THE WETA News Bulletin of THE ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF NEW ZEALAND
Volume 47 July 2014
ISSN 0111-7696 THE WETA News Bulletin of the Entomological Society of New Zealand (Inc.)
[Now ONLINE at http://ento.org.nz/nzentomologist/index.php]
Aims and Scope The Weta is the news bulletin of the Entomological Society of New Zealand. The Weta, like the society’s journal, the New Zealand Entomologist, promotes the study of the biology, ecology, taxonomy and control of insects and arachnids in an Australasian setting. The purpose of the news bulletin is to provide a medium for both amateur and professional entomologists to record observations, news, views and the results of smaller research projects.
Details for the submission of articles are given on the inside back cover.
The Entomological Society of New Zealand The Society is a non-profit organisation that exists to foster the science of Entomology in New Zealand, whether in the study of native or adventive fauna. Membership is open to all people interested in the study of insects and related arthropods. Enquiries regarding membership to the Society should be addressed to: Dr Darren F. Ward, Entomological Society Treasurer, New Zealand Arthropod Collection, Landcare Research Private Bag 92170, Auckland 1142, New Zealand [email protected]
Officers 2014-2015 President: Dr Stephen Pawson Vice President: Dr Cor Vink Immediate Past President: Dr Phil Lester Secretary: Dr Greg Holwell Treasurer: Dr Matthew Shaw New Zealand Entomologist editor: Dr Phil Sirvid The Weta editor: Dr John Leader Website editor: Dr Sam Brown Visit the website at: http://ento.org.nz/
Fellows of the Entomological Society of New Zealand Dr G. Kuschel 1988, Mr J.S. Dugdale 2001, Dr. B. A. Holloway 2004, Professor G. Gibbs 2009, Dr B. Barratt 2010, Dr. R. Emberson (2014), Dr A. Eyles (2014)
Honorary Members Mrs S. Millar, Dr R.R. Scott, Mr J.D. Tenquist The Weta 47: 1-2 1
Editorial
John Leader 66 Lakings Road, Blenheim Email: [email protected]
“I suppose you are an entomologist?”“Not quite so ambitious as that, sir. I should like to put my eyes on the individual entitled to that name. No man can be truly called an entomologist, sir; the subject is too vast for any single human intelligence to grasp.” Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., The Poet at the Breakfast Table
In this issue, Professor Michael Winterbourn has an interesting article on the question of ‘amateur’ versus ‘professional’ practitioners of entomology, making the amusing cricketing analogy of the ‘gentlemen’ and ‘players’; those who had to work for a living and those who played for fun. In the early days of entomology, in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, almost all those who studied insects were amateurs, from Linnaeus to Charles Darwin, and most would have called themselves naturalists, collecting biological specimens and natural artefacts with an unbounded enthusiasm. In a very well written series of essays, which make excellent reading, Wigglesworth (1976) notes that A.W Haworth, a lawyer, founded the first entomological society in England, Kirby, a man of private means, and William Spence, a rector who believed that the study of insects revealed the wisdom of God, together produced a seminal work on insects which was the standard for fifty years. Wigglesworth also records that Sir John Lubbock, who in the course of a busy public life (which included sponsoring the Early Closing Act and giving us Bank Holidays), found time to demonstrate that bees could distinguish colours, and that ants navigated by noting the position of the sun.
A different strand in the development of entomology as a science was driven by necessity. In the United States and later in Europe, the ravages of the Colorado Beetle in the 1860s led to the 2 John Leader development of the first insecticides. In 1878 Manson discovered that filariasis was spread by insects, a discovery that led to the realisation that many of the major epidemic diseases of humans are spread by insects, and which led to the founding of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine. Wigglesworth himself, of course, the icon of insect physiology, was initially trained as a doctor. In New Zealand, the first professional entomologist was David Miller, appointed Government Entomologist in 1916. Reference to his publication “A Bibliography of New Zealand Entomology” compiled in 1953, reveals how much the early study of the insects of New Zealand relied for progress on interested and gifted ‘amateurs’ That situation is little changed today. The vast diversity of the insect fauna, much of it of little obvious economic or medical importance, means that many insects are of no interest to those paid to investigate more pressing matters. There will always be room for the ‘disinterested’ (in the sense of amateur) student. As I have noted before, THE WETA provides space for those interesting and original observations which might be of interest only to a New Zealand readership, or not merit publication in a journal for professionals, but which nonetheless are significant in a local context. The wide range and scope of the papers in this issue are testament to that. Long may it continue.
References Wigglesworth VB. 1976. Insects and the Life of Man. Chapman and Hall, London Miller D, 1953. A Bibliography of New Zealand Entomology..N.Z.D.S.I.R. Biulletin 120.
NOTE Marie-Claude Larivière has recently published a key to genera of New Zealand Heteroptera. It may be accessed at: http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/resources/identification/ animals/heteroptera/genera/keys
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Bug signs: Increasing awareness of the diversity of insects and other invertebrates
Nicholas Martin 15 Rutland Road, Mt. Wellington, Auckland 1051 Email: [email protected])
Abstract
One of the activities of the Auckland Branch of the Entomological Society of New Zealand is to encourage an interest in insects and other terrestrial invertebrates. Our current project is to produce better signs about these organisms that will go in reserves and parks. Four signs have been produced and another set of four are planned. The next challenge is to get them out into the reserves.
Introduction
As entomologists we all know that there are more insects in New Zealand than any other group of organisms and that is before we have included all the other terrestrial invertebrates (Ahong & Gordon 2010). We also know that they are a dominant component of the biodiversity in terrestrial native ecosystems. However, my impression is that most people in New Zealand generally consider native terrestrial biodiversity to mean birds and plants and perhaps butterflies and dragonflies. The relatively low value placed on invertebrates came home to me this year when I participated in an Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) hearing about a request to import an insect that is a generalist predator that could have caused the extinction of native species, or at least serious reductions in the populations of some species. In answer to a question an EPA staff member said that the loss of a native invertebrate did not rank as highly as the loss of a species of bird, because the public did not care so much about invertebrates. The application to import the predatory mirid was declined, but I was left with 4 Nicholas Martin the thought that we must do more to educate people about insects and other invertebrates.
The Auckland Branch of the Entomological Society has already been making efforts in this direction. We developed a web page about encouraging insects in the garden (ento.org.nz/tools-and-resources- 2/garden-insects/), and have embarked upon a new venture, outdoor signs about insects and other invertebrates. You may have read about them in a society email in the New Year. However, I am aware that some members of our Society missed it, so I will explain more about the philosophy behind the signs, how we design and produce them and what needs to be done to get them out into parks and reserves.
Philosophy behind the Bug Signs
Some reserves have signs about insects, but they rarely show people what they can actually see, and they tend to illustrate museum specimens (Fig. 1).
Figure 1. Puriri moth sign in Tahuna Torea Reserve, Glendowie, Auckland.
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This sign about puriri moth is typical. It shows a moth with its wings spread out in an unnatural position and although it mentions the holes made by the caterpillar in the nearby tree, the distinctive looking holes are not illustrated. The upshot is that people reading the sign would not be able to recognize this night flying moth if they saw one and they probably would not be able to recognize the presence of puriri moth on other trees even if the distinctive holes were present.
Our approach is to illustrate the plant damage symptoms that people can see and to show what the live insect or invertebrate looks like (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Puriri moth, large sign (100 x 200 mm) designed by Auckland Branch of Entomological Society of New Zealand and Metal Images Ltd.
We also provide details of the link to a web site with a factsheet, nzacfactsheets.landcareresearch.co.nz/index.html, about the invertebrate and for those with a smart phone or a tablet computer a QR code that goes directly to the factsheet. This way we hope that people will learn how to look for the signs of invertebrate activity and in the case of scale insects, 6 Nicholas Martin the organism itself. At present we are limiting ourselves to subjects for which there is an internet factsheet.
Design of the signs We are developing the Bug Signs with an Auckland company, Metal Image, recommended by Auckland Council Staff. They have a standard format for plant and bird signs that we are using (Fig. 2). For each subject there is a large and small format, which means that more detail can be included in the large sign.
For the first batch of signs, four subjects were selected after discussion with a member of Auckland Council staff who liaises with community groups. For each subject photographs or drawings were selected to illustrate the plant damage that people would see and the main life stages of the insect or mite. Words for the sign were also drafted. The company’s artist drew the images and after consultation with myself and our Branch committee, made changes if required. Auckland Branch funded the artist’s time, Metal Images covered other development costs.
The first four subjects were:
Coprosma white erineum mite, Phyllocoptes coprosmae (Acari: Eriophyidae),
Pohutukawa leafminer, Neomycta rubida (Coleoptera: Curculionidae),
Cabbage tree moth, Epiphryne verriculata (Lepidoptera: Geometridae),
Puriri moth, Aenetus virescens (Lepidoptera: Hepialidae).
The signs are printed on a metal plate. They can be bought mounted on a stand ready to put in the ground or just the sign, www.metalimage.co.nz/bushbirdandbug.html.
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What needs to happen next
In order to promote the signs, the Auckland Branch purchased a set of four and at a meeting of Auckland and Northland Forest & Bird Branches, donated them to South Auckland Branch.
This year the Auckland Branch will fund the design of four more signs. The subjects will probably be: Lacebark gall mite, Eriophyes hoheriae (Acari: Eriophyoidea: Eriophyidae), Mahoe leafminer, Liriomyza flavolateralis (Diptera: Agromyzidae), Pittosporum psyllid, Trioza vitreoradiata (Hemiptera: Psylloidea: Triozidae), Poroporo fruit borer, Sceliodes cordalis (Lepidoptera: Crambidae).
The next challenge is get more signs out into parks and reserves. Our funds are not large, so we are applying to charities to help purchase signs to be donated to suitable groups who manage reserves. We will also assist these groups with the placement of the signs. We hope this will inspire these groups to purchase more signs when they become available.
In your area, you could encourage groups to which you belong to acquire these signs. They can be purchased from Metal Images, www.metalimage.co.nz/bushbirdandbug.html. We would also like to have suggestions for subjects for signs. If there is no Internet Factsheet someone will need to write one. Contact me for more details about the Factsheet series, Interesting Insects and other Invertebrates.
Reference Ahyong S, Gordon DP. 2010. Phylum Arthropoda: Introduction jointed animals. Pp. 40-44. In: Gordon DP. (Ed.) New Zealand Inventory of Biodiversity. Volume two: Kingdom Animalia, Chaetogmatha, Ecdysozoa, Ichnofosils. Canterbury University Press, Christchurch, New Zealand. 8 Nicholas Martin
Scaptomyza (Bunostoma) flavella (Diptera: Drosophilidae) and the evolution of leaf mining.
