Chronological Appendix: Seventy Years of Gunboat Diplomacy This Chronological Appendix is not a complete list of all the examples of the application of limited naval force during the last seventy years; that would need a separate book. The instances listed below have been chosen to show the different ways in which, year by year, many governments have employed this expedient in various parts of the world. Because it is meant to illustrate the range of gunboat diplomacy, and to avoid tedious repetition, the choice made does not reflect the actual distribution of gunboat diplomacy in parti­ cular years or geographical areas. The number of incidents in China during the late 1920s, for instance, was far larger than the selection included here. This chronology does not, therefore, present a historically or geographically representative cross-section of the actual employment of gunboat diplomacy during the last seventy years, and cannot be used as a basis for mathematical conjectures. The choice of examples has been guided by the definition reached in Chapter 1: gunboat diplomacy is the use or threat of limited naval force, otherwise than as an act of war, in order to secure advantage or to avert loss, either in the furtherance of an international dispute or else against foreign nationals within the territory or the jurisdiction of their own state. Naval action in time of war has been excluded, unless this took place against allies or neutrals, and actions resulting in war (whether declared or not) have only been quoted as examples of failure - and on the assumption that only limited force was originally intended. The description 'assailant' is given to the government that initiated the use or threat of naval force. Assailants are not necessarily aggressors. Similarly, the 'victim' is the other party to the dispute or, in the absence of a specific dispute, the government whose sovereignty was infringed, whether or not this government invited or acquiesced in the action taken. Victims are not necessarily innocent. The classification of incidents is in accordance with Chapter 2: D stands for definitive force, P for purposeful, C for catalytic, and E for expressive. Finally, an attempt has been made in the summary of each incident to indicate whether the action taken was successful or not. The only judgement implied is whether or not the results achieved corresponded with the intention of the assailant, and no attempt has been made to take account of wider considerations. For instance, the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in July 1974 is described as successful because it secured the slice of Cyprus sought by the Turkish government. The adjective 'successful' does not imply any 158 Chronological Appendix 159 judgement that Turkish acquisition of this territory was in the long term advantageous either to Turkey or to anyone else, or that the decision to take it by force was necessarily correct. The whole of this chronology is intended only to illustrate the uses of gunboat diplomacy as an instrument of governments, and the merits of the foreign policies that promoted its employment are beyond the scope of this book. 1919 Date Assailant Victim Incident Type 1918-21 Britain Russia After the armistice with c German Germany in November 1918, forces a British squadron was sent in area to the Baltic to support British policy. When withdrawn in 1921 it had failed to overthrow the Soviet regime, but had helped to secure independence for Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania (see Chapter 2). Partly successful. Note: French, US and Italian warships were involved to a lesser extent, and limited naval force was much used by various powers at this time in the seas around Russia. 14May United Greece/ uss ARIZONA lands marines p 1919 States Turkey to guard US Consulate at Constantinople during Greek occupation of that city. 1 1920 14May United Mexico 'Bandits in charge p States Manzanillo since II a.m. 14th. Destroyer THORNTON, Commander Stirling, arrived 4 p.m. and saved town from violence. Standing by.'2 ISMay Soviet Iran/ Bolshevik destroyer and c Union Britain motor-boats seize White Russian ships in Enzeli harbour, bombard and occupy town, and expel small British contingent. 160 Chronological Appendix 1920 Date Assailant Victim Incident Type Although Persian territory occupied has later to be given up and attempted conversion to communism fails, operation later enables Soviet Union to improve its political position in Persia at British expense. Partly successful. 3 17 November Britain Greece After the electoral defeat D of the pro-British Greek Prime Minister, Venizelos, he leaves the country hurriedly on a yacht that was escorted by HMS CENTAUR to prevent any attempt by the new Greek government to arrest Venizelos. Successfui.4 Note: British naval activities in the Baltic and the use of limited naval force against the Bolsheviks continued. 