No. I. :: JULY 1922.
THE
SINGAPORE NATURALIST
Being the Official Organ of the Singapore Natural History Society
FOUNDED 1921.
SINGAPORE:
Printed at the Methodist Publishing House, 1922,
Presented to Members for 1921. Price to Non-Members $2.00
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries This number of the " Singapore Naturalist" is the first publi¬ cation attempted by the Singapore Natural History Society.
It includes the Proceedings and Transactions of the Society from its beginning in May 1921 up to the end of the same year and it is hoped that the results of future work will be recorded in a similar manner.
To produce a bi-annual publication (i.e., one number after each session), uniform with the present issue it will be necessary to have the whole-hearted support of all Members.
In Singapore there is probably a greater scope for a field ■observer of simple tastes than for a trained1 systematic naturalist.
The field could not be wider for even the life histories of our com¬ monest birds and insects have yet to be worked out in detail; with this wealth of material at our disposal there should be no shortage ■of original papers for many years.
•Singapore, March, 1922.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries CONTENTS. Page.
Objects of the Society ...... 6-
Council and Officers of the Society ...... 7
List of Members ...... 9
Eu.les ...... 11
Proceedings:—
Minutes of Meetings and Excursions ...... 15
Transactions:—
" The Identification of Malayan Culieidae Dr. G. E.
Brooke, M.A...... 41
" The A.B.C. of Preserving Animals", Mr. F. N. Ohasen 59'
" Some notes on Malayan Butterflies", Dr. J. W. Scharff 68
" Some notes on the Life-History of Atella phalanta",
Mr. C. L. ColleneUe ...... 70
Hotes on Acclimatisation Experiments with Helix
aspersa ", Mr. V. II. G. Jarrett ...... 74
• • . Editorial ...... 76
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries The Singapore Natural History Society has for its Objects:—
(1) The development of friendly intercourse between local Natur¬ alists.
(2) The increase and diffusion of knowledge concerning local
Natural History by means of :—
(a) Papers.
(b) Discussions.
(c) Exhibition of specimens.
(d) Field Excursions.
(e) Formation of Collections.
(/) Purchase of Periodicals.
(g) Publication of Transactions.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Singapore Natural History Society. 1921-1922.
Patron.
H. E. Sir Laurence Guillemard, k.c.b.
Council and Officers.
President.
Major J. C. Moulton, o.b.e., m.a., b.sc.
Vice-Presidents.
Gilbert E. Brooke, Esq., m.a., l.b.c.p., d.p.ii.
I. H. Burkill, Esq., m.a.
Councillors.
J. W. Scharff, Esq., m.b., ch.b., d.t.ii. James Johnston, Esq. Valentine Knight, Esq.
Honorary Treasurer. C. L. Collenette, c/o Barker & Co., Ltd., Singapore.
Honorary Secretary. E. 1ST. Chasen, c/o Baffles Museum, Singapore.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries List of Members, August 1922
1922 Abraham, H. C., F.B.G.S., c/o P. 0., Bukit Timah. 1921 Aclams, B. H., J.P., M. Inst. C. P., " Woodstock"r Grange Ed. 1921 Allen, W. H. B., c/o Straits Trading Coy., Ltd., Butter- worth. 1921 Barrett-Lennard, Hon. Mr. Justice F. C. A., 8 Goodwood Hill. 1922 f Bateman, Mrs. M. A., "Burrough", Holland Park. *1921 Bazell, C., B.A., Kuala Kangsar. 1921 f Berry, H. T., Bukit Kajang Estates, Ltd., Malacca. *1921 Bratton, A. G., (Council 1922- ), c/o Guthrie & Co., Ltd. *1921ft Brooke, Gilbert E., M.A., F.B.G.S., L.B.G.P., D.P.II. (Vice-President 1921-22- ), Port Health Office.. *1921f Burkill, I. H., M.A. (Vice-President 1921-22- ), Botanic Gardens. 1922 Chappel, Miss M., F.B.G.S., L.B.G.P., 6 Upper Wilkie Bd. *1921f Chasen, F. N"., M.B.O.U., F.E.S. (Hon. Secretary 1921- 22- ), Baffles Museum. 1921 Cobbett, J. C., c/o Boctyk and Davidson. *lD2l1ff Collenette, C. L., F.E.S. (Hon. Treasurer 1921-22- ),. c/o Barker & Co., Ltd. 1922 Colman, V. J., Baffles Hotel. 1921 Cornelius, B. M. A., 191 Cecil Street. 1922 Dawson, W., M.B., Gh.B., Middleton Hospital. 1922 Denyer, Major, M.C., Tanglin Barracks. 1922f Dexter-Allen, Bev. G. A., M.A., "Windermere", St. Thomas' Walk. 1922 Dickinson, C., Grove Estate, Katong. 1921 Dickinson, Mrs. C., Grove Estate, Katong. 19211ff Dickson, P. L., F.B.G.S., F.Z.S., Western House, The Park, Nottingham. 1922f Dunman, W., Grove Estate, Katong. 1922 Edwards, S. J., A.B.I.B.A., c/o Balph Booty & Coy. 1922 Ellis, Miss D., 6 Upper Wilkie Bd. 1922 Ellis, D. C., c/o Straits Trading Coy., Ltd. 1921 Peddersen, Poul, "Bumah Bunga", Johore Bahru, 1922 Gilmour, C. C. B., M.A., M.B., Gh.B., Municipal Health Office. 1922 Griffith-Jones, 0. P., "Bukit Sedap ", Holland Bd. 1922 Ilame, B. W., c/o The Municipality. 1922 Hatch, W. E. J. C., c/o British American Tobacco Coy., Ltd.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 10 LIST OF MEMBERS, 1922.
192)1 Haves, L. J., c/o Fraser and Co. 1922 Hill, William C., c/o Singapore Oil Mills. 19®lf Howell, Mrs. E. F., 54 Grange Ed. 1921 Hussey, Mrs. T. M., (Council 1922- ), " Annan dale." 192il^f Jarrett, Y. H. C., 20-c Collyer Quay. *1921 Johnston, J., M.L.A., F.S.A. (Scot.). (Council 1921- 22), Eaffles Library. 1922 f Kay-Mouat, J. E., M.A., M.B., B.Cli., M.Sc., D.PJI., King Edward VII Medical College. *1921 Knight, V., F.E.S. (Council 1921-22), Glemsford, Suffolk, England. 1921 Koelc, E. K., 29 Malacca Street. 1921 Leeder, Miss 0., Java. 1921f Lowick, B., c/o Lowe, Bingham and Matthews. 1921 f Manchester, H. L., c/o The Municipality. 1921 Mansfield, J. T., Cable Depot, E. E. Tel. Coy., Ltd. *192:1 Maxwell, C. FT., c/o Crown Agents, London. 1922 May, P. W., Poste Eestante, Singapore. 1982 Morse, G. S., Grange Ed. *1921^f Moulton, Major J. C., O.B.F., M.A., B.Sc., F.L.S., F-Z.S., F.E.S., F.R.G.S., M.B.O.U. (President 1921-22- ), Eaffles Museum. 1921 Kinan, K. J., B. Sc., St. Andrew's School. 1922 Noyes-Lewis, Capt. D. M., 18d. Tanglin Ed. *1921 Nutt, W. F., O.B.E., c/o Chartered Bank, London. 1921 O'May, J., c/o Barker & Co., Ltd. 1921 Orchard, H. A. L., St. Andrew's School. 1922 Parsons, T. D., c/o Donaldson and Burkinshaw. 1921 Penrice, W., c/o W. Mansfield & Coy., Ltd. 1921 Powell, T. A., c/o Adamson, Gilfillan & Co., Ltd. 1922-f Eobinson, H. C., C.M.Z.S., M.B.O-U., Kuala Lumpur. 1922f Saunders, Hon. Mr. C. J., Bankruptcy Office. *1921f Scharff, J. W., M.B., B.Ch., D.P.IL, F.E.S. (Council 192)1-22- ), Port Health Office. 1922 Sehestecl, S., c/o Swanson and Sehested. 1922 .Stead, David G., F.L.S., 5 Amber Mansions, Orchard Ed- 1922 Sworder, G. PI., F.R.G.S., c/o P. 0., Bukit Timah. 1922 Taylor, W. A., M.B., Cli.B., Malacca. 1922' Trimmer, G. W. A., c/o Singapore Harbour Board. 1921 Willson, Miss L. E. PI., 6 Hpper Wilkie Ed. 1921 Wurtzburg, Capt. C. E., M.C., c/o W. Mansfield & Coy., Ltd.
* Denotes an Original Member. 'K Have contributed to the "Singapore Naturalist." t Denotes a Life Member.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Rules.
Name and Objects. 1. The Society shall be called the Singapore Natural History Society and shall have for its objects the facilitation of friendly intercourse between local naturalists, and the increase and diffusion of knowledge concerning Natural History by means of papers, discussions, exhibition of specimens, field excursions, the formation of a Librae and collections, the purchase of periodicals and' the publication of Transactions.
Officers.
2. The Officers of the Society shall consist of a President, three Vice-Presidents, Honorary Treasurer and Honorary Secre¬ tary. 3. The affairs of the Society shall be administered by a Council, which shall consist of the Officers of the Society and three other Members, four of whom shall form a quorum. The Officers and Members of the Council shall be elected annually at the Annual General Meeting, and shall hold office until their successors are appointed. The Council shall have power to fill any vacancy occurring during the term of office. 4. In the case of the temporary inability of any Officer to per¬ form his duties the Council may appoint a deputy, who shall, for the time being, have all .the authority of his principal and shall re¬ present him on the Council. 5. The Council shall have the power of electing from the Members of the Society, Sub-Committees to investigate any parti¬ cular branch of Natural History, and the Presidents and Honorary Secretaries of such sections or Sub-Committees shall be, for the time being, ex-offic-io members of the Council.
Duties of Officers.
6. The President shall preside at the Meetings of the Society and of the Council, and shall conduct the proceedings thereat. In the event of an equality of votes on any matter, tl;e Presi¬ dent shall have a second or casting vote. 7. In the absence of the President the chair shall be taken by a Vice-President, and in the absence of all Vice-Presidents a Chair¬ man shall be chosen by the Members present. The Chairman shall, for the duration of the meeting, have the authority and privileges of the President.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 12 RULES.
8. The Honorary Treasurer shall demand and receive all moneys payable to the Society, giving receipts for the same, and shall disburse sums due by the Society. He shall (keep an account •of receipts and expenditure, and, when required to do so, furnish a statement of the same to the Auditors.
9. The Honorary Secretary shall keep a list of the names and addresses of the Members of the Society, take Minutes at all Meet¬ ings, conduct the Society's correspondence under the direction of the Council, make and submit to the Council the advance pro¬ grammes of Meetings, and prepare the Transactions of the Society for publication.
Accounts and Property. 10. The accounts of the Society shall be audited by such firm •or persons as may be authorised by the Council, and the audited accounts shall be submitted to the Annual General Meeting. 11. The property of the Society, oth'er than its funds, and when it exceeds the value of $1,000 (one thousand dollars) shall be vested in two Trustees appointed at a General Meeting and shall be insured in their name against loss or damage by fire.
Membership.
12. The Society shall consist of a Patron, Honorary Fellows, Fellows and: Members. Ladies are eligible for election, but Lady Relatives to Fellows and Members shall be entitled to the privileges •of Membership, while resident in Singapore, without payment of Entrance Fee or Subscription. 13. Every candidate for Membership shall be nominated by two Members of the Society on a prescribed form to be obtained from the Honorary Secretary. The Honoraly Secretary shall sub¬ mit the application to the Council for ballot (one adverse vote in three excluding) and the election shall be duly reported at the next Ordinary Meeting of the Society. 14. Any Member of three years standing, being of British nationality, shall be eligible for election to Fellowship of the Society. On his election by the Council, a Fellow shall pay a fee of $100 (or $50 if he be already a Life Member) and shall be there¬ after exempt from the payment of an annual subscription. Fellows shall, in addition to all the privileges of Membership, have the use of 25 free tickets monthly for the admission of their friends to any Zoological Gardens, Aquarium or other Institution of the Society for which an entrance fee is chargeable to the public. They shall also he entitled on request to 50 free reprints of any article published in the Transactions of the Society, and they shall have the first option on any debentures issued by the Society. 15. The entrance fee for Members shall he $10, A former Member on re-election shall not be required to pay another entrance fee.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries RULES. 13
16. The minimum subscription for Members shall be $1 per month, or in the case of persons non-resident in Singapore 50 cents per month, payable in advance to the end of the year from the time of election, and in advance on 1st January in each year. The Council shall have power to remove from the Roll of the Society the name of any Member when considered advisable in the interests of the Society, or when it has been ascertained that he no longer wishes to retain his connection with the Society. 17. The Composition for Life Membership shall be $50 in¬ clusive of entrance fee. Xo person other than one of British nationality may compound for Life Membership. 18. Xo subscription shall be required from any member during a temporary absence from Malaya of six or more months, during the period of such absence. For purposes of computation a. portion of a calendar month shall be deemed to be a whole month. 18a. Officers of the Navy and Army while serving in Singa¬ pore, who may wish to join the Society, may be enrolled as Members for the periocl of their residence in Singapore without ballot or pay¬ ment of an Entrance Fee.
19. The , Council shall have the power to elect Honorary Fellows, and shall have power to remove from the Roll of the Society the name of an Honorary Fellow when considered advisable or when it has been ascertained that be no longer desires to retain his connection with the Society. Honorary Fellows shall not be eligible to hold any office in the Society, but in all other respects .shall enjoy the same rights and privileges as Ordinary Fellows, and shall be subject to the.same rules except that they shall not be required to pay the entrance fee and annual subscription. They shall not be debarred from supporting the funds of the Society. An Honorary Fellow may elect at any time to become an ordinary Mem¬ ber by paying the annual subscription. 20. Whenever the subscription of any Member shall be 'eight months in avrear, written notice shall be sent to him by the Honorary Treasurer; if after a further period of four months the ■subscription be still unpaid, the Council shall have power to erase such Member's name from the books of the Society, after written notice has been sent to him by the Honorary Treasurer. 21. Members shall have the privilege of introducing Visitors to the Meetings of the Society, provided that no person who shall have resided in Singapore for more than three months shall be introduced as a Visitor on more than two occasions in one year.
Meetings.
22. A Special General Meeting of the Society shall be con¬ vened. on the requisition, of six Members. Such requisition shall be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, and shall specif)7 the pur¬ pose for which the Meeting is to be called. A notice thereof shall be sent to each Member by the Honorary Secretary at least seven clear
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 14 RULES.
days before the Meeting is to take place. Six Members shall form a quorum at all Special or General Meetings of the Society, except as is provided for in Rule 25. 23. The Annual General Meeting of the Society shall be held during the month of February in each year, when the accounts for the previous year shall be presented, the Council's and Officers' reports read, and the Officers and Council for the ensuing year elected. In the event of a contest the election shall be by ballot.. 24. A Special Meeting of the Council shall be convened upon the requisition of three Members of the Council. Such requisition shall be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, and shall specify the purpose for which the Meeting is to be called. A notice shall be- sent to each Member of the Council by the Honorary Secretary at least three clear days before the Meeting is to take place.
Alteration of Rules. 25. Amendments of these Rules must be proposed in writing' to the Council who shall submit them to a Meeting of the Society of which fourteen clear days notice has been sent to each resident. Member, together with particulars of the alteration. An amend¬ ment must be passed by not less than two thirds of the Members, present at the Meeting and shall come into force immediately. Nine Members shall form a quorum.
Bye-Laws. 26. The Council shall have the power to frame Bye-laws for' the regulation of the Society in any matter not provided for in these Rules. Such Bye-laws shall come into operation and be binding on Members after they have been posted'for ten days on a notice board in the rooms of the Society.
Bye-Laws. (1) Every person elected a Member of the Society shall sign the Obligation. Book of the Society at the first Meeting of the- Society at which they are present and shall thereupon be duly- admitted. The Obligation to. be taken shall read:— " VYe who have hereunto subscribed, do hereby promise,, each for himself, that we will endeavour to promote the good of the Singapore Natural History Society, and to pursue the ends for which the same was instituted; that we will be present at the Meetings of the Society as often as conveniently we can, especially at the Anniversary Elections and upon Extraordinary occasions; and that we will observe the Statutes, Bye-laws and Orders of the said Society; provided that whensoever any of us shall signify to the Honorary Secretary, under his hand, that he desires to withdraw from the Society, he shall be free from this obligation for the future."
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries % Proceedings. %
The Formation of the Society.
On Monday, May 30tli, 1921, in response to a postcard in¬ vitation issued by Dr. G. E. Brooke (dated May 24th, 1921), a meet¬ ing of a few residents interested in Natural History was held in the Board Ilooin of the Straits Trading Company, by kind permission of the Hon. Mr. W. F. Nutt, o.b.e., to consider the advisability of forming a local Naturalists' Society. Dr. G. E. Brooke was voted to the chair, and invited discussion from those present, who included Dr. Scharff, Messrs C. L. Col- lenette, Y. Ivnight. J. Johnston and F. N. Chasen. Communica¬ tions from Major J. C. Moulton, o.b.e., Mr. C. N. Maxwell and Mr. I. H. Burkill were laid before the meeting, regretting their inability to attend and signifying their sympathy with the objects of the meeting. The discussion which followed demonstrated conclusively the need for some such society in a large and growing centre such as Singapore—a society which, by means of field-days, informal naturalist club meetings, publication of proceedings, etc., would •serve to stimulate private interest in the world of prolific nature which lies at our very doors, and would encourage that scientific cameraderie which the isolated amateur so sorely needs.
It was felt also that the activities of such a society would be gradually extended, as funds permitted, on lines of public educative value, such as the establishment of an aquarium or other exhibits of like nature; and, ultimately, the possible foundation of a Zoo¬ logical Gardens for which Singapore is an ideal centre.
Those present then formally constituted themselves into a society under the title of the " Singapore Natural History Society " and elected Mr. F. N. Chasen as the lion, secretary. A sub-committee was formed to draw up rules for discussion.
That the formation of the new Society fulfilled a real public want was evident from the remarks of the local Newspapers during the succeeding few days. The " Times of Malaya " said:
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 16 PROCEEDINGS.