Nicholas Martin* 15 Rutland Road, Mt. Wellington, Auckland 1051 Email: [email protected]
Abstract Fly larvae forming mines in New Zealand celery, Apium prostratum (Apiaceae) were reared and identified as Scaptomyza (Bunostoma) flavella. A laboratory colony was established and it was found that first instar larvae did not burrow into leaves, though later instars did. All larval instars could live and grow in decaying celery leaves. This fly species is a facultative leafminer. Other species of the subgenus in New Zealand are either decaying vegetation feeders or true leaf miners.
The story so far I reported the discovery in 2011 of the New Zealand spinach leafminer, Scaptomyza (Bunostoma) sp. (Diptera: Drosophilidae) at Piha and Karekare, west Auckland breeding on Tetragonia implexicoma (Miq.) Hook.f. (Aizoaceae) (Martin 2012). This proved to be an undescribed species previously collected from the Chatham Islands; a strange distribution, Chatham Islands and west coast of Auckland. A second undescribed species, discovered by Brenda May in 1982, is a leafminer on Pratia (= Lobelia) angulata G.Forst. (Campanulaceae). There are two described species: S. (B.) fuscitarsis Harrison, 1959, which is common in grasslands south of Auckland and whose larvae feed on decaying plants, and S. (B.) flavella Harrison, 1959, which is found around the coast and on offshore islands.
The discovery of S, flavella larvae On 15 November 2013 there was an exceptionally low tide at Muriwai, West Auckland. I walked along the beach of south of Maori Bay to view the pillow lava in the cliffs. On the way back I examined the vegetation at
The Weta 47: 8-11 9 the base of the cliffs and found New Zealand celery, Apium prostratum Labill. ex Vent. (Apiaceae), growing under trees in the spray zone. One group of plants had leaf mines that appeared to contain fly larvae. I collected many leaves. Viewed with transmitted light under a stereo- microscope they looked like Scaptomyza larvae. The coastal distribution of the plant pointed to them being S. flavella, which is what they proved to be.
Figure 1. Leaf of New Zealand celery, Apium prostratum (Apiaceae) with mines made by larvae of Scaptomyza (Bunostoma) flavella (Drosophilidae); arrow points to larva in leaf (photographer Tim Holmes, copyright Plant & Food Research).
10 Nicholas Martin
A third species of native Scaptomyza that is a leaf miner: end of story? No such luck!
Rearing S. flavella
Early in the spring I had improved my technique for rearing the New Zealand spinach leafminer, by supplying the newly emerged adult flies with dilute honey solution, and had succeeded in getting them to lay eggs on leaves. I observed the first instar larvae burrow into leaves demonstrating that it is a true leaf miner. Using the same approach I released S. flavella adults into a small cage with honey solution and celery leaves standing in water with tissue around the leaf stalks to prevent access to the water. Some leaves were damaged by caterpillars, Merophyas sp. (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) that can tunnel into leaves, a common occurrence, I found, in summer. Eventually the flies laid eggs on celery leaves and larvae were seen burrowing through the leaves. I tried putting first instar larvae on intact and undamaged leaves, but they did not burrow in, whereas older larvae put on intact leaves, rasped the leaf surface and they created tunnels in the leaves forming large blotch mines.
Figure 2. Adult Scaptomyza (Bunostoma) flavella (Drosophilidae) reared from larvae living in live leaves of New Zealand celery, Apium prostratum (Umbelliferae) (photographer Tim Holmes, copyright Plant & Food Research).
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It appears we have a fly species that is a facultative leafminer. Indeed it can be reared entirely on decayed celery leaves. The larger larvae will also burrow into Chenopodium sp. (Amaranthaceae) leaves though my impression is that burrowing is not as extensive.
Discussion
Flies in several families have larvae that are leaf miners (Hering 1951). There has been speculation about the evolution of the leaf mining habit. Within the genus Scaptomyza members of the subgenus Scaptomyza are leaf miners and because of the detailed information on the genetics of Drosophila species, the origin of leaf mining in S. (S.) flava (Fallen, 1823) was studied. It is estimated that leaf mining evolved between 6 and 16 million years ago (Whiteman et al. 2012). They also identified some of the genetic changes involved. It is remarkable that in New Zealand that we have two species of the subgenus Bunostoma that are leafminers, one species that appears only to feed on decaying plants and a fourth species that is a facultative leafminer. What a great research topic for someone!
Acknowledgement
Frances MacDonald for care of the New Zealand spinach and New Zealand celery plants.
References Hering EM. 1951. Biology of leaf miners. Uitgeverij Dr W. Junk,‘s Gravenhage, The Netherlands. 420 p.
Martin NA. 2012. Tales of two discoveries. The Weta 44: 13-19.
Whiteman NK, Gloss AD, Sackton TB, Groen SC, Humphrey PT, Lapoint RT, Sonderby IE, Halkier BA, Kocks C, Ausubel FM and others. 2012. Genes Involved in the Evolution of Herbivory by a Leaf-Mining, Drosophilid Fly. Genome Biology and Evolution 4(9): 900-916. 12 Annette Walker and Marie-Claude Larivière
Confirmation of host plant relationships between the two species of waka leafhoppers, Paracephaleus (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Ulopinae) and rushes in New Zealand.
Annette K. Walker1 and Marie-Claude Larivière2 1 13 Tahi Street, Mapua 7005, Nelson, New Zealand. Email: [email protected] 2 Landcare Research, Private Bag 92170, Auckland, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]
Abstract Two species of Paracephaleus are found in New Zealand, P. curtus Knight and P. hudsoni (Myers). The wetland rushes Empodisma minus (wire rush) and Apodasmia similis (jointed rush) are recorded as the predominant respective host plants for P. curtus and P. hudsoni.
Paracephaleus species or waka leafhoppers, although not commonly collected, are amongst New Zealand’s most recognizable insects and never-to-be-forgotten species to see in their natural habitat. They are shaped like a miniature Maori canoe, hence the term waka leafhoppers and, even though they are relatively large (6.6–9.2 mm), they are often overlooked in the field, because they mostly lie immobile and look just like the blade or seed of grass. When disturbed, however, they can jump at a remarkable speed up over the edge of a beating tray and out of sight. The best way to collect these leafhoppers is to carefully place a small plastic beating tray at the base of rushes trying not to disturb the insects. Then give the reed a sharp, sideways knock over the tray to dislodge the leafhoppers onto the tray where they will lie immobile long enough to quickly be
The Weta 47: 12-16 13 picked up. A saturated brush of alcohol is the easiest way to scoop up the specimens straight into a vial containing alcohol.
Two species of endemic Paracephaleus are recognised in New Zealand, P. curtus Knight and P. hudsoni (Myers). They are differentiated primarily by their body length (P. curtus being the smaller species) and the length of the head in front of the eyes (being much longer in P. hudsoni). Although the two species nearly overlap in body length at the limit of their measurement ranges, 6.6 to 8.1 mm for P. curtus and 8.2 to 9.2 mm for P. hudsoni, the average individual measures around 7.5 mm in P. curtus and around 8.5 mm in P. hudsoni. The most useful measure to diagnose the two species using relative head length is the ratio of head length to body length. Once again the two species may almost overlap with respe ct to this character but P. curtus individuals average a head length (in front of eyes) to body length ratio well below 0.27, and P. hudsoni well
A B
Figure 1 Dorsal view of heads of, A: P. hudsoni and B: P. curtus. above 0.27. The online key by Larivière and Fletcher (2004-2017) may help readers to see these differences. 14 Annette Walker and Marie-Claude Larivière
Adult waka leafhoppers have forewings that are somewhat hardened and either fully developed or shortened, and they may lack hindwings. They have strong, stumpy little legs which are just the right length to grip round a blade of grass or stalk of a reed while feeding from a very prominent proboscis. Both species are usually light brown but light green nymphs and adults of P. hudsoni have been collected at Westhaven and Tasman Bay inlets.
Paracephaleus curtus was described based on 17 specimens collected from the Stockton and Denniston Plateaux by Knight (1973) who stated that this “species is known only from Chinochloa rubra and from amongst moss and mat plants”. This associated plant record was reported to be based on adult specimens by Larivière et al. (2010) who could not confirm the host plant for this leafhopper. The South Island West Coast collecting of April 2012 in the surrounding areas of Charming Creek, near Seddonville, the Manuka Plateau in lower Buller Gorge and Charleston confirmed that adults and nymphs of P. curtus are common on wire rush (Empodisma minus) in pakihi habitat (swampy, acidic wetland) in these localities, and that this is a common host plant for this leafhopper. Larivière et al.’s (2010) North Island record of P. curtus from Ruapehu is based on a nymph deposited in NZAC, which approximates P. curtus in external characters.
The larger, more common species of waka leafhopper, Paracephaleus hudsoni, on the other hand, although not common on the Denniston Plateau in April, appears to be more common in other areas of New Zealand. Larivière et al. (2010) reported this species to occur from Northland to Wellington on the North Island, and in the northwest of the South Island as well as giving one record from the Dunedin region.
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From 58 specimens of P. hudsoni recorded by Knight (1973), only one winged female was collected on ‘Leptocarpus simplex’ and further collecting indicates that the jointed rush, Apodasmia similis (previously called Leptocarpus simplex) is a predominant host plant. In recent collecting, for instance, on the Westhaven Inlet and Tasman Bay salt marshes where jointed rush usually occurs together with a common coastal rush (Juncus sp.) within the high tide zone, large numbers of adults and nymphs were collected only on jointed rush. One assumes that on the very high tides the leafhoppers crawl up the rush stems and rest on the seed heads which emerge from the high water. Larivière et al. (2010) reported Apodasmia similis to be associated with this leafhopper but they could not confirm it as a host plant. They, however, reported adult and immature specimens from Empodisma minus and suggested it was a hostplant.
An interesting record of P. hudsoni is that of Ian Townsend who collected 5 females and 1 male (NZAC) at the Tokaanu Hot Pools near Turangi on the North Island. Collecting labels read “Tokaanu Hot Pools, 40-45ºC”. This record stands out as remarkable and needs further investigation as it would seem unusual for the leafhoppers to live in the hot pools although they could quite possibly live on the surrounding vegetation, which in itself would be interesting in that it provides for extreme environmental conditions.
