EU its neighbors Iran, Syria and Iraq, it does The Ottomans were so successful accession “cannot fail to inspire all not have much influence over Yemen, in part because of their superior mil- those in that wider world of Islam Bahrain or Egypt. “I do not think Arabs itary prowess but also because the who want to embrace democracy and sympathize with Turkey,” he says, not- Byzantine Empire — the Christian, modernization,” they wrote. “The trans- ing that unlike Turks, Arabs have no Greek-speaking, Eastern Roman Em- formation of the current ‘arc of insta- word for “secular,” and thus use the word pire that ruled southeastern Europe in bility’ into a well-governed neighbor- “atheist” to describe a secular person. the Middle Ages — was on the de- hood must be a common quest.” 34 For example, in Morocco’s Septem- cline. Although the Ottomans them- Researcher Akcakoca agrees. “Coun- ber 2007 parliamentary elections many selves were Muslim, having convert- tries like Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Egypt predicted the country’s Islamist Justice ed in the early Middle Ages, the listen to Turkey more because they and Development Party (PJD), which empire was religiously and ethnically have strong economic ties and be- is very similar to the AKP in evolution diverse, containing Muslims, Chris- cause it is a Muslim state,” she says. and outlook, would be swept to power tians, Jews, Arabs, Armenians, Slavs Many hope Islamic political parties on an Islamist wave. Yet the PJD came and Albanians. And although the sul- in the region will follow the example in second, on a dismally low turnout tan was the ultimate authority, each of Turkey’s AKP by rejecting extrem- of 37 percent. 35 Moreover, the PJD re- religious community was allowed to ism and embracing democracy. Senem mains more overtly religious than the form its own autonomous entities, Aydin, researcher at the Centre for Eu- AKP, having pledged to make Islamic known as millets, which could pass ropean Policy Studies in Brussels, says sharia the law in Morocco. 36 laws and raise taxes. People from the AKP has been something of an other religions and ethnic origins were inspiration for similar movements, no- able to advance to positions of power. tably in Morocco and Egypt. For example, many of the eunuchs Brookings’ Taspinar agrees. “Turkey BACKGROUND (castrated males) in the sultan’s court, is the case study for playing by the who wielded considerable power and rules,” he says. “All the Muslim parties privilege, were chosen from among are looking at Turkey as a model.” But Christians living in Ottoman domains. there’s one crucial difference: Unlike the Rise of an Empire During Ottoman rule the Islamic AKP, the other Arab parties do not have world gained preeminence in math, the incentive of EU membership to an- he origins of modern Turkey can science, art, theology, philosophy and chor them to a democratic ideology. Tbe traced to various states — ruled poetry. In 1453 the Ottomans added The EU does not consider Arab states by Turkish tribes originating from north great power and prestige to their em- eligible for membership because they of the Caspian and Aral Seas in Cen- pire by capturing Constantinople, the are not located in Europe. Three per- tral Asia — that sprung up in the re- Byzantine capital for 1,100 years, con- cent of Turkey is situated inside Europe. gion between 500 and 1500 A.D. 37 sidered the brightest jewel in the re- But some Turks find the notion of The greatest of these were the Ot- gion. The Ottomans renamed it Istan- Turkey being a “model” for its Islam- tomans, a Muslim dynasty that emerged bul, marking the fall of Byzantium. ic neighbors — or a “bridge” between in the 13th century in Anatolia, the The Ottomans continued expand- the East and West — anathema. Diplo- Asian part of modern Turkey. 38 ing throughout the 1500s and 1600s. mat Akcapar is reluctant to employ An important early Ottoman ruler or At its height the empire stretched from the “role model” metaphor when speak- sultan was Osman I (1258-1326), from Iran to Morocco and from Yemen to ing about Turkey’s regional presence. whom the name Ottoman is derived and Hungary. In 1683 Ottoman troops ad- “If we were not predominantly Mus- who founded the dynasty. He extend- vanced as far as Vienna, laying siege lim none of this talk about us being ed the Ottoman domains to the edge for two months before being beaten a model would have come about,” he of the Byzantine Empire. In the centu- back by an alliance of Austrian, Pol- says. However, he is willing to accept ry after Osman’s death, the Ottomans ish and German troops. that Turkey is viewed as “an inspira- made inroads into the Balkans in south- In the 18th and 19th centuries the tion, an example in our Muslim neigh- east Europe, defeating the Serbs, for ex- Ottomans began to fall behind West- borhood of how to reconcile one’s ample, at the Battle of Kosovo in 1389. ern Europe in technological develop- faith with one’s modernism.” A later sultan, Mehmet I, further ex- ment, and the empire slowly declined.

310 CQ Global Researcher In the 1800s they tried to catch up ginning of a 50-year-long campaign to with Western Europe — building new Looking Westward integrate itself into the European com- palaces in Western architectural styles munity. The effort has been punctu- and constructing railways — but it was emal became the nation’s first pres- ated with some success and much dis- too little too late. Kident and quickly set about trans- appointment and frustration. 41 Meanwhile, the Ottomans in 1876 es- forming the country into a modern, The post-war era in Turkey was po- tablished their first Western-style consti- Western, secular state. Religion was in- litically turbulent, with university stu- tution and parliament, drafted by intel- tegrated into the state bureaucracy with dents demonstrating in 1960 against the lectuals known as the “Young Ottomans.” the creation of the Directorate of Re- worsening economic situation and the But the sultan suspended it within a year. ligious Affairs. 40 The traditional fez DP government’s imposition of new The 1876 constitution was re-established was replaced by the Western-style hat censorship laws. The military intervened in 1908 but was abandoned after wars and the Islamic-based legal system on May 27, seizing control of Ankara broke out in the Balkans in 1912. scrapped in favor of a French-inspired and Istanbul and arresting government This was a painful period for the Ot- civil code. The capital moved to Ankara. leaders. The prime minister, foreign and tomans: They were continually ceding Polygamy was prohibited, the day of finance ministers were subsequently territories to newly emergent nation states rest was switched from Friday to Sun- hanged for violating the constitution, in southeastern Europe, including Greece day and the Koran was translated from high treason and misusing public funds. and Bulgaria. As ethnic nationalism began Arabic into Turkish. A new constitution was approved to surge in the Balkans, millions of eth- A Latin-inspired Turkish alphabet was in 1961 aimed at guaranteeing liberal nic Turks who had lived there for cen- introduced in 1928, and in 1931 Turkey government and curbing potential au- turies fled eastward to the area that adopted the metric system. In 1934 tocratic tendencies, and multi-party elec- forms modern-day Turkey. women won the right to vote and hold tions were restored. The 1960s saw When World War I broke out in elected office. Kemal was renamed strong economic growth and greater 1914, the Ottomans supported the Ger- Ataturk by the Turkish parliament and press freedom. The DP’s successor, the man and Austro-Hungarian empires, to this day remains a highly venerated Justice Party (AP), held power from which were ultimately defeated in No- figure. Apart from two brief periods in 1965 until 1971 under Prime Minister vember 1918. The Ottomans fared the 1920s and 1930s, Turkey operated Suleyman Demirel. badly in the post-war territorial carve- a one-party political system, with On March 12, 1971, the army inter- up, delineated in the 1920 Treaty of Ataturk’s secularist CHP at the helm. vened again in the face of civil unrest. Sevres. French, British, Italian, Russ- During World War II, Turkey’s second This time it was a “soft coup,” in which ian and Greek troops ended up oc- president, Ismet Inonu, kept the coun- the army issued a joint communiqué, or cupying various regions that had been try neutral until February 1945, when muhtira, that forced the government to Ottoman domains. 39 the Turks joined the Allied forces. resign. In 1974, Turkish troops invaded Turkish nationalists greatly resented The single-party era ended in 1946, Cyprus, causing the island to be parti- this occupation and launched a war of with establishment of the Democratic tioned into a Turkish-controlled north independence from the various occu- Party (DP), which ruled Turkey from and Greek Cypriot-populated south. (See pying powers and the appointed Turk- 1950-60. Living standards improved, sidebar, p. 308.) This prompted the Unit- ish sultan from 1919-1923. Led by Mustafa and in 1952 Turkey joined NATO, ce- ed States to impose an economic em- Kemal, the Turks ultimately won the menting its position as a key ally of bargo on Turkey. As oil prices spiked war. The last sultan fled on a British the West. Ankara saw alliance with the in the late 1970s, the economic situa- ship on Nov. 17, 1922. The Lausanne West in its strategic interest, given its tion deteriorated, leading to political in- Treaty of July 24, 1923, brought the cur- longstanding suspicion of neighboring stability that ultimately provoked anoth- tain down on the Ottoman era and Russia, a longtime rival for regional er military coup. On Sept. 12, 1980, a marked the dawn of the Turkish Re- supremacy. The Turks and Russians five-member junta led by Gen. Kenan public, which was officially proclaimed had fought each other in a series of Evren took control, imposed martial law on Oct. 29, 1923. The same year, the conflicts starting in the late 17th cen- and arrested political leaders. A new, Greek and Turkish governments signed tury, including the Crimean War (1853- more authoritarian constitution, aimed at an agreement that led to some 1.5 mil- 1856), the last Russo-Turkish War (1877- preventing the state from sliding into an- lion ethnic Greeks being forcibly trans- 1878) and World War I (1914-1918). archy, was approved on Nov. 7, 1982, ferred from Asian Turkey to Greece and Turkey’s application for associate which gave the green light for the re- an estimated 800,000 ethnic Turks in membership of the European Economic turn of multiparty democracy. Evren Greece moved back to Turkey. Community in 1959 marked the be- stayed on as president until 1989.

