Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Urban Green Spaces in Rwanda

The Case of City of Kigali

Jean Bosco NTAGANIRA

College of Science and Technology

School of Science

Master of Geo-Information Science for Environment and Sustainable Development

June 2016

Spatial and Temporal Dynamics of Urban Green Spaces in Rwanda

The Case of City of Kigali

Jean Bosco NTAGANIRA 214003374

A thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Geo- Information for Environment and Sustainable Development

In the College of Science and Technology

Supervisor: Dr. Gaspard RWANYIZIRI

June 2016

Statement of Originality

I, Jean Bosco NTAGANIRA, do hereby declare that this thesis is my original work and has never been submitted or examined in any university as an academic requirement for any award. Signature: ...... Jean Bosco NTAGANIRA

Date

Supervisor: Signature: ...... Dr. Gaspard RWANYIZIRI

Date

Dedication

This work is dedicated:

My mother & late father who perfectly played their role as parents and

My brothers and sisters for their encouragement

Acknowledgement This research would not have been successfully completed without support from different persons. That is why I would like to express my gratefulness to those who made everything happen in a good way. My foremost thanks go to the Almighty God for His priceless mercy and grace and guidance throughout my life and the strength to complete this study.

Sincere appreciations are addressed to my supervisor Dr. Gaspard Rwanyiziri for his direction, constructive comments and important advice. In addition, my gratitude goes to Mr. Theodomir Mugiraneza, PhD Student at Royal Institute of Technology-Sweden for his support in getting high resolution satellites images. Special recognition goes to all respondents who provided me with answers to my household questionnaire and interview guide. Furthermore, my credits are addressed to all classmates, for making the class a pleasant and enjoyable place for academic learning, sharing ideas and scientific discussions, for their cooperation and team spirit.

Finally, may God bless all persons who directly or indirectly contributed to the accomplishment of this study.

Jean Bosco NTAGANIRA

June 2016

Abstract Urban green spaces constitute a fundamental part of an urban environment. Unfortunately, City of Kigali, Rwanda‘s largest and fastest growing city has lost much of its green spaces over time. This study aimed at assessing the dynamics of urban green spaces in Rwandan with particular reference to the City of Kigali and proposed alternative solutions towards a sustainable management of these spaces. The study proceeded with the case study approach and utilized publications that related to urban green spaces but most importantly centered on remote sensing whereby archived Landsat, Quick Bird and Worldview_2 images were classified and then analyzed using Erdas Imagine 2014. Moreover, this study also made use of the consultative approach (interviews) in order to have various views on the research topic.

The findings of the study revealed that green spaces in the City of Kigali are mainly composed by forests, wetlands, agricultural lands, public and private gardens, and roadside trees. It was found that the surface area covered by green spaces has been decreasing over time. As complement of results from the classification of satellite images, the majority of respondents confirmed the decrease of UGS. This decrease was revealed to be caused by different factors such as conversion to other land uses mostly through urban sprawl, weakness in the implementation of policies related to Green Spaces. To overcome these issues, this study proposed alternative solutions including among others; raising public awareness on the benefits of Urban Green Spaces in the City, compliance with Kigali master plan and other policies in regards with development and preservation of Green Spaces, encouraging private sector to invest in Green Spaces and finally reduction of urban sprawl by adopting high density buildings also known as compact city.

Key Words: Urban green spaces, dynamics, Urban Part of Kigali City

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List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

CBD Central Business District CGIS-UR Centre for Geographic Information System of University of Rwanda CoK City of Kigali EDPRS Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy MINECOFIN Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning MININFRA Ministry of Infrastructure MINITRACO Ministry of Public Works, Transport and Communications NISR National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda REMA Rwanda Environment Management Authority RHA Rwanda Housing Authority RNRA Rwanda Natural Resources Authority UGS Urban Green Spaces UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements UNEP United Nations Environment Program UPKC Urban Part of Kigali City USA United States of America WHO World Health Organization

Table of Contents Acknowledgement ...... ii Abstract ...... ii List of Abbreviations and Acronyms ...... iii List of Tables ...... vii List of Figures ...... viii CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1. Background Information ...... 1

1.2. Problem Statement ...... 5

1.3. Research Objectives ...... 6

1.3.1. General Objective ...... 6 1.3.2. Specific Objectives ...... 6 1.4. Research Hypotheses ...... 6

1.5. Research Questions ...... 7

1.6. Scope of the Study ...... 7

1.7. Limitation of the Study ...... 8

2.1. Definitions of Key Concepts ...... 9

2.1.1 General Definition of Urban Green Space ...... 9 2.1.2 Green Spaces vs Open Spaces ...... 9 2.2.3 Other Definitions of Urban Green Spaces ...... 9 a) European Definition ...... 9 b) UK Definition ...... 10 c) USA Definition ...... 10 d) China’s Definition ...... 10 e) Japan’s Definition ...... 10 2.2. Types of Green Spaces...... 11

2.3 Benefits of Urban Green spaces ...... 12

2.3.1 Environmental Benefits ...... 12 a) Ecological Benefits ...... 12 b) Pollution Control ...... 12 c) Biodiversity and Nature Conservation...... 13 2.3.2 Economic and Aesthetic Benefits ...... 13 2.3.3 Social and Psychological Benefits ...... 14 2.4 Accessible Natural Green Space Standards Model ...... 14

2.5 Policies and Legal Frameworks related to Urban Green Spaces in Rwanda...... 14

2.5.1 The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda ...... 15 2.5.2 Rwanda Vision 2020 ...... 15

2.5.3 Organic Law determining the Modalities of Protection, Conservation and Promotion of Environment in Rwanda 15 2.5.4 Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS II)...... 15 2.5.5 National Strategy and Action Plan for the Conservation of Biodiversity ...... 16 2.5.6 National Land Policy ...... 16 2.5.7 Forestry Policy ...... 17 2.5.8 Kigali Conceptual Master Plan (KCMP) ...... 18 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ...... 19 3.1. Study Area Description ...... 19

3.2 Data Collection Techniques ...... 22

3.2.1. Secondary Data ...... 22 a) Existing Geospatial dataset ...... 22 b) Existing demographic data ...... 22 c) Existing Literature ...... 22 3.2.2. Primary Data ...... 22 a) Field Observation ...... 22 b) Interviews ...... 22 3.3 Data Analysis ...... 23

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ...... 25 4.1 Main Categories of Green Spaces in City of Kigali ...... 25

4.1.1 Urban Forests ...... 25 4.1.2 Wetlands ...... 25 4.1.3 Gardens ...... 25 4.1.4 Trees ...... 26 4.1.5 Agriculture land ...... 27 5.3 Dynamics of Green Spaces in UPKC between 1986 and 2015 ...... 27

5.2.1 Decreasing of Urban Green Spaces ...... 27 5.2.2 Fragmentation of Urban Forests ...... 34 5.2.3 Encroachment and Degradation of Wetlands ...... 34 5.24 Conversion of Agricultural Land ...... 35 5.3 Major Challenges to the Management of Green Spaces in the UPKC ...... 35

5.3.1 Urban Sprawl ...... 35 5.3.2 Poor Implementation of the KCMP and other Policies related to UGS ...... 36 5.3.3 Lack of Public Awareness on Importance of UGS ...... 36 5.3.4 Green Spaces not ranked among Priorities ...... 37 5.3.5 Poor Involvement of Private Sector ...... 37 5.4 Alternative Solutions towards a Sustainable Management of UGS ...... 37

5.4.1 Green Spaces should be ranked among priorities ...... 37 5.4.2 Raising Public Awareness...... 38 5.4.3 Involving Private Sector ...... 38

5.4.4 Reinforcing the Implementation of the KCMP and other Policies in regards to UGS ...... 38 5.4.6 Control of Urban Sprawl ...... 39 CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 40 5.1 Conclusion ...... 40