In summary, two endemic species of waka leafhoppers or Paracephaleus occur in New Zealand. Both species appear to be dominant on their Restionaceae host plants in the South Island: P. curtus on wire rush (Empodisma minus) in pakihi wetlands and P. hudsoni on jointed rush (Apodasmia similis) in salt marsh and wetlands. The wire rush is a hostplant shared by P. curtus and P. hudsoni although not in areas of geographic overlap; the hostplant record for P. hudsoni being from Northland. 16 Annette Walker and Marie-Claude Larivière
Acknowledgements
The first author expresses her thanks as follows. Campbell Robertson, Environmental Manager of Buller Coal generously provided the funds to collect on the Denniston Plateau and enabled confirmation of host plant records further afield on the West Coast. His help and that of Bathurst Resources Ltd is acknowledged with gratitude. Richard Toft of Entecol Ltd. is gratefully acknowledged for his help collecting on the Denniston Plateau, likewise Ross Ferguson at Westhaven Inlet. Rhys Buckingham’s extensive knowledge of botanical areas on the West Coast helped validate distribution records and Fred Overmars confirmed the botanical nomenclature.
All the specimens mentioned and collected in this account are deposited in the New Zealand Arthropod Collection (NZAC), Landcare Research, Auckland.
References Knight WJ. 1973 Ulopinae of New Zealand (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) New Zealand Journal of Sciences 16: 971-1007.
Larivière M-C, Fletcher MJ. 2004–2010. The New Zealand leafhoppers and treehoppers (Hemiptera: Auchenorrhyncha): web- based identification keys and checklist. The New Zealand Hemiptera, NZH 02. Retrieved from http://wwwold.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/biosystematics/invert ebrates/hemiptera/nzleaf/ [Paracephaleus key couplet URL … /keytospp/parac00.asp] Larivière M-C, Fletcher MJ, Larochelle A. 2010. Auchenorrhyncha (Insecta: Hemiptera): catalogue. Fauna of New Zealand 63: 1–232.
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Ecology and conservation of the rare moth Asaphodes frivola Meyrick Brian H Patrick Wildland Consultants, Box 33499, Barrington, Christchurch Introduction The geometrid Asaphodes frivola (Meyrick 1913) (Geometridae; Larentiinae) is a medium-sized species of moth with a wingspan of 22-26mm (Plates 1 and 2). The adults are sexually dimorphic with flighted males and much smaller short-winged females that are flightless (Plate 3). It is ranked as Nationally Endangered by the Department of Conservation in its list of threatened New Zealand Lepidoptera (Stringer et al. 2012). This report, commissioned by the Department of Conservation, Southland, provides an overview of the known status of the species, including the history of collection, and information on known populations. It also includes the results of a recent survey to establish whether the species still exists in previously known sites, and likely new sites that have been checked. The larval host plant has been ascertained and the implications are discussed. Finally, future work requirements to secure this species and its specialised habitat are outlined. Relationships The geometrid genus Asaphodes contains about 46 species of often attractively marked moths with a wingspan range of 22-40mm (Dugdale 1988 and the author’s collections). They inhabit a wide range of ecosystems nationwide, from the coast to the high alpine zone. Many species are diurnal in behaviour while others are nocturnal. They mostly utilise damp habitats and their larvae feed on a range of herbaceous plants. As is the case with many other 18 Brian Patrick endemic species-rich invertebrate genera, the genus defines New Zealand both geographically and topographically, with every area of the nation, including off-shore island groups having a different suite of species, often containing local endemics. The genus is especially species-rich in southern New Zealand with the alpine zone there being particularly diverse. Four of the eleven species recorded close to Invercargill have their Type Locality there (Table 1). Asaphodes frivola is a member of a suite of similar-looking geometrid species that are found around the margins of upland wetlands in northern and western Southland, and Central Otago (Plate 2). These species include Asaphodes sericodes, A. periphaea, A. ida, A. dionysias, A. recta, A. helias, A. oraria, A. exoriens, and A. aphelias and all appear to be closely related to A. frivola, both morphologically and ecologically (Patrick 2012). Usually they are found in these upland wetlands between 800-1,100m but A. dionysias is found considerably higher to 1,600m on the alpine plateaux of the Central Otago ranges where extensive wetlands occur. Most have short and narrow-winged females that hold their tiny wings above their bodies and are not capable of flight (Plate 3) (Patrick 2012). Of this group of typically upland moths only A. oraria is found at sea-level close to Invercargill. This occurrence of typically upland species at sea-level in the vicinity of Invercargill is a special feature of the vegetation, flora, and fauna assemblages of the area, and has been discussed previously by Patrick (1994). Asaphodes frivola is endemic to the Invercargill area. Seven Asaphodes species were found in open non-forest habitats around Invercargill until the 1930s (Patrick 1994) (Table 1). Since then two of these species- Asaphodes prasinias and A. stinaria- have become locally extinct (Patrick 2000). Nationally the former is still widespread but uncommon while the latter is rare and has a ranking of Nationally Vulnerable (Stringer et al. 2012). Forest species have fared even worse, with the local extinction of three other species, two of which (Asaphodes imperfecta and A. obarata) also have high national threat rankings (Table 1).
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Plate 1: Adult male Asaphodes frivola on its probable larval host plant Ranunculus glabrifolius, Tiwai Spit, Southland, 17 April 2014.
Interestingly, two species- Asaphodes aegrota and A. oraria- appear to have benefited from human-induced ecological changes in the Invercargill area, as they have adapted to feeding as larvae on an introduced daisy (Bellis perennis) in suburban lawns. Asaphodes oraria is only found in this setting in the suburb of Otatara, southeast of Invercargill (Patrick 1981). Like A. frivola, A. oraria too has a short-winged flightless female.
20 Brian Patrick
Table 1: Asaphodes species recorded from the Invercargill area, and their habitat and the local status of each taxon.
Species Type Locality Habitat Local Status Asaphodes Waikouaiti Dry open areas Common abrogata Asaphodes Wairarapa Forest/edge Common aegrota Asaphodes ?Castle Hill Forest Common beata Asaphodes near Endemic; coastal Rare frivola Invercargill Asaphodes West Plains Forest Extinct imperfecta Asaphodes New River Non-forest Locally oraria common Asaphodes Nelson Forest Extinct obarata Asaphodes Lake Forest Extinct philpotti Wakatipu Asaphodes Castle Hill Forest/shrubland Extinct prasinias Asaphodes Invercargill, Dunes/grassland Rare stephanitis sand hills Asaphodes Canterbury wetlands Extinct stinaria
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Plate 2: Adult male Asaphodes frivola from Tiwai Spit, 17 April 2014.
Plate 3: Brachypterous adult female of Asaphodes frivola at Tiwai Spit 14 April 2011. Note the small, thin wings that are held above the body.
22 Brian Patrick
Discovery Alfred Philpott discovered the unassuming geometrid Asaphodes frivola near Invercargill just over one hundred years ago (Plate 1). He sent the solitary male specimen he found to Edward Meyrick in England for description and the latter subsequently described it as Xanthorhoe frivola in 1913 and recorded it from Invercargill. The Holotype specimen is stored in London’s British Museum of Natural History (Plate 4).
Plate 4: The Holotype male of Asaphodes frivola that is stored in the British Museum of Natural History, London. Image is used courtesy of Landcare Research Ltd. Note the scale in millimetres across the top of the image. Philpott never found or recognised the moth again and neither did other lepidopterists over the following 68 years. Because of this there were no specimens in New Zealand collections which George Hudson could borrow and illustrate for his monumental work (Hudson 1928) on New Zealand butterflies and moths, but he did describe the species and note that Philpott found it ‘near Invercargill’.
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Based on Philpott’s collections from habitats at the New River estuary, including his discovery of many new moth species there such as the closely related Asaphodes oraria, New River estuary is the most probable place where he discovered A. frivola (Patrick 1997, 1998). The New River Estuary is at the mouth of the Oreti River flanked by both Sandy Point and Otatara (Fig. 1). This is (or was) a complex ecological area of sandy soils and related vegetation including totara forest, sand dune and saltmarsh vegetation. Major reclamation works and ongoing degradation by a combination of direct human disturbance and invasion by human-assisted exotic plants has dramatically altered the natural habitats and processes of this system. Dugdale (1988) in his catalogue of New Zealand Lepidoptera lists Asaphodes frivola under Asaphodes and notes the type locality and collector. Following its initial discovery, no further records of Asaphodes frivola were made until it was rediscovered on 19 March 1981 at Sandy Point (Patrick 1981). In coastal grassland one male Asaphodes was disturbed and caught. Three nights later, one male was attracted to light at my home a few kilometres away at Grant Road, Otatara. On return to the Sandy Point site on the night of 6 April 1981, the short-winged and flightless female of this species was located sitting on low herbage about 8cm off the ground (Patrick 1983). While flightless, the agile female can run quite quickly as it has relatively long legs. I searched this site again on 14 April 1981 and found an additional male. It appeared from the records to date that Asaphodes frivola emerges as adults from mid- March to mid-April, and is active on the warmest nights during that period. Through the 1980s, 1990s, and 2000s I explored by day and light- trapped by night, many other apparently suitable sites in the environs of Invercargill. Only one site close to the Tiwai Aluminium Smelter- on the coastal fringe of Tiwai Spit south of Invercargill- yielded 24 Brian Patrick further males and females (Table 3). At the time, this population appeared to be the only known one for the species although the Sandy Point population from 1981 had not been systematically searched for or relocated. Further survey in April 2011 at Tiwai Spit confirmed that the population was still present, with ten males and five females located over a small area of coastal fringe herbfield with knobby clubrush (Ficinia nodosa) and silver tussock (Poa cita) as the canopy species.
Figure 1: Invercargill area showing the four past and present sites for Asaphodes frivola highlighted with four blue stars. The top star is positioned at Otatara. Between 16 and 18 April 2013, Department of Conservation entomologist Eric Edwards surveyed for Asaphodes frivola at Fortrose Spit (east of Tiwai Spit), along the southern coast of Tiwai Spit, at the known Tiwai Spit site, and at the Three Sisters Sand Dune (west of Tiwai between Bluff and Omaui). He located one
The Weta 47:17-38 25 additional population at the Three Sisters Sand Dune (Figure 1) where he describes the moth as occurring in similar habitats as on Tiwai Spit, but noted that overall suitable habitat for the moth was uncommon and what remained was threatened by weed invasion. He also found two males close to the known Tiwai Spit site (Table 2). Table 2: All known records of Asaphodes frivola.