"An ambitions programme has been sketched out of the' exercise of its activities, and it must be admitted that an Aquarium and a Zoo are most commendable ambitions. In Madras these two Institutions are a great source of pleasure to the people. They,, however, cost much monej'' to found and more to maintain. But ive feel that the real success of the Society will lie in a programme' of field-days, informal meetings and the publication of proceedings.. Men and women all over the country would like to knoAV more of the birds and beasts and plants and trees of the Peninsula. They don't Avant what there is to tell set forth in dry scientific terms." " We take it that the neAV society will accept contributions on the habits and ways of plants and creatures from contributors all over the country and tha the better informed will give of their knowledge to those who, only standing at the threshold and shyly peeping in, Avould be- grateful if they are alloAved to tell the little stories of their observations and to hear those of others whose experience is larger and whose wealth of knowledge greater. That connotes an energetic secretary and a frequent issue of the printed proceed¬ ings. Properly conducted, a Naturalists' Society will be a great source of innocent pleasure and much instruction to the people Avhose lot is temporarily cast in this country and will help those aarho are in isolated situations to wile aAvay many hours pleasantly and profitabty, which would otherwise be deadly in their monotony. It is a great achievement Avhen aa'e can appreciate the common things all round us."
A second meeting was held at the Raffles Museum on July 21st, 1921, at which the Rules drawn up by the Sub-Committee- were accepted and the remaining Officers of the Society elected, Major J. C. Moulton, o.b.e., m.a., b.sc., becoming the first President.
Shortly after the July Meeting the first Syllabus was circulated to members and other persons likely to be interested, and in ac¬ cordance with this the first General Meeting of the Society was. held on August 8th, 1921.
Inaugural Meeting. August 8th, 1921.
The Meeting was held at the Raffles Museum at 4.45 p.m.,. the President in the chair and 23 members and visitors present. A new Bye-laAV, framed by the Council under Rule 26—was- read (see p. 16).
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries INAUGURAL MEETING. AUGUST 8th 1921. 17'
INAUGURAL ADDRESS. The President, Major J. C. Moulton, o.b.e., m.a., b.sc., then said:— As this meeting may be regarded as the first general meeting held since the passing of the Rules and the election of the Officers of the Society, perhaps I may be permitted to say a few words regarding the objects of the Society, what we have so far done and what we hope to do. First, I would hasten to express my appreciation of the great honour you have conferred upon me in electing me your first President. I confess .1 received the invitation with very mixed feelings, chief of which perhaps was one of regret that your choice had not fallen on someone more suitable. However I take comfort in the knowledge that your choice of the other Officers of the Society has been, if I may^ay so, happier. With Dr. Brooke, whom we may regard as one of the principal, if not the principal founder of our Society, and Mr. Burkill as Vice-Presidents; with Mr. Chasen as an energetic and tactful Secretary; with Mr. Collenette at the receipt of customs, and Dr. Scharff, Messrs Knight and Johnston as Councillors, I think you will agree with me that our Society starts life under most promising conditions. The gentlemen I have named have been at considerable pains to frame the Rules of the Society and generally to plan its modus' operandi on sound lines. I think I may safely express on your behalf our very real gratitude to them for all the trouble they have taken. And on their behalf T am sure they, as original members, will permit me to welcome all those who have hastened to join us as soon the idea of forming a Natural History Society in Singapore' was made known. On the printed Syllabus which is before you, you will see the objects of our Society are summarized as follows:— " The development of friendly intercourse between local Naturalists ; the increase and diffusion of knowledge concern¬ ing Natural History by means of papers, discussions, exhibi¬ tion of specimens, field excursions; the formation of collec¬ tions; the purchase of periodicals and the publication of Transactions." This gives us a wide scope. Many definite lines of work will no doubt suggest themselves to you, and in this connection I would ask Members not to hesitate to bring forward any suggestions they may have for the better prosecution of our work. Some more or less concrete ideas have occurred to me; some' feasible, some perhaps not. Before I mention them I should like to pave the way by noticing briefly the origin of two other Societies, whose history is of particular interest to us in Singapore and to whom we may to a certain extent perhaps look for inspiration. 99 years ago, (on November 29th, 1822 to be exact), a few Zoologists met together in London, in the rooms of the Linnean Society in Solio Square and formed themselves, into a Zoological
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 18 INAUGURAL MEETING. AUGUST 8th 192J.
Club. This Club held meetings and published papers on Zoological subjects. One, of its principal activities was the observation of rare birds, and as a result, at the end of six years a considerable number were added to the British list. Some five years before the founding of this Club, it is recorded that Sir Stamford Baffles discussed with the President of the Boyal Society the idea of establishing in London a Zoological collection which should interest and amuse the public, lie then returned to the East and, as we know, founded Singapore in 1819. We celebrated the centenary two years ago. On his return to England again in 1824 he took up i afresh the idea of forming a Zoological Society. The members of the already existing Zoological Club fell in with the scheme and in 1826, the Zoological Society of London with Baffles as first President was definitely launched. The first general meeting was . held on April 29th of that year; about»a hundred persons were present. The parent Zoological Club broke up three years later, but its work in founding the Zoological Society in co-operation with Sir Stamford Baffles is fully recognized. I need not trouble you with details of the progress of the world-famed Zoo. The Fellowship Boll now numbers some 5000, while visitors to the Gardens exceed a million a year. Thus, the possibilities resulting from a meeting in Soho 99 years ago of a few gentlemen interested in Natural History. To us in Singapore, especially to the members of this Natural History Society, I think it must always be a source of pride and inspiration that Baffles, the Founder of Singapore, was not only a naturalist himself of. considerable distinction, but one of the Founders of a kindred Society in England and its first President. Whether we may hope to emulate the success of that Society or not, who shall say? That Society has reached the respectable age of 96, while ours has yet to learn to walk (in the jungle) and talk (at these meetings). The Zoo was by no means the first of its kind in England. King Henry the First kept lions, leopards and camels in his park. Natural History subjects had been discussed at the Linnean and Royal Societies long before the founding of the Zoological Society. So it is out here, the objects of our Natural History Society are not by any means original. Natural History of this and neigh¬ bouring countries formed the subject of many interesting papers in Logan's Journal of the Indian Archipelago from 1847 to 1862. Sixteen years later the Straits Branch, Boyal Asiatic Societ3r, was formally launched in Singapore with Bishop Hose (Archdeacon Hose as he then was) as President. The objects of the Society as laid down originally were " the collecting and recording of scientific information in the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago." Although devoted to a large extent to papers on folk-lore, languages, history of the Malays and kindred races of this part of the world, the Societ}r's Journal contained many interesting notes on the Fauna and Flora of this region. It is true that of late years many of these articles have assumed a scientific guise which renders them
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries INAUGURAL MEETING. AUGUST 8tli 1921. 19'
unintelligible not to say alarming to the ordinary reader. As the- proud author of some of the most indigestible articles in that Journal, I am glad to record however that Natural History papers of a more popular nature are still occasionally contributed and they are always welcome.
At this inaugural meeting of our own Society it is perhaps of' interest to recall the details of the founding of the older Society in Singapore. Our aims and objects are, broadly speaking, the- same. But there is I think abundant room for both, each working on slightly different lines, the one supplementing the other and each serving to stimulate interest in the wonders of Nature in this our present and as some think very justly, our very pleasant, place of temporary exile.
Nearly 44 years ago, -in November 1871, ten gentlemen met at the Baffles Library Singapore and formed themselves into a a Society " for collecting and recording Scientific information in the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago." The movement was a popular one. At the first General Meeting held on the 28th Feb¬ ruary 1878, 35 gentlemen were elected members of the Society. Meetings were held monthly, papers read and a Journal published. Within a year the membership roll reached over 130. To-day it stands at about 430., Its Journal has appeared about twice a year for the last 40 years, the last being No. 83. Before leaving the subject of past work in Singapore, I should mention the establishment of a small Zoo in the Botanic Gardens here. This took place in 1875 and lasted for a few years. Animals were obtained from Siam, Borneo, and Australia. A monkey house' costing $2000 was presented, by a liberal citizen, Mr. Ching Hong Lim. Several mammals and birds were kept there and were of much interest. In Joliore, H. IT. the Sultan, whose interest in big game shooting and Natural History in general is well known, has kept several wild animals for many years. I think the formation of a Zoo in Singapore was one of the ideas put forward some three or four years ago for a local memorial to Baffles in celebration of the- centenary of Singapore. The establishment of a Marine Biological Station here was suggested at the same time. Now to turn to our own Society. As you know, at the instance- mainly of Dr. Brooke, a few friends, interested in Natural History,, met in the rooms of the Straits Trading Company in Singapore on the 30th May this year. They and their supporters formed them¬ selves into a Society to be called the Singapore Natural History Society. The original members number 12. Since then some 28- more have signified their desire to join Us. We have received inquiries from others and we hope soon to double that number.
A provisional syllabus of work for the remainder of the cur¬ rent year has been drawn up and is now before you. I need not go into the details. Briefly, the idea is to hold a meeting here once a month, on the second Monday of each month, for discussions-
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and. to make an excursion once a month, on the following Sunday, to interesting places in the neighbourhood of this town for field work. The publications of papers in the Society's Transactions is provided for in the Rules and will no doubt quickly follow the ■other activities of the Society. It is unnecessary for me to remind you of the innumerable ways in which a Society such as this can achieve results of the .greatest interest and value. Observations in the jungle, working out life histories, alone suggest a wide field of work. The nesting- habits of some of our common birds are still but imperfectly known; while the earlier stages of some of our commonest butter¬ flies are quite unknown. A beetle-collector some 3 years ago in Singapore discovered over a hundred species of one Family Stapliyliniclae entirely new to science. Apart from our hopes of contributing something of value to the sum total of knowledge, one of our primary objects will be to reduce our own individual ignorance of the everyday life of Nature which goes on at our very doors. It is a melancholy fact that the further we progress with our studies, the more profound our ignorance turns out to be. We may, however, take comfort in the thought that knowledge of Nature has led to wonderful results in the past. It will do so more in the future. To take entomology only: it is said quite truthfully that a mosquito prevented cle Lesseps from cutting the Panama Canal, and it was man's victory over that mosquito which eventually enabled the Canal to be cut. That insects are to be reckoned with seriously is shown by the fact that in the IJ. S. A. in 1912 no less than 1000 able-bodied men were employed in destroying the Gypsy moth, which ravages crops. Insects on the other hand may prove useful. In North America many millions ■of Coccinellids, the small round beetles familiar to us at home as " Lady-birds," are swept from trees, kept frozen through the winter, then thawed in the Summer and deposited in orchards further south so that their progeny may eat another insect—a fruit pest—and thereby save the fruit crops from destruction.* Thus the study of insects is not to be despised. But it was not always reckoned of importance. It is perhaps amusing to recall that only last century the Will of the Countess of' Glanville (after whom our Glanville Fritillary in England was named) was disputed on the grounds of insanity as evidence of which it was stated that she collected butterflies. The first night I spent in Singapore, some 12 years ago, a highly-respected dig¬ nitary of the church and I amused ourselves climbing lamp-posts in search of moths. At least I did the climbing; he annexed the spoils. But the up-to-date Malay Police who saw us did not •question our sanity. Thus far you see we are fortunate enough to live in a truly enlightened age. And I have no hesitation in sug¬ gesting to you as a form of innocent and useful amusement the climbing of Singapore lamp posts in search of moths.
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As special lines of work wliich I think we may keep in view, not perhaps for any immediate action, but as reasonable possibilities in the not too distant future 1 would mention briefly four ideas that have occurred to me. One is the collection of wild animals for the London Zoo. I am quite sure that many common mammals and birds which are kept quite easily as pets here would be very welcome to the London Zoological Gardens. Only recently I had a request from the Secretary for live cobras. The Zoological Society I am sure would hear the expense of transport to England and would probably be able to make some arrangement with a shipping Company for the periodical despatch to London of any animals we might collect and keep for them here. A rhinoceros from Perak was recently pur¬ chased for a Japanese Museum for $4,000. I saw it in a back- street in Singapore some weeks ago. It was a very fine beast. But our Treasurer, if he is the careful business man we hope he is, will probably object to our expending quite so much as this just at present; but there are many small mammals and birds which can be bought for a dollar or two and kept alive easily. A study of such in captivity could not fail to prove instructive. Their eventual despatch to the London Zoo would I think bring credit on our Society. Later on perhaps one may hope for the formation of our own Zoo in Singapore. This of course means heavy expense and I am sure you will agree with me that during the present period of trade depression it is not a propitious time to seek financial support on a large scale from the Government, Municipality or from private persons. However, it may not be out of place to call attention now to this possible extension of our activities in the future. The programme of improvements for Singapore recently issued by the Municipality covering the next ten years is encouraging. It in¬ dicates a genuine determination to bring this city up to the standard of other big cities in the East. The health of the populace rightly deserves first consideration, but recreation comes very closely second, and as a place of instructive amusement a well-kept Zoological garden, such as that at Calcutta for instance, is well worthy of consideration by such a body as our Municipality. Three other ideas occurred to me for possible adoption by our Society. One was the compilation of a local Fauna, beginning with, say, a list of Birds known to occur in Singapore. Most of the county lists at home have been compiled by local Natural History Societies such as ours. The Siam Natural History Society is engaged in this work. We should compile them for Singapore. A list of the Singapore birds in the* Raffles Museum would serve as a ground-work. A search through ornithological literature would add further species to the local list. Observations by Members would add still further. There are several conspicuous birds which are not yet known with certainty from Singapore, for instance a Sea-gull or a Vulture.
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Such lists need not be confined to Birds. Mammals, Reptiles, Butterflies all requires listing. Closely connected with this idea is another; namely, that of producing popular guide books for the use of nature-lovers in Singapore. Such are very much needed. I have at the moment in hand a scheme for the publication of an illustrated book on. " Thirty Common Birds of Singapore." In this I have been for¬ tunate enough to secure the collaboration of Sir John Bucknill, whose keen interest in the Birds of this country is well-known to you. Books of this nature I venture to suggest might well be pro¬ duced by this Society. They would pay for themselves. The provision of the initial funds might prove a difficulty, but not I think an insuperable one. You will see on the table two such hooks produced by the Bombay Natural History Society: one on Birds and one 011 Poisonous Snakes in India. The last-named has already reached a third edition and its 6th thousand.
One last idea I think is worth putting before you. That is that we should interest ourselves in the Protection of Wild Animals in this country. Many unfortunate mammals and birds suffer considerably at the hands of animal-dealers in Singapore. Any action that we could recommend or initiate, to bring about a happier- lot for these animals would, I am sure, Ire favourably considered by those in authority.
The trapping of birds probably needs closer supervision here . than it gets. Similarly the killing of many birds during the nest¬ ing season needs looking into. It stands to reason that in a country such as this where so little is really known of the life of each species, protective measures, however well-intentioned, can only apply in a very general way, and cannot be effective in every case. It should, I suggest, form part of our work to take up the study of particular species with a view to their further protection if neces¬ sary.
I have, you will notice, confined my remarks to the Zoological aspect of our work. Our Society however covers Nature Study of all sorts. The Botanical side is equally important and equally alluring in promise of useful work. We are fortunate this evening- in having one of our Vice-Presidents, Mr. Burkill, here to give us a talk on the " Present State of our knowledge of the Vegetation of Malaya." I am sure we shall all listen with the greatest interest to what he has to tell us. The idea of these addresses is to pro¬ mote discussion and I hope at the conclusion of Mr. Burkill's address members will take advantage of his presence here to raise any points that may occur to them.
Personally I believe the key-note to the success of our Society will be these meetings. We must stimulate interest. We must, all of us, endeavour to contribute our quota of observation even if such observations only take the form of a question.
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From the cover of the " Entomologist" one of our oldest nature journals in England, I take the following quotation, as one not unsuited to indicate the underlying principle of a Society such as ours:—
" By mutual confidence and mutual aid Great deeds are done and great discoveries made."
PAPERS.
The following paper was read:— "The Present state of our Knowledge of the Vegetation of Malaya." 11 y I. PI. Bukkill, m.a.
Mr. Burkill started his paper by referring to the ascendency of the Portuguese in Eastern Seas after Vasco da Gama had found his way to the East by way of the Cape in 1516. Out of this came the work of Garcia da Orta, a Portuguese physician who resided long in India and whose celebrated ' Colloquies " composed the third book to be printed in that country. When the Dutch became masters of the Eastern Seas know¬ ledge advanced more rapidly. This progress was due to Eheede van Drakenstein (1637-1691), G. E. Rumpf (1628-1702) and E. Kaempfer (1651-1716), all in the employ of the Dutch East India Company. The British were not altogether idle during these times, but rather in the background. Pay was the most, outstanding figure of the period, although lie never left Europe. With the assistance of Sloane he catalogued the plant world as then known. Linnaeus, the next great master mind in systematic botany was not born until two years after Pay's death, and Thunberg, who travelled in the East, was one of his best pupils. It was not until the latter half of the 18th century that people became really interested in the products of foreign lands, and Europe entered on what may be called the period of voyages. Cook (with Sir Jos. Banks on board) was only one of many gallant captains who brought their vessels into the comparatively unknown seas.
The Hon. East India Company now showed the way; and established the Botanic Gardens in Calcutta (proposed by Kyd in 1786), but it was many years before the Governments of India and Holland realised that the investigation of living things in the Eastern Tropics cannot be so well done in Europe as upon the spot. With the realisation, a new regime was started in India in 1871 by Sir George King, tire old order of things being wound up by the publication of the Flora of British India—the first volume of which was issued in 1872. The Dutch about the same time trans¬ ferred much of their investigation from Leiden to Buitenzorg.
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The successful work accomplished by the Bureau of Science, established by the Americans at Manila, speaks well for the wisdom of having independent Scientific Stations in the Bast as in oppo¬ sition to appendages of some institution at a distance. Mr. Burkill concluded his paper by indicating how much work had been done by botanists in various parts of Malaysia, pointing out with the aid of a map those parts still but little known and therefore likely to repay closer investigation.
Excursion. August 21st, 1921.
The members met at a point just past Bukit Timah Village and ascended the hill under the able leadership of Mr. C. L. Collenette (Hon. Treasurer). Many objects of interest were noted during the morning, including some small fish which readily ate brightly coloured bugs (Dysdercus cingulatus)—an apparent con¬ tradiction to the theory of " warning colours." Members especially interested in any one particular branch of natural history found plenty to interest them. Bird-lovers were delighted at the appear¬ ance of the beautiful little red Sun-bird, (Aethopyga siparaja) which is quite common on Bukit Timah. Some of the keener mem¬ bers remained in the field for the whole da}', and had the satisfac¬ tion of catching a Black Cobra alive. The capture of this Snake was particularly welcome as the Zoological Society of London had recently expressed a desire for Cobras from the Malay Peninsula.