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In 1993 Tansu Ciller, a Yale-educated Welfare Party, of which many had been pushed through reforms to liberalize economist and self-made millionaire, be- members, the AKP had Islamic roots. the Turkish economy by reducing state came Turkey’s first — and to date only Erdogan, who was AKP leader at the subsidies to state-owned enterprises and — female prime minister, serving until time, had spent four months in jail in allowing a free exchange rate for for- 1996. Ciller’s tenure as prime minister 1999 and was barred from running for eign currency. Turkey signed a cus- was turbulent. She faced stiff criticism office because he recited a poem with toms union with the EU in 1996 under over austerity measures introduced to Islamic undertones, which authorities which trade tariffs on industrial goods curb soaring inflation and was accused said incited religious hatred. 43 — which account for 95 percent of — although subsequently cleared — of But the AKP appeared to be more Turkey’s exports to the EU — were enriching herself illegally using govern- moderate than the Welfare Party, pledg- abolished. The customs union also required Turkey to adopt the EU’s common trade tariff and align its competition law to EU norms. In late 2000 and early 2001 the Turkish economy took a nosedive after a banking and financial markets crisis. It quickly bounced back, however, and the government continued the economic liberalization launched by Ozal. Competition has been opened up in the electricity, telecommunications, sugar, tobacco and petroleum sectors, and 180 state-owned and 240 partial- ly state-owned companies have been privatized since 1986. 46 The AKP government also has handed out gener- ous subsidies to farmers, on average

AP Photo/Murad Sezer $974 per family in 2006. With average Holding placards declaring “We are all Hrant Dink,” mourners accompany the popular annual family income in the country- Armenian journalist’s coffin at his funeral in Istanbul on Jan. 23, 2007. A Turkish nationalist murdered Dink because he described Turkey’s 1915 side just $1,915, this policy has helped massacre of up to 1.5 million Armenians as genocide. bolster AKP support. 47 The government also has provided free goods, ment funds. In December 1995 a new ing to uphold Turkey’s secular tradi- school supplies and heating oil for political force, the Islamist Welfare Party, tion. In 2004 and 2005 it pushed through urban neighborhoods. 48 emerged from Turkey’s parliamentary elec- major political reforms, including en- But Turkey has become increas- tions as the largest party, and its leader acting a new penal code, scrapping ingly dependent on oil and gas im- Necmettin Erbakan eventually became the death penalty, allowing Kurdish- ports from Russia, Iran and Azerbai- prime minister in June 1996. The party language television broadcasts and re- jan — leading to a growing trade deficit tried to forge closer links to Iran, Libya ducing the number of military officers that is likely to top $46.4 billion in and Syria, was hostile to the EU and on Turkey’s powerful National Secu- 2007. 49 And with about half of Turk- NATO and adopted anti-Semitic and rity Committee from 26 to 12. 44 In ish workers employed in the informal anti-Israeli rhetoric. 42 The military — July 2007 the AKP won almost half “black market” economy (partly to deeply unhappy about these develop- the popular vote in parliamentary elec- avoid the high tax rates), the governments — intervened again on Feb. 28, tions, securing it a second term. ment is coming under increasing pres- 1997, calling on the government to clamp sure to slash taxes. 50 down on Islamic fundamentalism. Er- Relations with both the United bakan stepped down in June. Liberalization States and Europe improved in the November 2002 ushered in a new 1980s, and Turkey applied for full mem- era for Turkey when the AKP won the n the economic front, Turkey’s bership in the EEC in 1987. It remained parliamentary elections with 34.3 per- Ostrong man in the 1980s was Turgut neutral in the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), cent of the popular vote, which se- Ozal, leader of the Motherland Party, but when Iraq’s President Saddam cured it 363 out of 550 seats. Like the which came to power in 1983. 45 Ozal Hussein invaded Kuwait in 1990, Turkey