Date Place Sex Person Individuals
1912? “nr m Alfred Philpott 1 Invercargill”
19 March 1981 Sandy Point m Brian Patrick 1
22 March 1981 Otatara m Brian Patrick 1
6 April 1981 Sandy Point m,f Brian Patrick 9
14 April 1981 Sandy Point m Brian Patrick 1
5 April 1984 Tiwai Spit m Brian Patrick 3
6 April 1990 Tiwai Spit m Brian Patrick 2
12 April 2002 Tiwai Spit m Brian Patrick 2 and Eric Edwards
14 April 2011 Tiwai Spit m,f Brian Patrick 15
17 April 2013 Tiwai Spit m Eric Edwards 2
18 April 2013 Three Sisters m Eric Edwards 2 Sand Dune
17 April 2014 Tiwai Spit m Brian Patrick 1
26 Brian Patrick
Table 3: Grid references of the known sites for Asaphodes frivola near Invercargill.
Site Name NZTM Grid Reference Otatara E1239950 N4846130 Sandy Point E1239540 N4841180 Tiwai Spit - first site 1981 E1248230 N4831830 Tiwai Spit - second site E1248540 N4831500 2013 Three Sisters Sand Dune E1235080 N4835030
Table 2 summarises all the known records of the species with dates, while Table 3 provides accurate grid references of those sites.
Biology Eggs were obtained from the flightless female discovered at Sandy Point in 1981 and the larvae were reared on two exotic herbs: daisy (Bellis perennis) and Buck’s horn plantain (Plantago coronopus). Its natural host was not investigated further but was strongly suspected to be a low-growing herb in the coastal tussock grassland. The yellow eggs were laid singly on 8 April 1981 and hatched in captivity 31 days later on 9 May 1981. At first the young larvae were a dull greyish colour with cuticle on the most posterior segment consisting of two plates, a black head and legs, darker grey posteriorly, with distinct dots on its lateral and dorsal areas. By the 20 June the larvae were 5-6mm long with a distinct dorsal herring- bone pattern surrounding a pale area. They had a white lateral line, a wide ventral pale area which was surrounded by a dark band on each side. The greenish-brown larvae were feeding and growing slowly, and by 29 August had only grown to 8mm in length.
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By 11 December the largest had grown to 18.5mm in length and they were now a dull greenish-brown colour with a pinkish tinge. Laterally they were dull green and with paler ventral and dorsal areas. The dorsal herring-bone pattern was more distinct than before with broad black stripes and a dull green tinge. Ventrally the larvae were brown with a white stripe bordered by a thin black line followed by a broad black stripe. The body shape was flattened (Fig. 2).
Figure 2: The author’s 1981 notebook sketch of the larva at 216 days old (11 December 1981) and 18.5mm in length. The larvae were reared from eggs from a Sandy Point female. By 13 January the larvae were 19mm and generally fed from below on foliage that lies flat on the ground. They were a dull greenish colour with dull brown mottling and a black dorsal herring-bone pattern. There was a thin white lateral line and they were ventrally dull green with many darker lines. The prolegs were smaller than before. By 23 January 1982, all the larvae had died, of unknown causes. They were about 20mm in length. Based on my subsequent experience with rearing related species, the larvae may have been full-grown at this time and died because the right conditions for pupation were not provided. In this captive situation, the total observed larval stage was 259 days in duration. This is likely to also reflect the situation in the wild because, if anything, rearing in captivity speeds up development 28 Brian Patrick compared to in the wild, based on my personal experience. This data fits well with the observed annual life cycle for the species. Field survey methods 2014 Visits were made to the following sites in southern Southland over the period 17-19 April 2014 to survey for Asaphodes frivola, deduce its possible larval host plant, and to gather information on the ecology of the moth species: ¾ Tiwai Spit - the key site first identified in 1984 was examined by day and night. ¾ Margins of Awarua Bay - 12 km of estuarine coastline was walked and examined for the larval host plant and adult moth by day. ¾ Coastal Tiwai Spit - the south side of the Spit was surveyed for potential habitat by day. ¾ Sandy Point - the original 1981 site was relocated and other possible sites on its New River margin were examined by day and night. ¾ The north end of Oreti Beach at the end of Ferry Road was examined by day where potential natural habitat exists for the moth. ¾ Field survey results 2014 At the sites surveyed in 2014, only one male Asaphodes frivola was found, and that was at the original 1981 Tiwai Spit site (Table 2). No adult moths were found at any of the other sites searched, despite the large search effort. Sadly the 1981 Sandy Point site appears no longer to support A. frivola as it was searched twice during this survey under apparently suitable conditions.
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Measurement of the Tiwai Spit site where the moth and its potential host plant were found show that the area of occupancy is less than 25 m² spread along a short but continuous part of the coastline. Larval host plants Tiwai Spit is the key site for Asaphodes frivola with flightless females being found at the site in 2011, suggesting that eggs must be laid nearby and that larvae must be feeding on one of the plants available. The site is small and confined, narrowing the potential options for identification of the host plant. The indigenous buttercup, Ranunculus glabrifolius1 was found to be present at the site by Department of Conservation botanist Brian Rance. About 50m of almost continuous R. glabrifolius occurs along this coastal fringe. This fringe is only about 30cm wide, and is backed by a band of dense, often exotic, grasses and herbs. Subsequent searches found no more buttercup plants in the area. Ranunculus glabrifolius is the most likely host plant and this is supported by the genus Ranunculus being the main host plant among the 46 species of Asaphodes, where the host plant is known with certainty. Ranunculus glabrifolius appears to be rare in the coastal fringe vegetation of the Oreti River and Awarua Bay but more survey effort is required to confirm this (Bythell et al. in prep.). Typically it is found in damp areas within open or semi-open areas. Its rarity appears to have been caused by the invasion of a suite of aggressive exotic herbs and grasses, and probably ongoing damage by recreational vehicles, which have unhindered access to these sites (Plate 7). Bythell et al. (in prep.) note that R. glabrifolius occurs on the long spit that stretches out into Awarua Bay on the northern edge of Tiwai Spit, close to the bridge. The plant community they
1Ranunculus glabrifolius is not threatened and is found throughout New Zealand, often partially submerged in shallow water, wet grassland and lake, pond or tarn marginal turf communities (NZPCN website: www.nzpcn.org.nz) 30 Brian Patrick describe it in also appears to be suitable habitat for Asaphodes frivola. Habitat
Based on the collection records, Asaphodes frivola inhabits sheltered coastal herbfield dominated by either knobby clubrush or silver tussock right on the coastal edge adjacent to either gravel or shell beaches (Plate 5). That this is the precise habitat of the larvae and therefore the species has been confirmed by the discovery of five females at the site in April 2011. These females were found a short way up (5-20cm) the stems of the knobby clubrush where they had climbed to release their pheromone to attract males. The female is flightless, and therefore where she is found is where she will lay eggs and the species breeds. This plant community is classified by Singers and Rogers (2014) as Ecosystem Unit Code SA4, Shore bindweed, knobby clubrush gravelfield/ stonefield. This community is still relatively extensive around the more sheltered coastline of the Awarua Bay and nearby inshore islets, New River Estuary, and Bluff Harbour. In reality, the moth’s specialised habitat is a subset of this broad community type, and is not common in its intact form. This community is generally only 30-50cm wide but can extend for tens of metres along the coastal fringe. The canopy of knobby clubrush (Ficinia nodosa) and silver tussock (Poa cita) occurs above a range of indigenous herbs such as Apium prostratum variety filiforme, Selliera radicans, Leptinella serrulata, Centella uniflora, and Ranunculus glabrifolius.
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Plate 5: Formerly suitable habitat for Asaphodes frivola on the inner (Awarua Bay) coastline of Tiwai Spit, April 2014. Invasion by aggressive exotic grasses and herbs has rendered the site unsuitable as few indigenous herbs now occur here. Inland of this narrow ecosystem is a shrubland dominated by the shrub daisy Olearia nummulariifolia, prickly mingimingi (Leptocophylla juniperina), matagouri (Discaria toumatou), Coprosma propinqua, C. tayloriae, Myrsine australis, Ozothamnus vauvilliersii, Hierochloe redolens, copper tussock (Chionochloa rubra cuprea), Muehlenbeckia complexa, M. australis, bracken (Pteridium esculentum), and flax (Phormium tenax). Within this shrubland, open areas of quartz pea gravels support a species-rich herbfield dominated by Raoulia glabra, Pimelea prostrata variety ventosa, and Muehlenbeckia axillaris. The presence of an occasional shrub of saltmarsh ribbonwood (Plagianthus divaricatus) on this coast confirms the estuarine nature of the area. The rare moth 32 Brian Patrick
Asaphodes stephanitis, a close relative of A. frivola, is found in this grassland– shrubland community. Conservation Habitat for Asaphodes frivola is incrementally disappearing from the Invercargill area. Based on the results of the April 2014 survey, A. frivola appears to have gone from the 1981 Sandy Point site. This may be due to invasion by exotic herbs and grasses of the coastal fringe habitat and increased recreational vehicle use (Plate 7). At the end of Ferry Road, at the northern end of Oreti Beach, there is (or was) potential habitat for A. frivola in a seasonally-wet, dune slack habitat behind the foredune. This site also harbours other rare moth species (Patrick 1994), but has been badly damaged by off-road vehicles (Plate 6). Its two known remaining habitats- on Tiwai Spit and at Three Sisters Sand Dune- are small and vulnerable to a range of threats, including uncontrolled recreation and fire. A large fire in 2009 swept across much of Tiwai Spit, destroying about 48% of the indigenous vegetation of the Tiwai Spit Conservation Area (Bythell et al. in prep.). Remaining sites for Asaphodes frivola are now so small that they are vulnerable to extirpation by random events and also to incremental invasion of exotic plants that could overtop and kill the larval host plant.
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Plates 6 and 7: At left, off-road vehicle damage is obvious to seasonally wet hind dune systems at the north end of Oreti Beach where other rare moths have been found in the 1980s. At right, damage to coastal saltmarsh from vehicles at the 1981 Sandy Point site where Asaphodes frivola appears to have disappeared.