Meeting. September 12th, 1921.
EXHIBITIONS.
Black Cobra (Naia tripudians).
The President called attention to a fine specimen of a Black Cobra, (Naia tripudians) exhibited alive in a glass cage. This was the Snake caught under some coconut logs at Watten Estate, Bukit Timah Iload, on the previous month's excursion. (This Cobra was afterwards despatched to the London Zoo where it arrived safely and proved a welcome addition.)
The President took the opportunity to survey briefly all the poisonous Snakes known to occur in Malaya. Apart from Sea Snakes our poisonous Snakes were really remarkably few in number. That the majority of Snakes to be met with in this Country were poisonous was totally incorrect and rather typical of popular ignorance on local natural history. The only poisonous Snakes we have to look out for are of four kinds:
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Kraits, Cobras,.Coral Snakes and Yipers—16 species in all; some of great rarity. Three T\raits are known but the Banded Krait (Bungarus fascicitus) is the only species at all likely to be met with. A blackish Snake running to about 5 feet in length, with con¬ spicuous yellow bands, often confused with another yellow-banded, hut harmless snake Dipsadomorphus dendrophilus, the "ular chin- chin mas "• of the Malays. The other two Kraits, B. flaviceps and B. candidus are very rare.
The two Cobras are familiar to everybody on account of their distendable hood. The larger is known as the Hamadryad or King- "cobra (Naia bungarus), which rarely exceeds 12 feet in length. The smaller is the ordinary Cobra (Nam tripudians) running up to some 6 feet. Those found in Singapore and the south of the Peninsula are nearly always black, but further north they become brown or even yellowish-brown as in Kedah.
These two Snakes are justly dreaded on account of their deadly poison. Incidents are given of Cobra venom being ejaculated and causing temporary blindness to men and to dogs. Of Coral Snakes Malaya has four species, of which only two— Dolioplris bivirgatus and D. intestinalis—may be regarded as com¬ mon. In the former the head, tail and lower parts of the body are bright coral-red, the rest of the body iridescent blackish-blue or purple, with pale blue lines on either side. In the latter species, which is more variable in colour and markings, the chief feature is the coral-red tail and the yellowish-white belly, both crossed with black bars. A curious feature of these two Snakes is the extra¬ ordinary long poison-gland which can be seen on dissection and about the effects of which little is known.
The last group of poisonous terrestrial Snakes in Malaya con¬ tains the Yipers. The distinct diamond-shaped head, covered with a large number of small scales, is the most striking feature by which a Viper may be recognized at once. The most dreaded of all in the East is the well-known Russell's Viper; but happily it •seems tolerably certain—despite certain doubtful records—that this species does not come further south than Bangkok. In Malaya seven species of Viper occur, of which Lachesis ivagleri, a pretty mottled green species of the mangrove-swamps, is certainly the commonest.
Apart from Water-Snakes, most of which are poisonous, there are a hundred species of terrestrial Snakes recorded from Malaya. Of these only 16 are to be feared on account of their poison, which even then is not in all cases deady to man. Of the remaining 80 odd "harmless" species a small proportion have poison glands which however are quite ineffective on anything larger than the small prey on which they feed.
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Singapore Birds.
The Hon. Secretary exhibited a series of mounted Birds, all of which were common species and likely to be met with in Singapore, many of them in the City itself. No authentic account or list of the Birds of Singapore has been published although there- are many papers extant which make references to the avifauna of the Island, though dealings in the main with the ornithology of other parts of the Malaysian Region. Some of the earlier records to be gleaned from various sources are probably not very reliable, although it is quite believable that owing to the great change in the "landscape" of the island following- the introduction of rubber and increased white population, the bird life has changed very considerably within the last decade or so. Two papers, in particular, should be consulted by the student of bird life in Singapore:—"Birds in the Botanic Gardens, Singapore " by H. N.Riclley, J. S. B. B. A. S., No. 31 (July 1898) p. 73 and "Ornithological notes made in the Straits Settlements and in the Western States of the Malay Peninsula " by Capt. H. R. Kelham, J. S. B. B. A. S., Nos. 11 and 12, (1882-83). About 630 species of Birds are known from the Malay Penin¬ sula and more than one third of these would be included in a list of the Birds of Singapore, although, even of this fraction, not all are met with sufficiently frequently to attract the attention of any but the keener observers. A provisional M. S. list of Singapore Birds has been compiled. This is based on the collection of skins in the Baffles Museum (the- local portion of which has been largely added to during the past twelve months by several collecting expeditions to the outlying islands), and any available published records. To published this list, which is at present merely a nominal roll would be of little significance or utility to members of this Society. Notes on the breeding areas on the island, the periods of migration and other intimate details are required and here the co¬ operation of ornithological members would be greatly appreciated. Indeed, it is not yet certain that all the species are included. An approximate list of Birds can be obtained by eliminating frorn Mr. PI. C. Robinson's published list of peninsular species (1910) all those species which for certain definite reasons could not be expected to occur here. Thus for example, those Birds only found at high altitudes (there are quite a number), and the many- species known to be addicated to certain chosen haunts or restricted to a limited geographical range, often, in the north of the Penin¬ sula, would have to be omitted. The Avifauna of Singapore, nevertheless compares favourably from point of view of number of species with most other areas of a similar size. That of Pulau Ubin is especially rich, presumably because of the greater natural advantages offered by this latter island, including its closer proximity to the mainland..
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111 compiling the list it has been found advisable to apply the term " Singapore " not only to Singapore Island but to a slightly ex¬ tended area which embraces certain of the outlying islands, chief •of which are Pulau Ubin in the Straits of .Johore and that group of islands, including Pulau Ayer Merbau, lying to the S. W. of Singapore I. This area can aptly be called the " Singapore area." This course has been followed for two reasons. Firstly, the wider •outlook renders the results obtained of greater utility, and secondly, a brief study of local geography and conditions in general soon convinces one that the terrestial fauna of Singapore Island itself is largely an " artificial" fauna and gives no fair index to the wild life of the region. Any information about Singapore Birds will be gratefully received by the Hon. Secretary, especially proven cases of species breeding on the island.
Weaver Birds' Nests.
Mr. P. L. Dickson exhibited some nests of the Weaver Bird (Ploceus passerinus inforiunatus). Amongst elaborate nests of birds, few are of greater interest.than those of the Weaver Bird. The general form of the long " bottle-shaped " nest is very familiar, as it swings suspended from a slender twig, generally at a moderate distance from the ground. The insecurity of its position is only ap¬ parent, as it is generally woven firmly at the junction of two small twigs, several inches of which are commonly included in the narrow suspensory neck. So that, although the nest sways in the mildest breeze, to detach it from the twigs without tearing the neck to pieces is almost impossible. The freedom with which it is displayed to full view does not betoken a touching confidence in the mercy of possible foes, for the bird is said, invariably to choose a tree that is either situated in a very swampy or otherwise inaccessible place, or which swarms with ants or other insects not likely to be assailed. Certainly this was so in the case of the two trees on Blakang Mati from which the nests exhibited were obtained, for the ardent member of the Natural History Society (not the writer) and the small boy who assisted him, paid the penalty in many ant bites. The iength of the bell-mouthed entrance tunnel varies a goocl deal. Though commonly about nine inches long, it is said sometimes to approach two feet. It would be interesting to know quite how the bird •effects an entrance—whether the momentum of upward flight carries it up at all, or whether it crawls up the narrow opening. Less familiar is the helmet-shaped form of nest, with a woven cross perch, which is said to form the rain protected " swing " or perch of the male bird during the nesting season, and of the young, when, in the early stages of flight, they need to perch frequently. Swettenham writes of having frequently seen several Weaver Birds round a group of nests, more often perching on the outsides of the
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nests than insicle on the perches. But it is probable that in bad! weather the birds perch inside, the facts that the commoner form of nest is completely enclosed and that the nests are built in ex¬ tremely exposed positions lending colour to this. Some orni¬ thologists consider that this form of nest is merely an incomplete form of the usual nest, the upper half of which it closely resembles,, but that nests should commonly be left in one particular stage of incompletion and that the edges should be finished off in a way which does not suggest incompletion, renders this extremely un¬ likely. Above the perch on one or both sides of the open nests small patches of clay are found, generally moist and suggesting frequent renewal. The Malays affirm that these are " candlesticks" to which the perching birds attach fireflies to give light, but the thoughtful naturalist will be inclined to ascribe this "explanation to the occasional and incidental presence of fireflies meeting the natural desire of the human mind to explain what it lacks sufficient knowledge to explain. The uncertainty and slightness of our knowledge of the nesting habits of so comparatively common a bird strikingly illustrates the enormous amount of work in natural history that remains to be done, and which only close and persistent observation will enable us to do. In Malaya the nests are almost always woven of lalang, and were formerly used by the Malays as convenient pads for polishing swords, etc. Malay folk-lore has woven various interesting ideas around the Weaver Bird and its nest. It is said that if a nest be> unwoven without breaking a single strand of grass, a golden ring- will be found at the end. The condition is such as to make demon¬ stration of the falsity of the belief somewhat difficult! Parents of young babies may be glad to know that crying children may be hushed by burning a Weaver Bird's nest and passing the child through the smoke with a circular movement three times, at the same time exhorting it to rest as the young Weaver Bird does in its nest. But let not the anxious seeker of midnight rest forget to place the big toe of his (sic) right foot on the big toe of his left whilst so doing, though if he fear to drop the baby whilst standing on one foot, he may bend his right knee and squat on his left heel.
Long-Horned Grasshoppers. The President showed some drawers of Long-horned Grass¬ hoppers among which were some striking new species to be des¬ cribed shortly by Dr. Karny of the Buitenzorg Museum. Attention was drawn to the great size of some of these species, the curious auditory organs in the legs and the large scythe-shaped ovipositor of the females. Their leaf-like appearance and large hind legs enabling them to jump well were commented on as use¬ ful devices evolved for their preservation.
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The President remarked that they appeared to have been neglected by collectors in this p;art of the world and he therefore commended them to the particular attention of any members of the Society who wished to achieve fame by the discovery not only of new species but,—infinitely more important—of new facts about the life histories of known species.
PAPERS.
Dr. Gr. B. Brooke, m.a. read a paper on:— "The Identification of Adult Malayan Mosquitoes with a few Preliminary notes on their Collection and Preservat¬ ion." (See page 43).
Excursion. September 18th, 1921.
The party proceeded to Johore Bahru by the early morning train from. Singapore and breakfasted at the Johore Hotel. Mr. Poul Feddersen was good enough to act as guide. The following- account is by one of the participating members., Mrs. E. P. Howell:—* It was annoying to say the least of it, the steady rain. We were out not only for an enjoyable ramble but also in the interests of science, this being fully testified by the fact that almost every member of the little party was armed with some implement accord¬ ing to his or her particular bent. Naturally each carried as little
. impedimenta as possible—a hancl-basket in which to place speci¬ mens of rare orchids; a haversack containing only a big knife and ball of string (useful articles in cases of emergency since the clays of the " Swiss Family Robinson" to our times); another member was armed with a butterfly net and its attachments. The only thing we had each of us forgotten was a mackintosh, and while the ' tropic rain steadily fell we did not feel like the contented Shepherd of Salisbury Plain who averred that whatever the weather, he was always content, for whatever the Almighty sent was, he knew, the right sort of weather. To those Europeans in Singapore whose sole idea of recreation is the support of such games as can be easily played in a London suburb, our Sunday's outing would savour more or less of madness.. To spend hours in the sun, tramping through dense jungle, with nothing to eat or drink—where indeed can the pleasure come in? But to the humble student of this wonderful universe, and above- all to one whose privilege it is to live in such a very wonderful corner of it as Malaya, an opportunity of studj'ing Nature with his own eyes and ears is worth much discomfort, and brings with it joys and compensations of which the amateur at ordinary sports alone can have no conception.
* This account is reprinted from the " Singapore Free Press''for September 36th 1921, by kind permission of the Editor.
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About eight miles in hired cars brought us to a halt oil the high road and then we made ready to follow our leader through a swampy stretch of land so moist that our feet sank in with every step. Hero and there pools of water necessitated the improvising of bridges made of any boughs lying around, and in this way we were greatly aided by our E. E. The ditch on our right teemed with familiar life, and to some of us unfamiliar, this being especial¬ ly the case with regard to a vivid green fish of about three inches in length spotted with orange and almost round in form. One of these we caught in the butterfly net, but having no receptacle wherein to place him, we returned him to his muddy playground, for which act of grace lie was doubtless as grateful as was Kichard le Gallienne's silver trout.
In the thick jungle on the further side of the ditch we soon •espied clumps of uncommon orchids, and by swinging himself across the stream on a depending branch our enthusiast in this particular study was enabled to add another specimen to his already fair collection. This collection, however, was greatly increased later on after we had achieved our " tropic isle/' for on counting- up the spoils on our return journey we found that we had gathered .seven different specimens of orchids from the jungle.
At last our tortuous route came to an end and we were faced by the Tehran river. Moored to the bank was a small koleh, but no owner in sight. After some shrill calling another koleh ap¬ peared round the bend manned by an aged Malay and a small child. As only four people could at one time be taken with safety in this , koleh, our Charon had to make several trips across the turbid water until we were all in turn safely landed on the islet, to which I understood the name given locally is Tanah Runtoh, perhaps from its very friable soil. Thereafter we wandered at will through as thick jungle as one could wish, indeed I have seldom been in thicker, nor yet more interesting. The bank at oiir feet on land¬ ing was covered with the Pitcher Plant (Nepenthe) in bloom, the pitchers only in embryo formation on the pointed ends of the leaves; orchids of every size and description offered themselves at our every turn, though our efforts to obtain these prizes were at times frustrated by the "Wait-a-bit" creeper with its staying, piercing thorns. Here and there butterflies floated past, somewhat lazily for the sun was not yet fully out so there was nothing to tempt them to unwonted ecstasy; ever and again a jungle bird winged its way above our heads to a safer spot as the unaccustomed footfall of man startled the silence1
One little incident amused me greatly. On the bough of a shrub' I noticed, as a thought, clusters of a flower very much resembling the English common Clematis (Traveller's Joy). Point¬ ing this out to a member of the party, lie drdw me aside with a "Wait and look." Then touching the blossoms with a twig they instantly became a swarm of jumping little insects, tumbling off
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the shrub and leaving it bare. I have never seen these small, weirecl insects before, but was told thev are quite common in the jungle of Malaya. 1 have mentioned the island as being called Tanah Euntoh ("falling soil"'?) j-et strange to say the soil on the mainland just opposite it is of a clayey nature. Almost white in colour, I could well believe that it is used locally in potteries. Small holdings of coconut plantations, run chiefly by Malays, occupied most of the country we passed through as we walked to the nearest village, Tangka.h, from which at any time hired cars can be obtained, this being the high road between Joliore and Kota Tinggi. Over the Tebrau river at Tangka.h is a well constructed wooden bridge about thirty yards long, roofed over with carefully threaded attap, care which should considerably add to the life of the structure beneath it. The Joliore Botanic Gardens situated a little beyond the Istana are very little known generally, but they are quite interest¬ ing, and our visit to them made a useful and pleasing ending to an enjoyable day.
Meeting. October 10th, 1921.
EXHIBITIONS.
Reptiles' Eggs.
The Hon. Secretary exhibited a small collection of Reptiles' eggs from the Raffles Museum collection. These were all obtained in the Malay Peninsula and included eggs of the Crocodile, Python and Monitor as well as smaller specimens attributed to smaller local Snakes and Lizards.
Reptiles are usually " oviparous " in the truest sense. That is to say that they lay eggs from which the young are afterwards hatched although it should be noted that the heat necessary for incubation is supplied by the sun or by decaying vegetable matter and not by the body of the parents as is the normal ease in the Bird world. In some Lizards, however, the young may be hatched immediately the eggs are laid and in exceptional cases, even before this. To this latter condition the term " ovo-viviparous " is applied. Only in the case of a curious Australian Lizard can the term " viviparous " be truly applied. The eggs of Reptiles are never " egg-shaped." The Python's eggs are round and those of the Crocodile elliptical. In many Snakes the eggs are also elliptical but fastened together in strings or bunches.
The outside of the eggs may be like parchment in texture as in the case of the Turtle, leathery and soft as in the Python 01- quite hard and calcareous (i:e. "birdlike") as in the Crocodiles.
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Cicadas.
The President showed two drawers of typical Malaysian Cicadas. The magnificent Pomponia imperatoria, one of the largest ■species in the world, measuring some 8 inches across the tegmina, contrasted in a remarkable way with the small brightly coloured Platypleura and Huechys species. A fine series of a striking .species of Bill ana new to science, recently taken at Pulau Pisang Lighthouse in the Straits of Malacca was also shown. The President made a few remarks on Cicadas in general, stating that about a hundred and twenty different species were known from Malaysia, and that many more no doubt awaited dis¬ covery. He quoted the well-known couplet regarding the deafening noise made by these insects—a sound so familiar in every jungle:— " Blessed are 'Cicadas' lives For they have noiseless wives." USTo suggestion was offered as to why only male Cicadas should be .gifted with the power of " song " while their less fortunate females should be totally denied the privilege of contributing to the Con¬ cert of the Jungle. Attention was invited to our ignorance of their life-histories, .also to the difficulties of working them out. in view of such pos¬ sibilities as the 17 year life-cycle of the well known American ■species. The fact that they were easy to handle without injury to them- .selves or to the collector, and that they were little known was men¬ tioned with a view to interesting members of the Society in Cicadas.
A Series of Local Fishes.
A number of beautifully mounted Fishes were arranged round the room. These were the work of Mr.. V. Knight who was con¬ gratulated on his handling of what is always considered one of the most difficult departments of Taxidermy. The vivid colours, so frequently admired in tropical fishes of certain families fade very shortly after death and a method has yet to be devised by which Museum specimens may be preserved and retain their original colour. At present, the skin is mounted in the usual manner and the scales carefully painted from a fresh (or living) specimen. In some species the skin is so thin that even this method is not productive of good results. In these cases the specimen must be "cast" or modelled in plaster or paper-pulp, processes which call for a much finer appreciation of form and colour ancLa more talented technique than the so-callecl "stuffier" is supposed to possess. Destructive Weevil.
Mr. T. H. Burkill, m.a., exhibited a specimen of a large Wee¬ vil (Protocerus colossus, F:), which was causing trouble in the Botanic Gardens at Singapore.
