Corporeal Experience and the Material World of the Vijayanagara Sacred Landscape: 600-1325 CE
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Corporeal Experience and the Material World of the Vijayanagara Sacred Landscape: 600-1325 CE by Candis L. Haak A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology University of Toronto © Copyright by Candis L. Haak 2018 Corporeal Experience and the Material World of the Vijayanagara Sacred Landscape: 600-1325 CE Candis L. Haak Doctor of Philosophy Department of Anthropology University of Toronto 2018 Abstract The following dissertation is a digital exploration of medieval South Indian sacred landscapes through the corporeal and material developments at a specific pilgrimage center. I focus both on how particular devotional experiences were structured through corporeal management of devotees, and on their connection to the ritual, social, and political life of a historicized sacred space. Corporeal experience is analyzed through an examination of devotee movement, accessibility, and sensorial engagement with the material world. The material world refers specifically to both the natural and built environment, including landscape features, spatial organization, and architectural design, and consequently provides information about social interaction within these spaces. This thesis does not engage with abstract or mythological landscapes, which remain to be reconstructed for the period of investigation, though associations of the mythological with places in the landscape are noted where known. My spatial focus in this study is centered on the sacred Hemakuta Hill and the immediate surrounding area, in the imperial capital city of the Vijayanagara Empire, also called Vijayanagara, located in the Bellary District of Karnataka, India. My temporal focus is on the hitherto under-studied period of 600 CE to 1325 CE and the Early Imperial Phase years of the ii Vijayanagara Empire (c. 1336-1400 CE). During this time, the Hemakuta Hill area was a liminal river pilgrimage site associated with death rituals and folk deities. It subsequently expanded to also become the primary cult center for the Sanskritic deity, Virupaksha. Through the use of the spatio-temporal visualizing capabilities of ArcGIS, coupled with the immersive panoramic capabilities of Google Street View, I provide new insights into the development of the historic material world and ritual experiences in the Hemakuta Hill area, exposing the problems of homogenizing pre- and early imperial Vijayanagara architecture and sacred landscapes. The analytical methods I have created for this investigation recognize that a range of ritual needs and social situations are possible between a wide variety of actors, such as devotees, mourners, and worshipers, in addition to deities and ancestors who also had social and material presences of their own. Moreover, the spatial and structural patterns identified through my analysis have allowed me to distinguish a spectrum of additional group identities, local and non-local as well as elite and non-elite groups, with demonstrably distinct ritual, social, and political needs. These groups and their engagement with the landscape shaped the material world in the Hemakuta Hill area. These patterns also suggest that from 600 CE through 1325 CE and into the Early Imperial Phase, devotee corporeal experience was increasingly directed by dominant groups active in the sacred landscape with the intention of eliciting particular devotee ritual experiences. By examining the development of the landscape and identifying when and where and how space was altered, the palimpsestual nature of an early medieval South Asian sacred landscape has also been made visible. iii Acknowledgments Generous funding for this dissertation has come from the Department of Anthropology, the Center for South Asian Studies, the School of Graduate Studies of the University of Toronto, General Motors, in addition to an Andrew W. Mellon/John E. Sawyer Seminar Graduate Fellowship. My academic career at the University of Toronto has been defined by immense opportunities to develop as a scholar and as a mindful citizen due in large part to the great minds I found myself in orbit. My deepest thanks to my supervisor, Heather M.-L. Miller. She was constantly supportive of all my ambitions, visions, and projects. She truly encouraged me to grow not just a scholar, but also as a conscious and conscientious citizen and anthropologist. Her unwavering encouragement, compassion, and mentorship resulted in incredibly exciting events, memories, and research that could not have come about otherwise. I am immensely grateful for the time and dedication to my work from my supervisory committee, Edward Swenson and Ajay Rao. Professor Swenson’s passion for archaeological theoretical knowledge has been truly an inspiration and his editorial comments have been immeasurably valuable. Through Professor Rao’s dedication to Deccan history, he generated extraordinary opportunities for his students to engage with the very best and most exciting voices in the South Asian studies who, subsequently and unequivocally advanced and influenced my research. The few times that I have been fortunate enough to interact with Tamara Sears, my external reviewer, and Philip Wagoner, my research has benefited immensely. Their generosity and deep understanding of the Medieval Indian world is truly aspirational. I am very thankful for the insight and encouragement provided by Timothy Harrison and Carrie Fulton as external readers of my dissertation. And many thanks to the calm and considerate chairing of my dissertation by Ryan Balot. I am also extremely grateful for the kindness and warmth of the Robarts Information Desk workers: Debbie Campbell, Neelum Haq, and Gwen Smardon. And thank you to Perry Hall for taking a chance on hiring an archaeologist. Robarts became my refuge, my family, and where I met the love of my life. To all of the kindred spirits with whom I have had the pleasure of working and celebrating, thank you for your friendship and for making scholarly and scholarly-adjacent festivities joyous and magical! Lale and Semed and Mary, you are true and beautiful friends that are always in my heart. And I owe a great amount of love and thanks to my greatest and oldest friend, Michelle Primmer. Sophia Ballis Cottrell and Natalia Krencil, thank you for all your efficiency, kindness, and support. Thank you to Elaine Wyatt, Marie-Annick Prévost, Arun Brahmbatt, Usman Hamid, Greg Braun, and Mike Brand for being the most excellent of colleagues and exemplars of awesomeness. And thank you too to Peter Johansen and MARP for an amazing introduction to the complex world of South Asian fieldwork. My mom, my friend, my hero. She has been my constant champion and pillar of goodness and strength. Your kindness and generosity have given me the opportunity to pursue all of my dreams. Everyone deserves a mom like Wendy. Thank you to my dad and role model: you are the hardest worker I know. Thank you for always seeing the value in my ambitions and for all your sage advice and laughs. Kyle Ingram, my brother: you are a true modern Leif Erikson! Your passion and iv courage are a constant inspiration and challenge for me to bravely explore, take risks and trust in the adventure. Murat Yasar: I am forever grateful to your unwavering support, council, intellect, and for our life together. Olmayı en sevdiğim yer senin yanındır. Sen benim dünyamsın. v Table of Contents Acknowledgments .......................................................................................................................... iv Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... vi List of Figures ................................................................................................................................. x List of Appendices ....................................................................................................................... xvi Chapter 1 ......................................................................................................................................... 1 1 Socio-Political and Ritual Foundations for the Hemakuta Hill Area 600-1325 CE .................. 1 1.1 Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Background ......................................................................................................................... 7 1.2.1 South Asian Tradition of Pilgrimage ...................................................................... 9 1.2.2 South Asian Sacred Rivers, River Goddesses, and Male Counterparts ................ 12 1.2.3 Inscriptions as a Source of Data ............................................................................ 17 1.3 Religious Context of the Vijayanagara Area: Ninth Century to the Fourteenth Century CE ..................................................................................................................................... 20 1.4 Political History of South India and the Vijayanagara Area: 600-1325 CE ..................... 25 1.4.1 Political Context in the Tenth to Fourteenth Centuries CE: From the Later Chalukya Empire to the Delhi Sultanate ............................................................... 26 1.4.2 Hoysalas, Sindas, and Kampili: Twelfth to Fourteenth Centuries CE .................. 33 1.4.3 The Imperial Period: Fourteenth to the Seventeenth Centuries CE ...................... 38