34 Brian Patrick
Discussion The moth genus Asaphodes is in decline with local extinction in the environs of Invercargill and elsewhere in New Zealand (Patrick 2000). Seven of the eleven species (64%) recorded from Invercargill are now either locally extinct or rare, with four of them having a high national threat ranking (Stringer et al. 2012). Where the life history is known, the larvae feed in damp areas on a range of herbaceous species particularly the genus Ranunculus, in the buttercup family. The demise of many of these Asaphodes species and the genus generally can be linked to the drying out and disappearance of many of our natural ecosystems over the past approximately 160 years as various forms of land conversion have progressed. In the Invercargill area, significant areas of podocarp forest and larger areas of associated forest-edge communities are gone; lost to a spreading city and its nearby suburbs such as Otatara, intensification of farming and infrastructure such as roads and pylons. Huge areas of Carex secta-dominated wetlands, the Donatia-wirerush- Sphagnum-manuka-Dracophyllum wetlands of Seaward Moss- Waituna, and dune slacks in the large swath of sand dune country behind Oreti Beach have contracted greatly or disappeared since Europeans arrived from the late 1850s onwards. In addition, the ecosystems that survived this spatial onslaught were forever changed in terms of quality, with lowered water tables, modification by ever- changing farming practices, ongoing invasion by pest plants and animals and indiscriminate recreational use. Natural non-forest habitats, many containing biota with alpine affinities, which were once widespread around Invercargill, are of high significance in terms of species-richness, biogeography and conservation of a unique suite of indigenous plants and fauna with many local endemic species (Patrick 1983; Patrick 1994). The natural habitat of Asaphodes frivola is very specialised, being coastal or near-coastal wetland which has a canopy of knobby
The Weta 47:17-38 35 clubrush or silver tussock with an under-storey of herbs, in particular, Ranunculus glabrifolius. It is possible that the moth occupied a larger range of coastal habitats prior to changes associated with European settlement but this is not borne out by early observations and records. Asaphodes frivola is a rare species, endemic to a narrow and confined part of the southern Southland coastline, immediately east and south of Invercargill. It has never been commonly recorded since European settlement, and may have been losing ground over a long period of global warming as non- forest communities at sea-level in southern Southland have contracted since the last ice ages. Only 34 males and six females have ever been found, despite intensive searching over the past 33 years. The species is perilously close to extinction even at its best site on Tiwai Spit where its apparent area of occupancy is less than 25m². Although Tiwai Spit is managed by the Department of Conservation, there is still a very high risk that its habitat could disappear. There is a well-used gravel road and boat ramp nearby, either of which could be easily expanded, extinguishing the species almost overnight. Both sites are also threatened with fire. Exotic grasses and herbs may also be an issue in over-topping and smothering the larval host plant at both sites (although this was not investigated in this study). At its more remote site on Three Sisters Sand Dune, the population size and area of occupancy of A. frivola are unknown, but are likely to be similar to Tiwai Spit. Threats such as aggressive exotic weeds invading its habitat are also likely (Eric Edwards, Department of Conservation, pers. comm. April 2014). Asaphodes frivola is not the only conservation casualty of land use changes; the local species of boulder copper butterfly (Lycaena new species) was once recorded from both Sandy Point and Otatara (Philpott 1917), but hasn’t been seen in either place for many decades. Its host plant Muehlenbeckia axillaris and other ground- hugging herbs, such as the southern endemic Gunnera hamiltonii, are also gone from those places. 36 Brian Patrick
Based on the information above, the threat ranking of Asaphodes frivola has been increased to ‘Nationally Critical’2. This was a result of only two known populations, much additional survey work that did not locate more populations, ongoing threats to the moth’s habitats and knowledge of the probable host plant that is itself rare and possibly threatened in the area. Without management, A. frivola is very likely to become extinct within the next 10-30 years, as even at its two known sites it has very small population numbers, has very small areas of occupancy and has a number of identified existing threats to its continued survival.
Future work Asaphodes frivola is perilously close to extinction. Without active and effective management Asaphodes frivola will disappear within the next 10-30 years. Management is therefore urgent, but needs to be carefully considered and staged. This includes: ¾ Confirm species range ¾ Confirm larval host ¾ Define habitat ¾ Assess and possibly enhance habitat ¾ Establish monitoring
A prioritised and staged action plan has been supplied to the Department of Conservation, Southland based on this approach. It is envisaged that this plan will begin in November 2014 with a search for larvae on Ranunculus glabrifolius on Tiwai Spit.
Acknowledgments Polly Bulling, Sarah Thorne, and Julie Newell (Department of Conservation, Southland) are thanked for instigating this project,
The information above was presented at a meeting of the Department of Conservation’s specialist Lepidoptera Panel held in Auckland on 28-29 April 2014 where the threat ranking was subsequently increased.
The Weta 47:17-38 37 their logistical help, and their enthusiasm with this project, particularly in the field. Eric Edwards from the Department of Conservation shared his data and thoughts on the species. Brian Rance provided his botanical skills, very useful suggestions on the manuscript, and shared his local knowledge. References Bythell J, Hamburg A. and Rance B. In Prep: Vegetation survey of Tiwai Peninsula, Southland. Department of Conservation, Invercargill.
Dugdale JS. 1988: Lepidoptera - annotated catalogue, and keys to family-group taxa. Fauna of New Zealand 14. 262 pp.
Hudson GV. 1928: The butterflies and moths of New Zealand. Ferguson & Osborn, London. 385 pp and 52 colour plates.
Meyrick E. 1913: Descriptions of New Zealand Lepidoptera. Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute 45: 22- 29.
Patrick BH. 1981: Notes on an interesting moth Asaphodes oraria at Otatara near Invercargill. The Weta 4(2): 23.
Patrick BH. 1983: Moths of the Awarua Bay area. Forest and Bird 230: 14(8): 15-18.
Patrick BH. 1994: Lepidoptera of the southern plains and coast of New Zealand. Miscellaneous Series 17. Department of Conservation, Dunedin. 43 pp.
Patrick BH. 1997: Alfred Philpott. New Zealand Dictionary of Biography, Vol. III. Department of Internal Affairs, Wellington. 38 Brian Patrick
Patrick BH. 1998: Alfred Philpott biography. In Southern People, Dunedin City Council, Dunedin.
Patrick BH. 2000: Conservation status of two rare New Zealand geometrid moths. Science for Conservation 145. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 21 pp.
Patrick BH. 2012: Invertebrates: Butterflies and moths. Pp 421-447 in Mark A.F. Above the treeline. Craig Potton Publishing, Nelson. 472 pp.
Philpott A. 1917: A list of the Lepidoptera of Otago. Transactions and Proceedings of the New Zealand Institute 49: 195-238.
Singers NJD. and Rogers GM. 2014: A classification of New Zealand’s terrestrial ecosystems. Science for Conservation 325. Department of Conservation, Wellington. 87 pp.
Stringer IAN., Hitchmough RA., Dugdale JS., Edwards E, Hoare RJB. and Patrick BH. 2012: The conservation status of New Zealand Lepidoptera. New Zealand Entomologist 35(2): 120-127.
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Moths from a conifer nest in Christchurch
Brian Patrick1 & Ruud Kleinpaste2 1Wildland Consultants Ltd.,Box 33499, Barrington, Christchurch 8244 286 Milns Road, Halswell, Christchurch 8025
Introduction The diurnal oecophorid moth Hierodoris atychioides (Butler, 1877) forms well-known “nests” containing gregarious or communal larvae. The larvae feed on a range of indigenous and exotic trees and shrubs, particularly on conifers (Hudson, 1928; Spiller & Wise, 1982; Hoare, 2005). Its indigenous hosts include the gymnosperms totara, rimu, kahikatea, kaikawaka and matai; and the angiosperms manuka and kanuka; and tauhinu (Ozothamnus leptophyllus). Exotic species utilised as a larval host include macrocarpa, pines, spruce and fir foliage (Cupressus species, Picea species, Juniperus and Chamaecyparis).
These nests or colonies are formed on the outer leaves of the host and enlarge in size over time as the larvae feed and grow. They are composed of a thick mass of dense dead foliage, silk and faeces of the larvae. Miller (1971) called these “pendulous masses” and figured both the adult moth and “nest”. The larvae live within this mass moving via tunnels to feed on both live and dead foliage. They pupate within the “nest” in a sealed silk tunnel. This may be the only New Zealand moth that has gregarious larvae. Miller (1971) noted that the larvae are sometimes killed by a fungus that hardens the body of the larvae. Berry (1990) noted the indigenous and exotic parasitoids that kill the larvae.
Hoare (2005) revised the genus Hierodoris and recognised 18 species in this genus of elegant species, eight of which he described [Type text]
40 Brian Patrick and Ruud Kleinpaste as new. Among them H. atychioides (Fig. 1) is distributed widely in New Zealand from Northland south to Stewart Island, but is only locally numerous. The species is variable in external adult colouration, with some of these colour forms almost matching the major family differences of the larval hosts. But as discussed by Hoare (2005) the existence of intermediates destroys this otherwise convenient pattern of speciation on different host groups. Hudson (1928) also noted the variation in the adult moth’s marking and foodplant preferences.
Figure 1 Adult Hierodoris atychioides reared from Halswell “nest”
In the Christchurch area the moth appears to be uncommon, so it was a surprise when a series of “nests” was found on a neighbouring property in Milns Road, Halswell. Muir et al. (1995) made an intensive survey of the moths of Riccarton Bush, the last-surviving remnant podocarp forest within the city, and did not record this moth
The Weta 47:39-46 41 species. Interestingly a Malaise trap set up there in 1994 by Pat Quinn trapped one adult H. atychioides, underlining how uncommon the species is around Christchurch.
RK used to observe it regularly in Auckland over the past three decades. BP similarly recorded the species commonly between 1970 – 2002 on a range of hosts nationwide, but particularly in all parts of Otago-Southland up to 400m altitude. According to BP’s rearing records, the use of the host Ozothamnus leptophyllus appears to cease south of Cape Campbell, Marlborough.
Methods A dozen or so nests were collected by RK in August 2013 and divided between both authors; the nests were put in containers to await the emergence of Hierodoris atychioides adults. Both authors still get a boyhood thrill as they await the emergence of moths from caterpillars put in a jar with the larval hostplant! The identity of the resultant adults was confirmed and voucher specimens made and these are now stored in the senior author’s collection in Christchurch.
Results and Discussion The nests found in Halswell on Cupressus sempervirens ‘Swanes Golden’ are approximately 8-10 cm x 3-5 cm in size and consist of a mass of plant and animal debris held together by the larval silk (Fig. 2a). This “nest” is both a refuge and food source for the larvae. (Fig. 2b).
[Type text]
42 Brian Patrick and Ruud Kleinpaste
Figure 2a. Halswell “nest” of gregarious larvae on conifer
Figure 2b Larva of Hierodoris atychioides
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They retreat to this home when not feeding on nearby live foliage and later pupate within it. We didn’t have to wait long for the adult moths to emerge from these “nests”. But what was surprising was that two other indigenous moths also emerged in numbers from these nests. Both Trachypepla conspicuella (Fig. 3) and Erecthias fulguritella (Fig. 4) are known to have larvae feeding on leaf litter and detritus but these species have, to our knowledge, not been previously recorded from the “nests” of H. atychioides.