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It is very similar to the Coconut "Weevil, Rhynchophorus fer- ■rugineus in appearance, but is larger, and it attacks different palms. It has been found in Licuala horrida, Attalea coliune, Archontophoe- nix Alexandras, Phoenix humilis, P. dactyliferci, Livistona king- iana, L. Iloogendorpu and Chrysalidocarpus lutescens during the last two weeks, and in the shoots of the smaller of these palms it completely destroys the growing point. The Weevil is always present in Singapore hut has never been •observed in recent years in such great numbers. It can he destroyed by hand picking. The great abundance is possibly to be attributed to the un¬ usual dry period which occurred in July and August. Many years ago a drought of nearly a month occurred in February and was followed in the Gardens by the loss over several months of many palms. Though that loss was ascribed then to want of water it is quite possible that it was due to an increase of the Weevil, similar to the present outbreak. All owners of gardens should take warning.
PAPERS.
The Hon. Secretary bead a tapes on " The A. B. C. of Preserving Animals." (See page 61).
Excursion. October 16th, 1921.
Members met at Johnston's Pier at 9 a.m. and left the Harbour in a steam launch kindly placed at the disposal of the Society by Messrs. Paterson, Simon & Co., Ltd. The destination was Pulau Ayer- Merbau, but bad weather, a heavy sea and the attendant in¬ disposition of quite a number of the members present caused the trip to be abandoned. It was found impossible to make fair pro¬ gress to the Island, and landing would have been most difficult. The Pier was reached again at noon.
Meeting. November 14th, 1921.
It was announced that PI. E. the Governor, Sir Laurence Xunns Guillemard, k.c.b., had graciously consented to become Patron of the Society. EXHIBITS. The Yellow-Bellied Giant Squirrel, Ratufa affinis (Raffles).
A series of skins from the Baffles Museum collection was ex¬ hibited. The history of this Oriental squirrel is particularly interesting as it is a good example to show how rapid has been the progress of our knowledge concerning the faunjuof Malaya during the past •century.
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The species under consideration is by no means rare—in fact it is distinctly common in some parts of the Peninsula, and yet but one hundred years ago it was unknown to Science. Originally described by Baffles (vide Transactions of the Linnean Society Vol. XIII, p. 259) much of our present knowedge of the geo¬ graphical races and habits of the squirrel is due to the exhaust¬ ive enquiries made into the Mammals of the Peninsula during the past few years by the naturalists at the Museum at Kuala Lumpur—Messrs H. C. Eobinson and C. Boclen Kloss. Writing in 1820, Sir T. S. Eaffles said:.—
" Sciurus affnis was found abundantly in the woods of Singa¬ pore (on the occupation of that station by the British in 1819)"1 "being of a cinereus grey or brownish on the upper part of the head, body and tail, and on the outside of the limbs, and being nearly white on the under and inner parts." "grey is the most usual colour of the upper parts, but it appears to vary considerably at different seasons (perhaps at rutting time), changing to a light brown, and even to a dusky yellow. The first specimens, that were procured in February, were of the latter colour; five months after they were found of a grey colour."
The generic name was altered to Batufa several years later and the species now stands as Batufa affinis (Baffles), with the locality of Singapore for the typical form. It is to be deeply regretted that Eaffles' words of " found abun¬ dantly in the woods of Singapore" are no longer applicable to this fine squirrel. Even in 190'9 Eobinson and' Kloss noted that the species was "now getting rather scarce in Singapore," and at the time of writing (March 1922) there is grave cause for anxilety concerning its status on the Island. The writer has not seen one specimen during the past year in spite of diligent searching in likely quarters—although there is but little doubt that a few pairs still linger in selected localities. To locate these survivors and protect them is one of the first functions of our Society.
The main cause of the disappearance of the Squirrels from their old haunts is certainly the spread of civilisation and sub¬ sequent .diminution of jungle. Suburban villas and nicely levelled tennis courts now stand on ground that but a few years ago was in the shade of tall timber, from the top of which Batufa affinis chat¬ tered angrily at passers-by. Week-end sportmen have also, no doubt, played a part in the thinning of the ranks. It has since been found that the squirrel described by Eaffles from Singapore is restricted in range to the Island and a limited area in S. Johore. Bepresentatives of the species in other parts of Malaya have been found to differ in certain characters, and have therefore been promoted to the rank of geographical races or separate sub-species. Fortunately the original R. affinis is still fairly numerous in parts of the S. of Johore. Fortunately—for were
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it not for the outlying members this form would most surely and soon become extinct—for its days are certainly ■numbered in Singa¬ pore. According to the authorities quoted above, ' all Giant Squirrels are inhabitants of high jungle except in the fruti season when they occasionally visit orchards. They keep to the tops of lofty trees, are solitary in their habits, and when alarmed give utterance to a loud chattering, which is sometimes heard at night." From its habits alone, then, we should not expect this fine beast to be very numerous with us at present. Within the Malay Peninsula four sub-species or geographical races of the Squirrel are known; several others have been described from Sumatra.
As stated above, the particular race found in Singapore, Ratufa ■affinis (Raffles), also extends to Southern. Johore. This race is white or very light buff on the under-surface of the body and inner surface of the legs. The colour of the back varies from a peculiar shade of brown or drab to nearly creamy colour, but the feet (i.e., the upper hairy, surface) are always lighter than the back, in fact like the underparts of the body.
In the North of the Peninsula, a race R. pyrsonota, Miller, with the under-parts etc. of a clear tawnv yellow colour and with •dark brown feet occurs. Between these two extremes are two more races. R. johorensis, Robinson and Eloss, inhabits the remaining portion of Johore. Like the Singapore Squirrel it is white under¬ neath but differs in not having the conspicuously lighter feet, these being, in johorensis, of the same colour as the rest of the upper parts. Further up-country still we meet the fourth and remaining race; this is R. aureiventer (Is. Geoffr.). This is the dominant form of the Federated Malay States and like prysonota from the North of the Peninsula, this squirrel is of a beautiful tawny colour underneath, but it differs in having the upper surface very similar to that of the Singapore affinis instead of " uniform ochraceous and brown."
It may lie that the differences seem very absurd when put on paper but it is an excellent lesson in geographical distribution to ar¬ range the Raffles Museum study series of skins in a row on a long table, placing, say, those from Singapore on the left of the series and those from the most northerly locality on the right, carefully ar¬ ranging the other skins in order according to the locality in which they were obtained, and then observing the characters given above for the various races. (This could also be done with quite a number of Malayan Mammals and Birds, but the inference would probably be less clear, as in these days of very exact Natural History it frequently takes a practised eye and a millimetre rule, carefully used, to differentiate the various races into which any given species is separated).
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In the Museum there are specimens of "affinis" from Mood*- lands, Chang'i, Bukit Timali, Jurong and Tampenis, but visitors to the Mammal Room are perhaps more familiar with the species by the name of R. bicolor, with which it was formerly confused. (F. N. C.).
Variety of a Malaysian Kingfisher (Halcyon clitoris (Bodd.)).,
The skin of a white Kingfisher from Borneo was exhibited. It frequently happens that an individual Bird of a certain species exhibits a type of coloration totally different from that common to others members of the same species. These aberrantly coloured Birds are usually known as "varieties." Thus everyone must be familiar with the pied Sparrows and Pheasants met with, not uncommonly, in Europe, and even the less common and paradoxical white " Blackbirds " (Turdus morula). The causes of certain types of variation are not difficult to find but in others a satisfactory explanation has yet to be advanced. Thus in " Melanism "—the term employed to denote the presence of dark feathers, e.g. a Skylark may be almost entirely black, there is a superabundance of black pigment. A certain Snipe described many years ago as a distinct species has been proved to be only a melanistic form of the Common Snipe. The partial or total absence of pigment in a feather (patholog¬ ical) naturally produces a light variety. The bird may be pied i.e.. with only a few feathers white, with the rest of the plumage of a normal colour, or again it may be of a much paler colour than usual. In extreme cases the whole of the plumage- is white. In a perfect albino not only is the plumage white but the eyes are red owing to the absence of pigment from the usually pigmented parts of the eye (the iris). The result is that the tiny blood vessels show through and give the eye a red appearance. The same phenomenon is perhaps more familiar in the domestic Rabbit in which white examples usually have pink eyes. Newton (Dictionary of birds) states that individuals tending to become albinos occur in almost every group of birds. Perfect albinos are, however, by no means common as most of those recorded as such are usually only white varieties for they have pigmented eyes and often the beak and feet are of normal colour.
In birds of "greyish" or black plumage white varieties are by no means rare, but in some other birds of different types of colour they are extremely rare. The Kingfisher exhibited on the table is certainly worthy of attention.
It was collected at Brooketon in the Brunei territory, Borneo, on 13-6-21. The collector was one of the Dyaks employed by the Raffles Museum. He was accompanying Major Moulton who was unfortunately laid up with the effects of sunstroke at the time
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and therefore unable to measure the bird in the flesh, or take colour notes of the soft parts, but Major Moulton is almost certain that the eyes were red. As sexecl by the collector the bird is a female. The bird is an unusual individual in all respects. In the dried skin, the beak, feet and nails, arc light horn colour. This contrasts strikingly with the very dark feet and black upper mandible of the skin of a normal specimen and from the absence of pigment in these parts one can well believe that the eyes were, as is suggested, pink in life and that the specimen is in truth an albino.
The feet are scarcely as "robust" as in.most specimens of the same species. The beak is remarkable, being much smaller than that of any other bird examined. If the skin is held in cer¬ tain lights a very pale flush of blue can be seen upon those parts normally coloured with blue and the white collar is also to be faintly discerned. As regards the state of the plumage, the bird is in a sad plight. The wing quills are badly frayed and there are signs of a most irregular moult. Adding to these indications the foolish tameness of the bird when shot, it seems reasonable to attribute this particular case of albinism to ill health. Dr. Hartert of the Tring Museum who was kind enough to examine the skin has con¬ firmed the identification. (P. K C.)
Leptocircus curius from Perlis.
Mr. W. H. R. Allen said:— Leptocircus is a subgenus of Papilio butterflies and comprises' two- species, curius and meges. Both species are found in the Malay Peninsula and range from South East China and Assam to Java, Celebes and the Philippines. Of the earlier stages of Leptocircus nothing is known except that the egg is "Papilio like" (Sei-tz). From its dragon-fly-like habit of hovering over water this butterfly is very easily mistaken for one of the former insects. It is a greedy drinker and will now and then alight on the wet mud or sand and suck up the moisture, its transparent wings quivering rapidly without cessation. While intent on slacking its thirst in this manner, it may be taken vyitli the fingers if approached warily, as was the specimen exhibited, which was captured on a cesspool' outside a Chinese Kongsi on a Limestone Hill in Perlis, after much patient squatting under a broiling sun.
The Exhibitions also included some skins of the Roseate Tern (Sterna dougalli) from theHorsburghLighthou.se, by the President, and a life history of a Butterfly, Papilio erithonias, by the Hon. Treasurer.
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Mr. E. B. Koek handed in the following paper contributed by his daughter, Miss J. Koek. It is distinctly pleasing to meet with such accurate observation in the case of a young observer of only twelve years of age. The information is, furthermore, likely to he of some value as such notes on the nidification period etc. are badly needed from the Malaysian region. The Tailor Bird referred to is, without doubt, Ortiiotomus atrigularis, Temm.
The Tailor Bird is one of my favourites. He is such a merry, bold little fellow, considering his size which is only about two inches or nearly so. The female Bird is a little bigger and not so fat as the male. They are olive brown birds with reddish heads and white breasts. Just near the throat are two or three marks extending to the cheeks. Tailor Birds nest in pairs and both help in feeding the young. If you have a few couples of Tailor Birds in your garden they will soon clear your trees and plants from insects pests, for Tailor Birds live entirely on caterpillars, grubs and such like. The next is a wonderful structure. For example, I will describe four of the nests that I found. The first was made of cotton-wool, pieces of coconutfibre and husk, and vegetable fibre. But the most surprising part is that the Tailor Bird bores holes in the side of a growing leaf and through these it passes long strands of cotton wool or vegetable fibre so as to bend the leaf and then it weaves its nest on the under-side of the leaf, thus the latter acts as a roof to keep out the sun and rain. The second, third and fourth nests were also " stitched" in the same way as the first. The second nest was composed of cotton wool and coconut fibre and this one was fixed on two leaves. The third and fourth were also made of cotton wool and vegetable fibre. Evert- single nest that I found was on katapang trees except one, and that was on the top of a " jack " tree. The katapang trees were all low, the highest being only a little over a foot. One of the nests (the second one) was built on a katapang tree growing at the side of a stump in the garden. I used to visit it daily until one day three eggs were laid all at once, seems very strange. I took one for my collection and the next day another ono This 1 also took for my collection, so that there were just two eggs inside the nest. After about two weeks of sitting (and these Tailor- Birds are very close sitters almost allowing me to touch them before they fly off) the eggs were hatched. At first the young birds had no feathers at all and did not look much like birds. The days that followed were indeed busy days for the parents. I used to watch them flying backwards and forwards with small grubs and cater¬ pillars in their beaks to feed the young birds with. The father and mother birds would always chirp angrily while the nest was being inspected and as soon as I was out of sight they would fly to the nest and see for themselves if I had done any damage. Well, the young birds throve rapidly with so much food about and o)i the twelfth day after they had been hatched, I went to
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visit them as usual, when what was my surprise to find the nest empty. Of course they had flown. A few months after, several attempts at building new nests were tried on the old tree, but in each case they rotted so that I had to pick them off. Then they seemed to give it up, but some days afterwards I was walking near the stump when I saw something on the leaf of another katapang tree, only a few inches from the ground on the other side of the stump not six yards away from the old katapang tree. I went near and saw that it was another nest. It had two eggs inside. About two or three days afterwards another egg was laid and then they began sitting on them. About another two weeks three tiny birds came out. They had their eyes shut at first and whenever I shook the nest they would open tlieir beaks and call out, which seems funny for the first brood did not call out at all. After a few days their eyes opened and then they did not open their beaks and call out, for they could see me and knew that I was not their mother or father, A few days more they flew away. These Tailor-Birds' eggs were very pretty, being bluish green or greenish blue, spotted and blotched with brown, the spots being collected more to the larger end. But some time ago 1 found another Tailor-Bird's nest with an egg inside and this egg was slightly different, being pale greenish white with, reddish brown blotches and spots.
PAPERS.
Db. J. W. schabff head a paper entitled :—" SOME notes on Malayan Butterflies " which he illustrated by own fine collection of insects caught in malacca. (SEE P. 68).
Excursion. November 20th, 1921.
The Baffles Museum was the rendezvous, where the members,, before starting for the fish market, viewed the many fine specimens in the Fish Gallery. The party reached the market at about 11.30, but, owing to the late .arrival of the boats, there Were few fijsh available for inspection. The fish arrived after about three quarters of an hour and the visitors were then provided1 with plenty of scope for their investigations, for the catch was a good one and apparently pretty representative. The party was accompanied by Mr. A. G. Bratton, who has a large fund of information and interesting anecdote 011 this wide subject. Fie explained the modes of life and peculiarities of the various specimens, and when they left the Market the members undoubtedly possessed a great deal more knowledge of fish and their habits then they did before. The majority of the fish were pronounced "good eating" by Mr. Bratton and it was observed that several of the members made pur¬ chases in order to confirm this ruling. The, presence of two Malay guides helped matters very considerably.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 40 EXCURSION. DECEMBER IStli 1921.
Excursion. December 18th, 1921.
Members of the Society spent a very interesting morning in the Botanic Gardens nnd'er the leadership of Mr. I. II. Burkill, m.a. After a visit to the Library and Herbarium, a tour Was made of the Gardens. Amongst other interesting items, a speci¬ men of Myristica pendulina was pointed out, a tree of which no other example is known, also two species of Maca\ranga, whose stems, when cut, open, reveal nests of Ants, which are provided with a home and a supply of honey and in return protect their hosts against the attacks of harmful Insects. The experimental plots in the Economic Gardens were also visited and the work explained.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries C Transactions &
THE IDENTIFICATION
OF Malayan Culicidae.
with a few notes
on their collection and preservation,
BY
GILBERT E. BROOKE, M.A., L.R.C.P., D,P,H.
Chief Health Officer, Government Medical Service, Straits Settlements.
Read September 12th, 1921.
PART I.
The Collection of Mosquitoes.
The Further East has a vested interest in mosquitoes, for the study of the Culicidae received its first vital encouragement in 1878 when Dr. Patrick Man,son, in the course of his practice in Amoy demonstrated the roll of the mosquito as the intermediate host of a small blood worm which causes, elephantiasis.
The discovery two years later in Algiers, by a French Army Surgeon named Laveran, of the Malarial parasite in the human blood, led to the suggestion by King in 1883 that perhaps the mosquito might also act as the intermediate host of that disease— a suggestion which was strongly supported by Manson, and definite¬ ly proved in India by Ronald Ross in 1897-9.
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At least two more diseases—yellow fever and dengue—have been subsequently shown to be carried by mosquitoes. The former disease, which for centuries has been the curse of many tropical regions, was of unknown epidemiology until Dr. Finlay of Havana (by analogy from the work of Manson) suggested the mosquito as a possible means of transport. The theory was definitely proved in 1900 by Reed, Carroll, Agramonte, and Lazcar of the U. S. Army —the latter unfortunately falling a victim to the Cause of Science. The French Mission to Brazil in 1903 completed our knowledge of the etiology of the disease and proved the Stegomya fasciata to be the incriminated mosquito. With regard to the painful, but harmless, disease dengue, the author of this paper suggested the same mosquito as being the probable agent in its dissemination—not only on account of the distribution of the disease and of that mosquito, but chiefly from a definite observation in Singapore in 1902. This was published in 1908, but Culex fatigans still continued to hold the field until the recent work of Cleland, Bradley and M'Donald in Australia defi¬ nitely fixed the blame on fasciata. These few remarks have been made to show the importance of the study of mosquitoes, and the causes which have stimulated that study in recent years. Although, up to the present, only a limited number of mosquito species have proved to be dangerous as disease carriers, it is possible that many more may be potentially so, and for this reason the study of them assumes an importance which is more than academic. For the identification of mosquitoes it is necessary to collect, and then to preserve or transmit them for examination. The collection may be made either of the aquatic larvae or pupae (which are subsequently bred out); or else, of the adult insect. The larval or pupal forms are to be found in almost any col¬ lection of water—natural or domestic—although different species are often very particular in their choice of a breeding ground. In domestic situations such as water-jugs, tins, eaves' gutter¬ ing, drains, etc., great numbers of the ubiquitous Culex fatigans, and of one or more species of the genus Stegomyia are frequently to be found. This fact will be a great source of danger to Singa¬ pore if yellow fever is ever introduced. Pools, ponds, streams, oozing seepage water, crevices in tree trunks, banana and pineapple leaves, hollow sections of bamboos, pitcher plants and many other places which can hold water, all have their special mosquito fauna—some of which are purely jungle species. Our most dangerous local mosquito, which is chiefly responsible for malaria in Singapore, is the Anopheles maculatus which breeds chiefly in oozing seepage water or in the small pools and ditches in which such water may collect. ■ For collection of larvae certain scoops, dishes, bottles, etc. will be needed.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE COLLECTION OF MOSQUITOES. 43
With regard to the collection of adults, their habits must be considered. During the day-time, in a Singapore house, the only active mosquito is usually Stegomyia scutellaris—a very black mosquito with a silver line on the back of its thorax and silver bands on its legs. Certain jungle species are also active during the day time. But, generally speaking, mosquitoes are nocturnal beasts, and collections must be made between sunset and sunrise.