5.2 Recommendations ...... 40

REFERENCES ...... 43 APPENDICES ...... 47 Interview Guide ...... 47

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List of Tables Table 1: Land Cover Change between 1986 and 1996 in Kimironko and Nyarugenge ...... 29 Table 2: Land Cover Change for Kimironko Sector (2006 and 2015) & Nyarugenge (2010 and 2015) ...... 30

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List of Figures Figure 1: Geographical Location of Sampled Sectors (MINITRACO/CGIS, 2001) ...... 21 Figure 2: Roadside trees at Kibagabaga (Author, April 2016) ...... 26 Figure 3: Urban agriculture in Kimironko Sector (Author, April 2016) ...... 27 Figure 4: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Kimironko Sector (1986 & 1996) ...... 28 Figure 5: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Nyarugenge Sector (1986 & 1996) ...... 28 Figure 6: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Kimironko Sector (QuickBird 2006 & Worldview2 2015) ...... 29 Figure 7: Dynamics of UGS in Nyarugenge Sector (2010 & 2015) ...... 30 Figure 8: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Kimironko Sector (1986 - 2015) ...... 31 Figure 9: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Nyarugenge Sector (1986 - 2015)...... 32 Figure 10: Land Cover Change at Kibagabaga Hospital (2000 - 2015) (Google Earth, 2015) ...... 33 Figure 11: A Sampled Area in Rukurazo of Kibagabaga Cell (2005 – 2015) ...... 34 Figure 12: Enchoachment of Wetland in Nyarugenge Sector (Google Earth, 2015) ...... 35

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION 1.1. Background Information The ecological system of a city is made up of social, economical and natural systems where green spaces are the focal point (Huang & Chen, 2002; cited in Talukder, 2011). By definition, "Urban Green Spaces" (UGS) are understood as all public and private open spaces in urban areas mostly covered by vegetation, natural or man-made, which are directly (e.g. active or passive recreation) or indirectly (e.g. positive influence on the urban environment) available for use. They include parks, gardens, allotments, wetlands, and urban trees (Collins, 2014).

It’s important to note that urban green spaces supply to cities with ecosystem services ranging from maintenance of biodiversity to the regulation of urban climate (Shah, 2011). Additionally, Green Spaces ideally provide educational and recreational opportunities through wildlife reserves, hiking areas, golf courses, sports facilities, public gardens, bike trails, and other opportunities (Kosei, 2008). Moreover, they also support the construction of high quality human settlements, since green spaces act as the "lungs’" of the city (Jim and Chen, 2006; cited in Talukder, 2011).

On the other hand, it is essential to mention that urban green spaces evolve in expanding urban areas. The urban expansion provides a model of competitive land use where anthropogenic and wild land dynamics enter into conflict, creating a disturbance at the urban/wild land interface and thereby affecting the biodiversity (Forman, 1995). Studies done by Honu et al. (2009) found out that rapid urbanization has resulted in the conversion of several urban lands into built up structures and excessive destruction of the natural ecosystem including green spaces. Keeping in mind the benefits of urban green spaces and knowing that they are constrained by evolution of other land-uses, the optimum amount of urban green spaces needed should be determined. For that purpose, the issue of required green spaces per capita in urban systems has remained controversial. In 20th century, experts in Germany, Japan and other countries proposed a standard of 40 square meters of urban green space in high quality or 140 m² of suburb forest area per capita for reaching a balance between carbon dioxide and oxygen, to meet the ecological balance of human well-being. Currently, developed countries have tended to adopt a general standard of green space of 20 m² of green area per capita (Sukopp et al. 1995; Wang 2009, cited in Vijai, 2010). Comparatively, the international minimum standard suggested by World Health Organization is a minimum availability of 9 m2 of green open space per city dweller (Kuchelmeister, 1998 cited in Vijai, 2010).

Due to increasing urbanization, combined with a spatial planning policy of densification, more people around the world face the prospect of living in less green residential environments, especially people from low economic strata. This may lead to environmental inequality with regard to the distribution of (access) to public green space. A study carried out by Crawford (2008), which compared public green spaces between high socioeconomic neighborhoods and low socioeconomic neighborhoods, found that urban green space in the highest socioeconomic neighborhoods had more amenities (e.g. picnic tables, drink fountains and toilets) than green spaces in lower socioeconomic neighborhoods. Urban green spaces in higher socioeconomic neighborhoods were more likely to have trees that provided shade, a water feature (e.g. pond, lake and creek), walking and cycling paths, lighting, signage regarding dog access and signage restricting other activities as well. Generally, as highlighted here below, an assessment of some world cities in terms of green spaces indicates a huge variation. Surprisingly, this variation is observed even in cities of same continent and country.

A study on 386 European cities found a decline in the coverage of green spaces and attributed urbanization as a major cause of this problem with many of the cities increasing in size (population and land area) to cover lands reserved for green spaces (Fuller, 2009, cited in Collins, 2014). As an illustration, London has a long history of urban green space, which has significantly influenced development of modern parks, and is still among the greenest capital cities in the world; the basis for many urban green spaces seen today across Europe and the West began its process of development in London in the 17th and 18th centuries. London has 35,000 acres of public green spaces equivalent to 38.4% of its surface area making it one of the greenest cities of its size in the world after Sydney (46%) and Singapore (47%). In contrast, Paris has 9.4 % m2 of public green space by proportion of surface area which can be compared to London’s 38,4% or Stockholm’s 40% (World Cities Culture Forum, 2015 cited in BOP Consulting, 2013). Furthermore, according to Konijnendijk (2003) cited in BOP Consulting (2013), in Netherlands, the average green space cover is about 19% for 22 largest Dutch cities, about 228 m2 per inhabitant.

Relatively, in Italy, considering the availability and density of urban green areas in the more populated towns, it was revealed that Rome, the capital, has the largest surface: 131 square meters of green space per capita in 2008. Values much lower are found in Milan (16.2 m2) and Bari (14.3 m2). But if all Italian towns are considered, however, Savona, Lecce, Chieti, Ascoli Piceno, Crotone and Taranto Imperia have less than 5 m2 per inhabitant. The average urban green per capita in Italian towns is about 94 m2 (Fratini, 2011).

In USA, McDonald et al. (2010) observed a loss of about 1.4 million hectares of green spaces due substantially to rapid urbanization taken place in most cities. 80% of Americans live in metropolitan areas, and many of these areas are severely lacking in green space, two-thirds of residents of America’s largest cities do not have access to a nearby green space. As just examples, only 30 % of Los Angeles residents live within walking distance of a nearby green space. In Atlanta, green space covers only 3.8 % of the city’s area. Atlanta has no public green space larger than one-third of a square mile. The city has only 7.8 acres of green space for every 1,000 residents. The story is much the same in San Jose, New Orleans, and Dallas. Even in cities that have substantial green space as a whole, the residents of many neighbourhoods lack access to nearby green space. In New York City, for instance, nearly half of the city’s 59 community board districts have less than 1.5 acres of green space per 1,000 residents (Sherer, 2003).

Within Canada, according to a study done by Oljemark (2002), shocking satellite images, produced by the former Montreal Urban Community in July 1988, showed that the depletion of the vegetation cover on Montreal’s territory had even then reached and passed the critical point. According to new statistics from Quebec’s Environment Ministry, green spaces are disappearing at an alarming rate. Between 1986 and 1994, 50% of Montreal’s forested lands were built over; between 1994 and 2001, 750 hectares were lost to widespread, uncontrolled development and the losses continue. More than 85% of Montreal has already been developed. Only 3.3% of Montreal’s territory is a protected natural space. As far as the Latin America is concerned, the situation seems to be the same as observed in other world cities. In some cities, the ratio of green space is below, in others above the international standards. As examples, São Paulo has only 4 m2 per inhabitant when the minimum suggested by the World Health Organization (WHO) is 9 m2 per inhabitant. In comparison, Rio de Janeiro has 60 m2 per inhabitant, Curitiba 55 m2, and Brasília 120 m2. São Paulo is having this problem aggravated by devastating the swap of rainforest that goes from the city to the ocean (Atlantic Tropical Forest) at an alarming ratio. Since 1990 up to 2006, Atlantic tropical forest lost 1,700 ha (Leite, 2006).