312 CQ Global Researcher supported the U.S.-led military cam- Greek Cypriot ships and planes into its political groups congratulated Gul on paign to liberate Kuwait in the first ports and airports. winning the presidency. Dutch Social- Gulf War. Ankara also has developed Despite the bumps along its EU ist MEP Jan Wiersma said, “Fears that its relations with the new Central Asian accession road, Turkey receives gen- Mr. Gul of the moderate AK Party republics — notably Turkmenistan, erous pre-accession subsidies from would embark on a program to Is- whose people speak a language sim- the EU: $1.67 billion for the period lamize Turkey are exaggerated,” but ilar to Turkish — and the Caucasian 1996-2004, and $720 million earmarked he warned, “we do, however, expect republics Azerbaijan and Georgia, both for 2007. 53 Mr. Gul to continue to assure the sec- founded in the 1990s after the Soviet ular character of the Turkish state.” 56 Union collapsed. European politicians were especially During the 1990s, Turkey enhanced pleased at how the military seems to its role on the global stage by send- CURRENT have had its political wings clipped ing peacekeeping troops to Bosnia, by the whole process. The EU Com- Kosovo and Somalia. In December 1999, mission, which negotiates the details 35 years after Turkey first applied to SITUATION of Turkey’s accession bid, viewed the join, EU leaders finally recognized it as AKP’s electoral successes as an op- a candidate country after a surprising- portunity to push Turkey to speed up ly brief deliberation. reforms. EU Enlargement Commissioner Anti-American sentiment in Turkey Election Fallout Rehn said, “Both teams are rather gradually grew after the first Gulf War, tired; we need new blood and must mainly because the United States facil- he July 2007 parliamentary elec- revive the spirit on both sides.” 57 itated establishment of a quasi-inde- Ttion significantly enhanced the Prime Minister Erdogan immediately pendent Kurdish government in north- AKP’s power. Prime Minister Erdogan made it clear that EU accession would ern Iraq. Turks feared that would fuel was able to proclaim magnanimously remain a top priority and vowed to support from Kurds living inside Turkey “democracy has passed a very impor- press ahead with reforms. for an independent Kurdish state. When tant test. Whoever you have voted for “Relations developed with cardinal the United States moved to invade Iraq . . . we respect your choices.” 54 actors in Eurasia — such as China, in early 2003, the Turkish parliament The big losers were the secularist India, Japan and Russia — are not al- voted not to allow U.S. troops to enter CHP — whose vote remained flat — ternatives to Turkey’s system of insti- Iraq via Turkey, causing a serious frac- and the military, whose April e-coup tutionalized relations with the EU,” ture in relations. Although the AKP has backfired. In the Aug. 28 presi- Erdogan said. 58 leadership wanted to let the United dential ballot, the AKP once more States through, 99 AKP parliamentari- nominated its original candidate, Gul. ans opposed the measure. 51 The Turk- The CHP boycotted the vote again, but Choppy Waters ish military stayed silent in the debate, their tactics failed this time because a wanting to know more details about third party, the nationalist MHP, en- urkey still faces an uphill struggle U.S. plans before taking a stance. Their abled a quorum to be reached and Tif it is ever to grasp the “holy grail” silence encouraged the secularist op- Gul to be elected. of EU membership. Since EU acces- position CHP party to oppose the move The AKP chalked up another victo- sion talks began two years ago Turkey as well, and together they were able ry on Oct. 21, when its referendum to has only opened four and completed to prevent U.S. troops from passing allow the Turkish president to be elect- one of the 35 chapters of the acquis through Turkey. ed by the people instead of by parlia- communautaire, the enormous body On the European front many Turks ment was passed by 69 percent of the of European law and policies that can- — both liberals and conservatives — vote. It also reduced the president’s term didate countries must implement be- were disappointed by a 2004 European of office from seven years to five. 55 fore joining the EU. Court of Human Rights ruling that up- Internationally, the AKP victory has France is blocking talks on certain held the right of the authorities to expel been generally welcomed because of chapters — notably the economic and a student from university for wearing a the relative political and economic sta- monetary policy chapter, which coun- head scarf. 52 Nevertheless, talks to join bility the party has brought to Turkey. tries need to implement in order to be the EU began on Oct. 3, 2005. They In the European Parliament for exam- able to adopt the euro as their cur- were partly suspended in December ple, which has the power to veto rency. Paris says that proceeding with 2006 because of Turkey’s refusal to let Turkey’s EU accession, all the main such talks implies that there has been

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when it actually passed. One Con- gressional staffer who opposes the resolution says it got through because “those that back it see it as a historical thing. They do not realize its im- pact on current affairs,” he says. One high-level diplomat calls the 27-21 vote “a nail in the coffin for the U.S.- Turkish relationship.” House Speaker Nancy Pelosi, D-Calif., had given the green light for the vote to go ahead, largely in response to pressure from the Armenian-American community, which is particularly strong in California. The resolution had been introduced several months earlier, but the House leadership is thought to have delayed the vote until after the Turk- ish elections.

Getty Images/Yoray Liberman Getty Images/Yoray Turkey immediately recalled its U.S. Turkey’s secular and religious cultures clash on an Istanbul street, where scantily clad ambassador for “consultations.” Gov- mannequins provide a strikingly secular backdrop for a woman wearing a traditional head scarf. ernment sources hinted that if the resolution passed in the full House, U.S. a substantive decision to let Turkey join controversial,” he says. However, the access to the Incirlik Turkish military even though, in President Sarkozy’s eyes, commission is prepared to suspend base might be cut off, which could no such a decision has been taken. the talks unless Turkey amends Arti- prove devastating for the U.S. military But Turkey’s EU delegation spokesper- cle 301 of the constitution, which pro- effort in Iraq. About 74 percent of air son Cakiralp says the French effort “is hibits insulting Turkishness. 59 It also cargo destined for U.S. troops in Iraq not logical because each of the chapters insists that Turkey give greater rights passes through Incirlik. 61 Thus, U.S. is closely linked to full membership.” So to non-Muslim religious communities officials — from the State Department if one were to follow Sarkozy’s argument, and allow Kurdish-language educa- to the White House to the Pentagon all the talks should be suspended be- tional programs. 60 — urged Congress to shelve the res- cause each chapter brings Turkey a step Meanwhile, the United States con- olution for the sake of U.S. strategic further down the road to membership. tinues to discreetly and gently prod the interests. President Bush scolded law- Sarkozy softened his position some- EU to advance Turkey’s application. “We makers, saying, “Congress has more what on Aug. 27, announcing he would have a strategic interest in seeing important work to do than antago- not block talks if a committee was set Turkey as deeply anchored as possible nizing a democratic ally in the Mus- up to discuss which countries should in the EU,” says U.S. Deputy Assistant lim world.” 62 join the EU for the long term. Sarkozy Secretary of State Bryza. But he adds The pressure seems to have worked. did not rule out Turkey’s membership that the Turks may “overestimate our Some lawmakers have withdrawn their entirely as he had done previously, influence on the EU. Often our advo- support for the resolution. Democrat but said his personal preference was cacy can be counterproductive.” Jane Harman from California — an for a “privileged partnership” — not Further complicating matters, U.S.- original co-sponsor of the bill — full membership. Turkey relations suffered a blow on explained that passage now would The strategy of the European Com- Oct. 10 when the U.S. House of Rep- “isolate and embarrass a courageous mission, which officially supports resentatives Committee on Foreign Af- and moderate Islamic government in Turkey’s accession bid, is to “muddle fairs adopted a resolution recognizing perhaps the most volatile region of through” this difficult period and hope as genocide the 1915 massacres of Ot- the world.” 63 Sources in Congress say the political climate improves, according toman Armenians. Although the reso- the resolution is no longer likely to to one senior official. “This is not an lution had been unsuccessfully pro- reach the floor in 2007. According to intellectually elegant solution, but we posed several times in the past, it one Turkish expert, despite Ankara’s can still close chapters that are not came as something of a bombshell Continued on p. 316

314 CQ Global Researcher At Issue:

AreYes U.S.-Turkish relations likely to improve soon?