Collection of Mosquitoes.
The impedimenta necessary should he 1. A hand net of small size, 2. A killing tube, 3. A storage tube or glass bottomed pill boxes. The killing tube may be constructed in several different ways. The simplest is made by putting a rubber plug or some rubber bands at the bottom of the tube, soaking in chloroform (which is absorbed by the rubber), and covering the plug with a wad of cotton wool. A more pretentious killing tube is made by first putting into a tube half an inch or' less of dry plaster of Paris; then an equal layer of dry plaster with which powdered cyanide of potassium has been mixed ; and finally a layer of plaster which has been watered to the consistency of cream. The amount of cyanide is immaterial. When the wet plaster has set, the tube is ready for use, but a disk of blotting paper should be fitted over the plaster. Mosquitoes resting on a net, or wall, or clothes, can easily be captured by such a killing tube, the mouth of which is jabbed over the insect. When dead, the specimen is transferred to a pill box. • If no killing tube is available, mosquitoes can be caught in the same way with a test-tube, and killed by blowing some tobacco smoke into it.
For out-of-door, or jungle work, the use of the little collecting net becomes necessary.
Preservation of Mosquitoes.
Having captured our mosquito, it now remains to preserve or transmit it for identification.
(The Director of the Kaffles Museum will, on behalf of the British Museum, be very grateful to any member of the Society for any collections of mosquitoes they may be good enough to make.) Preservation is carried out in one of several different ways:— 1. Mounting of wings, legs, and other parts separately in balsam. 2. Mounting of the whole mosquito in balsam, with flat pres¬ sure, after special preparation. 3. Mounting of the whole mosquito in a hollow cell. 4. Pinning of the insect (British Museum Method).
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In order to dissect the various parts of the mosquito necessary for mounting separately, it will he found better to keep the insect in a drying bottle for about a day, since to attempt it just after death is a difficult operation. On the other hand if the mosquito is dried too much the parts will become brittle.
The mounting of the insect with pressure is a tiresome job, and is very apt to damage the scales, in addition to altering its coloration.
The following is Cole's method, in case any member of the ■Society wishes to try: 1. Soak in 10% caustic potash for about twelve hours, 2. Transfer to water for an hour or two, 3. Soak in concentrated acetic acid for twelve hours, 4. Transfer to water for an hour or two, 5. Arrange in the required position on a 3" x 1" microscope slide, and then place another slide on the top of it, keeping the two slides apart by strips of paper at the ends, so that the mosquito is not unduly squashed. The two slides are then tied together and left in methy¬ lated spirit for twelve hours, which hardens and fixes the insect in the position finally required, 6. The glasses are then separated carefully, and the mosquito is pushed gently into a saucer of spirit, 7. It is then cleared in clove oil; soaked in xylol; and finally mounted in Canada balsam.
The other two methods of preservation are those which are most generally adopted. The mounting in a cell is not to be re¬ commended as it is almost impossible to prevent the occurrence of mouldiness, and the microscopic examination of the mosquito with a high power objective is practically impossible. The British Museum method of pinning out a mosquito is an admirable one if a speedy examinaton is going to be made; but it seems far from ideal as a method of permanent preservation of types, for the insects quickly shrink and change colour, become mouldy if the climate is damp, and are denuded of their scales very easily.
We are at present working on methods of preventing colour changes and mouldiness.
Transmission of Mosquitoes. Mosquitoes will frequently have to he transmitted by post for identification.
If they have been preserved as described, transmission will offer no difficulties.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE COLLECTION OF MOSQUITOES. 45
If they have not been preserved or pinned, a new and very simple method recently occurred to me: that is, the use of the small gelatine capsules used in pharmaceutical chemistry. One ■drop of formalin solution is put in the bottom of the capsule, the mosquito is pinned in, and the capsule shut up. The mosquito will not be damaged in transit, and hundreds of ■capsules can be packed in an empty cigarette tin. The only disadvantage is that the gelatine of the capsules is apt to become soft in a warm damp climate. I am seeing if the makers will not put up similar capsules in celluloid, which would solve the difficulty.
PART II.
The Identification of Mosquitoes.
We come now to the second part of our subject—namely the Identification of our Malayan Mosquitoes. First it may be well to say what a mosquito is, for there are a ■certain number of gnats and similar beasts which may be mistaken for mosquitoes by the uninitiated. A mosquito is a two-winged fly with a long biting proboscis. It has wings"the veins of which are arranged 011 a definite pattern, and all the veins are furnished witli Scales.
We ought to be able to set forth its place in Xature as a pre¬ liminary to the actual identification of species. For ' example, it belongs to the great Kingdom: Annulosa, because it has an elongated body, bilaterally symmetrical, seg¬ mented, and possesses a ganglionic nervous system. In this kingdom it falls in the Division: Ariliropoda, or members with jointed appendages articulated to the body—which Division comprises also the Lobsters, Crabs, Spiders, Scorpions, ■etc.
In this Division it comes in the Class: Insecta, which has a ■differentiated head, thorax and abdomen; three pairs of legs on the thorax and none on the abdomen; and, as a rule, two pairs of wings on the thorax.
The Class is a large one and conrprises many other Orders besides the Order: Diptera to which Mosquitoes are assigned. For example we have the Coleoptera (beetles), Lepidoptera (butter¬ flies), Orthoptera (grasshoppers and cockroaches), Hymenoptera (bees, ants and wasps), Neuroptera (dragonflies, white ants, etc.) -the Aphaniptera (fleas), and many others. In the Diptera the anterior pair of wings are alone developed, the posterior being represented by a pair of halteres or balancers.
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46 THE IDENTIFICATION OF MOSQUITOES.
In certain of the Diptera such as mosquitoes the larvae and' pupae are both aquatic. The large order of Diptera has many families, comprising the Family: Culicidae or "Mosquitoes," the definition of which we have already given. These mosquitoes we can roughly divide into four Sub¬ families : (1) The Anophelinae—Mosquitoes with spotted wings, which have a peculiar resting position with their body in a straight line pointing to the surface at an angle between 45° and 85°; and the palps of which are long both in the male and female.
(2) The Culicinac of which the wings are nearly always un¬ spotted ; and the palps of which are short in the female,, and long in the male. (3) The Aedeomyinae of which the palps are extremely short in both sexes. and (4) The Megarliinae or Mosquitoes with bright metallic- colouration, a retro-curved proboscis, and palps which are always long in the male, but may be either short or long in the female. The number of species of these four Sub-families which are to he found in Malaya are (as might be expected) rather numerous. The basis of our knowledge is- the painstaking production of Dr. G. P. Leicester who described over 150 species in his Monograph on Malayan Culicidae which appeared in Vol. Ill of " Studies from the Institute of Medical Beseareh " at Kuala Lumpur, in 1908. It is a wonderful tribute to the carefulness of Lis work when we find that collectors have scarcely extended Iris fauna at all during the intervening thirteen years. Leicester's effort, however, valuable as it is, is a purely des¬ criptive work of reference dealing with Malayan mosquitoes in the- same way that Theobald deals with the mosquitoes of the world in his monumental Monograph in 1901-10. Neither book relieves our feeling of helplessness as we sit in front of our recently slaughtered, specimen, and vaguely wonder what it is!
For this reason, taking Leicester as our basis, I have tried to incorporate the whole of his species (Anopheline as well as Culicine) in a single dichotomous table of diagnosis. It should thus be possible, by observation of specific features, and a process of simple elimination, to diagnose the majority of our Malayan Culicidae. It is not suggested that this table, which is now offered for the first time to the " Singapore Natural History Society," is anything more than tentative. It has been in departmental use for only three or four months, but has, I think, been the means of bringing to- light at least two mosquitoes which do not seem to have been des¬ cribed locally.
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE IDENTIFICATION OF MOSQUITOES. 47
I hope therefore that any members who are interested in this branch of Natural History will make as much use of the table as possible, for it is only thus that faults in arrangement, ancl mistakes in detail are quickly brought to light. To those members whose lore in natural history is given to branches less irritating, ( !) perhaps, than mosquitoes, it would only be a weariness were 1 to discuss the anatomy or structural details of the insect which form the landmarks of Diagnosis'. To diptero- logical members, on the other hand, such exemplification is super¬ fluous. Therefore I leave the Table to work out its own salvation, merely pointing out that the Anophelines are introduced right at the beginning—their classification being mostly made on the band¬ ing of palps. After disposing of these, the Megarhines and other metallic coloured mosquitoes are eliminated, thus leaving only the main body of Culicines, for the differentiation of which, the main classification is made primarily dependent on the characteristics of the proboscis.
Tentative Table for tbe Diagnosis of the Female Culicidae of Malaya. 1. (a) Wings spotted 2 (b) Wings unspotted 3 4 2. (a) Female palps long (Anophelinae) i (&) Female palps short (Proboscis with pale central band) = Cnlex mimeticus
3. (a) Female palps long = A. Aitlceni (b) Female palps short (i) Insect with metallic coloration 14 23 (ii) „ without „ „
ANOPHELINAE.
A. (а) Tufts of scales from each abdominal segment when viewed laterally = A hochii
(б) No similar tufts ...... o 5. (a) Hind-leg has a very broad white band at the tibio- tarsal articulation = A. elegans (vel leucosphyrus) (b) Hind-leg with big apical scale tuft to femur = A. asiatica
(c) Hincl-leg shewing neither above features . . 6 G. (a) Palps unbanded • • • ■ • • • • .. 7 (&) Palps with three bands ...... 8 (c) Palps with four bands ...... 12
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries DIAGNOSIS OF FEMALE CULICIDAE.
Palps unhanded: (a) ISTo ventral tuft on 8th segment (i) jSTo wing fringe spots = A. albotaeniatus (ii) One wing fringe spot (а) Last hind tarsal white = A. montanus (б) Fifth hind tarsal banded: 1 Facies brown—palps normal = A. umbrosus 2 Facies grey—palps tenuiform = A. novurnbrosus (b) Ventral tuft on 8th segment - A. barbirostris i Palps with three bands: (a) Last 31 hind tarsals white, upper branch 5th vein with three black spots = A. nivipes (b) Last 34 hind tarsals white, upper branch of 5th vein with two black spots -'A. fuliginosus
(c) Last hind tarsal white ...... 9 (d) No hind tarsal white, but joints banded .. . . 10 (e) Hind tarsal uniformly coloured, or only very minutely banded ...... 11 Palps with three bands. Last hind tarsal white: (a) Scales on all abdominal segments = A. willmori (b) Scales only on 7th and 8th abdominal segment = A. maculatus Palps with three bands. No hind tarsals white, but joints banded: (a) Legs not speckled, (i) " T " spot on 1st longitudinal vein = A. malayensis (rossi) (ii) An additional small spot in proximity to " T " spot = A. vagus (vel indefiniia) (b) Legs speckled, wings with "T" spot like rossi = A. ludlowi Palps with three bands. Hind tarsals uniformly coloured or faintly banded: (a) Apical half of proboscis gold, (i) Sixth vein with two black spots = A. aconitus (ii) Sixth vein with three black spots = A. albirostris (&) Proboscis black, with brown labellae = A. separatus (hunteri) Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries DIAGNOSIS' OF FEMALE CULICIDAE. 49
12. Palps with four bands:
(a) No hind tarsal pure white ...... 13 (5) Last hind tarsal white = A. Tcanvari 13. Palps with four hands. No liind tarsal white: (a) Hind legs uniformly brown = A. aurirostris (6) Hind femur, tibia and 1st tarsal mottled, other tarsals banded = A. punctulata (tessellatus) (c) Apical bands to tibia and first four tarsals. Fifth tarsal dark = A. hyrcanus (sinensis) (d) Basal bands to tibia and all tarsals = A. vanus (peditaeniaius)
CULICINES WITH METALLIC COLORATION.
14. (a) With caudal tuft .. • • • • ■ ■ .. 15 (6) Without caudal tuft . . .. ■ • • • .. 17 15. (a) Caudal tuft: orange and black = Megarhinus immisericors (h) Caudal tuft: purple black = Megarhinus funestus (c) Caudal tuft: white and black ...... 16 16. (a) Tuft with a few orange hairs at tip = Megarhinus splendens (h) Hind tibia with cream central band on ventral aspect = Megarhinus raris 17. Metallic mosquito without caudal tuft.
(a) Proboscis as long as abdomen ...... 18
(&) „ not „ „ 19 18. (ft) Longitudinal rows of spines on hind femur and tibia = Dendromyia achcietae. (h) No spines on hind legs = Phoniomyia indica 19. (ft) Abdomen banded ...... 20 (6) Abdomen with lateral spots ...... 21 20. Metalic mosquito: No caudal tuft: Proboscis shorter than abdomen: Abdomen banded. (ft) Abdomen rose-purple with peacock-blue basal bands = Toxorhynchites leicesteri (b) Abdomen rose-purple with yellow basal bands expand¬ ing laterally into triangular patches = Toxorhynchites metallicus 21. Proboscis shorter than abdomen: Abdomen with lateral spots only. (ft) Venter of abdomen cream with central longitudinal purple stripe = Megarhinus acaudata (5) Venter without the purple stripe .. ..22
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries SO DIAGNOSIS OF FEMALE CULICIDAE.
22. Abdomino-metanotal junction: (a) With tuft of dark hairs = Dendromyia communis (b) With tuft of yellow hairs = Dendromyia aureochaetae (c) With two transverse rows of hairs = Wyeomyia metallica (d) With three transverse rows of hairs = Wyeomyia funerea
ORDINARY CULICINES.
(Without metallic coloration.)