Figure 3. Adult Trachypepla conspicuella reared from Halswell “nest”
The following table lists the three moth species and number of adults that emerged from one such nest on this conifer.
[Type text]
44 Brian Patrick and Ruud Kleinpaste
SPECIES TYPE DATES NUMBER LOCALITY EMERGED Hierodoris Christchurch 21-31 6 atychioides or Dunedin October 2013 (Butler, 1877) Trachypepla Nelson 21 October – 8 conspicuella 4 November (Walker, 1864) 2013 Erechthias Nelson 25 October- 3 fulguritella 10 November (Walker, 1863) 2013
Figure 4 . Adult Erechthias fulguritella reared from Halswell “nest”
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It appears from adult emergence records that the life-cycle of H. atychioides is annual. It would be interesting to study these “nests” in detail and determine exactly what the larvae of the three different species are feeding on, how they interact with each other and how their life-cycles differ. In our experience the primary “nest” forming moth species H. atychioides is not a common species around Christchurch despite its widespread distribution in New Zealand. Its current rarity in Canterbury is odd given the ubiquity of exotic conifers around the city and elsewhere.
Berry (1990) found six parasitoid species emerged from the “nests” of H. atychioides in Auckland from an ornamental conifer, two of which were biological control agents introduced to New Zealand for control of mealy bugs and light brown apple moth respectively. One indigenous parasitoid wasp Goniozus jamiei (Bethylidae) emerged from the Halswell “nest”. We have no way of telling which of the indigenous moth species it targeted and killed. Maybe parasitism by a range of natural parasitoids and a further burden of accidentally introduced exotic parasitoids is having a negative effect on the moth in Canterbury and other parts of New Zealand
This shift of host of these deliberately introduced biological control agents is of great concern and we feel that this requires further study to determine how widespread this situation is in this moth species and indeed, in other indigenous species. This additional predation load may account for the recent rarity of this endemic moth and other elements of our endemic moth fauna.
Acknowledgements
We acknowledge RK's neighbours, Ken and Carol Shelley, for allowing their carefully clipped Cupressus to be trimmed even further.
[Type text]
46 Brian Patrick and Ruud Kleinpaste
We thank John Early for identifying the parasitoid that emerged from the Halswell nest and Dr Robert Hoare for confirming the identification of the moths.
References
Berry, J. 1990.Two parasitoid complexes: Hierodoris atychioides (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Oecophoridae) and Icerya purchasi Maskell (Homoptera: Margarodidae.) New Zealand Entomologist 13: 60-82.
Hoare, RJB. 2005. Hierodoris (Insecta; Lepidoptera; Gelechioidea; Oecophoridae). Fauna of New Zealand 54. Landcare Research Ltd., Auckland. 96 pages.
Hudson, GV. 1928. The butterflies and moths of New Zealand. Ferguson and Osborn, Wellington. 386 pages and 52+ colour plates.
Miller, D. 1971. Common insects in New Zealand. A.H. & A.W Reed.
Muir, C., Dugdale, JS. & Emberson, R. 1995. Moths and butterflies. In Molloy, B.J. (Editor) Riccarton Bush – Putaringamotu. The Riccarton Bush Trust. 330 pages.
Spiller, DM. & Wise, KAJ. 1982. Revised & edited by Dale, P.S. & Madison, P.A. A catalogue (1860-1960) New Zealand insects and their host plants. DSIR Bulletin 231. New Zealand Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Wellington. 260 pages
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An observation of Oreocalus latipennis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) being attacked by Phymatophaea longula (Coleoptera: Cleridae) Samuel D. J. Brown Bio-Protection Research Centre, PO Box 85084, Lincoln University 7647, Canterbury, New Zealand. Email: [email protected]
On 30 November 2013, I collected a specimen of Phymatophaea longula Sharp (Coleoptera: Cleridae) from the Sign of the Bellbird, Port Hills, Christchurch. I placed it in a vial containing several specimens of Praolepra squamosa Broun (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), and unidentified specimens of Cantharidae and Coccinellidae. Consistent with my previous experience of collecting predatory clerid beetles, the P. longula did not molest the other occupants of the tube. Later in the day, I collected a specimen of Oreocalus latipennis (Broun) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) at Lincoln University. Having only the aforementioned tube upon me, I added the weevil to the menagerie. When the O. latipennis specimen was introduced into the tube, it was immediately set upon by the P. longula specimen. The clerid beetle grappled the weevil with its front two pairs of legs, and aligned the weevil longitudinally with its ventral side upright (Figure 1). The clerid beetle set about biting the legs of the weevil, around the region of the trochanters. After about 20 min in the specimen tube, the couple, still fighting, were placed in a Petri dish for observation under a microscope. By this time, the clerid beetle had succeeded in clipping off the weevil’s front two pairs of legs, and appeared to be trying to bite through the suture between the prothorax and the mesothorax. The clerid beetle stopped this after 10 min and spent a short period of time attempting to bite off the hind legs and bite through the rostrum of the weevil.
[Type text]
48 Sam Brown
After being in the Petri dish for about 15 min, the fight stopped abruptly, and the clerid beetle retreated to the far side of the dish. It showed no further interest in the weevil in the 5 min that observations continued, despite occasional contact between the specimens. The weevil was left to thrash helplessly by its hind legs and made a few unsuccessful attempts to fly. At the conclusion of observations the specimens were recaptured into separate vials and killed. The specimens were identified using the available literature (Opitz, 2009), and by comparison with determined specimens in the Lincoln University Entomology Research Museum. They are held in the private collection of the author. The observed behaviour of removing the appendages of the prey is consistent with a previously published account of clerid beetle predation. The North American Enoclerus coccineus desertus was observed preying on the seed weevil Acanthoscelides pallidipennis (Motschulsky) (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae, Bruchinae) (Nápoles & Rifkind, 2013). In this instance, all three pairs of legs and the antennae were removed, leaving the body intact. In contrast, the behaviour of the Nearctic clerid beetle Thanasimus dubius (Fabricius), a predator of bark and ambrosia beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae, Scolytinae), does not involve removing the limbs of its prey (Frazier et al., 1981). However, T. dubius consistently aligns its prey such that the prey’s ventral surface is upright and its body axis is aligned with that of the clerid beetle; a trait that is consistent with the observation recorded here. While it is generally understood that both adults and larvae of most Cleridae are predators (Lawrence & Ślipiński, 2013; Kolibáč, 2010), specific records of predation remain scarce. The predation of bark and ambrosia beetles has made T. dubius the subject of substantial research (Reeve et al., 2003; Clarke & Menard, 2006). Both adults and larvae of Phyllobaenus dubius (Wolcott) have been observed feeding on the wheat stem sawfly Cephus cinctus Norton
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(Hymenoptera: Cephidae) (Morrill et al., 2001). Eunatalis ninae Gerstmeier & Seitner has been recorded as feeding on unidentified species of Melobasis (Ceoloptera: Buprestidae) in captivity (Gerstmeier & Seitner, 2013). Various members of the Australian clerid beetle fauna are known to feed on Coleoptera (Bostrichidae & Cerambycidae), Homoptera (Psyllidae) and termites (Lawrence & Ślipiński, 2013). Little has been published on the feeding behaviour of the New Zealand Cleridae, though Hudson (1950) records successful rearing of Lemidia aptera (Sharp) larvae (as Paupris aptera) on supplejack (Rhipogonum scandens Forst.) stems that had been sterilised by immersion in boiling water. Despite the fact that successful consumption of the prey was not recorded in the attack upon O. latipennis recorded above, this behaviour is interpreted as a predation attempt due to the immediacy of the attack, and the lack of aggression towards other inhabitants in the tube. The cessation of attack may indicate that P. longula has a threshold for determining the timing of successful feeding, and could provide an interesting system on which to test theories of optimal foraging and prey handling behaviours (Pyke, 1984; Preisser et al., 2005; Mukherjee & Heithaus, 2013). Alternative interpretations of this behaviour could be that the clerid beetle was displaying a defensive behaviour, or reacting to the stress of captivity. It is unknown if Oreocalus species, or even weevils in general, are favoured prey for P. longula. Neither is it known whether the habit of clipping off the legs of its prey is a common strategy for P. longula. Further observations of these interactions will be most useful for designing experiments to discover more about the prey and predation strategies of New Zealand’s clerid beetles. Acknowledgements Thanks to Davena Watkin and Dalin Brown for their company during the collection of these specimens; and to them, Hamish Patrick and John Marris for useful comments on this manuscript. [Type text]
50 Sam Brown
References Clarke SR, Menard RD. 2006. Predation of an ambrosia beetle (Coleoptera: Platypodidae) by a checkered beetle (Coleoptera: Cleridae) congregating on pines containing brood adult southern pine beetles (Coleoptera: Curculionidae). Journal of Entomological Science 41(3): 257–260.
Frazier JL, Nebeker TE, Mizell RF, Calvert WH. 1981. Predatory behaviour of the clerid beetle Thanasimus dubius (Coleoptera: Cleridae) on the southern pine beetle (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). The Canadian Entomologist 113: 35–43. Gerstmeier R, Seitner M. 2013. Revision of the checkered beetle genus Eunatalis Schenkling, 1909 (Coleoptera: Cleridae: Clerinae). Zootaxa 3698: 1–77. Hudson GV. 1950. Fragments of New Zealand Entomology. Wellington: Ferguson & Osborn Ltd. Kolibáč J. 2010. 9.6. Cleridae Latreille, 1802. In RAB Leschen, RG Beutel, JF Lawrence (Eds.) Handbuch der Zoologie/Handbook of Zoology. Band/Volume IV Arthropoda: Insecta Teilband/Part 38. Coleoptera, Beetles. Volume 2. Morphology and Systematics (Polyphaga partim), (pp. 257–261). Berlin: W. DeGruyter. Lawrence JF, Ślipiński A. 2013. Australian Beetles Volume 1. Morphology, Classification and Keys. Collingwood: CSIRO Publishing. Morrill WL, Weaver DK, Irish NJ, Barr WF. 2001. Phyllobaenus dubius (Wolcott) (Coleoptera: Cleridae), a new record of a predator of the wheat stem sawfly (Hymenoptera: Cephidae). Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 74(3): 181–183. Mukherjee S, Heithaus MR. 2013. Dangerous prey and daring predators: a review. Biological Reviews 88: 550–563.