ABDULLAH AKYUZ STEVEN A. COOK REPRESENTATIVE, U.S. OFFICE OF THE FELLOW, COUNCIL ON FOREIGN RELATIONS TURKISH, INDUSTRIALISTS’ AND AUTHOR, RULING BUT NOT GOVERNING: THE BUSINESSMEN’S ASSOCIATION MILITARY AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN EGYPT, ALGERIA, AND TURKEY (2007) WRITTEN FOR CQ GLOBAL RESEARCHER, NOVEMBER 2007 WRITTEN FOR CQ GLOBAL RESEARCHER, NOVEMBER 2007 espite the continuing U.S. reluctance to act against the deadly attacks on Turkey by the PKK (Kurdish Workers’ he United States and Turkey share a broad range of com- Party) and the recent passage of the Armenian Genocide mon interests, including the stability of Iraq, the fight d against global terrorism, Middle East peace and a host of Resolution by the House Foreign Affairs Committee, U.S.-Turkish re- t lations ought to improve soon because of a fundamentally solid other issues in the Balkans, Caucasus and Central Asia. Yet, foundation based on critical shared strategic, political and economic American-Turkish relations have been under pressure since 2003 interests. How soon depends primarily upon the Bush administra- and are at their lowest point since the mid-1970s, primarily due tion and Congress. Besides being North Atlantic Treaty Organization to the invasion of Iraq. (NATO) allies for more than half a century, the United States and In the run-up to the war, Turkish officials were gravely Turkey have been collaborating on crucial issues such as energy concerned about how regime change in Iraq might affect security, European Union (EU) and NATO enlargement and peace Turkey’s security. Ankara feared the invasion would destabilize and stability in the Middle East, Iraq, Iran, Afghanistan and the Iraq and encourage Iraqi Kurdish nationalism and the reemer- Caucasus. As a result, the BTC (Baku-Tbilisi-Ceyhan) oil pipeline gence of the Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK) — a terrorist or- now carries oil from Azerbaijan to Ceyhan in southern Turkey; ganization. The Turks battled the PKK between 1984-1999, nearly 70 percentyes of the logistical support for U.S. troops in Iraq leaving an estimatedno 30,000 Turks and Kurds dead. passes through Turkey; Turkey has twice commanded the Interna- While Iraqi Kurds are loyal U.S. allies and rhetorically sup- tional Security and Assistance Force in Afghanistan and the United port the idea of a unified, federal Iraq, there is evidence they States has relentlessly supported Turkey’s quest for EU membership. are preparing for independence. If that happens, Turkey fears Moreover, the two countries collaborate in promoting democ- its own Kurdish population would demand the same — or racy in the Muslim world, fostering dialogue between Islam and join their Iraqi Kurdish cousins. the West and in fighting terrorism. Such ongoing U.S.-Turkish The PKK problem is a prime reason why U.S.-Turkey rela- cooperation demonstrates that a predominantly Muslim country tions will remain problematic. The PKK is holed up in the and the leading power of the West can work together. mountains of northern Iraq and stages raids into Turkey from Currently, however, Republicans and Democrats are alienat- there. In September and October 2007, there were as many ing Turkey at a crucial time for both countries. From Wash- Turkish combat deaths fighting the PKK as U.S. soldiers killed ington’s perspective, this has occurred just as the wars in Iraq in Iraq. The Turkish government has been asking the United and Afghanistan are in their most critical stages, and Turkish States to either take on PKK terrorists directly, pressure the support is vital for American troops. From Ankara’s perspec- Iraqi Kurdish leaders (who have turned a blind eye to PKK tive, it is occurring when anti-EU and anti-U.S. attitudes have activities) or allow Turkish forces to confront the terrorists in increased among Turks due to the irresponsible stances of Iraq. Washington has not heeded Ankara’s requests for fear of some European leaders — despite the progress being made in destabilizing the one relatively peaceful part of Iraq, which ongoing membership negotiations — and to the insensitivity has angered the Turkish government and enraged public opin- of the Bush administration to Turkey’s legitimate concerns. ion. The latest surveys indicate that only 9 percent of the The interests of both countries call for an end to this im- Turkish public has a favorable view of the United States. passe. This crucial partnership must be recognized and mend- The recent debate on a nonbinding congressional resolution ed, with most of the initial effort coming from Washington. recognizing the Armenian genocide further angered Turkey. The Bush administration must first act decisively against the The Turks do not acknowledge the massacre of 1.5 million PKK, and the Democratic congressional leadership should pre- Armenians as genocide and do not believe that the republic vent the genocide resolution from reaching the House floor. of Turkey, which did not exist at the time, is responsible for Then, the Turkish government must refrain from threatening a this tragic episode. cross-border operation into northern Iraq. More important, in As long as Turkey is under attack from the PKK, and the the coming years both countries must work hard to structure establishment of a Kurdish state remains possible, it is unlikely a new partnership that takes into account the colossal changes that U.S.-Turkey relations will improve.

occurringNo globally and locally.

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Continued from p. 314 Prime Minister Erdogan has react- threats, the government is unlikely to ed angrily to pleas for restraint. “Did Energy Hub? cut off U.S. supply routes, because they [the U.S.] seek permission from they offer Turkey lucrative business anyone when they came from a dis- espite having little oil or gas of its opportunities, since the United States tance of 10,000 km and hit Iraq?” he Down, Turkey is fast becoming one pays a fee to use the base at Incirlik. asked. 65 of the world’s most important energy Turks see the U.S stance as a transit centers. International support for shameful double standard because trans-Turkey oil and gas pipelines is Iraq’s Destabilizing Effect the United States preaches zero tol- driven by a growing distrust of Russia erance for al Qaeda terrorism but tol- as a reliable energy supplier. As Turk- eanwhile, Turks are reeling from erates PKK terrorism. 66 Erdogan ish businessmen’s association represen- Mintensified PKK terrorist attacks lambasted the U.S. attitude on ter- tative Kaleagasi puts it, “If you have 10 launched from Kurdish-controlled rorism during a recent visit to Wash- eggs, it is better not to have three in northern Iraq, and they are angry with ington and criticized European states the Russian basket.” America for not doing more to stop like France and Austria for allowing The United States worked hand- the carnage. The United States is re- PKK terrorists on their territory to es- in-hand with Turkey in the late 1990s luctant to attack PKK training camps cape. 67 Many also suspect the Unit- to develop the so-called BTC oil because it does not have enough troops ed States — which says it does not pipeline — stretching from Baku in to spare and because it fears destabi- support the PKK’s campaign for an Azerbaijan to Tibilisi in Georgia to lizing a part of Iraq that so far has independent Kurdistan — favors Ceyhan in Turkey — which became given it less trouble than elsewhere. greater autonomy for the Kurds. That operational in July 2006. 68 The “The Turks are completely correct concerns the Turks, because some pipeline should help Western Europe we have not eliminated the PKK threat 15 million Kurds live in Turkey. become less dependent on Russian from northern Iraq,” says Deputy As- “We do not like the U.S.’s pro- oil and gas, which has caused grow- sistant Secretary of State Bryza. “But Kurdish view. We used to call Turkey ing concern in Europe and America. it is not for lack of trying. There is ‘little America’ but not any more,” says (See map, p. 298.) not a simple military solution.” Yet he one Turkish professional who did not A gas pipeline from Baku to Tibil- quickly adds, in reference to the 2003 wish to be named, commenting on isi to Erzurum in Turkey and onwards Turkish parliament vote, “Things would how a once warm relationship has to Greece and Italy also is under con- have been quite different had U.S. been soured by the Iraq-Kurdish issue, struction, while the EU is spearhead- troops moved through Turkey into Iraq. as evidenced by numerous polls of ing construction of a gas pipeline from We would have done a quicker job Turkish public opinion. the Caspian Sea to Hungary and Aus- in restoring order throughout Iraq.” Turkey also continues to have tense tria via Turkey. It remains unclear if The Turkish government is under relations with Armenia. The Turkish- the source country for this pipeline, growing pressure to attack the PKK Armenian border has been closed since called Nabucco, will be Turkmenistan, in Iraq itself. U.S. officials and law- 1993. Bones of contention include Ar- Azerbaijan or Iran. The United States makers, fearful of making a bad situ- menia’s unwillingness to accept the does not want Iran involved because ation worse, have been urging the border as it is currently drawn and a of Washington’s opposition to the Is- Turks to hold back. 64 demand, enshrined in the Armenian lamic regime in Tehran. “I respect Turkey’s right to counter constitution, that Turkey recognize the But according to former Ambas- the threat from the PKK, but I hope Armenian massacres as genocide. sador Parris, the United States has lost they exercise military force judiciously,” Turkey also has antagonized Ar- sway with Turkey on the energy issue says Rep. Robert Wexler, D-Fla., a mem- menia by supporting Azerbaijan in a to both the EU and Russia during the ber of the House Foreign Affairs Com- regional dispute over who should gov- Bush administration. “The U.S. still rec- mittee that passed the genocide resolu- ern Nagorno Karabakh — the part of ognizes how important this is. The tion. “The Middle East is already Azerbaijan where the local Armenian problem has been at too low a level destabilized. This could add to the in- population has operated a de facto of engagement. The Russians use Pres- stability.” Wexler says he voted against government since declaring indepen- ident Putin. We used to have Bill Clin- the Armenian genocide resolution not dence in 1991. As a fellow Turkic na- ton and Al Gore pushing this issue. on its substance but because he want- tion, Turks feel a natural kinship to- Now we have Matt Bryza.” ed “a swift end to the Iraq War and we wards the Azeris. As Turkey’s significance in the glob- need Turkey’s assistance.” al energy supply chain grows, many