23. Characteristics of Proboscis: (a) Uniformly light, male with short palps = Skeiromyia fusca
(b) Uniformly speckled ...... 24 (c) Speckled only at base = Etorleptiomyia completiva
(d) Various bands or markings ...... 25 (e) Uniformly dark...... 39 24. Proboscis speckled: (Mosquitoes of mouldy appearance, including legs, due to patches of long scales. Abdomen bent in a. half circle.) (a) Scutellum yellow with snow-white scales = Mucidus mucidus (b) Scutellum dark brown with yellow scales = Ehrinomyia aureostriata 25. Proboscis neither speckled nor uniformly coloured:
(a) Longitudinal colour divisions ...... 26 (b) Transverse colour divisions ...... 28 26. Proboscis with longitudinal colour divisions: (a) Proboscis light coloured (i) Dorsum of apex dark scaled = Conopomyia aurea (ii) Ventrally black, two narrow black bands on dorsum towards the apex, short palps in the male = Uranotaenia trilineata (iii) (Speckled on dorsum = Culex uniformis (b) Proboscis dark coloured (i) Central white band on ventral surface only = Culex multimaculosus
(ii) Ventral surface all white or gold . . . . 27 27. Examine hind tibia: (a) If black scaled with four lines of short white spines down whole length = llulecoeteomyia trilineata
Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries DIAGNOSIS OF FEMALE CULICIDAE. 51
(b) If purple scaled with broad apical golden band = Conopomyia metallica (c) If dark brown, and femur with silver scales ventral- ly—males with short palps = Topomyia nigra 28. Proboscis with transverse colour divisions: (a) General appearance of whole proboscis, or of basal
half, pale in colour ...... 29 (b) General appearance of whole proboscis dark in colour 30 29. (a) Proboscis light, with black labellae = Taeniorhynchus ochraceus (b) Proboscis light, with apical £ dark = Mansonia uniformis (c) Proboscis light, with one black ring towards the apex = Taeniorhynchus conopas 30. (a) Proboscis dark, with light labellae ...... 31 (&) Proboscis dark, with apical -J light = Ortliopodomyia albipes (c) Proboscis dark, with basal orange band = Taeniorhynchus brevicellulus
( (e) Proboscis dark, with two pale bands ...... 33 (/) Proboscis dark, with pale central band .. .. 34 31. Proboscis dark with light labellae: Look at dorsum of abdomen: (a) No bands, but white lateral spots = Lophoceratomyia niger (b) Pale basal bands on a few proximal segments—male palps short = Aedes malayi (c) Pale basal bands on all segments—palps short in the male = Uranotaenia micans 32. Proboscis dark with three pale bands: (a) The bands are.only small rings of white hairs on or below the labellae—the male has short palps = Uranotaenia micanus (b) The three bands are distributed over the proboscis— the male has short palps = Aedeomyia squammipenna 3.3. Proboscis dark, with two pale bands: Look at the thorax: (a) If black scales and bristles = Culex infula (b) If covered with mouldy looking white hairs = Culex gelidus Proboscis with pale centre band. 34. Look at the abdomen: (a) Abdominal segments banded .. .. . • .. 35 Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 52 DIAGNOSIS OP FEMALE CULICIDAE. (b) Abdominal segments with white patches only = Mansonia annulipes (c) Abdominal segments unhanded = Mcmsonia annulaia •35. Some or all the abdominal segments banded: (a) Apical bands ...... 36 (b) Basal bands ...... 37 (c) Both apical and basal bands = Taeniorliynclius ienax -36. Proboscis centrally banded. Abdomen with apical bands: Examine the thorax: (a) Flaxen with dark brown tufts over each wing-root = Culex sepositus (b) Blackish brown with three golden spots in front and two postero-lateral ones = Culex concolor (c) Anterior § with some golden brown scales. The pos¬ terior -J black scaled = Taeniorliynclius ager (d) Black brown with three golden lines = Taeniorliynclius domiesticus (e) Yellow with four silver spots and a triangle of three faint spots behind = Mansonia annulifera ■37. Proboscis centrally banded. Abdomen ivith basal bands: (a) Basal bands on all segments, or on all but the last .. 38 (b) Basal bands on segments 2-6 only = Culex gnopliodes ■38. Look at the thorax: (a) Thorax with broad white margin = Culex perplexus (&) Thorax brown with silvery scales over the anterior f = Culex loricatus (c) Thorax with silver inverted Y shaped figure = Danielsia albotaeniata (d) Thorax brown with distributed golden scales = Culex impellens (e) Thorax black, with brown scales, and some white scales in front of scutellum .= Culex' nigricepluila (/) Thorax brown, with central dark stripe, and white scales in front of scutellum = Culex vishnui (g) Thorax with anterior f bronze and a dark brown cen¬ tral stripe = Culex sitiens (h) Thorax brown, with two pale stripes = Culex annulus (i) Thorax brown, with three dark stripes = Culex microannulatus Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries DIAGNOSIS OF FEMALE CULICIDAE. 53 Proboscis uniformly dark. 39. Classification on characteristics of hind-legs (a) Uniformly coloured .. • • . ■ • • .. 40 (&) Ditto, but venter of femur pale ...... 45 (c) Mottled or banded ...... 64 40. Proboscis uniformly darlc. Hindlegs uniformly coloured: Examine the legs: (a) Gold spines on femur and tibia—male palps short = Aioretomyia varietas (b) ISTo gold spines .. ■ • • • • • • ■ .. 41 41. Examine venter of abdomen: (а) If light coloured and unadorned ...... 42 (б) If dark „ „ 43 (c) If dark basal band on fourth segment—male palps short = Uranotaenia cancer 42. Proboscis uniformly dark. Venter of abdomen light and Examine Thorax: (a) If very reddish brown = Lophoceratomyia rubrithorads (b) If pale with dark central area, and white anterior margin = Culex minimus (c) If black with brown circle in centre and grey lateral edges—male palps short = Vranotaenia modesta 43. Proboscis uniformly dark. Venter of abdomen dark and unadorned: Examine the proboscis: (a) If as long as the whole body, and palps short in the male = Ficalbia longirostris (b) If of normal length ...... 44 44. Examine the thorax: (a) If dark brown, with indefinite black stripes, and silvery margins. Pleura silvery. Male with short palps = Uranotaenia nivipleura (b) If pale brown, with anterior margin tawny, and three tawny stripes—male with short palps = Uranotaenia fusca Proboscis uniformly dark. Hind-legs plain, but under- surface of femur light in colour. 45. Examine the hind-tibia: (a) Tibia with many gold spines (i) Head laterally compressed = Leicesteria doliclvocephalica (ii) Head not laterally compressed Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 54 DIAGNOSIS OF FEMALE CULICIDAE. (a) Abdomen with basal patches—male with short palps = Aioretoniyia ostentatis (■6) Abdomen unmarked—male with short palps = Acalleomyia obscurans (6) Tibia spineless ...... 46 46. Examine the venter of the abdomen: (a) If 1 and 2 white, the rest dark—male palps short = Zeugnomyia gracilis (b) If apically banded—male palps short = Uranotaenia pygmoea (c) If basally banded ...... 47 (d) If dark and unadorned ...... 48 (e) If pale or silvery ...... 51 47. If basally banded: (a) On fifth and sixth segment only = Desvoidya jugraensis (b) On all segments = Stegomyia nivea 48. If venter of abdomen dark and unadorned: Look at the palps : (a) If palps half length of proboscis = Leicesteria longipalpis (5) If palps of usual length ...... 49 49. If palps are of usual length: Look at the proboscis: (a) If longer than the whole body—male palps short = Uranotaenia unimaculialci (5) If of normal length ...... 50 50. If proboscis of normal length: Look at the pleura: (a) Pleura dark, with four white spots—male with short palps = Verallina butleri (5) Pleura light, with three dark spots1—male with short palps = Uranotaenia maculipleura 6,1'. If the venter of the abdomen is pale or silvery: (a) Note if the abdomen is very elongated and slender— male with short palps = Topomyia tipuliformis (b) Abdomen not elongated and slender ...... 52 52. Abdomen not elongated nor slender: Look at its dorsum : (a) If dorsum not banded ...... 53 (b) Dorsum banded, and with or without lateral spots .. 61 Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries DIAGNOSIS OP FEMALE CULICIDAE. 55 53. The venter being pale, and the dorsum not banded: (a) If there is a lateral fringe of hairs ...... 54 (5) If there are lateral spots only ...... 55 (c) If there is no adornment at all ...... 57 54. (a) Head black, with white orbital margin = Culex graminis (b) Head brown, with grey orbital margin—male with short palps ' = Uranotaenia maxima 55. (a) Apical f of palpi white—male with short palps = Topomyia argyropalpis (b) Palpi black ...... 56 56. (a) Thorax with white central stripe—male with short palps (i) Scutellum all white , = Topomyia minor (ii) Middle lobe of scutellum white = Topomyia decorabilis (b) Thorax black and unadorned—male has not short palps = Stegomyia fusca 57. Examine the wings: (a) 1st fork-cell very long (four times its own stem) — male with short palps = Topomyia dubitans (b) 1st fork-cell not unusual ...... 58 58. Examine the thorax: (a) If chestnut, with two oval black spots—[male with short palps] = Uranotaenia bimaculata (b) If with longitudinal stripes ...... 59 (c) If unadorned .. •• •• •• ..60 59. On further examination of the thorax: (a) Dark, with white stripe the whole length and con¬ tinued on to scutellum—[male palps short] = Topomyia rubrithoracis (b) Dark, with a shorter white stripe, and only a spot on the scutellum—[male with short palps] = Topomyia gracilis (c) Dingy-white, with broad dark stripe = Lophoceratomyia minor 60. (a) Head with silvery orbital margin (i) Head dark grey = Melanoconion indecorabilis (ii) Head black brown, with two vertical gold bristles = Lophoceratomyia sylvestris (iii) Head black, with clavate scales^ = Lophoceratomyia mammilifer Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 56 DIAGNOSIS OP FEMALE CULICIDAE. (&) Head with golden orbital margin = Lophoceratomyia brevipalpis (c) Head all dark brown—[male with short palps] = Vcrallina nigra 61. Venter of abdomen pale. Dorsum banded: (a) The bands are apical, and there are lateral triangular spots—[the palps are -J- the length of the proboscis] = Leicesteria cingulata (b) The bands are basal ...... 62 62. (a) The banding is imperfect = Lophoceratomyia rubritlioracis (&) The banding is complete ...... 63 63. Examine the thorax: (ft) There is a mledian white stripe, the centre lobe of the scutellmn being white—-[males with short palps] = Topomyia argentoventralis (b) The colour is reddish-brown * = Lophoceratomyia taeniata (c) The colour is yellowish-brown—[males with short palps] = Uranotaenia lutescens (d) The colour is black. The central lobe of the scutel- lum is yellow = Cowopomyia hybrida Proboscis uniformly dark. Hind-Legs mottled or banded. 64. Examine the hind-tarsals: (ft) Tarsals not banded, nor contrast coloured (i) Hind-femur alone decorated ...... 65 (ii) Both femur and tibia decorated .. .. 68 (&) Tarsals banded, or contrast coloured ...... 71 65. Hind-femur mottled, contrast coloured or banded. Tarsals not banded: Look at proboscis : (a) If as long as the body ...... 66 (b) If of normal length ...... 6'7 66. Hind-femur being mottled, proboscis being as long as the body: (ft) Head black with cream markings—[male with short palps] = Colonemyia hybrida (&) Head black with deep blue band. Thorax orange— [male with short palps] = Colonemyia ceru'leocepliala (c) Head brown with blue band. Thorax brown. Pro- thoralic lobes white—[male with short palps] = Colonemyia similis 67. Hind-femur being contrast coloured or banded, proboscis being of normal length : (ft) Hind femur all silver-white Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries DIAGNOSIS OF FEMALE CULICIDAE. 57 (i) Thorax black and shining—[male with short palps] = Iiodgesia quasisanguiniae (ii) Thorax red-brown—[male with short palps] = Iiodgesia malayi (iii) Thorax brown, with two golden stripes—[femur has a narrow black basal band] = Desvoidya aureolineata (b) Hind-femur with apical band = Desvoidya obturbans (c) Hincl-femur with basal band (i) Venter of abdomen white = Desvoidya fusca (ii) Venter of abdomen banded [the legs are other¬ wise unhanded] = Stegomyia dissimilis 68. Both femur and tibia of hind-leg are decorated: (a) Femur is pale beneath ...... 69 (b) Femur and tibia are both mottled ...... 70 (c) Femur and tibia have white spot at apex of each 0 = Reedomyia alboscutella [Vote: This genus is the Lepidotomyia of Leicester.] ■69. Femur with pale venter: (a) Apical band on hind-tibia—[male with short palps] = Aioretomyia taeniata (b) Apical band on both femur and tibia = Culex fatigans 10. Femur and tibia mottled: (a) The femur and tibia have also an apical band = Culex luteolateralis 71. Hind-legs mottled or banded. Tarsals banded: (a) All five hind-tarsals banded = Geitonomyia caecus (b) One or more hind-tarsals dark ...... 72 (c) One or more hind-tarsals white ...... 74 Proboscis dark. Hind-legs decorated. One or more tarsals dark. '72. (a) Only the 5th hind-tarsal dark, the rest being banded (i) Femur with basal band = Stegomyia imitator (ii) Femur gold on under surface, and with an apical gold spot = Culex auratus (iii) Femur gold on under surface, and the tibia banded = Cliaetomyia flava (b) More than one hind-tarsal dark ...... 73 Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 58 DIAGNOSIS OF FEMALE CULICIDAE. 73. (a) Fourth and fifth hind-tarsals dark, the rest being banded: (i) The under surface of femur white, and a white knee spot, tibia, and tarsals 1-3 banded = Leicesteria annuliiarsis (ii) Femur with oval white patch in centre, tarsals 1-3 banded = Hulecoeteomyia jugraensis (iii) Femur with broad central white band, tarsals 1-3 banded = Hulecoeteomyia fluviatilis (b) Tarsals ,3-5 dark, the rest being banded. Femur white with small black apical band = Scutomyia albolineata Proboscis dark. Hind-legs decorated. One or more hind-tarsals white. 74. (a) Only the fifth hind-tarsal white, the rest being banded (i) Thorax with two central j'ellow stripes, and two „ white lateral curved stripes (i.e. lyre shaped adornment) = Stegomyia fasciata (ii) Thorax with central silver length stripe, hind tibia unadorned = Stegomyia scvtellaris (iii) Thorax with central white stripe, hind tibia mottled = Stegomyia pseudoscutellaris (iv) Thorax reddish with three dark brown stripes, scutellum white = Reedomyia taeniata (b) More than one hind-tarsal white 75. (a) Fourth and fifth hind-tarsals white, the rest being- banded (i) Thorax with two silver stripes, scutellum with three silver spots = Stegomyia gracilis (ii) Thorax with silver median stripe and white margin, Mid-scutellar lobe white = Stegomyia perplexa (iii) Thorax dark brown with very long bristles. [The wing scales are broad and asymmetrical like Mansonia] = Dasymyia fusca (iv). Thorax brown with central dark brown stripe, and bluish-white margin—[male with short palps] = Uranotaenia unilineata (b) Third, fourth and fifth hind-tarsals white, the other two being dark: Under-surface of femur is silvery —[male with short palps] = Uranotaenia argyroiarsus Hactenus. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries The A.B.C. of Preserving Animals by F. N. CHASEN, m.b.o.u., f.e.s. Read October 10th, 1921. Pabt l. introduction yy 2. Labelling 3. yy Shells yy 4. Insects yy 5. Liquid Preserving Media yy 6. Keptiles etc. yy 7. Mammals and Bums yy 8. Summaby 1. Introduction. There are at least two methods of preserving any animal. There is an emergency method, by which, with the minimum of trouble, an efficiently "cured" specimen of sufficient utility results, and there is an elaborate taxidermic method, the use of which ensures that a specimen remains a thing of beauty and a joy for ever. The preparation of most animals is not difficult, although it is necessary to have considerable technical knowledge to produce good results from various marine organisms. The collection of these, however, is beyond the scope of most members of our ■Society. Preserving animals in. such a state that they can be studied by the next generation is not a process involving the possession of any special talents on the part of the operator, but really resolves itself into a matter of knowing what to do, or more particularly of knowing what not to do. Contrary to all public opinion, the apparatus required is not elaborate or expensive. A good bird-skin can be made with a pair of nail-scissors or a small knife, and all the material necessary for the preparation of skins etc. can be purchased locally. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 60 THE A. B. C. OP PBESEBVING ANIMALS. Ill the present paper it will he quite sufficient if the main lines and methods of work are indicated with but detail enough to- enable any beginner to prepare his own specimens. In some cases there certainly are more scientific methods of working but the writer feels that he can safely ignore these for he is confident that once any enthusiast who remains as yet uninitiated—starts to prepare his own specimens, he will soon be led into more elaborate methods of working, in which much assistance can be, gained from the various published books on Taxidermy. The undermentioned are likely to be of most use to members and are to be found on the shelves of most public Libraries: " Taxidermy and Modelling" by Montagu Browne, F. G. S., F. Z. S. " Taxidermy and Zoological Collecting " by W. T. Hornaday.. These are both practical books. Browne was Curator of the Leicester Museum for many years, and Hornaday a collector of vast experience, late Director of the New York Zoological Park. The writer claims little, if any, originality for this paper. Becognizecl methods of work are followed throughout the whole of the world. The British Museum is the guiding force for the English speaking nations, and the official publication " Handbook of Instructions for Collectors " is invaluable to serious naturalists of all denominations. For the purposes of this paper it will be convenient to divide animals into three groups. (1) Firstly there are those which require little, if any,, preparation. Such are Butterflies and other Insects and Snails. (2) Secondly there is the host of "fleshy" animals which require to be preserved, bodily, in spirit or other liquid medium. Under this beading are included worms, fish, frogs, snakes, and many other marine and invertebrate animals. (3) The last and perhaps the most troublesome group of all includes those beasts such ate birds and mammals, in which it is necessary to remove the skin, and anoint this with a preserving- soap or powder. It must always be remembered that in a tropical climate such as that of Singapore, the practical naturalist is put to infinitely more trouble than in temperate regions. Various methods of work advocated by the authors of books published in Europe can¬ not be too strongly condemned. During the winter, in England, a small bird will frequently make quite a good specimen after it has been dead a week, but in Malaysia natural history specimens must be disposed of on the same clay on which they are collected. During the recent expedition to Pahang the Baffles Museum col¬ lectors frequently found it difficult to return to the camp at mid-day, after a morning's collecting, with their specimens in Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE A. B. C. OP PRESERVING ANIMALS. 61 perfect order! The strongest spirit will not restore to its former condition a specimen that has been kept unattended beyond its appointed time. 2. Labelling. It is impossible to attach too much importance to the labelling" of all specimens. This should be conducted meticulously, for a natural history specimen without a label is all but useless. Perhaps, indeed, it is worse than useless, for it means that one life has been sacrificed for no purpose. Every specimen must have attached to it or associated with it in some intimate manner—at least, the date and locality of capture. A label cannot be too detailed. In the case of birds and mammals, the label should be tied to the legs, in insects the date can be written on a small ticket and pushed on the pin underneath the specimen. In specimens preserved in spirit all information can be written with a soft pencil on unglazed paper (parchment is best) and then either tied to the specimen or dropped into the same jar. There is no need to fear that the spirit will obliterate the writing on the label for it will be preserved as efficiently as the specimen. In addition to date and locality of capture other items can be added to the label which will increase the value of the specimen. In the case of birds it is usual to note the sex and the colour of the eyes, beak and legs of the specimen, for the colours of these parts fade rapidly after death. In the case of a qualified collector measurements are usually taken, but these are not of much value unless taken care¬ fully and in an approved fashion. In mammals certain pr^cribed measurements are always taken and the sex noted. Altitude in the case of land animals, and depth of water (in fathoms) in the case of aquatic animals should also be noted. 3. Shells (Molluscs). Shells are so easy to collect and preserve that they are always popular and it is almost a pity to point out that it. is the animal itself (i.e. the soft part inside the shell) which is most required nowadays. To describe the preservation of a snail of any kind,, i.e., both soft part and shell, with the animal well extended is a matter of no little difficulty, and certainly beyond the limits of this paper. Enthusiasts must be referred to the books quoted above. There is, however, a right and a wrong way of preserving the shell alone. Always collect " live " shells if possible, that is to sajq unless you have reason to believe a specimen to be of great consequepce, do not pick up shells in which there is no animal. " Dead " shells are nearly always "weathered their colour is faded or has com¬ pletely disappeared, and in the case of marine shells the action of water has frequently caused the contours of the spirals etc. to alter in detail. Land and fresh-water snails can be killed by putting them into boiling water for a few minutes and then extracting the Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 62 THE A. B. C. OP PRESERVING ANIMALS. animal with a pin. Never rise hot water with sea-shells, for the wonderful lustre will probabty be destroj'ed; bury them in sand until the animal dries up or rots. In large specimens it is often convenient to drown in cold fresh-water and then extract the animal. Always keep the operculum (a little "lid" which is often found—closing the mouth of the shell), and never attempt to clean a shell by removing any external skin. Keep both valves of bivalves and preserve the ligament joining the two valves, intact. In the case of aquatic species note the depth of water 011 the label. 