In the context of Asia, on an average, China’s cities have 32.54% of green cover. This varies greatly in Chinese cities like Nanjing and Wuhan, 44.3 m2 per person and 10.3 m2 per person respectively (Jim and Wendy 2009 cited in Kayoko, 2010). In Hong Kong, the average of green space cover is 1.81%, about 3 m2 per inhabitant. Large cities in Japan have remarkably few amounts of green spaces compared with other large cities of Asia and developed nations. For instance, Tokyo has 4.5 m2 per person; Osaka has 2.9 m2 per person. This is because the land use control is too weak in Japan that it is easy to convert green spaces to other developments as compared with many foreign countries. The lack of green spaces

4 is more frightening in the central parts of Japan’s major metropolitan areas and it is extremely difficult to create new green spaces within the existing urban districts (Kayoko, 2010). Additionally, the findings of a study carried out by Hassan et al., 2012 on quantitative characteristics of Tehran green space found that there is shortage of green space in most Districts of Tehran, and the amount of green space in Tehran do not match with any standards even internal standards. The researcher found that the green space per capita in Tehran was equal to 6.4 m2.

Concerning Africa, statistics show that urban green spaces are depleting at an alarming rate with green spaces now occupying small proportion of the landmass of several urban areas (Collins, 2014). A study on some selected African cities such as Abidjan, Lagos, Dakar, Accra and Freetown found rapid urbanization causing the conversion of many reserved green space lands for infrastructural development to meet the high urban population (Fuwape et al., 2011). Specifically, according to Fanan et al. (2011, cited in Collins, 2014), the need for green space in Nigeria built environment is becoming very obvious.

Many areas are becoming more urbanized with little or no attention to green space. Urbanization and its accompanying urban sprawl have caused Abuja to lose substantial part of its green spaces from about 21% of the total land area in 2001 to about 12% in 2006. Similarly, according to Collins (2014), in Ghana, after the 1945 city plan of Kumasi was implemented; this city earned the honor of Garden city of West Africa. This plan devoted substantial part of the city’s landscape to green spaces. This condition made Kumasi to have a beautiful physical landscape with green spaces mixed together with physical developments. For the moment, studies show that many of the beautiful green spaces that the city have, are either in precarious state or have substantially been encroached upon. Identically, Kumasi used to have green belts and these appeared as nature reserves but now most of these green belts have become vacant. The total land area of Kumasi in 1950 was 25 km2 but due to urbanization it increased to 182 km2 in 1963 and as at 2011 it was 254 km2 (Oduwaye, 2013).

Such expansions have caused massive destruction to Kumasi’s green belt and other essential green spaces. The study concluded that rapid destructions of green spaces in Kumasi is worsened by a variety of human induced factors which include laxity in the enforcement of development controls, problem of ownership of green space lands, low priority to green spaces, uncooperative attitudes of the general public, poor culture of maintenance and lack of coordination among the allied bodies on green spaces. It can therefore be concluded that the depletion of green spaces in Kumasi is not the remit of only rapid urbanization which has received a lot of concerns internationally but rather goes beyond that (Collins, 2014).

Regarding the East Africa, taking Kampala as example, Balikowa (2014) found that with rapid population growth and property development not conforming to plan, a number of public parks have been encroached on by private developers. Unless strong action is taken, public open spaces in Uganda’s urban areas are in danger of extinction. The World Health organization has stated that there should be a minimum of 9 m 2 of green space per resident; the situation in Kampala is far below that minimum. The encroachment on public parks and open spaces in the city centre by private developers clearly demonstrates the threat that parks face in Kampala. The situation in the outer city divisions is unknown but it is expected that the situation could be even worse given the extensive encroachment by developers on swamps and gazetted wetlands. The available park space in Kampala is very limited compared to the rising urban population. What was mentioned above about the status of green space in different regions around the world is also true for Rwanda. 1.2. Problem Statement

In Rwanda, almost half of the urban dwellers are concentrated in the City of Kigali, with about one million inhabitants. This situation highlights the imbalance between urban centers, towns and rural settlements within Rwanda. Challenges caused by rapid and unbalanced urbanization combined with scarcity of land include the proliferation of unplanned urban growth, insufficient and inadequate housing, environmental degradation, and unsustainable cities (MININFRA, 2013). Specifically, in the field of environmental protection in Rwanda, the major problem is the imbalance between the population and the natural resources which have been degrading for decades. This degradation is observed through massive deforestation, the depletion of biodiversity, erosion and landslides, pollution of waterways and the degradation of fragile ecosystems, such as swamps and wetlands (GoR, 2000).

At some extent, green spaces have been and continue to be converted into other land uses every year. Taking City of Kigali as example, it is essential to note that the land upon which Kigali is built now was once heavily forested whereas currently, the forest covers an area of only about 77 km2 equivalent to 10.6% of the total surface area of CoK (Surbana, 2012, cited in REMA, 2013). Another example is the degradation of wetlands where urban developments, including residential expansion, industrial and commercial activities, have contributed to the loss or degradation of Kigali’s wetlands; Kigali wetlands cover 14% of the total land area in city (approximately 10,000 ha), most of which is altered because of the urbanization and extensive substance farming. It is estimated that today there are only 24% pre- settlement wetlands exists in the City (REMA, 2013).

In attempt to addressing the problem here above mentioned, in recent years, the government of Rwanda has elaborated and implemented a series of urbanization plans, policies and regulations to orient Kigali city growth toward a sustainable city (Manirakiza, 2012). Rwanda Vision 2020 plan, National Urban Housing Policy (2008), National Land Use Planning (2012), Kigali City Conceptual Master Plan (2008) and Kigali city Master plan (2013) are among the key policies that have been elaborated as a tool for making the Kigali city’s future more sustainable (Surbana, 2012 ). However, implementation of these policies is still in process and it appears that the compliance remains problematic. Taking the City of Kigali as a case study, this research intends to analyze the dynamics of urban green space over space and time and will come up with recommendations for an environmentally sustainable urban growth. 1.3. Research Objectives 1.3.1. General Objective The main objective of this research is to assess the spatial and temporal dynamics of Urban Green Spaces in Rwanda by taking the urban part of CoK as a case study. 1.3.2. Specific Objectives In order to achieve the main objective, the following specific objectives are formulated.

i. To classify the main categories of Green Spaces in UPKC; ii. To assess the dynamics of Green Spaces in Urban Part of CoK between 1986 and 2015; iii. To assess major challenges to the management of Green Spaces in the UPKC between 1986 and 2015; iv. To propose alternative solutions towards a sustainable management of Urban Green Spaces in the study area. 1.4. Research Hypotheses The hypotheses that this research will attempt to verify are as follows: i. The main categories of Green Spaces in UPKC are forests, wetlands, gardens, trees and agricultural land. ii. Green Spaces in the Urban Part of CoK have been decreasing over time and space; iii. Major challenges to the management of urban green spaces in UPKC include, among others, urban sprawl (scattered and unplanned housing development) and the non-compliance to different green spaces related policies, Lack of public awareness, Non-involvement of private sector; iv. The best solutions to the depletion of Urban Green spaces are, among others, the reinforcement of implementation of the Kigali master plan in regards to green spaces and

other policies towards promoting green spaces, raising public awareness on importance of green spaces, involving private investors and adoption of the approach of building in heights where possible. 1.5. Research Questions i. What are the main categories of Urban Green Spaces in CoK? ii. How have Green Spaces within the urban part of Kigali city evolved between 1986 and 2015? iii. What are the major challenges to the management of Urban Green Spaces in the urban part of CoK between 1986 and 2015? iv. What are alternative solutions towards a sustainable management of Urban Green Spaces in the study area? 1.6. Scope of the Study This study was conducted in the Urban Part of City of Kigali and exclusively focused on analysis of the dynamics of Green Spaces between 1986 and 2015. Specifically, this study has only covered two (2) sectors; Nyarugenge and Kimironko sector. It is important to note that the coverage of these sectors reflect the present administrative entities. Furthermore, these areas have been chosen as study areas using the simple random sampling method. Additionally, for the sake of variability, the presence of old and recent settlements have been taken into consideration.