316 CQ Global Researcher wonder whether it will serve merely Sabrina Tavernise recently described However, Iraq and specifically the as an energy transit country — ex- Konya as “an oasis: women here wear Kurds leave Turks with a real dilem- tracting fees from others who import relatively revealing clothing, couples ma: If the Kurds succeed in creat- oil and gas through Turkey — or be- hold hands and bus segregation is a ing an independent Kurdish state in come an energy hub, buying and re- distinct memory.” 69 And Turkish jour- Iraq, this could have a spillover ef- selling energy products at a profit. nalist Aliye Cetinkaya reports that while fect on Turkey by providing impe- Some worry Turkey could become like only 50 women were enrolled in a tus to the pro-independence move- Gazprom — the Russian state-owned college program she took a decade ment among Turkish Kurds. Yet a energy giant that Moscow increasing- ago at Selcuk University in Konya, large-scale Turkish military assault ly deploys as a political tool — and today more than 1,000 female students against the PKK could further desta- thus act more as a destabilizing than are taking the course. bilize the entire Middle East. Brook- stabilizing force. Moreover, if Ankara Yet Konya has not morphed into a ings scholar Taspinar also foresees defies the United States and forges a liberal bastion. When Cetinkaya covered a potential clash over Kirkuk, the close energy partnership with Iran, a last year’s protests there against Danish city in northern Iraq many Kurds key oil and gas source and transit cartoons of Mohammed, stones and shoes would like to have as their capital. country, Turkey’s newfound role as were thrown at her because she was Turks would not countenance that energy hub may seem less attractive not wearing a head scarf. 70 prospect, because many Turkmen for political reasons. But some secularists still fear Is- (ethnic Turks) live in Kirkuk. lamic fundamentalism could take root Looking westward, most observers in Turkey. Rusen Cakir, a reporter for think anti-Turkish sentiment inside the the Turkish daily newspaper Vatan, EU makes it unlikely Turkey will be OUTLOOK worries that the Kurdish-based Hizbal- admitted in the short term. But Turk- lah in Turkey (HiT) party could be- ish diplomats believe their patience come a religious alternative to the and persistence will eventually pay off. Marxist-orientated PKK for Kurdish na- “We are getting closer to meeting the Crossroads Ahead tionalists. 71 Cakir notes the thousands criteria,” says diplomat Akcapar. “Eu- of HiT supporters in the southeastern ropean leaders in the end will have city of Diyarbakir protested the Dan- to go to their people and remove the ew observers think Turkey will ish cartoons in February 2006. bogus fears and arguments they have Fevolve into an Islamic state like As for future Turkish-U.S. rela- been giving.” Iran or Saudi Arabia, even when, as tions, “Turkey will never go out of However, it could turn out that it expected, a new constitution moder- its way to antagonize the United doesn’t really matter whether Turkey ates the country’s entrenched and en- States, but the warm glow is gone,” becomes a member, because the ex- thusiastic secularism. For example, says Ambassador Parris. “It is going panding EU may evolve into a more curbs on wearing head scarves will to spend more time on other Mus- flexible organization offering à la carte no doubt be loosened. lim countries.” According the Hud- benefits. For instance, some EU mem- “There are limits to how radical the son Institute’s Zeyno Baran, younger ber states do not use the euro as their AKP can be,” says former U.S. Am- Turks in particular are less pro-U.S. currency. Similarly, Turkey and the EU bassador Parris. “If they undermine sec- “When anyone says the U.S. and could reach a mutually satisfactory ularism, the army will step in.” Turkey have a strategic relationship, arrangement on many economic and Indeed, Turkey’s economic pros- people laugh — at best.” 72 And political issues without Turkey joining perity could continue pushing the coun- while the two countries may have as a full-fledged member. try in the opposite direction, making once been united by their mutual “We do not need the EU to be a Turks less religious and more liberal fear of the Soviet Union, today they big, powerful country. We have the on social issues. That seems to have are divided because of U.S. actions highest potential of anywhere in Eu- occurred in Konya, for example, a city in neighboring Iraq. rope — a growing economy and en- of 900,000 on the plains of central But Rep. Wexler doesn’t think the re- trepreneurs all over the world,” says Turkey, a region once described as a lationship will deteriorate. “Despite the Akcapar. “If we have to find a new place “where religion and politics have tensions in Iraq, there remain strong route, we will. But we have been going been a poisonous mix, and cultural strategic military ties as well as concur- down this path for 100 years. We have norms are conservative regardless of rent interests — in Iran, the Balkans not come to the end of it yet.” religion.” But New York Times reporter and the Middle East,” he says.