4. Insects. The collection and preservation of butterflies, moths, and other insects is a subject perhaps more thoroughly understood by the layman than is any other branch of natural history. It seems scarcely necessary to explain that having procured specimens with a net, they are killed in a lethal bottle and then pinned and " set" on a setting board—but it may be well to call attention to some of the many details which it is necessary to know before Insects can be collected properly, for it is to be feared that most collections of butterflies come to an untimely end. Usual methods must also be adapted to local conditions. Cyanide Killing Bottle. Local chemists would probably make good killing bottles to order, but failing this, proceed as follows:—Into a pickle jar with wide mouth and closely fitting lid pour a y layer of dry plaster of Paris. On top of this pour another layer consisting of equal parts of powdered cyanide of potassium and dry plaster of Paris. Add J" layer of dry plaster. Now cover with a final layer of mixed plaster, and when this top- layer is dry the jar is ready for use. The jar remains efficient for several months. It is advisable to put a circle of blotting paper on top of the plaster in the jar to avoid any possibility of insects spoiling by touching the plaster which is liable to become damp. Killing. Never leave a specimen in the bottle longer than necessary, as cyanide changes the colour of some insects. Beetles and other non-hairy insects may be killed by throwing them into boiling water for a few minutes. The usual method of killing butterflies by holding the wings above the body and pinching the thorax is a method quite satis¬ factory if carried out by the right person, but otherwise it is very liable to distort the body and make the specimen hard to set. Chloroform is apt to make specimens too stiff but it can be used. Pinning, etc. As a general rule pin insects vertically through the middle of the thorax and put them high on the pin. Beetles should be pinned through the right wing-case. Always use special entomological pins, as the ordinary pins invariably rust. Finally never use pith or wax or any patent untried preparation for cabinets or store-boxes but always cork. Pith in particular is fatal in this country. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE A. B. C. OF PRESERVING ANIMALS. 63 Nets. A frame made in one piece, say from a bent cane, is not nearly so much trouble in the field as an elaborate brass-jointed arrangement. Green mosquito netting is preferable for the bag. Pill Boxes. An expensive item in this country—so paint them with shellac, or enamel, to keep the damp out. Special Precautions to be Observed in Singapore. The entomologist member of our Society has to fight three evil forces. One of these is disposed of above; pith " eats " the pin in a very short time and furthermore harbours mites. The two remaining evils are mould and destructive insects. The risk of mould may be obviated by treating the inside of store-boxes and cabinets with a saturated solution of napthaline in chloroform, mixed with an equal quantity of creosote (medical or beeehwood), but be careful not to allow this solution to touch specimens. If insects become mouldy take great care about the cleaning. If they are dipped in benzine, some of the green and blue colours may be affected. It is best to use sulphuric ether (1 pint) and bi-chloride of mercury (10 grains). If insect boxes or drawers are found to be infested with mites or any similar pest, take off the lid, pour a few drops of bi-sulphide of carbon in the box and close up again. A few words on Insecticides may not be out of place under the heading of Insects. The free use of naphthaline is the only convenient method of keeping collections of natural history specimens free from pests, but even this ■ is only partially effective. Constant attention is the best preventive of all. Actual contact with a poison or chloroform is the only thing that will stop the larvae of beetles and moths etc. from eating collections. Benzine fumes and the presence of quantities of camphor, carbolic acid, and such sub¬ stances, often highly recommended, are, sad to say, of little avail. It is a curious fact, but nevertheless very true, that if a a collection is in constant use, or is frequently examined by its proud owner, even though no special precautions are taken, it remains in much better condition than one on which the doors are always shut, even though insecticides are freely used and all possible precautions taken in the latter case. Miscellaneous. In the case of very large moths and grass¬ hoppers it is advisable to eviscerate them by means of a slit made on the under-side of the abdomen, and fill the cavity thus made with cotton-wool. Yery minute forms such as fleas, lice and bed-bugs, are best preserved in spirit. Caterpillers of an unknown species are scarcely worth collect¬ ing unless for the purpose of breeding out the perfect insect. The same thing applies to galls, cocoons, etc. Authentic and identified specimens of these latter stages are, however, very desirable. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 64 THE A. B. C. OP PRESERVING ANIMALS. 5. Liquid Preserving Media. The two indispensable fluids to a working naturalist are Alcohol and Formalin. With these any animal may be preserved for many years. A bird or 8 squirrel may be dropped into a pickle jar full of spirit, and, in capable hands, could be mounted many years later. All invertebrate animals such as jelly fish, worms, spiders, and centipedes must of necessity be preserved in a liquid. Others such as frogs, lizards, snakes and fish should also be preserved in alcohol or formalin, although it is to be feared this is not always done. If you are in a remote part of the country use whatever spirit is available as a temporary measure. Even gin or Johnny Walker will be quite capable of preserving until'a more suitable spirit is at hand. Any spirit which fires immediately on the application of a light, without having been previously warmed, is strong enough to be used for the preservation of animals. Methylated spirit is not nearly so good as pure alcohol and should not be used for valuable specimens. If there is time to be particular in the preservation of specimens, take more pains about the spirit used. Test the methy¬ lated spirit by adding a few drops of water. If it turns milky it is mineralized and is not nearly so good as if it remained clear, a proof of its being Industrial Meth. Spirit, which, with a strength of 62-66 o.p. can be used for scientific purposes. Pure spirit is the very best to use. (By " pure spirit" ethyl alcohol and water is meant.) The common grade is 401 o.p., i.e., about 80% by volume. 70% is ample and is the strength com¬ monly used for definite preservation. The rules for using spirit are simple, and mostly dictated by commonsense. Most animals, except the very minute, should have an incision made on the under¬ side, in order that the spirit may penetrate into the body. In the case of large fish it will be necessary to stab the thick fleshy part to give access to the spirit. In many cases a syringe can be used with great advantage for injecting the specimens with spirit before they are dropped bodily in. Never put a specimen in'spirit unless it is quite fresh, and remember that weak spirit will not stop a . specimen from macerating, and that too strong spirit will cause it to become shrunken and brittle. For very exact work the spirit may be tested with an Alcoho- meter, and in this case it is well to note that unless the instrument was originally graduated at a tropical temperature, it needs to be corrected for use in Singapore. A useful hint on diluting spirit, given by the British Museum, may be quoted with advantage. The rule may be best illustrated by an example, and, of course; can be made to apply to other numerals: To make 40% alcohol from 95% alcohol, add to 40 c.c. of 95% alcohol enough water to make 95 c.c. of the mixture. The result is 95 c.c. of 40% alcohol. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE A. B. C. OF PRESERVING ANIMALS. 65 Formalin or Formal has been much used in late years in place of alcohol on account of its portability and cheapness. Com¬ mercial formalin is a 40% solution of formaldehyde in water. A 2% solution of formaldehyde is quite enough for preserving purposes, and this means 5 parts from your bottle to 95 parts of water. It works out at about GO cents a gallon! I would, however, not place formalin in front of alcohol. The use of it for careful natural history work is comparatively modern, and it has yet to stand the test of time. Preserve your unique specimens in alcohol until formalin has proved itself. It also hardens tissues and destroys colour to a certain extent. On certain other tissue its action is not beneficial. To go into the various methods of killing and preserving all the different kinds of invertebrate animals in alcohol and formalin would take too long and furthermore it is an intricate affair. For all ordinary purposes it is sufficient to just drop the specimens in the spirit and there they will remain, perfectly preserved for a later generation. The writer would recommend detailed spirit mounting as a delightful hobby for a naturalist. To kill and preserve sponges, sea-anemones, corals, and the rainbow-coloured marine worms, so that they do not shrink a millimetre or loose a particle of colour and to get them to remain with, their tentacles and polyps expanded as in life, is a fascinating art, but unfortunately requires rather more time and facilities for work than, the writer rather imagines, most members of this Society have at their disposal. A fitted room in a bungalow near the coast, say at Tanah Merah, in Bedoh, where specimens are plentiful, would be a great and useful venture. 6. Reptiles, etc. Only skin reptiles when the size is so great that they cannot be conveniently preserved in spirit. Do not forget to make a ventral incision, as mentioned above. If practicable it is wise to put specimens into weaker spirit (say 50%) for the first day or so before transferring to the final strength of 75%. Large snakes should be skinned by slitting along the whole of the median line— underneath. The skin can then be preserved in spirit, but it is scarcely worth while, from a naturalist's point of view, to preserve large Malaysian snakes. Frogs and toads etc. should be placed in weaker spirit than reptiles. Start off with 50% and grade up bjr several increasing strengths to between 65°% and 70°%. There is often considerable doubt as to the strength and quality of spirit obtained locally and if specimens (especially frogs) show any signs of becoming " soft" it is as well to substitute for the above strengths 24 hours in 60% followed by 85%. The dried skins of fishes are very poor material for a scientist to work upon and it is strongly advised to preserve fish in spirit whenever possible. If the specimen is very bulky, it must have cuts made in the fleshy parts of the back, and, as usual, be opened under- Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 66 THE A. B. C. OF PBESEBVING ANIMALS. neath to enable the spirit to penetrate all the tissues. There are several points to note in collecting fishes. Firstly, make a coloured drawing, or at least take notes on the colour of the specimen—as soon as possible after death. Secondly, remember that the preser¬ vation of the scales is very important. If they show any tendency to come off, wrap each fish in linen. Thirdly it may be pointed out that as fishes contain a large proportion of water, the spirit in which they.are placed rapidly becomes diluted and deteriorates. 7. Mammals and Birds. Preservatives. A mixture of three parts of burnt alum and •one part of powdered white arsenic is as good as anything for all birds and small mammals (mice, rats, etc.). There are other more elaborate formulae, but these only contain such ingredients as camphor or tincture of musk, the function of which is, apparently, to elaborate the powder—in much the same way as most toilet-soaps are coloured and scented. In making the above powder always use burnt alum, as crude alum is affected by heat and damp. For large mammals (i.e. tigers, pigs, and deer, etc.) a mixture of four parts of burnt alum and one part of salt-petre may be used, but it should be noted that this makes a "hard" Museum skin. Tanning processes are usually trade secrets—and anyhow do not affect a naturalist. Salt cannot be used as a preservative for skins in the tropics. It mav be an excellent substance for an Arctic explorer to use on a polar bear skin, but to use it in the Malay Peninsula, is to court dis¬ aster. The writer has, on two separate occasions, lost a collection of skins—one of them of considerable scientific value—owing to the use of certain non-poisonous preparations which are advocated in Browne's book. The words of the British Museum official public¬ ation with reference to birds should surely suffice: "Arsenic is the best ■preservative. No other preparation for preserving steins is recommended, for collections so pre¬ pared either arrive in England utterly destroyed or, if tliey happen to survive the voyage, are sooner or later eaten by insects. Carbolized specimens a,re all but worthless." Arsenical Soap is the form in which arsenic is usually used in Europe, but adapting ourselves to local conditions again—the Powder formula recommended above will prove superior. Mammals. In these days of accuracy—when sub-specific differences are so slight that they are often invisible to the untrained eye, it should be pointed out that it is only on material prepared by the most up-to-date methods that a student can be expected to base his researches.* * "Instructions for Preparing Mammal skins" by 0. Boden Kloss published in the Journal of the Natural History Society of Siam, May, 1917, gives detailed instructions. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE A. B. C. OP PRESERVING ANIMALS. 67 The amateur collector of mammals will therefore be wise to •consider the idea of putting his smaller specimens (rats, mice, bats, squirrels, etc.) into spirit to be "prepared" at some future date by ■a skilled hand rather than risk spoiling a good specimen. A half an hour's instruction will prove of more value than many pages of print. In the case of large beasts it will naturally fall to the natives' lot to skin these, and here it is less easy to go wrong. See that an incision is made from the chin along the middle line of the under- ■surfaee of the body to the tip of the tail. Make cross cuts along the inner side of each limb. In the case of horned beasts it will be necessary to make a Y shaped cut on the top of the head. Always save the skull and limb hones. Take all the bones from the legs ■of large mammals, but in the smaller species such as cats and monkeys the terminal toe bones may be left in the skin. Rub the inside of the skin with the preservative for large animals mentioned above, and a dressing of*turpentine on the outside, i.e., on the hair, will do no harm. A skin is best, dried in the shade, hair downwards. Pack in such a manner that no creases are formed—if possible. A ■coating of wax 011 the teeth of say—a tiger—will prevent cracking.. Birds. There is so little to be gained by the indiscriminate collecting of birds that the writer was almost persuaded to omit this paragraph. The species of birds to be found in the Peninsula are now fairly well known, and even a large collection of well prepared skins would probably do no more than add a new locality for a given species. Close observation of habits, etc. is required nowadays, -and the collecting side of the question is far better left to specialists who collect with the minimum expenditure of life. It is further¬ more a matter of some little time before the knack of making a really well shaped skin is acquired. It would, in particular, be a pity to collect birds 011 Singapore Island. It is very difficult to describe the process of skinning a bird in -a. few words, and the reader is referred to the books mentioned at the beginning of this paper. There is, furthermore, always one or •other of the staff at the Raffles Museum prepared to give a practical demonstration if the time expended is likely to be of any direct use to ornithology. Such time would be well spent if any member was on the point' of making a journey to some little known part of Malaysia, such as certain mountains in Sumatra 01* any of the little known islands in the seas thereabouts. 8. Summary. It will be seen from the foregoing notes that there is a right and a wrong way of executing every little detail connected with tiie collection and preparation of animals. Frequent enquiries for advice prompted the writing of the paper, and it is hoped that it will prove of some little use, even though it does'but little more than indicate the right lines of work. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 68 THE A. B. C. OF PRESERVING ANIMALS. Badly prepared specimens of all kinds are taken to the Mu¬ seums at home very frequently. Often they are without data. Collections are, in general, now so complete, that with a few excep¬ tions it is only specimens from practically unknown parts of the- globe that are welcomed in such a state. At the same time there is no need to be despondent, for to pre¬ pare any specimen in a sound scientific manner is within the pos¬ sibility of any amateur. What it is desired to discourage is the indiscriminate collecting of animals from regions where field observation would do so much more good. It is true that there remains an enormous amount of collecting to be done in the Malay Peninsula, but this is .chiefly in the invertebrate groups. The future collector would do well, therefore, to consider which of the many groups of animals he will collect, and then study his subject diligently for a few days, before he starts to take life. If the un¬ expected does happen, and the tyro finds himself suddenly in the- possession of some rare or interesting animal, there is enough in the notes above to enable him to preserve it, and the naturalist will welcome the results of his efforts—even though he produces but a bone or a piece of skin with a few feathers on it! Some Notes on Malayan Butterflies BY J. W. SOHAKFF, M.B., CI-I.B., F.E.S. Read November l^th 1921. A collection of Malayan butterflies may be commenced by almost any one who is sufficiently energetic, but to secure a representative collection requires considerable patience, application and opportunity. The number of species is very great, nearly 900 the great majority of which are uncommon and difficult to catch. Apart from this, the catching of butterflies, particularly jungle- species, is one of the most delightful sports imaginable. The butterflies which haunt open places are to my mind less interesting than those which flit about the dense tropical jungle, but I will illustrate my remarks by giving you the details of the- capture of a series of specimens (Thaumantis pseudaliris). It is a typical jungle species and its capture entails a trip to- a narrow leaf strewn path darkened by towering trees and dense undergrowth. A little experience and local knowledge will tell one the particular spots in the jungle where this creature is likely to rejoice its insect mind. One must walk warily, it will take the- keenest search to find the new resting, place of this butterfly once- it has been disturbed by one's approach and such approach must not be too rapid lest the insect leaves its haunt and flies away in terror at a pace quicker than sight can follow. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries SOME NOTES ON MALAYAN BUTTERFLIES. 69 Watching the ground with the butterfly net conveniently poised •one may perhaps soon see something fluttering on the ground just ■as if a leaf had moved, then a streak of white and vivid daub of fawn flashes for a moment and the butterfly settles once more, so ■securely hidden by the similarity in colour of the under part of its wings to the dead leaves around, that unless sure of one's senses •one would conclude that nothing at all had moved, still less that a large butterfly like this was within a yard or so of one's net. But one must advance another foot and now one is within striking distance. Even then it is quite easy to miss the spot, however .accurately one may seem to have marked it, nor can one look too long lest the insect is frightened away and lost for ever. By a rapid drive of the net one may perhaps enclose it within the meshes and it must then be rapidly killed in order that it shall not receive some blemish in trying to escape. At this point I come to one of the more material details of butterfly collecting, namely that of killing. I think that a discus¬ sion on this subject will be of some service. Many collectors in the tropics seem never to use a killing bottle but always kill their butterfly captures by pinching the thorax and then placing them into an envelope. I have found this method by no means satis¬ factory, but always have a killing bottle. The most useful in general practice being a Glaxo tin with cyanide of potassium held down securely by cardboard and a layer of blotting paper, above this several layers of soft tissue paper. To pinch a butterfly to death instantaneously, requires con¬ siderable force and skill, and in spite of it, damage to legs and ■even to the lower part of the under-surfa.ee of the wings is often caused, moreover all the "Danainae" so far as I know can resist the flrmist pinch and remain alive. I am in favour of rendering my larger captives flaccid by a alight pinch of the thorax and then immediate bottling and finally, as soon as the insect is quite dead, I transfer it to an envelope, one ■envelope for each specimen. Small butterflies particularly the Lycaenidae (blues) and the Hesperidae (skippers) I never put in ■envelopes. My reason in the case of the former is their habit of inverting the wings (a fortunate circumstance for subsequent set¬ ting), my reason in the case of the latter is the bulk of their bodies. The outfit of the hunter consists of a butterfly net, one or two killing bottles, several envelopes, and a pair of forceps. Immediately one returns from an expedition one must get to work to "set" the captures (for within 12 hours they will be too ■dried up to set properly). For this purpose of setting'a supply of graded pins, a number of setting boards of various sizes, some strips ■of papers and the aforesaid pair of pincers are all that is required. The most rapid setting will take up an average of ten minutes per specimen so if the captures have been many, the work may •stretch well into the evening. It is at such times that Ants may Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 70 SOME NOTES ON MALAYAN BUTTERFLIES. be on ones tracks. Leave a setting board aside for as much as a few moments and they may have come in swarms, probably devour¬ ing the pick of the specimens. Ants may easily become an obses¬ sion to the collector; I remember once ordering in all possible haste gallons of boiling water after such an event as I have described, and solemnly pouring this boiling water inside and outside the house on every ant that could be seen. It was my rule to leave the setting- boards in a tin box whenever I had occasion to leave my subjects. Of course there are several alternatives in butterfly collecting but these are nothing like so instructive or pleasant. Of these alternatives the most despicable is to procure b}r purchase; lees disgraceful is to train collectors. I have attempted to train two or three Malays to collect butterflies for me, but although I used much time and patience with them, my cabinet only contains one specimen which does them any credit. The captures of those who are not tired with the love or instinct of insect preservation, are not likely to be good, and I used invariably to obtain from them a mass, of tawdry and damaged insects mostly not worth setting. To collect butterflies and then place them permanently in envelopes to get them set up, perhaps in London, is to my mind of 110 particular pleasure. Hone, compared with the pleasure of feast¬ ing one's eyes on such captures as these; each one with a story. To collect butterflies as a hobby, one must, I think, have the incentive of personal contact both in the capture and in the setting. The task of dating, localising, classifying and naming, is at first rather a dull work. The guide to the Malayan butterflies is found in Distant's wonderful book published in 1886 and it is now unfortunately rather out of date. Some Notes on the Life History of Atella phalanta, Drury. By C. L. COLLENETTK. F.E.S. On 20th November, 192-1, I noticed a specimen of Atella phalanta fluttering closely round the leaves of the Rukam,, (Flacourtia cataphracta). The tree had been cut down to within three feet of the ground and a number of short brancnes had risen from the stump, making observation easy. Hanging from the leaves were many empty pupae cases. After three or four minutes fluttering, the butterfly alighted on a leaf, walked about on it and then protruded her abdomen over the side, laying an egg on the edge of the underside. The act of laying took five or six seconds. Then, walking and fluttering, to another place, she laid an egg at the base of a small new leaf. This Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE LIFE HISTORY OF ATELLA PHALANTA. 