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Nápoles JR, Rifkind J. 2013. First record of predation on a seed beetle (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) by a checkered beetle (Coleoptera: Cleridae). Insecta Mundi 0288: 1–3. Opitz W. 2009. Classification and evolution of the genus Phymatophaea Pascoe from New Zealand and New Caledonia (Coleoptera: Cleridae: Enopliinae). Journal of the Royal Society of New Zealand 39(4): 85–138. Preisser EL, Bolnick DI, Benard MF. 2005. Scared to death? The effects of intimidation and consumption in predator-prey interactions. Ecology 86(2): 501–509. Pyke GH. 1984. Optimal foraging theory: A critical review. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 15: 523–575. Reeve JD, Rojas MG, Morales-Ramos JA. 2003. Artificial diet and rearing methods for Thanasimus dubius (Coleoptera: Cleridae), a predator of bark beetles (Coleoptera: Scolytidae). Biological Control 27: 315–322.
Figure 1: Schematic of Phymatophaea longula (light grey) attacking Oreocalus latipennis (darker grey).
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52 David Logan and Christina Rowe
Site selection and time of eclosion on kiwifruit vines by final-instar nymphs of the chorus cicada (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) David Logan1 and Christina Rowe2 1The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, Private Bag 92169, Auckland Mail Centre, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand. 2The New Zealand Institute for Plant & Food Research Limited, 412 No 1 Road, RD2, Te Puke, 3182, New Zealand. Email: [email protected] Abstract We studied the site and time of eclosion on kiwifruit vine trunks for final-instar nymphs of chorus cicada, Amphipsalta zelandica (Hemiptera: Cicadidae). Final-instar nymphs selected sites with a median angle of 72o above horizontal. There was less discrimination for the height of eclosion site (median 0.93m). Most eclosion was observed 1.5h-2.75h (10pm-11.15pm) after sunset. Some nymphs continued to emerge and eclose up to7.3h after sunset (3.40am).
Introduction Chorus cicada, Amphipsalta zelandica (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) is an endemic and widespread species that has successfully colonised kiwifruit orchards (Logan & Connolly 2005). Cicadas are well known because of their summer song and the exuviae of final-instar nymphs left on tree trunks and other upright structures. Emergence of final-instar nymphs from the soil typically occurs at night for overseas species (Moulds 1990; Williams et al. 1993), and this may also be the general case for New Zealand species. One of us (CR) observed that A. zelandica exuviae tended to be aggregated on sections of kiwifruit vine and tree trunks that made an acute angle with the soil surface. Here we estimated the time of the day when final-instar nymphs of A. zelandica moult to adults and characterised
The Weta 47:52-57 53 eclosion sites by height and angle above horizontal to test whether there was site discrimination. Methods Height and angle from horizontal were measured for 262 A. zelandica exuviae on trunks of Hayward kiwifruit vines in an orchard block at the Te Puke Research Orchard of Plant and Food Research. Measurements were during 29 January – 3 February 2014. A camera and flash were established to focus on the base of a vine in a block of Hayward kiwifruit. The camera and flash were powered by running 12v DC from a battery through an inverter. The time- lapse sequence was initiated about 8:30 pm and images were taken every 30s until the following 8.00 am. The procedure was repeated for three nights in early February 2012 and one night in late January 2014. Eclosion was not observed for most cicadas as it occurred outside the camera’s field of view. Instead we used the time that nymphs began ascending the vine trunk as an approximate measure for the time of eclosion. Results and Discussion Site selection by final instar nymphs for moulting on kiwifruit vines does not appear to be random. The median angle at which eclosion occurred on vine trunks was 72o above horizontal with most nymphs (82%) moulting between 50o and 80o (Fig. 1). The distribution of angles suggests that final-instar nymphs select sites that make an acute angle with the soil surface. This behaviour may enable the new imago to use gravity to assist in the process of leaving the exuviae. Some exuviae also occur above the vine trunk and were not measured. They tended to be found underneath leaves and on lower sides of vine leaders and canes consistent with our observation that moulting sites are inclined at <90o from the horizontal. However further observations on other plant species are warranted to generalise our conclusion. Median height of exuviae was 0.93m (n=262) with heights above 0.4m preferred (Fig. 2). The height of [Type text]
54 David Logan and Christina Rowe the vine trunk set an upper limit of ca. 2.0m to observations. In forest we have observed a few A. zelandica exuviae at ca. 3m and it is possible some nymphs moult higher.
Figure 1. Angle from the horizontal of eclosion sites for A.zelandica exuviae on kiwifruit vine trunks.
Figure 2. Distribution of the heights of A. zelandica exuviae on kiwifruit vine trunks.
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Eclosion by chorus cicada nymphs (n=27) occurred throughout the night (Fig. 3). The earliest cicada nymph was observed approximately 1.5h after sunset (9.57pm) and the latest approximately 7.3h after sunset (3.40am). Most of the nymphs (15/27) were recorded reaching the vine base between 10.01 and 11.16pm. Eclosion was observed for one individual and took 50 mins. Time-lapse flash photography proved useful to study the general phenology of cicada nymph movement prior to eclosion (Fig. 4). It also revealed a hedgehog removing an imago completing its moult near the soil surface (Figure 5).
Figure 3. Distribution of eclosion times for A. zelandica on a kiwifruit vine. Times are the combined observations of three nights in early February 2012 and one night in late January 2014.
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56 David Logan and Christina Rowe
Figure 4. Paths taken by A. zelandica nymphs prior to eclosion on a kiwifruit vine. This image is a stack of consecutive images taken every 30s with the paths of individual cicadas as separate coloured lines.
Figure 5. Hedgehog observed with a new A. zelandica imago (indicated by arrow). Both hedgehog and cicada were missing in the next image taken 30s later.
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Acknowledgements Tim Holmes and Sam Ong provided assistance with the camera setup.
References Logan DP, Connolly P. 2005. Cicadas from kiwifruit orchards in New Zealand and identification of their final instar exuviae (Cicadidae: Homoptera). New Zealand Entomologist 28:37-48.
Moulds M. 1990. Australian cicadas. New South Wales University Press, Kensington. 217 pp.
Williams KS, Smith KG, Stephen FM. 1993. Emergence of 13-Yr Periodical Cicadas (Cicadidae, Magicicada) - Phenology, Mortality, and Predator Satiation. Ecology 74(4): 1143-1152.
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58 Mike Winterbourn
Gentlemen or players: New Zealand’s aquatic insect taxonomists Mike Winterbourn School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Private Bag 4800, Christchurch 8140 Email: [email protected] The declining state of taxonomy in New Zealand was highlighted in a recent article by Lester et al. (2014) and echoed similar concerns made in other parts of the world in both the scientific literature and print media. For example, writing in the Guardian Weekly, Tim Entwistle (2014) noted that Australia had an aging and declining work force of taxonomists and argued that because the identification of species was essential for the conservation of biodiversity taxonomists were far from being dispensable. Likewise, Hopkins & Freckleton (2002) noted that although professional taxonomy had undergone a long and continuing decline in the United Kingdom since its peak in the 1950s and 60s, skilled taxonomists were needed to identify species in essential studies of biodiversity. Three of the 10 critical issues facing New Zealand entomology listed by Lester et al. (2014) were (1) a need to enhance support for taxonomy, (2) a need to support amateurs in entomology, and (3) a need to better utilise the hidden knowledge of retired entomologists. The recent history of taxonomic research on major groups of aquatic insects in New Zealand is instructive with respect to these issues and given the employment histories of several major workers I began to wonder how useful it is to draw a line between amateurs and professionals. Numerous new species of Plecoptera (stoneflies), Trichoptera (caddisflies) and Ephemeroptera (mayflies) have been described in recent decades by Ian McLellan, John Ward and Terry Hitchings, respectively. None of these prolific workers was in paid employment as an entomologist, but rather they undertook taxonomic work in
The Weta 47:58-61 59 retirement. In the case of John Ward and Terry Hitchings (and Alex McFarlane before them) laboratory facilities were provided by the Canterbury Museum and as such can be seen as tangible support for “amateur entomologists”. The late Ian McLellan was a secondary school teacher in Westport and his first papers on stoneflies were written while he was so employed. He subsequently took early retirement so he could work on stoneflies full-time. This he did from a laboratory in his Westport home. He became the undisputed authority on our plecopteran fauna, was well known internationally, and was made a fellow of the Entomological Society of New Zealand. His publications spanned the period 1967-2008 and included the description of 74 new species and 10 new genera in a total New Zealand fauna of 107 stonefly species. John Ward was a physics lecturer at the University of Canterbury and also took early retirement to devote himself to the study of Trichoptera at Canterbury Museum. He described or co-described 52 species between 1991 and 2005. Before him, Alex McFarlane was even more prolific with 70 species described at irregular intervals between 1939 and 1981. Unlike John Ward, Alex had a Masters degree, with a thesis on hydrobiosid caddisflies (then Rhyacophilidae), from the University of Canterbury and was a schoolteacher before returning to entomology in retirement. His status as an amateur is therefore notably “fuzzy”. In addition to the papers he published, Alex possessed a wealth of unpublished information on caddisflies (“the hidden knowledge of retired entomologists” referred to by Lester et al.) and in his later years much of this was made available to others through a purposeful collaboration with an illustrator and a recent Zoology graduate (Brent Cowie). Outcomes of this collaboration included an illustrated key to the larvae of New Zealand Trichoptera (McFarlane 1990) and a 32 page paper including 14 descriptions of new species (McFarlane & Cowie 1981).