Available online: www.globalresearcher.com December 2007 317 FUTURE OF TURKEY

11 Rice was speaking at a press briefing in Sharm- Transatlantic Trends 2004 survey, p. 22, Notes el-Sheikh, Egypt, May 1, 2007, www.state.gov/sec- www.transatlantictrends.org/trends/doc/2004_ retary/rm/2007/may/84119.htm. english_key.pdf. 12 Zeyno Baran, “The Coming Coup d’Etat,” 24 Turkey’s 72 million population is about 1 Incident recounted by Sonar Cagaptay, pol- Newsweek International, Dec. 5, 2006, one-seventh the size of the population of the icy researcher at the Washington Institute on www.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuseaction=publi- 27 other EU countries. Near East Policy. 25 cation_details&id=4349. For background, see Brian Beary, “The 2 Soner Cagaptay, “Turkey’s Headscarf Dilem- 13 Web site of the Turkish embassy to the New Europe,” CQ Global Researcher, August, ma — Is There a Way Out?” Washington In- United States, www.turkishembassy.org/. 2007, pp. 181-210. stitute for Near East Policy, Sept. 7, 2007, 26 14 The EU Commission praised the conduct of Rehn was speaking at the German Social www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC05.php? the elections, calling them “transparent, profes- Democrat Party conference in Berlin, July 4, CID=2660. sional and efficient.” It added “despite public 2007, http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleas- 3 Senem Aydin, researcher at the Centre for comments from the army and attempts to inter- esAction.do?reference=SPEECH/07/459&for- European Policy Studies, Brussels. fere in the political process, the outcome of the mat=HTML&aged=1&language=EN&guiLan- 4 Bahadir Kaleagasi, representative of Turk- spring 2007 constitutional crisis reaffirmed the pri- guage=en. ish Industrialists and Business Association 27 macy of the democratic process.” See Commis- Turkish Embassy to the United States. Total (TUSIAD) to the EU, Brussels. sion’s 2007 Progress Report on Turkey, http://ec.eu- government spending on the Turkish mili- 5 Omer Taspinar, “The Old Turks’ Revolt, When ropa.eu/enlargement/key_documents/reports_nov tary amounted to $15.9 billion in 2006. Radical Secularism Endangers Democracy,” 28 _2007_en.htm. Turkish Undersecretariat for Foreign Trade, Foreign Affairs, Council on Foreign Relations, 15 International Republican Institute (IRI), “Sur- as provided by TUSIAD-US. November/December 2007, p. 116. 29 vey of Turkish Public Opinion May 31-June Seminar on EU-U.S. relations organized by 6 Discussion with Turkish parliamentarians in 7, 2007,” www.iri.org/europe/turkey/pdfs/2007- School for Advanced International Studies Washington, D.C., organized by Carnegie En- 06-28-Turkey.ppt. (SAIS), Johns Hopkins University, Washing- dowment for International Peace, Oct. 11, 2007. 16 Ibid. ton, D.C., Oct. 2, 2007. 7 Pew Research Center, “Pew Global Atti- 30 17 Baran, op. cit. Ibid. tudes Survey,” June 2007, http://pewglob- 31 18 Ibid. On May 1, 2004, Poland, Latvia, Lithuania, al.org/reports/display.php?ReportID=256. 19 Quoted in C. Onur Ant, The Associated Press Estonia, Hungary, the Czech Republic, Slova- 8 “It must not be forgotten,” the memo said, in Istanbul “Armed forces issue warning on eve kia, Slovenia, Cyprus and Malta joined the “that the Turkish Armed Forces do take sides of Turkish presidential vote,” The Guardian, EU, followed on Jan. 1, 2007 by Romania and in this debate” and “will make their position Aug. 28, 2007, www.guardian.co.uk/interna- Bulgaria. and stance perfectly clear if needs be.” See 32 tional/story/0,,2157189,00.html. “Transatlantic Trends Survey,” German Mar- John Felton, The Contemporary Middle East, 20 Andrew Purvis, “Turkey’s Great Divide,” shall Fund of the United States, September, 2007, A Document History, CQ Press (2008), p. 642. Time, July 12, 2007, www.time.com/time/na- www.transatlantictrends.org/trends/doc/TT07KFR 9 Yasemin Congar, Washington bureau chief tion/article/0,8599,1642656,00.html. _FINAL.pdf. for Milliyet newspaper, speaking at Wilson 33 21 Press conference between Prime Minister Er- Ibid. Center, May 8, 2007. 34 dogan and U.S. President George Bush at the Carl Bildt and Massimo d’Alema, “It’s time 10 Umit Engensoy, “For the first time, US White House, Washington, D.C., Nov. 5, 2007. for a fresh effort,” International Herald Tri- warns against army intervention,” Turkish 22 IRI poll, op. cit. bune, Aug. 31, 2007, www.iht.com/arti- Daily News, May 4, 2007, www.turkishdai- 23 German Marshall Fund of the United States, cles/2007/08/31/opinion/edbildt.php. lynews.com.tr/article.php?enewsid=72317. 35 “Morocco nationalists win election,” BBC News, Sept. 10, 2007, http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/ hi/africa/6982843.stm. About the Author 36 Arthur Borin, “Maroc: le défi prudent des is- Brian Beary — a freelance journalist based in Washington, lamistes,” Le Nouvel Observateur, Aug. 30, 2007, D.C. — specializes in EU-U.S. affairs and is the U.S. corre- http://hebdo.nouvelobs.com/hebdo/parution/ spondent for Europolitics, the EU-affairs daily newspaper. Orig- p20070830/articles/a352994-.html. 37 inally from Dublin, Ireland, he worked in the European Par- History section, Web site of the Turkish Embassy to the United States, www.turk- liament for Irish MEP Pat “The Cope” Gallagher in 2000 and ishembassy.org/index.php?option=com_con- at the EU Commission’s Eurobarometer unit on public opin- tent&task=view&id=214&Itemid=230. ion analysis. A fluent French speaker, he appears regularly as 38 See Bernard Lewis, The Emergence of Mod- a guest international relations expert on various television ern Turkey (2001), for one of the best-known and radio program. Apart from his work for Congressional histories of modern Turkey. Quarterly, Beary also writes for the European Parliament 39 See “Turkey,” in Felton, op. cit., pp. 627-652. Magazine and the Irish Examiner daily newspaper. His last 40 Taspinar, op. cit. report for CQ Global Researcher was “The New Europe.” 41 The EEC was rechristened the European Union in 1993 under the Maastricht Treaty.

318 CQ Global Researcher 42 Senem Aydin and Rusen Cakir, “Political Islam in Turkey,” Centre for European Policy Studies, April 12, 2007, p. 1, http://shop.ceps.eu/BookDe- FOR MORE INFORMATION tail.php?item_id=1490. 43 Assembly of Turkish American Associations, 1526 18th St., N.W., Washington, Taspinar, op. cit., p. 123. DC 20036; (202) 483-9090; www.ataa.org. Aims to enhance understanding between 44 EU Commission Progress report on Turkey, the United States and Turkey and provide a more balanced view of Turkey. op. cit. 45 See Political Handbook of The World 2007 Brookings Institution, 1775 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20036; (202) (2007), www.cqpress.com. 792-6000; www.brookings.edu. Independent think tank with resident Turkey experts. 46 For further facts and figures on Turkey, see EU Commission Directorate General for Center for European Policy Studies, 1 Place du Congres, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium; Enlargement Web site, http://ec.europa.eu/en- +32 (0)2 229-3911; www.ceps.be. Think tank with resident Turkey expert. largement/turkey/index_en.htm. 47 Sonar Cagaptay and H. Akin Unver, “July Embassy of Turkey, 2525 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, DC 20008; (202) 2007 Turkish Elections: Winners and Fault 612-6700; www.turkishembassy.org. Turkish government’s official representative in U.S. Lines,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, July 2007, www.washingtoninsti- European Commission, Rue de la Loi 200, B-1040 Brussels, Belgium; +32 (0)2 tute.org/templateC04.php?CID=279. 299-1111; http://ec.europa.eu/index_en.htm. European Union body responsible for 48 Ibid. negotiating with Turkey on membership. 49 See “Special Report on Turkey,” Financial Times, Nov. 21, 2007, http://search.ft.com/search? Foreign Policy Institute, Bilkent University East Campus, 06533 Ankara; +90 (312) queryText=Turkey+report&aje=true&dse=&dsz=. 266-2869; www.foreignpolicy.org.tr. Turkish think tank. 50 Ibid. 51 Aydin and Cakir, op. cit., p. 2. Turkish Economic and Social Studies Foundation, Bankalar Cad. No:2 K:3, 52 Leyla Sahin v. Turkey, European Court of Karakoy, 344 20 Istanbul; +90 (212) 292-8903; www.tesev.org.tr/eng. Think tank that sees itself as a bridge between academic research and policymaking. Human Rights judgment, June 29, 2004, http://cmiskp.echr.coe.int/tkp197/view.asp?item=2 Turkish Industrialists’ and Businessmen’s Association, U.S. Representative Office, &portal=hbkm&action=html&highlight=Leylaper- 1250 24th St., N.W., Washington, DC 20037; (202) 776-7770; www.tusiad.us. Key lobby- cent20percent7Cpercent20Sahin&sessionid=289 ing group for Turkish business; other offices in Ankara and Brussels. 4105&skin=hudoc-en. 53 See European Commission, “Turkey 2007 Washington Institute for Near East Policy, 1828 L St., Suite 1050, N.W., Washington, Progress Report (COM/2007/663),” Nov. 6, 2007, DC 20036; (202) 452-0650; www.washingtoninstitute.org. Promotes better understanding covering the period Oct. 1, 2006 — Oct. 1, of American interests in the Middle East. 2007, http://ec.europa.eu/enlargement/key_doc- uments/reports_nov_2007_en.htm. 54 Christopher Torchia, “Ruling Islamic party wins 60 See Commission Progress Report, op. cit. say86408/f-stephen-larrabee/turkey-rediscovers- a broad victory in Turkey,” The Associated Press, 61 Anthony H. Cordesman, “The Armenian the-middle-east.html. July 23, 2007, www.signonsandiego.com/union- Genocide Bill & The Turkish Reaction in Iraq,” 67 The prime minister was speaking at the trib/20070723/news_1n23turkey.html. Center for Strategic and International Studies, National Press Club in Washington, D.C., 55 See Ercan Yavuz, “High Referendum turnout Oct. 15, 2007, www.csis.org/component/op- Nov. 5, 2007. puts an end to legitimacy debate on poll,” Today’s tion,com_csis_progj/task,view/id,1099/. 68 See Peter Behr, “Energy Nationalism,” CQ Zaman, Oct. 23, 2007, www.todayszaman.com/tz- 62 Press conference, White House, Oct. 17, 2007, Global Researcher, July, 2007, pp. 151-180. web/detaylar.do?load=detay&link=125305. www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2007/10/ 69 Sabrina Tavernise, “Turkish City Counters Fear 56 Press release, Aug. 28, 2007, www.wiers- 20071017.html. of Islam’s Reach,” The New York Times, May 15, ma.pvda.nl/nieuwsbericht/362. 63 “Unearthing the past, endangering the fu- 2007, www.nytimes.com/2007/05/15/world/eu- 57 Von Christoph B. Schiltz, “Was Ankara für ture,” The Economist, Oct. 18 2007, www.econ- rope/15turkey.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss. den EU-Beitritt tun muss,” Die Welt, July 17, omist.com/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9987685. 70 Ibid. 2007, www.welt.de/politik/article1031132/Was 64 Molly Moore and Robin Wright, “U.S. Urges 71 HiT, not to be confused with Iranian-backed _Ankara_fuer_den_EU-Beitritt_tun_muss.html. Turkish Restraint on Kurds,” Washington Post Lebanese-based Hizballah movement. See 58 Speech to Turkish parliament, Aug. 31,2007, Foreign Service, Oct. 14, 2007, www.wash- Rusen Cakir, “The Reemergence of Hizballah quoted in article by Joanna Boguslawskla in ingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2007/ in Turkey,” The Washington Institute for Near Europolitics, (subscription-only news service), 10/13/AR2007101301427.html. East Policy, Sept. 23, 2007, www.washing- Sept. 6, 2007, www.europolitics.info. 65 Ibid. toninstitute.org/templateC04.php?CID=281. 59 In its 2007 Progress Report (op. cit), the 66 See F. Stephen Larrabee, “Turkey Rediscov- 72 “Turkey in Central Asia,” presentation at EU Commission has said that the number of ers the Middle East,” Foreign Affairs, July/Au- the Johns Hopkins University’s School for Ad- people prosecuted for expressing nonviolent gust 2007, Council on Foreign Relations, pp. vanced International Studies, Washington, D.C., opinions in Turkey has increased. 106-7, www.foreignaffairs.org/20070701faes- Nov. 19, 2007.