71 process was continued until six eggs were laid, occupying about two minutes, after which she commenced fluttering round the tree again. The weather was dull, with no rain, and the time 10 a.m. I afterwards found an egg on a small thorn, with the nearest leaf two inches from it. The colour of the eggs was creamy yellow. The eggs hatched on 24th and 25th November. On 29th. November, in captivity, several larvae changed their skins. These skins were left on the leaves, whereas later ones were- not seen in any case and were undoubtedly eaten. The young larvae, when disturbed, clung to the leaves and did not fall. When half grown and afterwards they left their hold readily and hung by -a thread, climbing rapidly again shortly after¬ wards. On one occasion a nearly fully grown larva was seen to elevate- its head and tail in the air and vigorously brush the spines on the back together by side to side movements for two or three seconds. No cause could be seen and the action was only noticed once,, although several larvae were frequently under observation. The larvae in captivity fed by night and by clay. In the- open, they appeared to spend the clay on the undersides of leaves,, where they were easily seen against the green background. Bain apparently drove them to more substantial cover below, as I failed to find any on the leaves immediately after rain. Fully grown larva—Body sepia brown, this colour being un¬ changed from the time of hatching. Skin slimy and wet looking except when newly changed, when it is at first dull. A narrow black line along the back and a thin white line along each side. Face shield, black, with a small central -white spot. Body covered with black spines, as long as the breadth of body, each spine covered with short black hairs. Spines in six rows clown the body, four on first segment, two on the back on 2nd, four -on 3rd, six on 4th to 11th, and four on 12th, totalling sixty-two. Legs black, claspers brown with lighter bases and black tips. The larva is figured in Distant's " Bhopalocera Malayana," but the drawing is inaccurate in several particulars. In Dr. Seitz's work the colour of the larva is described as pale green above and whitish beneath, differing- entirely from the above description. On 3rd December two larvae pupated, on the 4th two more and from the 5th to the 7th the remaining three which I had in captivity. A day before starting to pupate, the larva shrank and thickened and turned a light leaf-green, the colour afterwards taken by the pupa. The spines and white markings remained unchanged. I did not see this colour change take place but it was a rapid rather than a gradual process. It does not appear likely that the skin would Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 72 THE LIFE HISTORY OP ATELLA PHALANTA. be changed a day before pupating and I put the appearance down to the colour of the pupa showing through the old and transparent skin of the larva. The action of pupating took approximately twenty-four hours. On the larvae changing colour I placed them in a small glass topped box for better observation. The history of one specimen was as follows:— The larva walked slowly round the box for some time and selected a spot on the glass lid at about 7.3'0 p.m. For twenty minutes it steadily spun a web on the glass, the centre being a narrow strip of thick silk a tenth of an inch long, with a thinner web radiating from it on all sides for nearly half an inch. It then walked once round the web, placed its tail carefully on the thickened strip of silk and rubbed it slowly up and down for two or three minutes. I could not be sure whether it was merely taking a. firm grip with its tail or whether it was covering the silk with liquid which would afterwards harden, but I think the latter. Another specimen behaved in a similar manner but walked straight on to the web after completing the spinning. One which I disturbed just after it ceased all movement, repeated the rubbing for the same length of time. After the rubbing the larva remained motionless for an hour and a half, then released hold with its legs and remained hanging by the tail, nearly perpendicular. At about 6.30 p.m. on the next day, the hanging larva commenced to move. The tail moved more than the head, but the whole body was in slight motion. The pupa was apparently shifting inside the skin as each spine moved separately like a sea urchin's, the object probably being to free all attachments between the old skin and the new. At 7.5 the motions became more violent and at 7.10 the skin split at the head. The wrigglings from side to side continued and the skin slipped up the body. The pairs of short spines on the back appeared to assist, one being withdrawn first and then the other. The skin split as it ascended and when bunched at the tail ten seconds of very violent wrigglings freed it entirely and it dropped to the ground. From the first splitting of the skin the operation took about 30 seconds. After the skin had fallen the pupa continued to wriggle and sway from side to side for some ten seconds. It appeared to have perfect confidence in its tail support as the wrigglings were at times very violent. After changing, the pupa hung straight downwards, but a clay later had assumed an almost horizontal position, which it retained throughout. I did not succeed in observing this change of position, although I watched for it with several specimens. The action was sudden rather than a gradual drying of the skin but, once assumed, the drying fixed the position, as the body became quite rigid. The horizontal position would enable the emerging butterfly to grip the surface of the leaf above as soon as its legs were withdrawn from the pupa case. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries THE LIFE HISTOEY OF ATELLA PHALANTA, 73 The pupa was a very beautiful object. Light green, with raised spots and stripes of metallic white, resembling mother of pearl or the spots on a Queen of Stpain Fritillary, each edged with red. From each spot rose a short black spine. The colouring of the spots took some two hours to brighten, being at first a dull white. The pupa in its natural state on the under side of a leaf was very easily seen, the white spots reflecting the light like highly polished metal. As an example of the ease with which wrong observations can be made, I made a note that the two first pupae had turned black at the end of the first day. When other larvae had pupated and did not change colour I investigated further and found that the ■original ones were dead. The first butterfly hatched out on the 8th December at about 7 a.m., and another during the day, the third during the day on 1'2-th December, the fourth between 10.30 p.m. on the 12th and 5.45 ■a.m. on the 13th, and the fifth at 9.20 a.m. on the 13th. I was much surprised that one should have appeared during the night. It flew away about 6 a.m. and must therefore have emerged in the1 ■darkness. Prior to changing, the skin of the pupa became so transparent that the colour and markings on the wings could be seen. The •outlines of the head and wings were also very pronounced. The 'emergence was very rapid and energetic. The case split open along the back from the head to the base of the thorax and below along the costal margin of each wing, apparently being burst •open by the action of the legs. The insect was free of the case in 8 to 10 seconds and crawled a short distance, after which it remained still, with its wings hanging below, for several minutes- The straightening and swelling of the wings could be distinctly seen and in two and a half minutes they had arrived at their full size, Although still quite soft. Shortly after this it commenced to walk again, climbing where possible, and opening and shutting its wings as they became harder. The proboscis was extended and curled •again several times. The wings were strong enough for flight in half an hour, but an insect which I left undisturbed did not fly until about an hour had elapsed. Taking 12th December as the average time of emergence, the period from the laying of the eggs on 20th November was only 22 ■days, and, allowing a week to ten days for the new brood to lay again, the cycle would be completed in a little over a month. The weather during the period was cool, with high winds and rain almost daily. The time taken appears very short when compared with a brood of the Atlas moth which I had under observation at the same time. In this case the eggs were laid on 22nd November, hatched on 2nd and 3rd December, pupated on 7th to 10th January and emerged on 2nd to 8th February. Allowing tire same period of a week to ten days for egg laying, the cycle in this case would extend to nearly three months. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 74 THE LIFE HISTORY OF ATELLA PHALANTA. As it is improbable that Atella phalanta has nine or ten broods- during the year, it would be interesting to know where the delay, takes place in later broods. Whether by a general slowing up in all the stages or by the eggs or pupa, "waiting over" for suitable weather. I tried , during December and January to obtain another brood of this insect, but no butterflies or larvae were to be seen in the locality (near Bukit Timah, Singapore), where I obtained those described above. Notes on an Acclimatisation Experiment with Helix aspersa. By Y. H. C. Jaruett. Helix aspersa, the commonest snail of a large portion of Europe,, thrives under varying climatic conditions, such as in parts of Aus¬ tralia (e.g., New South Wales), New Zealand, and South America (e.g., in Chile). When about to return to Singapore from leave in 1920, the writer thought of experimenting with this hardy snail,, to see whether it could be acclimatised in Malaya, where the heat is not so great as in either the Australian or South American sum¬ mer, and where there is always ample moisture, and whether it could survive a. long period of travel in a comatose condition. A few Helix aspersa were collected by the writer in Flintshire, in a rainy district, and packed in a small box, but the}' did not survive the long voyage of about five weeks out to Singapore. The experiment was not a satisfactory one, however, as one of the- snails had got crushed and putrefied, and this might have con¬ tributed to the others dying before the end of the journey. In the autumn of 1921, six Helix aspersa were collected in the same district as the others, and we're despatched to the writer by. letter-post, packed in a small tin box, and arrived in Singapore after a journey of twenty-four days. Four of the six were quite active, but two died shortly after arrival. The four healthy ones were put out in the open, under ordinarjr climatic conditions, partly in the- shade, in a small enclosure covered over with wire-mesh, and fed on greenstuff's, chiefly cucumber chips; and at the time of writing,, three months after their arrival, one has just died, apparently from natural causes, while the other three are in the best of condition. About five weeks ago they laid -eggs in the earth of their enclosure,, and after a fortnight a large number of small snails hatched out. The majority of these were left in the open in an enclosure, under the ordinary climatic conditions of this country, and all died or were devoured by predaceous insects and birds within a few days. Their enclosure was covered, with wire-gauze at night, but was left uncov¬ ered in the daytime. The others were placed indoors in a small box, with moist earth and edible leaves such as lettuce, and reared under Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries ACCLIMINATION OF HELIX ASPERSA. 75- artificial conditions, and practically all of them are alive at the time of writing. They are now several weeks old, and have grown considerably. (It is interesting to note that during this period of their activ¬ ity the adult snails, had they remained in their native climate,, would have been hibernating. They had already gatiiered under a big stone for their winter sleep when they were collected for despatch to Singapore.) The acclimatisation attempt may be said to have failed, through, as it would seem that newly-hatched Ilelix aspersa are un¬ able to withstand the local conditions; so that adult snails intro¬ duced here would most probably die out without any of their progeny becoming established in the place—much to the relief, 110 doubt, of local horticulturists. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries ejp <£&> <5fe t£fc ej% efc. Sfa Editorial. New Book on Malayan Fishes. The attention of members is called to Xo. 84 of the Journal ■of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (November 1921), which is devoted entirely to Malayan Fishes. The book is the work of Mr. C. X. Maxwell and is invaluable to students of local Ichthyology. The price to non-members of the Society is $2.50, and the book is to be obtained at the Society's Rooms at the Raffles Museum. The Introduction is written chiefly from an economic point ■of view, but part 1 gives an account of the habits, the quality of the flesh, and other items of general interest. Two carefully prepared lists follow. In one there is an .alphabetic arrangement according to Malay names for the use of local workers, and in the other the fish are arranged in scientific sequence. The seventy-two plates, produced by a photographic method, will prove very useful for identifying the local species, each plate being provided with a scale of inches. As an instance of the vast amount of work that remains to be done in Malaya, we may quote from Mr. Maxwell's Introduction: "There are, probably, not less than 2,000 species of fish in Malayan waters. There are certainly not less than 500 species of ■economic importance, and if we take 250 species as being valuable marine food-fishes, some idea may be formed of the amount of research required before we shall be in a position to state definitely where a certain species may be found in full roe, where its spawning- grounds are, where the recruiting grounds of its young are and when and where it travels during the seasonal migrations." Several most important questions are raised in the Introduc¬ tion. It would appear that the method of catching fish by means of certain types of fixed traps, of which there are several thousand Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries NEW BOOK ON MALAYAN PISHES. IT between Penang and Port Swettenham, is very harmful from a national point of view. In addition to immature fish, which any- Malay fisherman knows are the fry of valuable food-fish, great numbers of " Bunga Aver " are caught. Mr. Maxwell considers that scientific investigation will prove that these tiny creatures are the immature stage (Leptoeephalus) of food-fish. The pollution of the rivers by mining silt likewise has a most destructive effect on local fishes. Mr. Maxwell's words are well worth quoting: " Though the question of damage to our marine fisheries has evoked some attention during the past two years, it is doubtful whether serious thought has been given to the terrible damage done to the fresh water fisheries by mining silt. Engineers have fought for their roads and railways against the invading silt, but, to judge- from official reports, no one has fought for the fisheries and the need for protection of the riverine rights of the people would appear to have passed unnoticed. Within the writer's memory the main rivers of the West coast were fine clear streams. The water provided irrigation for the rice- fielcls and contained quantities of fine edible fish. These rivers- are now thick turbid streams carrying a heavy burden of slime and silt. We have probably one hundred different species of Carp alone, besides dozens of species of Catfish and many fine fish belonging to the families Osphromenidae, Notopteridae, etc., etc. Catfish can exist in slime and silt though, it is questionable whether they can. thrive, but Carp certainly require clear water to breed in. One of our Carp the KELAI! (Barbus sp.) has been described by Swettenham as-the finest freshwater fish he ever ate in the East, and the KALUI (Osphromenus olfax) is so highly esteemed that several attempts have been made to introduce it into France, and it has been acclimatised in Mauritius, Australia, and parts of India. Tin mining is necessary and some pollution of the rivers is unavoidable, but there have been many case's where carelessly constructed dams have broken, and a turbid flood of slime has been allowed to pour direct into the rivers for months while leisurely repairs are being made. Though much of the damage done in the- past is irremediable; let us hope that a more general recognition of the value of the fresh water fisheries will result in a fair measure of protection in the future. There are still rivers which can be saved. By saving our fresh water fisheries we shall save, incidentally,, our rice-fields, for Bice and Fish in addition to being the two staple foods of the country are inseparable. When you destroy one you destroy the other. Where you can grow rice you can catch fish and where you can no longer catch fish you cannot grow rice. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries 78 NEW BOOK ON MALAYAN PISHES. To explain: the mining silt which pours into the rivers gradually raises the bed of the stream and so causes a rise in the water table. A rise in the water table limits the area of drain able land, and drainage is as necessary to a rice field as irrigation. So the area which can be planted, with rice becomes smaller and small¬ er until eventually the water table is so high that the river channel can no longer carry otf storm water. The resulting floods deposit a layer of slime and silt on the rice fields and complete the work of destruction. Fish cannot breed in the rivers polluted with slime and silt, so the Fisheries and rice fields perish simultaneously. In our policy of construction and development these facts should not be lost ■sight of." The question of the transport of the freshly caught fish from the sea to consumer is discussed at some length and provides much cause for thought. There is not the slightest doubt that the present system is very bad. Ice from Kuala Lumpur is sent to Port Swettenham by rail and then purchased by small "Middle¬ men." These men go to sea and purchase the fish from the actual ■catchers, but as a rule are bound to sell the fish to the Ice-dealers. Another "Middleman " now functions before the fish reaches the retailer! We can now understand why it is that the price of fish rises $65 a. pikul between the two places. The rapid melting of the ice during the period of these transactions causes the fish, to reach the consumer in a sodden ■condition. The author considers that the whole future of the perishable goods business in the country depends on cold-storage. It. is a moot point as to what part the State should take in the development ■of the trade. The fact remains that owing to a lack of cold-storage transport the inexhaustible fish supplies of the China Sea are not available. Although hundreds of tons of prime fish are caught every year on the East coast, the fish are all dried for export—yet they may actually be caught within twenty-four hours steam of Singapore! Mr. Maxwell puts forward some suggestion for remedying this sad state of affairs as far as the West coast is concerned. He sug¬ gests that cold-storage should be installed (by the State) in the markets, and that the retail dealers should be able to rent spaces in the store in the same way that stalls are rented. A second idea is the installation of refrigerator vans on the railways. To develop the East coast fisheries a different scheme must be devised. The sea off the coast of Pahang, Trengganu and Kelantan swarms with fish all the year round. No fishing is done during the N. E. Monsoon because the fishermen live on the main¬ land and a heavy sea breaks on the shallows^and sandbanks which extend from the coast; likewise the entrances to the rivers are guarded by dangerous breakers. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries NEW BOOK ON MALAYAN FISHES. 79 Further out, however, the seas are regular and Mr. Maxwell advocates State enterprise in the establishment of cold-storage -depots on some.of the islands forming part of the chain up the East N coast. Safe anchorage and shelter in smooth water could always he found near the islands which would become permanent fishing settlements. The fishermen would pay rent for space in the cold- storage. This rent could be collected when the fish were sold. East coast steamers would find it profitable to call at these islands for fish. It may be that the discussion of such questions of vital economic and national importance are beyond the scope of the Singapore Natural History Society, but the following words from p. 185 of "Malayan Fishes" surely affect us:— " A few moments consideration will enable one to realise that the life habits of every species of fish are subject to certain fixed laws. It is only a matter of systematic organized research to discover those laws and to apply the knowledge to the develop¬ ment of Malayan Fisheries. 'We can learn what has been done in Canada, Great Britain and the United States, but this general learning must be supple¬ mented by detailed local research.* We must work out our own local tables." *Tlie Italics are new. In order to facilitate the work of the Editor in preparing future numbers of the "'Singapore Naturalist," Members are requested to bear in mind the following points:— (1) Precedence will be given to papers dealing with local Natural History. (2) Please send typescript, if possible. (3) All proofs should be returned, without delay, to the Honorary Secretary. (4) Authors will be supplied with twelve reprints of their papers, free of charge. An author requiring additional reprints should mark upon his proof the number of extra copies wanted. He will be charged for these by the printer, who will forward' the copies to him, when ready, shortly after the publication of the Volume in which the paper appears. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries so NEW BOOK ON MALAYAN FISHES Donations. Oiir thanks are clue to Mr. T. L. Gosling for laying the found¬ ation of the Societj^'s. Library in presenting a copy of W. P. Pycraft's book " The Courtship of Animals "—a work of exceptional interest to all field naturalists. Exchange List. The Hon. Secretary frequently receives letters from collectors, m various parts of the world who are desirous of exchanging, specimens with members. A list of addresses can be obtained on application at any General Meeting. Exhibitions. In only a few cases have Members given the Hon. Secretary a written note concerning specimens they have exhibited. The various interesting observations made have therefore been lost as the Editor has found it- impossible to write up a short account of all the exhibitions. Original from and digitized by National University of Singapore Libraries Original from and digitized by National■ University of Singapore Libraries