Comparatively, few researches on this topic and case study have been carried out and the most recent of them is an Msc thesis in Biodiversity Conservation entitled: "Challenges and Opportunities in Managing Urban Green Spaces: Case Study of City of Kigali" by Marie Claire Mukanyandwi (2012) where the author put emphasis on the use of 2008-2009 aerial photos in classifying major categories of Green Spaces but she did not go far back in 1980’s as the present study did. The main objective of her study was to analyze the challenges and opportunities in the management of green spaces of Urban Part of Kigali City. In line with this objective, she described and classified the main Green Spaces of Urban Part of Kigali City and discussed key services and function that they provide, she also discussed existing challenges and opportunities for UPKC green spaces management.

The difference between the previous study and this one resides in the in-depth application of Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing whereby the dynamics of urban green spaces was analyzed using Landsat Images (1986-1996) and high-resolution satellites images of 2006, 2010 and 2015. Specifically, this study put an accent on the analysis of land-cover change of Urban Green Spaces throughout space and time using remote sensing.

1.7. Limitation of the Study This study would have been carried out using the latest and very high resolution satellite images. But, due to unavailability of high resolution images for 1986 and 1996, low resolution images (Landsat) for that period were used. Due to these low quality LandSat images used, the classification managed to only provide information on two broad covers namely built up and non-built up. It was not possible to characterise the composition of each cover, and therefore could not provide a comprehensive representation of urban green space composition.

It would also be better to analyse the dynamics of Urban Green Spaces of Kigali starting from its inception as an admistrative entity in 1907; however the author was unable to get the data (archived satellite images) of that period. Additionally, the study area did not cover the entire surface of CoK as administrative entity; it only considered two representative sectors. Moreover, the focus of the study was only made on the quantitative analysis of Green Spaces rather than qualitative nor accessibility. Finally, it was not possible to consider the seasonal aspect of satellite imagery. In other words, it was not possible to avoid the influence of seasonal variability and potential climate change. It was simply assumed that seasons remained similar and constant over time. Ideally, the mostly vegetated season at anniversary dates was preferred in order to avoid changes caused by seasonal variability but it was not possible.

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1. Definitions of Key Concepts

2.1.1 General Definition of Urban Green Space Urban green space can be broadly defined as the range of vegetation in urban landscapes, both publically and privately owned, directly or indirectly available to city users. Generally, the definition of urban green spaces which is agreed on by ecologists, economists, social scientists and planners is public and private open spaces in urban areas, primarily covered by vegetation, which are directly (e.g. active or passive recreation) or indirectly (e.g. positive influence on the urban environment) available for the users (Atiqul, 2011). In addition, the term “urban green space” refers to those portions of territory not constructed on, of private character or of a public nature that coexist with the structures and the manmade features and are intended for enjoyment and health of the citizens (Iuculano & Ubaldo, 1992 cited in Fratini, 2011).

2.1.2 Green Spaces vs Open Spaces Generally, both terms (green and open space) seem to be used loosely and interchangeably. Green space is a more recent term. It seems to have its origins in the urban nature conservation movement, and in the arrival in the UK of some of the European thinking about green space planning. It is particularly used to emphasize that the green environment of urban areas is about more than just parks, gardens and playing fields. Open space is increasingly used to refer to the whole of the external environment outside buildings in urban areas to which there is public access, even though the land may not necessarily be in public ownership (Nigel et al., 2002).

2.2.3 Other Definitions of Urban Green Spaces Urban green spaces can be defined in many ways depending on their demands and specific requirements. According to Jim and Chen (2003) cited in (Hazlinda et al., 2007), urban green spaces can be defined as outdoor places containing varied vegetation species and exist mainly as semi-natural area which are accessible for public. a) European Definition The European Union defines urban green space as “public green space located in urban areas, mainly covered by vegetation which are directly used for active or passive recreation, or indirectly used by virtue of their positive influence on the urban environment, accessible to citizens, serving the diverse needs of citizens and thus enhancing the quality of life in cities or urban regions” (URGE Team, 2004 cited in Chundi, 2013).

b) UK Definition The UK defines urban green space as “predominantly unsealed, permeable soft surfaces such as soil, grass, shrubs and trees together with buildings and hard covered surfaces belonging to them” (Dunnett et al., 2002 cited in Chundi, 2013). It emphasizes the character of “predominant” because green space may incorporate buildings and other forms of hard surfaces inside. Such areas include parks, playgrounds and green spaces specifically intended for recreational use, as well as green space with other origins or purposes.

c) USA Definition In the United States of America, urban green space refers to “outdoor settings that contain significant amounts of vegetation”, in other words, urban areas whose use does not require structures. Those included golf courses, parks, recreation areas, cemeteries, and entrapped agricultural and undeveloped land within urban areas. It is also essential to note that in USA, the terms “urban open space”, and urban green space are used interchangeably (Bonsignore, 2003 cited in Chundi, 2013).

d) China’s Definition Concerning China, the use of the term “urban green space” officially refers to “all green land/area covered by vegetation city-wide”. In this country almost all urban green space is in public ownership except for that belonging to certain organizations/companies.

e) Japan’s Definition In Japan, green spaces are defined as (i) non-architectural use land that are used as park, square, gym, zoo, botanic gardens, game land, graveyard, farmland, and forestry land (yang, 1938 cited in Mukanyandwi, 2012).

Although there are differences among the above definitions, it can be seen that there are two key features in the concept of “urban green space”:  Dominance of vegetation;  An entire geographical area influenced by urbanization.

2.2. Types of Green Spaces Byrne and Sipe (2010) cited in Bayram and Ercan (2012) stipulated that there are different ways to classify urban green space, such as its size, how people use it, its intended function, its location, etc.

According to Toke & Kathrine (2013), the different types of green space can be characterized as follows:

1. Parks: Green space categorized as a park has a high maintenance level with well-kept vegetation and a wide range of recreational possibilities. Footpaths open the green area to the public and make it possible to walk in the area and enjoy different features such as small lakes, trees, lawns, flowers, and sport activities. 2. Lakes: Some green spaces in cities are characterized primarily by the presence of water bodies such as lakes. In cases where a lake is the dominant feature of the green space, this is treated as a distinct type of space as the access and maintenance features differ from that of a park or a natural area, suggesting that the services provided differ as well. 3. Nature: On the edge of the city, large areas of green space can be found which often contain open fields of grass, tree cover, and lakes. Most often these areas contain small gravel roads and nature paths, which enable people to move through the landscape. The area is less well kept than an urban park. Fields and pastures often border the natural area. 4. Churchyards: These are often open to the public during daytime and have a high level of maintenance with flowers and hedges. While footpaths provide internal accessibility, there is little space for other activities than walking, and more lively social activities are rarely socially acceptable. 5. Sports fields: Schools and institutions often have access to green space, which facilitates sport activities and playground for the pupils. These areas often form a square and are outlined by trees. Sports facilities connected to sports clubs often have similar characteristics, e.g. similar size. In some cases these facilities are fenced limiting access. 6. Common areas: Communities of houses or apartment buildings in some cities often have shared “common green space” with well-kept lawns and small playgrounds often dominating such space. The users are mainly local residents and hence these areas are semi-public in terms of accessibility. Common areas are often relatively small, consisting of patches of green space connected by footpaths. 7. Agriculture fields: These areas are usually relatively large and homogeneous in nature. Most often there are no footpaths or roads allowing access into the fields and often meadows are fenced.