Available online: www.globalresearcher.com December 2007 319 Bibliography Selected Sources

Books the EU, now fears membership could threaten Turkish secularism and weaken the military’s influence, according to a Akcam, Taner, A Shameful Act: The Armenian Genocide Brookings Institution lecturer. and the Question of Turkish Responsibility, Holt Paper- backs, 2006. Tavernise, Sabrina, “Turkish City Counters Fear of Islam’s In a controversial book on a hotly debated subject, a Turkish Reach,” The New York Times, May 15, 2007, www.ny- historian examines the long lead-up to the 1915 order to transfer times.com/2007/05/15/world/europe/15turkey.html?part- the Armenians, the ensuing massacres and the aftermath. ner=rssnyt&emc=rss. A journalist shows how economic prosperity and the election McCarthy, Justin, Death and Exile: The Ethnic Cleans- of the Islamic AKP Party is transforming life in one of Turkey’s ing of Ottoman Muslims, 1821-1922, Darwin Press, 1996. most conservative cities, Konya. A history professor from the University of Louisville, Ky., charts the persecution of Muslim communities in the Balkans Reports and Studies and Caucasus in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. This was the consequence, McCarthy says, of Russian imperial- “Annual Report 2006-2007 on the implementation of ism and the development of new nation states like Greece Community Assistance under Council Regulation (EC) and Bulgaria, who systematically “cleansed” their territories 389/2006 of 27 February 2006 establishing an instru- of indigenous Muslim populations. ment of financial support for encouraging the economic development of the Turkish Cypriot community,” Eu- Articles ropean Commission, Sept. 18, 2007, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/com/2007/com2007_0536en Aydinli, Ersel, Nihat Ali Özcan and Dogan Akyaz, “The 01.pdf, and “Annual Report on the Implementation of Turkish Military’s March Toward Europe,” Foreign Affairs, Council Regulation (EC) 866/2004 of 29 April 2004 and January/February 2006, www.foreignaffairs.org/ the situation resulting from its application,” European 20060101faessay85108/ersel-aydinli-nihat-ali-ozcan-dogan Commission, Sept. 21, 2007, http://eur-lex.europa.eu/Lex- -akyaz/the-turkish-military-s-march-toward-europe.html. UriServ/site/en/com/2007/com2007_0553en01.pdf. Three ex-military officers outline how the Turkish army is European initiatives to help develop the isolated Turkish dealing with the country’s economic and social transformations. Cypriot community are not going as smoothly as planned, according to these two reports. Baran, Zeyno, “The Coming Coup d’Etat,” Newsweek In- ternational, Dec. 5, 2006, www.hudson.org/index.cfm?fuse- “Survey of Turkish Public Opinion May 31-June 7, 2007,” action=publication_details&id=4349. International Republic Institute (IRI), June 2007, An expert on Turkey explains why the military is likely to www.iri.org/europe/turkey/pdfs/2007-06-28-Turkey.ppt. intervene in Turkish politics in 2007. Turks are very patriotic and generally accepting of both Islamic and secular traditions, according to a recent poll. Kampeas, Ron, “Turkey wants genocide commission,” JTA (The Global News Service of the Jewish People), April “Transatlantic Trends Survey,” German Marshall Fund 23, 2007, www.jta.org/cgi-bin/iowa/news/arti- of the United States, September 2007, www.transat- cle/20070423turkscommission.html. lantictrends.org/trends/doc/TT07KFR_FINAL.pdf. The Jewish community is torn over whether to support Turks’ opinions of the U.S. government are at an all-time Armenian efforts to get the United States to recognize as low, the GMF’s annual survey shows. genocide the massacres of Armenians committed by Ottomans during World War I. Aydin, Senem, and Rusen Cakir, “Political Islam in Turkey,” Centre for European Policy Studies, April 12, 2007, Larrabee, F. Stephen, “Turkey Rediscovers the Middle http://shop.ceps.eu/BookDetail.php?item_id=1490. East,” Foreign Affairs, July/August 2007. A policy paper charts the growth of Islamic political move- A foreign policy scholar describes how Turkey increasingly ments in Turkey after it became more moderate. is engaging with its neighbors in the Middle East to bolster economic ties and broker peace agreements. Cakir, Rusen, “The Reemergence of Hizballah in Turkey,” The Washington Institute for Near East Policy, Sept. 23, 2007, Taspinar, Omer, “The Old Turks’ Revolt, When Radical www.washingtoninstitute.org/templateC04.php?CID=281. Secularism Endangers Democracy,” Foreign Affairs, A Turkish scholar charts the development of a home-grown November/December 2007. Islamic fundamentalist movement. Turkey’s military elite, which used to want Turkey to join