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60 Mike Winterbourn
Taxonomic work on our mayflies is now in the hands of Terry Hitchings, a retired chemistry teacher and principal. Like Alex McFarlane and John Ward before him Terry is a research associate at Canterbury Museum and has described 10 new species between 2008 and 2014. Notably, he has had the courage to attack the leptophlebiid genus Deleatidium, long considered a “taxonomic nightmare”.. One thing all these aquatic entomologists have in common is a move into taxonomy following a professional career in another discipline. Furthermore, only Alex McFarlane had a graduate research degree in any area of Zoology. So, despite carrying out extensive published taxonomic work on insects, can they realistically be described as amateurs? In the sense of Fox (1971), who defined professional entomologists as being in full-time (entomological) employment, and the rest as amateurs, they are indeed amateurs. In contrast, Hopkins & Freckleton (2002) classed entomologists as amateurs, if the author’s address was a private residence, and professionals, if it was a professional institution. Using their definition, which was essentially one of convenience for classification purposes, Ian McLellan would be classed as an amateur as he used his home address in Westport. On the other hand, the other three would be considered professionals as they used Canterbury Museum as their address. Clearly, this bifurcation does Ian McLellan a disservice. In reality, arguing over the classification/status of taxonomic entomologists is not particularly edifying. Rather, the status of entomologists is better evaluated by their contributions to the subject, than the circumstances under which the work was done. In 1962 the formal distinction between English cricketers categorised as gentlemen (amateurs who nominally played for fun) and players (professionals who played for a living) was abolished and all were designated cricketers. Accordingly, it would seem appropriate for all persons who do research on insects to be simply described as entomologists. Notably, the researchers considered in this article are/were undoubtedly gentlemen and also players of the
The Weta 47:58-61 61 entomological game. Lastly, and importantly, it is worth emphasising the role played by the Canterbury Museum in providing dedicated individuals with research associate status to undertake research on our aquatic insects. Comparable initiatives by other organisations need to be encouraged and can only be good for New Zealand entomology. Acknowledgement I thank Stephen Pohe for access to his comprehensive checklist of New Zealand aquatic insects. References Entwistle T. 2014. Taxonomists? Who needs them? We all do. Guardian Weekly 190 (15), 21-27 March 2014, p. 20. Fox KJ 1971. Amateur entomologists in New Zealand. New Zealand Entomologist 5: 9-12. Hopkins GW, Freckleton RP. 2002. Declines in the numbers of amateur and professional taxonomists: implications for conservation. Animal Conservation 5: 245-249. Lester PJ, Brown SDJ, Edwards ED, Holwell GI, Pawson SM, Ward DF, Watts CH. 2014. Critical issues facing New Zealand entomology. New Zealand Entomologist 37: 1-13. McFarlane AG. 1990. A generic key to late instar larvae of the New Zealand Trichoptera (caddis flies). Records of the Canterbury Museum 10: 25-38. McFarlane AG, Cowie B. 1981. Descriptions of new species and notes on some genera of New Zealand Trichoptera. Records of the Canterbury Museum 9: 353-385.
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62 Anthony Harris and Alison Durry
Some reactions to bites by spiders of the genus Uliodon (Zoropsidae) in southern New Zealand. Anthony C Harris1, Alison Durry2 1 Otago Museum, PO Box 6202, Dunedin 9059. Email: [email protected] 2 9, Mopanui St., Purakanui, RD1, Dunedin
Native huntsman spiders of the genus Uliodon L. Koch 1873 (family Zoropsidae) comprise large, cribellate spiders, 10.7-22mm long, predominately grey, with two longitudinal rows of 4-5 round spots on the opisthosoma; the inner side of the pedipalp is usually bright orange on live males. The spiders are handsome and are relatively common throughout New Zealand. Three species have been described but a further 20 undescribed species probably occur (Paquin, Vink, Duperre, 2010; Raven and Stumkat, 2003). Uliodon species can inflict painful bites of variable severity. Often there are no long term consequences; however necrosis may occur around the bite marks leaving scars that persist for over two years. The bad reaction reported by Watt (1971) resembles a few accounts reported to A. Harris at the Otago Museum over the years.
The first published report of a severe reaction from the bite of a Uliodon species may be that of S. Edward (1881). The following reactions were reported from Otago residents who were bitten by Uliodon spiders:
In 2013 and 2014, A. Harris identified a Uliodon spider from excellent photographs as well as the actual specimen for Mrs. Alison Durry following a severe reaction when she was bitten. On 29 March 2013, while sitting on the ground and clearing a vegetable garden at Purakanui (DN), Mrs A. Durry felt a bite on the back of
The Weta 47:62-66 63 her lower leg and then a second bite lower down on the same leg, through a sock. She reacted severely to the first bite several hours
Figure 1. Uliodon sp. From North Dunedin. Scale in mm. later. The second bite remained as two tiny puncture marks. The reaction to the first bite went systemic; she has still not fully recovered one year later. Her leg became numb and has remained so for over a year, and she still has a large 34mm x 36mm swelling on her shin. The lump initially came up as a large blister. The reaction also affected her kidneys and her blood pressure went up immediately. She suffered swollen skin, muscle pain and stiff joints. Many of her symptoms resemble those recorded by Watt (1971). A general practitioner with an interest in spiders (Dr Peter Rodwell, Enfield, Oamaru) informed her that her reaction was very severe because she suffered from chronic pancreatitis. It is possible that the second bite produced no reaction because the spider’s poison sac had been emptied during the first bite.
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64 Anthony Harris and Alison Durry
Mr Stanley Durry (Mrs A. Durry’s husband) was bitten by a Uliodon spider indoors at Purakanui on 10 April 2008. The spider was in a shirt and bit him when he put on the shirt. He experienced no reaction from the bite. (A. Harris identified this spider from an excellent photograph.)
In March 2013 Ms Sonia Kilner was bitten by a Uliodon spider at Waitaki Bridge, Hilderthorp, Oamaru and experienced a moderate reaction. Mr Peter Whitlock of Waitaki Bridge, Hilderthorp, Oamaru was bitten on the leg by a Uliodon spider in March 2013 while gardening. He experienced a severe reaction, similar to Mrs. A. Durry’s reaction. Mr Whitlock was bitten again on 9 April 2014, when a Uliodon spider that was in the car bit him on the leg while he was driving and he once more experienced a severe reaction.
In March 2013 Mrs Frances Whitlock of Waitaki Bridge, Hilderthorp was bitten and suffered a moderate but painful reaction.
As it may be the first record of a Uliodon bite and resembles accounts given to A Harris by Otago residents, Mr. S. Edward’s letter from the Otago Witness, Issue 1560, 1 October 1881, page 12, is given below:
“SPIDER BITES. To the editor. Sir,-With your permission I will relate to your readers the results of a spider’s bite that I received about twelve months ago. The spider that bit me was in the bedclothes. I went to bed as usual, and was about closing my eyes to sleep when suddenly I felt something on the top of the ankle bone as if there was had been a red-hot iron pressed on to it. The heat stopped for a very short time, perhaps for about two or three minutes, but only to start again as something far worse. It commenced in shocks, and between the shocks the ankle was almost
The Weta 47:62-66 65 as well as it is now, but all the time I was in terror of the pain coming on again. At first there were only a few seconds between the shocks, but the intervals gradually got longer and the shocks became weaker until they stopped altogether, and that was in about ten days after I received the bite. The first night I could not sleep, and the next I slept a little towards the morning, having been working hard all the time, and being done up for want of sleep. The bite was on the top of a blood vessel, and the shocks seemed to go up and down the blood vessel, about five inches on each side of the bite; the foot was all swollen, and the veins were tight, like a person’s finger, especially the vein which had been bitten. The pain was quite different to any other pain, seeming like a mad thing, and coming as quick as lightning. I am quite satisfied that had it got into my blood properly it would have sent me mad right enough, and that very soon, too. I do not think the spiders would harm anyone unless they got jammed. I only wonder more people do not suffer by them, for they are very numerous. The Maoris say if the black spider bites a man he will die; but this one was not a black one-it was a large grey one. Nevertheless, I believe they are deadly poisonous.
I am, &, S. EDWARD. Round Hill, September 12th.”
O’Donnell’s (1983) review of New Zealand spider bites on humans mentions two records of Miturga (=Uliodon), including J.C. Watt (1971). He also described a Uliodon (as Uliodon) bite which had no effect on a Wanganui man.
In conclusion, it can be stated that there is a long history of Uliodon species inflicting severe (but never fatal) bites. Several people have experienced symptoms similar those described by Watt (1971). Humans clearly react differently to Uliodon bites, some people being unaffected. Nevertheless, because some individuals
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66 Anthony Harris and Alison Durry experience very severe reactions for over a year, Uliodon species should be treated with caution.
References
Edward, S. 1881. Spider Bites. Otago Witness, issue 1550, 1 October 1881, p. 12.
O’Donnell M. 1983. A review of records of spider bites on humans in New Zealand including some previously unpublished records. The Weta 6(2): 72-74.
Paquin P, Vink Cor J, Dupérré N. 2010. Spiders of New Zealand. Annotated family key & species list. Manaaki Whenua Press, Lincoln, New Zealand. 118 p.
Raven RJ, Stumkat K. 2003. Problem solving in the spider families Miturgidae, Ctenidae and Psechridae (Araneae) in Australia and New Zealand. Journal of Arachnology 33, 135-152.
Watt JC. 1971. The toxic effects of the bite of a clubionid spider. New Zealand Entomologist 5(1): 87-90.
THE WETA News Bulletin of the Entomological Society of New Zealand (Inc.) Instructions for Authors The purpose of The Weta is to provide a medium for both amateur and professional entomologists to record observations, news, views and the results of smaller research projects. Before submitting an article to The Weta, please consider whether it might be more appropriate to publish in the New Zealand Entomologist. The Weta is not a peer- reviewed journal, but the news bulletin is catalogued and cited by abstracting journals. There are no page charges for publications and no reprints are produced.
Where appropriate, submitted articles should follow the general format and style of the New Zealand Entomologist. Details are given at the back of each issue of the New Zealand Entomologist, or can be viewed at: http://ento.org.nz/nzentomologist/submit.php
Submission of manuscripts by e-mail or disk-copy is preferred. Authors without access to computing facilities may submit articles typed (double spaced, on one side only of A4 paper). High contrast black and white photographs or penned line drawings are acceptable. Editing is undertaken to ensure a consistent high standard in line with journal style, but authors are responsible for the accuracy of their manuscripts.
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Cover illustration
The waka leafhoppers, Paracephaleus curtus (upper) and P. hudsoni (lower). For explanation see Walker, A.K. and Larivière, M-C in this issue.
Photo: Annette Walker THE WETA Volume 47, July 2014
CONTENTS
Leader, J. Editorial 1 Martin, N. Bug signs: Increasing awareness of the diversity of insects and other invertebrates 3 Martin, N, Scaptomyza (Bunostoma) flavella (Diptera: Drosophilidae) and the evolution of leaf mining. 8 Walker, A.K. and Larivière, M-C. Confirmation of host plant relationships between the two species of waka leafhoppers, Paracephaleus (Hemiptera: Cicadellidae: Ulopinae) and rushes in New Zealand. 12 Patrick, B.H. Ecology and conservation of the rare moth Asaphodes frivola Meyrick 17 Patrick, B,H, and Kleinpaste, R. Moths from a conifer nest in Christchurch 39 Brown, S.D.J. An observation of Oreocalus latipennis (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) being attacked by Phymatophaea longula (Coleoptera: Cleridae) 46 Logan, D. and Rowe, C. Site selection and time of eclosion on kiwifruit vines by final-instar nymphs of the chorus cicada (Hemiptera: Cicadidae) 52 Winterbourn, M. Gentlemen or players: New Zealand’s aquatic Insect taxonomists 58 Harris, A.C. and Durry, A. Some reactions to bites by spiders of the genus Uliodon (Zoropsidae) in southern New Zealand. 62
ISSN 0111-7696