8. Green buffers: Green space can be found in connection to infrastructure such as highway, larger roads, and railways. Often covered by trees, the main function of such areas is to reduce the negative impact of noise and air pollution coming from the neighboring infrastructure. Likewise, industrial areas often contain patches of green space. The latter areas often consist of a kept lawn potentially surrounded by trees and do not invite recreational activities.

According to Rozalija et al. (2013), the types of urban green spaces in urban settings are diverse and vary from larger public parks, urban woodlands, green fields and street/park trees to private green spaces such as gardens, allotments, and rooftop, wall and domestic greenery as well as blue components such as lakes, rivers, wetlands and riparian zones. As per the same authors, the following are the elements of urban green space. 2.3 Benefits of Urban Green spaces Urban green space plays a vital role in improving urban community’s life quality in which it contributes to public health as well as urban environment. Green space is an important part of complex urban ecosystems that give environmental, esthetic, recreational and economic benefits to the urban dwellers (Li et al., 2005 cited in Hazlinda et al., 2007). 2.3.1 Environmental Benefits Healthy and properly maintained green spaces provide significant benefits to the environment. a) Ecological Benefits According to Mohammad & Zhirayr (2013), urban green spaces supply to cities with ecosystem services ranging from maintenance of biodiversity to the regulation of urban climate. Solar radiation, air temperature, wind speed and relative humidity vary significantly due to the built environment in cities. Urban heat island effect is caused by the large areas of heat absorbing surfaces, in combination of high energy use in cities. Urban heat island effect can increase urban temperatures. Therefore, adequate forest plantation, vegetation around urban dweller’s house, management of water bodies by authorities can help to mitigate the situation. b) Pollution Control Air and noise pollution is a common phenomenon in urban areas. The presence of many motor vehicles and factories in urban areas produces noise and air pollutants. Urban greening can reduce air pollutants directly when dust and smoke particles are trapped by vegetation. Noise pollution from traffic and other sources can be stressful and creates health problems for people in urban areas. Urban Green Spaces in overcrowded cities can largely reduce the levels of noise depending on their quantity, quality and the distance from the source of noise pollution. In the contemporary studies on urban green spaces consider

13 the complex urban ecosystem, conservation of the urban green spaces to maintain natural ecological network for environmental sustainability in cities. For the cities in fast urbanizing and growing economy, should consider the dynamic form of urban expanding to manage effective urban green spaces which will contribute to reduce the overall CO2 by maintaining or even increasing the ability of CO2 absorption via natural ecosystem (Atequl, 2011). c) Biodiversity and Nature Conservation Green spaces do functions as protection centre for reproduction of species and conservation of plants, soil and water quality. Urban green spaces provide the linkage of the urban and rural areas. They provide visual relief, seasonal change and link with natural world (Francis, 1997 cited in Mohammed, 2013). A functional network of green spaces is important for the maintenance of ecological aspects of sustainable urban landscape, with greenways and use of plant species adapted to the local condition with low maintenance cost, self-sufficient and sustainable (Loures et al., 2007 cited Mohammed, 2013). Furthermore, according to Gairola & Noresah (2010), biodiversity of urban green spaces is well recognized for the provision of variety of ecosystem services to humanity. Thus, in urban areas, the importance of urban green spaces is well highlighted as remnant habitats with high value for biodiversity and because some of rare and endangered species with significant conservation value may present in these habitats. 2.3.2 Economic and Aesthetic Benefits A review of the literature indicates that green space generally has a positive effect on real estate values. Quantified benefits to communities include higher residential property values in areas proximate to, and/or with views of, natural green space. Higher urban and exurban land prices are also experienced near the edge of urban containment boundaries and in ecologically sensitive areas, such as coastlines, where development has been limited and natural features preserved. Homebuyers are willing to pay a premium for properties near natural open space, and residents will pay to permanently protect a natural green space in their neighborhoods (Curran, 2011). As per Atequl (2011), areas of the city with enough greenery are aesthetically pleasing and attractive to both residents and investors. Green spaces and landscaping increase property values and financial returns for land developers. According to Chundi (2013), the economic values of urban green space stem from its production and employment opportunities. Products (such as fuel wood, fiber, fruits and compost), and employment opportunities (such as new planting projects, maintenance and management of certain areas) are some tangible economic values.

2.3.3 Social and Psychological Benefits Green space endows citizens with a series of benefits in both explicit and implicit ways. The pursuits for joy, excitement, and relaxation can be largely satisfied in an urban green space. Different enjoyments can be obtained from different types of green spaces. Neighborhood gardens provide residents’ daily contact with nature; golf courses bring leisure relish; urban parks give a good place for picnic and recreation (Xiaolu, 2012). People satisfy most of their recreational needs within the locality where they live. In another word, Green spaces within urban areas provide a sustainable proportion of the total outdoor leisure opportunities. Urban green spaces serve as a near resource for relaxation; provide emotional warmth. Urban parks have been suggested to facilitate social cohesion by creating space for social interactions (Atequl, 2011). 2.4 Accessible Natural Green Space Standards Model Access to the natural environment through local green spaces varies widely across the world, and even within a single local authority area. The model adopted by English Nature enables local authorities to consider the provision of natural areas as part of a balanced policy to ensure that local communities have access to an appropriate mix of green spaces providing for a range of recreational needs. English Nature recommends that provision should be made of at least 2ha of accessible natural green space per 1000 population according to a system of tiers into which sites of different sizes fit:  No person should live more than 300m from their nearest area of natural green space;  There should be at least one accessible 20 ha site within 2km from home;  There should be one accessible 100 ha site within 5km;  There should be one accessible 500 ha site within 10km.

The model should be viewed as a means to assess the natural green space resource and to set local targets for continual improvement, as yardsticks for progress towards an aspiration to meet its requirements as fully as possible. Implementing the model is the starting point for a creative process of green space planning and management, and not an end in itself (Gorffenaf, 2002).

2.5 Policies and Legal Frameworks related to Urban Green Spaces in Rwanda The following policies and legal frameworks are meant for the promotion and protection of environment. It is important to recall that green space is an integral part of environment; consequently, what is said on environment is also applicable to the green spaces. The environment in Rwanda constitutes a common national heritage and it is among higher government priorities. It is an integral part of universal heritage (Organic law No 04/2005). This section presents different policies,

15 programmes, laws, orders and instructions mainly regarding the environment and subsequently green spaces.

2.5.1 The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda In the Constitution Rwanda of 2003 as amended to date, chapter two, article 49, it is stated that every citizen is entitled to a healthy and satisfying environment. Every person has the duty to protect, safeguard and promote the environment. The State shall protect the environment. The law determines the modalities for protecting, safeguarding and promoting the environment. 2.5.2 Rwanda Vision 2020 The protection and management of the environment are among the pillars of Rwanda’s Vision 2020, the country has undertaken many initiatives to protect ecosystems for income generation and good governance. The objective of the Government is that by 2020, it will have built a nation in which pressure on natural resources, particularly on land, water, biomass and biodiversity, has significantly been reduced and the process of environmental pollution and degradation has been reversed; a nation in which the management and protection of these resources and environment are more rational and well regulated in order to preserve and bequeath to future generations the basic wealth necessary for sustainable development.