320 CQ Global Researcher The Next Step: Additional Articles from Current Periodicals

Cyprus “Pakistan Secures Turkey’s Support for Mideast Peace Initiative,” Agence France-Presse, Feb. 6, 2007. “Turkish Armed Forces — Symbol of Peace in Cyprus, Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf has won backing from Says Turkish President,” Anatolia News Agency Turkey for his plan to form a group of Muslim countries (Turkey), Sept. 19, 2007. working toward peace in the Middle East. Turkish President Abdullah Gul says the presence of Turkish forces in Cyprus is solely for preserving peace between the Larrabee, F. Stephen, “Turkey Rediscovers the Middle north and south. East,” Foreign Affairs, July-August 2007, p. 103. After decades of passivity, Turkey is now emerging as one Castle, Stephen, “Is There a Solution to the Cyprus Problem, of the most important diplomatic actors in the Middle East. or Must it Remain Divided?” The Independent (England), Aug. 16, 2006. Secularism Turkey says it will open its ports and airports to Greek Cypriots only if the European Union (EU) agrees to end its Batur, Nur, “Do Not Cross the Fine Line; Secularism Will economic isolation of northern Cyprus. Not Change,” Hurriyet (Turkey), Feb. 13, 2006. Turkish secularism has been put in danger by threats to Charalambous, Charlie, “Cyprus Protests Over Gul Visit freedom of thought and religion and the principles of the to North,” Agence France-Presse, Sept. 19, 2007. nation’s founder, Kemal Ataturk. Government officials in the Cypriot capital of Nicosia are angry over Turkish President Abdullah Gul’s suggestion that the divi- Cagaptay, Soner, “The End of Secularism,” Newsweek sion of Cyprus is over religious difference — between Christ- International, Sept. 3, 2007. ian Orthodox Greek Cypriots and Muslim Turkish Cypriots. Turkey’s once marginal Islamists have now become mainstream, eroding secularism in the process. European Union Membership Tavernise, Sabrina, “In Turkey, Fear and Discomfort About “Recognizing Turkey’s Potential to Help EU,” Turkish Religious Lifestyle,” The New York Times, April 30, 2007, Daily News, Oct. 30, 2007. p. A4. Turkey’s strong army and the importance of the region can Secular Turks are concerned about the level of tolerance for help in consolidating the European Union’s role in interna- their lifestyle from an emerging class of religious compatriots. tional relations. Yamauchi, Masayuki, “Turkey’s Secularism Challenged,” “Turkey Criticised in European Commission Report,” The Yomiuri Shimbun (Japan), June 10, 2007. Guardian Unlimited (England), Nov. 8, 2006. Divisions within the Turkish parliament illustrate how secular- Slow reform on human rights and Turkey’s refusal to allow ism is not necessarily compatible with the spirit of democracy. Greek Cypriots to enter the country may undermine Turkey’s EU membership efforts. CITING CQ GLOBAL RESEARCHER Lederer, Edith M., “Greece Says Turkey’s Route to European Sample formats for citing these reports in a bibliography Union Membership Must Pass Through a United Cyprus,” The Associated Press Worldstream, Sept. 17, 2006. include the ones listed below. Preferred styles and formats Greek Foreign Minister Dora Bakoyannis says if Turkey wants vary, so please check with your instructor or professor. to attain EU status it must first recognize a reunified Cyprus. MLA STYLE Schleifer, Yigal, “With or Without EU, Turkey Is Rising,” Flamini, Roland. “Nuclear Proliferation.” CQ Global Re- The Christian Science Monitor, Dec. 11, 2006, p. 6. searcher 1 Apr. 2007: 1-24. Regardless of whether or not it joins the European Union, Turkey will still have a surging economy and growing geographic APA STYLE importance. Flamini, R. (2007, April 1). Nuclear proliferation. CQ Global Middle East Stability Researcher, 1, 1-24. CHICAGO STYLE “Gul: ‘Syria Is Like a Key to Peace and Stability in the Region,’ ” SANA News Agency (Syria), Oct. 17, 2007. Flamini, Roland. “Nuclear Proliferation.” CQ Global Re- Syrian President Bashar al-Asad says Turkish-Syrian relations searcher, April 1, 2007, 1-24. serve as a model for peaceful Middle East cooperation.

Available online: www.globalresearcher.com December 2007 321 Voices From Abroad:

JOSÉ MANUEL BARROSO tions. This obstacle [of Turk- ALEXANDRE rope. People want to live ish recognition] can be re- together. They want to look President, moved and memories can be TOUMARKINE to a prosperous European European Commission ameliorated by new experi- Researcher, French Insti- future and Turkey wants to ences, by interaction between tute of Anatolian Studies become . . . a European Adhere to European the Turkish and Armenian country. . . . All these fac- standards people as neighbours.” Istanbul, Turkey tors help, I hope, to make “We hope that one day . . . Turkey realize that its Agence France-Presse, November Turkey can join the European Crisis is political, not way to the European Union 2006 Union, but for that, Turkey religious passes . . . through a unit- has to be a real European “Religion is only a pre- ed European Cyprus.” country, in economic and po- NECDET PAMIR text, a tool for political com- AP Worldstream, September litical terms and not a coun- Energy Expert, Eurasia petition between the government and a part of the 2006 try that adds, let’s say, stan- Strategic Research Center dards not at the level that we opposition. . . . People are have in the European Union.” Ankara, Turkey no longer wondering if so- EDMUND STOIBER ciety is becoming more Is- Governor, Bavaria, Interview on CNN, April 2007 Energy independence lamic or not. The conflict warrants no criticism now centers on the control Germany ABDULLAH GUL “Turkey is trying to diver- of certain institutions. We are Yes to cooperation, no President, Turkey sify its energy sources, but talking about political rela- everywhere it looks — Iran, tionships.” to membership “Europe is a community Secularism equates to Iraq — it finds problems. If Turkish Daily News, May 2007 we are to wean ourselves off of values, and I say yes to strength close cooperation, to friend- “The Turkish Republic is Russia, the West would do better to help us, not criticize us.” DORA BAKOYANNIS ship with Turkey, but if we a democratic, secular and Foreign Minister, Greece want to make the European social state based on the rule The Christian Science Monitor, Union an intellectual center of law. . . . The principle of July 2006 . . . then I say Turkey has secularism is both a model EU membership passes through Cyprus no place here.” that ensures freedom for dif- ILGUN ULCAN ferent lifestyles and a rule of N G “The truth is the Nicosia AP Worldstream, October 2006 social peace. . . . The prin- Researcher, International wall is the last wall in Eu- ciple of secularism also in- Strategic Research cludes freedom of conscience Organisation and religion. If the principles of the constitution are firm- Ankara, Turkey ly established and observed by everyone, our differences Not all Europeans are and diversity will not be our Christian weakness but our wealth.” “Turkey is not a Germany, or a France, and it will never Speech during swearing-in be like these countries. . . . ceremony, August 2007 If the current members want to establish Europe on the VARTAN OSKANIAN base of Christian values, Foreign Minister, Armenia Turkey can never be Euro- pean. If Europe means Chris- Genocide recognition is tian discrimination, . . . the not paramount EU has to live with more than “For Armenia, recognition 100 million non-Europeans [of the genocide] by Turkey (Muslims) inside.” is not a precondition for nor- TurkishWeekly.net, September mal, good neighbourly rela- 2006 Christo Komarnitski, Bulgaria