1921 28 February Britain Soviet British warships evacuate D -19 March Union British subjects and sympathisers from Batum before this capital of the ephemeral (now renascent) state of Georgia falls to the Bolsheviks. Successful.5 5 August United China The US Navy establish a p States Yangtse river patrol 'to protect US interests, lives and property and to maintain and improve friendly relations with the Chinese people'. The success achieved in the first objective was more conspicuous than in the second.6 18 August United Panama 400 US Marines embarked p States by USS PENNSYLVANIA to induce Panama to conform to Chronological Appendix 161 1921 Date Assailant Victim Incident Type US decision regarding her border dispute with Costa Rica. 7 Successful. 1 November Britain Austria/ HMS GLOWWORM and other D Hungary British ships of the Danube Flotilla collect the ex- Emperor Karl of Austria- Hungary after the failure of his attempt to regain the throne and convey him to Rumania, whence HMS CARDIFF takes him to Madeira. This intervention by the Royal Navy was approved by the principal European governments and the use of naval force was needed only to prevent the ex-Emperor being rescued by his partisans, or kidnapped by his opponents, while on his way to exile.8 1922 l4August Britain China President Sun Yat Sen D rescued from Canton after his defeat by Chinese rebels and taken to Shanghai in British gunboat. Successfui.9 September Britain Turkey British and other warships p United (including HMS IRON DUKE) States sent to Smyrna (being France evacuated by Greeks and Italy occupied by Turks after their war) to maintain order and protect foreign nationals and property until Turkish authority established. Warships also gave some help with the evacuation of over 200,000 mainly Greek civilians. Partly successfui.IO September/ Britain Turkey British fleet sent to the p November Dardanelles and Bosphorus 162 Chronological Appendix 1922 Date Assailant Victim Incident Type to help prevent Turkish forces from crossing into Europe. Successful. II 18 November Britain Turkey The Sultan of Turkey D rescued from his rebellious subjects by HMS MALAYA and taken to Malta. SuccessfuJ.l2 1923 January Britain/ Lithuania British cruiser and French p France gunboat sent to Memel after Lithuanian seizure of that port (then under temporary French control). French garrison was rescued and face saved, but Lithuania kept Me mel. Only partly a success. 13 27 August Italy Greece Italian fleet bombarded and p occupied Greek island of Corfu in order to extract concessions from Greek government (see Chapter 2). Successful. 6 December Britain China Warships sent by these p France governments to Canton to Italy protect Customs House Japan (then under foreign control Portugal for recovery of debt) against United seizure by Chinese States government. Warships withdrawn the following April. Successful. 14 1924 llJanuary Britain Mexico HMS CAPETOWN sent to p Minatitlau to protect a British oil refinery during a Mexican revolution. She was successively p relieved by other British cruisers, and it was the commander of HMS Chronological Appendix 163 1924 Date Assailant Victim Incident Type CONSTANCE who, after the arrival of various Mexican gunboats, informed the belligerents that he could not approve of the firing of the ships' guns in his vicinity, so he suggested their battle should take place elsewhere. Successful. 15 27 February United Honduras US Marines landed at p States Puerta Ceiba to protect US interests in civil disturbances. Successful, but US warships had again to intervene in later months. 16 18 December Italy Three Italian destroyers sent p Albania/ to Albanian ports when the Yugoslavia Albanian government was threatened by insurrection that was allegedly sponsored by Yugoslavia. UnsuccessfulY 1925 23June Britain China An armed detachment p landed by HMS TARANTULA to protect the British concession at Shameen opens fire when the bridge is attacked by Chinese troops. Successful. 18 4 August United Nicaragua US Marines withdrawn p States from many areas, but trouble soon prompts Nicaraguan government to solicit help, and uss DENVER sent to Corinto and uss TULSA to Bluefields, both on 13 September. Their presence did not prevent a coup d'etat. UnsuccessfuJ. 19 12 October United Panama US Marines land in Panama p States at the request of the 164 Chronological Appendix 1925 Date Assailant Victim Incident Type President of Panama to restore order after rioting. Successful. 20 5 November United France Two US destroyers sent p States to Beirut for the reassurance of US nationals endangered by disturbances in the French mandated territory of Syria and the Lebanon. They stayed one month. Successful.21 1926 6May United Nicaragua Cruiser USS CLEVELAND p States lands marines at Bluefields to protect US nationals and property from civil war. This was the first of many instances and the marines were not finally withdrawn until 1933. Although successful in its immediate objective, this intervention developed into military occupation of the entire country.22 4 September Britain China British gunboats break an D anti-British boycott at Canton and Swatow by clearing the harbour of the picket-boats maintained by the strike committee, and landing marines to clear pickets from British-owned wharves.