2.5.3 Organic Law determining the Modalities of Protection, Conservation and Promotion of Environment in Rwanda

This organic law N° 04/2005 of 08/04/2005 determines the modalities of protection, conservation and promotion of environment in Rwanda. In its article 52, it stipulates that the State shall identify reserved areas for protection, conservation or rehabilitation of:  Ecosystems;  Forests, woodlands, species of biodiversity and protected zones;  Monuments, historical sites and landscapes;  Water systems and its quality;  Banks and shores, rivers, streams, lakes, plains, valleys and swamps.

2.5.4 Economic Development and Poverty Reduction Strategy (EDPRS II)

In EDPRS II, it is stated that: “Rwanda’s economy is heavily dependent on its environment and natural resources, and the livelihoods of rural (and increasingly urban) communities depend on access, use and management of such resources”. Without sound environmental management, development activities in key sectors such as agriculture, industry, infrastructure, commerce, and energy can lead to significant

16 environmental degradation that can undermine economic growth. Economic impacts are likely to be exacerbated by climate change, which through increased floods, landslides and droughts, is likely to increase damage to infrastructure and property. Research has estimated that climate change could result in additional net economic costs (on top of existing climate variability) for Rwanda that are at least equivalent to a loss of almost 1% of GDP each year by 2030. It also stipulated that: “Achieving sustainable economic growth in Rwanda will require the prudent use of natural resources and ensuring that climate resilience is built into economic planning”.

2.5.5 National Strategy and Action Plan for the Conservation of Biodiversity

The National Strategy and Action Plan for the Conservation of Biodiversity recall that Rwanda ratified the International Convention on Biological Diversity. Being a contracting party, Rwanda has the duty of developing national strategies and programmes for the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity, integrating as far as possible and as appropriate the conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity into relevant sectoral and cross sectoral plans, programmes and policies. In additional to wetlands and protected areas, the national strategy promotes the sustainable use of the biodiversity 2.5.6 National Land Policy The Rwanda Land Policy of 2004 provided provisions related to the protection and preservation of green areas and other spaces of public interest. The same policy stated that Town planners make provision for green spaces, i.e. spaces on which houses and community facilities are forbidden. Furthermore, the policy highlighted that since squatter areas have prevailed over planned settlements, land-use master plans have not at all been respected to the point that Rwandan towns suffer seriously from lack of green spaces. As per the Policy statement, Green spaces as well as valleys will be protected. The policy has set the following strategic options:  Parks for tourist attraction will be created in towns;  Existing wooded areas in urban zones should be protected;  Existing valleys in urban areas should be considered as green spaces and should be protected;  In residential areas, green spaces will be developed and protected against uncontrolled urbanization, especially on hilly sites to avoid soil erosion.

2.5.7 Forestry Policy This forestry policy will facilitate to achieve the targets set respectively in EDPRS and the Vision 2020 in terms of increased forest cover. Forest cover will be brought to 30% of total area equivalent to 790,140 ha of forests in year 2020. Beside this, the policy intends to create a favorable environment for flourishing forestry business based wood industry, consequently, targets may be also expressed in terms of forest generated incomes. The policy states that through sound management, forest resources will play increased roles in economy and biodiversity conservation; current benefits from forests enjoyed by actual generations will be enhanced to ensure that the well being of future generations is not compromised. Increase of forest cover, high value addition to forest products and rational utilization of forests will contribute to a balanced development through economic growth and promotion of ecological values. The overall goal of this policy is to make the forestry sector one of the bedrocks of economy and national ecological balance for sustainable benefits to all segments of the society. The specific objectives of this forestry policy are to:  Encourage the participation of private sector to invest in the forest sector for poverty reduction, employment creation and improvement of livelihood through sustainable use, conservation and management of forests and trees;  Contribute to sustainable land use through soil, water and biodiversity conservation, and tree planting through the sustainable management of forests and trees;  Strengthen the participation of communities and other stakeholders in forest management to conserve water catchment areas, forest biodiversity and ensure sustainability of the forest sector;  Promote farm forestry to produce timber, wood fuel and to supply wood and non-wood forest products;  Promote forest extension to enable farmers and other forest stakeholders to benefit from forest management approaches and technologies; and  Promote forest research, training and education to ensure a vibrant forest sector.

2.5.8 Kigali Conceptual Master Plan (KCMP) The key objective of the Kigali Conceptual Master Plan 2007 was to move forward from the National Strategic Plan proposed in Vision 2020, and to develop a long range plan for the Capital City that would guide the key infrastructure and systems required for the future growth of Kigali. As far as green spaces are concerned, it is stated in the KCMP that the focus should be made on preservation of naturally sensitive areas. In the same perspective, the large drainage channels within town, the unbuildable slopes and forest patches in the city are proposed to be converted into nature parks. Additionally, the wetland parks are planned to be developed around the existing wetlands and proposed wetland buffers. Within the KCMP, different locations are reserved for forests, public gardens, protected areas, agricultural land, parks etc. All the above-mentioned green spaces are connected through green connector network like green strips, bridges; green fingers etc and ensure a seamless pedestrian network throughout the city. Following the final vision plan for the 2040, the year 2025 green and blue plan targets development the focus will be put on the following key areas:  The agro-tourism parks near Lake Muhazi;  The proposed adventure and nature parks near the Nyarugenge CBD;  The Wetland/Nature and Bidiversity park near the newly proposed Gahanga regional centre;  The first phase of valley of flowers along the highways and airports.

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS 3.1. Study Area Description This study was conducted in the urban part of City of Kigali. Geographically the city of Kigali is situated almost in the centre of the country. Its geographical position is on latitude 1º 57’S and on longitude 30º 04’ E. Kigali city is surrounded by the Northern Province on the North, Eastern Province on the East and South and Southern Province on the West. Originally the city occupied the hills of Nyarugenge and Nyamirambo which covered an area of about 200 hectares at the time of independence. Between 1962 and 2012, its administrative boundaries grew from about 3 km2 to 730 km2. The current Kigali’s extent is a result of its administrative boundaries that has been revised during the implementation of decentralization policy which has resulted in the inclusion of some semi-urban areas which were previously not part of Kigali city. The first was a decree law N0 11/97 of 27/04/1979 from which Kigali had 112 km2. This was followed by the presidential order N0 896/90/of 27/11/1990 which conferred the city of Kigali a total area of 349 km2. The last one was the law No 29/2005 of 31/12/2005 which gives the up to date area of 730 km2 (NISR, 2012). Kigali City being with a status of a province is divided into three districts including Gasabo (429.3 km2), Kicukiro (166.7 km2) and Nyarugenge (134 km2) (CoK, 2013). These districts are further divided into 35 Sectors and 161 Cells, and the Cells are sub-divided into 1,061 villages.

The city is delimited by Nyabarongo river along the western and southern edge, and partly by Lake Muhazi at the north-eastern edge (Surbana, 2012). From history, Kigali took its expansion after 1994 genocide against Tutsi when there was an influx of refugees returning from exile in neighbouring countries and significant migration of people from rural areas mainly for the sake of security, employment and business opportunities (Musahara & Huggins, 2005 cited in Mukanyandwi, 2012). Since 1962 to 2012, its population increased from about 6,000 to more than one million people. This is 10.8% of Rwanda’s total population and is one of Africa’s fastest growing cities due to a high birth rate and high levels of positive net migration (NISR, 2012). With regards to the topography, Kigali is built on many hills, sprawling across four ridges with valleys in between. It has a lower mid-altitudinal range of 1,300 m in the wetlands, to the peak of Mount Kigali at 1,850 m. The slopes of the city’s hills vary in steepness from inclines of up to 45 or 50 %, to those in valley and wetland areas with slopes of less than 2 %. Normally, Kigali has a temperate climate. It has two rainy periods that generally occur from February to May and from November to January. March through May is the rainiest time of the year. Over the course of a year, the temperature typically varies

20 from 15°C to 29°C. The average temperature is 21° C and an average of 1028 mm of rainfall per year or 85.7 mm per month. Having some slopes of up to 50 % and two rainy seasons, the land of CoK is vulnerable to erosion and flooding. Buildings on steep slopes, seasonal rainfall, inadequate drainage and construction in flood prone zones have made parts of Kigali highly susceptible to flooding. The impacts of a changing climate could exacerbate the risks, but the implementation of urban plans, including the removal of infrastructure and formally protecting wetland areas, promises to help them regenerate. The land use of Kigali is dominated by agriculture that occupies the largest proportion of the land (60.5 %), with built- up areas covering about 15 %. Wetlands, water bodies, forests, steep hills and other natural constraints cover 50.3% of the land area (REMA, 2013).

Regarding hydrology, there are 25 watersheds within the city limits and it is part of the Lake Victoria Basin (Surbana 2012). in central and northern Kigali, the topography is relatively steep and drained by the Nyabugogo River, which is the main watercourse in the northwest quadrant of Kigali flowing south to join the Nyabarongo River. The Nyabarongo River is the main watercourse that borders the western and southern edges of the city limits. Lake Muhazi is the largest natural lake in Kigali; it borders the north-eastern edge of Gasabo District and is currently more or less undeveloped. Wetlands are another of Kigali’s key hydrological features, located mainly in the river valleys of the rivers described above.

With regards to biodiversity, Rwanda lies in the western part of a rift valley known as the Albertine Rift, one of the most biologically diverse regions in Africa (UNEP, 2010). The Nyabarongo Wetland receives an exceptionally large number of migratory and congretory birds every year, but rice and sugarcane plantations, which dominate the city’s wetlands and low-lying areas in river floodplains, have contributed to biodiversity loss. Kigali has the potential to regain its lost biodiversity by establishing parks and protected areas, which will also help Rwanda to achieve the Vision 2020 goal of protecting 10.3 % of its land area to maintain biodiversity. As highlighted by the map below, the study area is composed by 2 sectors including Nyarugenge sector of Nyarugenge district and Kimironko sector of Gasabo district.

Figure 1: Geographical Location of Sampled Sectors (MINITRACO/CGIS, 2001)

3.2 Data Collection Techniques

To obtain the required data, this study used both primary and secondary data sources. 3.2.1. Secondary Data a) Existing Geospatial dataset Major sources of secondary data that were used include Government institutions such as Rwanda Natural Resources Authority (RNRA) for the Ortophotos taken between 2008-2009 with 0.25x0.25m resolution taken by Swede survey AB and Digital Globe through the Centre for Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing of the University of Rwanda (CGIS-UR) for high resolution satellite images (worldview-2 with 0.46 x 0.46 m spatial resolution acquired on 07th June 2015, on 07th July, 2010 and Quick Bird images with 0.65x0.65 m spatial resolution acquired on 15th August, 2006. Additionally, archived Landsat images (30x30 m spatial resolution) for 1986 and 1996 downloaded from United States Geological Survey (USG) was used; These include Landsat TM (thematic mapper) acquired on 17th January 1986 and Landsat TM of 25th September 1996. b) Existing demographic data Statistical and demographic data were obtained from National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda (NISR). c) Existing Literature Review of relevant literature was made on different online and printed published books, reports, theses, journals, papers and atlas. Rwanda policies and laws were also consulted to gain further information related to Urban Green Spaces. 3.2.2. Primary Data Primary data were collected using field observations and interview guides. The interviews were administered to professionals who work in some key institutions directly concerned with planning of the city and protection of urban green spaces. a) Field Observation Field observation was conducted in order to observe the current state of some biophysical features that make urban green spaces such as wetlands, forest, woodlands, trees and gardens. Photo taking with digital camera was also done in order to get general view on the current situation of green spaces in City of Kigali. b) Interviews In this research, a semi structured interview was used. A semi structured interview is the interview where the interviewer uses a set of predetermined questions and the respondents answer in their own words. Some interviewers use a topic guide that serves as a checklist to ensure that all respondents

23 provide information on the same topics. The interviewer can probe areas based on the respondent’s answers or ask supplementary questions for clarification (Easwaramoorthy et al., 2006). This technique helped to acquire information from the local authorities in charge of environment in the three Districts that make Kigali City. Furthermore, the interview was also addressed to authorities in the institutions that have green space in their attribution including CoK, REMA and RNRA. In fact, the purpose of interviews is to compliment the information resulting from Household Questionnaire Survey and satellite image classification. As far as the procedure is concerned, predefined questions were set out and served as interview guide; this was done through oral and face to face interaction, this was carried out by the researcher himself. People to be interviewed include: Land officers, Environmental officers and Master plan implementation officer from three institutions namely City of Kigali, Rwanda Environment Management Agency and Rwanda Natural Resources Authority.

3.3 Data Analysis Collected data (both qualitative and quantitative) were analysed. This research was principally based on Remote Sensing (classification of satellite images). Remote Sensing was more privileged than other techniques because the research analysed dynamics of green spaces over time, thus remote sensing is excellent in analysing past phenomena by interpreting archived satellite images. In fact, all was about detection of land cover change. In the remote sensing context, change detection consists of identifying the differences in the state of an object or phenomenon by observing it at two different times (Singh, 1989). The phenomena of interest are the changes in the initial land cover conditions along a time series captured in an image set. Land cover change, therefore, can be defined as the difference in the reflectance values of two image pixels or objects recorded at two different dates (Lambin & Strahler, 1994). The method consisted of analysing the evolution of green space in the urban part of City of Kigali by using both low and high resolution satellite images. Low resolution satellite images (Landsat) were used for 1986 and 1996 while high resolution images (Quick Bird and Worldview-2) were used for year 2006, 2010 and 2015. For Landsat, cloud free Satellite images covering the study area were classified into two (2) layers including built up (different types of structures, houses & buildings and all paved lands) and non-built up (vegetated land, wetlands agricultural land etc.). The classification result was assessed and validated; in other words, the output classified image was compared with true real world data (Ground truthing). Softwares used include: ArcGIS Desktop 10.1 and Erdas Imagine 2014 and trial version of Geomatica 2013.

All satellite images were mosaicked and georeferenced to the Universal Transverse Mercator (WGS_1984) coordinate system using Geomatica 2013. Afterwards, these images were classified using ERDAS imagine (version 2014). The supervised classification, pixel based (maximum likelihood) was used. This required the knowledge of the author on the areas of interest (AOIs). Using the signature Editor, these AOIs were recorded and stored in corresponding classes.

In supervised classification, the image processing software is guided by the user to specify the land cover classes of interest. The user defines “training sites”, areas in the map that are known to be representative of a particular land cover type. The software determines the spectral signature of the pixels within each training area, and uses this information to define the mean and variance of the classes in relation to all of the input bands or layers. Each pixel in the image is then assigned, based on its spectral signature, to the class it most closely matches. The algorithm used is the Gaussian Maximum Likelihood Classifier. After the classification, the classified image (raster) was converted to vector format using ArcGIS 10.1 in order to enable the calculation of the size of each class.

CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

This section presents the findings obtained from the classification of satellite image, field observations, and interviews. It presents the findings of the study on the dynamics of UGS in City of Kigali, specifically in Kimironko and Nyarugenge sectors. It also highlights the researcher’s analysis and interpretation of the data. Finally, this section gives alternative solutions to identified challenges for a sustainable management of Green Spaces in the study area. 4.1 Main Categories of Green Spaces in City of Kigali The results of field observation and image classification showed that the land cover of UPKC is mainly composed by built up and non-built up areas. The built up area is made of different types of structures or buildings and all paved areas; the non-built up area here referred to as Green Spaces is made of forests, wetlands, public and private gardens, agricultural land, playgrounds, roundabout green spaces, cemetery and trees along main roads and streets and all undeveloped land.

4.1.1 Urban Forests Urban forests play an important role in ecology of human habitats in many ways: they filter air, water, and sunlight, provide shelter to animals and recreational area for people. Forests in city of Kigali are found under form of wood lots. Most of these forests are manmade. Additionally, the remaining natural forests are available in small scattered patches as a result of urban development and are found on high slope terrain. Predominant tree species are eucalyptus and grevillea. 4.1.2 Wetlands Wetlands help to reduce the impacts from storm damage and flooding, maintain good water quality in rivers, recharge groundwater, store carbon, help stabilise climatic conditions. They are also important sites for biodiversity. The City of Kigali comprises a composite system of wetlands, mainly present along the low-lying valleys adjacent to the rivers. 4.1.3 Gardens Gardens in Kigali are composed by roadside gardens, roundabouts, institutional and other private gardens. The UPKC roadside gardens are planted along side of the roads and others separate all two way roads. Most of these gardens are in state ownership and are permanently maintained.

4.1.4 Trees Scattered trees in the CoK exist in the midst of built up area, in public and private gardens and alongside roads and streets.

Figure 2: Roadside trees at Kibagabaga (Author, April 2016)

4.1.5 Agriculture land Urban agriculture in City of Kigali is mainly practised on the edges of wetlands and on small and scattered agricultural lands generally comprised in built up area.

Figure 3: Urban agriculture in Kimironko Sector (Author, April 2016) 5.3 Dynamics of Green Spaces in UPKC between 1986 and 2015 This section presents the findings on the dynamics or evolution of UGS in UPKC between 1986 and 2015. 5.2.1 Decreasing of Urban Green Spaces Results obtained from the classification of both low and high resolution satellite images revealed a general decrease of Urban Green Spaces in the study area. The classification of low resolution satellite images (Landsat images of 1986 & 1996) identified only two land covers namely vegetated land and built-up area while high resolution images (Quick Bird and Worldview2 of 2006, 2010 & 2015) identified different land covers such as vegetated land, unpaved land, paved land and built-up area. Depending on quality of images and potential author’s induced errors, the above cited images were classified at different overall accuracy and overall kappa statistics. Landsat image of 1986 was classified with overall classification accuracy of 69.23% and overall kappa statistics of 0.1184. For Landsat images of 1996, the overall classification accuracy was 67.69% and overall kappa statistics was equivalent to 0.1075. The Quick Bird 2006 of Kimironko was classified at overall classification

28 accuracy of 93.46% and overall kappa statistics of 0.8555; the overall classification accuracy and overall kappa statistics for Worldview2 images of Kimironko in 2015 were 89.23% and 0.7446 respectively. For worldview2 images of Nyarugenge in 2010, the overall classification accuracy was 91.54% and overall kappa statistics was 0.8170 while for worldview2 of Nyarugenge 2015, overall classification accuracy was 78.33% and overall kappa statistics was 0.6183. Maps resulting from image classification are here-below presented:

Figure 4: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Kimironko Sector (1986 & 1996)

Figure 5: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Nyarugenge Sector (1986 & 1996)

The classified Landsat images of Nyarugenge and Kimironko show that Green Spaces have known a decrease over 10 years of time.

Table 1: Land Cover Change between 1986 and 1996 in Kimironko and Nyarugenge

Sector Land Cover Size_Ha Change 1986 1996 Kimironko Built up 172.553 293.110 120.557 ha (increase) Non-built up 972.453 831.896 140 ha (decrease) Nyarugenge Built up 338.048 404.24 66.192 (increase) Non-built up 124.50 60.45 64.05 (decrease)

Statistics from Table 1 presented here above show that only in ten years, the built up area has increased while the non-built up area here referred to as green spaces registered a decrease of approximately 204.05 hectares for both sectors. This decrease may be simply explained by inexistence and or poor implementation of policies and strategies related to promoting and protecting urban green spaces during that period. Results from classification of high resolution satellite images also revealed a decrease of Urban Green Spaces in the study area.

Figure 6: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Kimironko Sector (QuickBird 2006 & Worldview2 2015)

Figure 7: Dynamics of UGS in Nyarugenge Sector (2010 & 2015) Quantitatively, the table 2 here-below illustrates the situation.

Table 2: Land Cover Change for Kimironko Sector (2006 and 2015) & Nyarugenge (2010 and 2015)

Size (ha) Change Sector Land cover 2006 2015 Unpaved land 404.023 269.636 134.387 (decrease) Paved Land 21.472 92.759 71.287 (increase) Built up 325.997 342.943 16.946 (increase) 429.711 45.975 (increase) Kimironko Vegetated land 383.736 2010 2015 Built Up 161.78 188.70 26.92 (increase) Paved Land 25.78 100.39 74.60 (increase) Unpaved Land 12.98 71.59 58.61 (increase) Nyarugenge Vegetated Land 262.91 102.76 160.143 (decrease)

Both Figure 6 and Table 2 show that vegetated land for Kimironko (2006 -2015) has increased; this might due to different factors including seasonality/ variation of rainfall, policy of greening and beautification of CoK and monthly community work locally known as Umuganda through which tree planting has been a success. Figure7 above presented shows that the coverage of vegetation in Nyarugenge sector has significantly reduced.

Only in 5 years of interval, the vegetation has decreased by 160.143 ha. This may be probably explained by seasonality. Possibly, image of Nyarugenge 2015 was captured in a month warmer than one of image of 2010. The consolidated coverage of Green Spaces between 1986 and 2015 for Kimironko & Nyarugenge Sector shows that the dynamics of Green Spaces in Kimironko from 1986 to 2015 is expressed by a general decrease of about 88.412 hectares while for Nyarugenge sector, the decrease is evaluated to a total of approximately 101.533 hectares.

1200

1000

800

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400

Coveragegreenof spaces (inhectares) 200

0 Year 1986 Year 1996 Year 2006 Year 2015 Time series

Figure 8: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Kimironko Sector (1986 - 2015)

The curve of Figure 8 presented above shows a progressive decrease of coverage of Green Spaces in Kimironko sector.

300

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200

150 UGS (in Ha) 100

0 Year 1986 Year 1996 Year 2010 Year 2015 Time series

Figure 9: Dynamics of Green Spaces in Nyarugenge Sector (1986 - 2015)

The Figure 9 shows a general decrease of Green Spaces in Nyarugenge sector; the exception is observed for the period from 1996 to 2010 where the coverage of UGS has increased. Generally from image classification, as years went by, the study area experienced urban expansion which caused the reduction of Green Spaces. These findings from the classification of satellite images are complemented by the perception of respondents (interviewed) where the majority of them confirmed that urban green spaces within City of Kigali have been decreasing overtime. Additionally, most of interviewed added that various measures have been taken including the Kigali conceptual master plan, policies on protection and promotion of environment, the popular monthly community work locally known as Umuganda, environmental related cooperatives (planting trees), policy on housing and rational use of land whereby the size of plot has been reduced by encouraging grouped settlement and other policies related to greening and beautification. The master plan implementation officer in City of Kigali declared: "It’s true that the expansion of Kigali has occurred in disfavor of Green Spaces”. He added that from many years ago, there was no tangible policy made in regard of urban environment and Green Spaces in particular; the priority was only given

33 to buildings”. Another official, environment officer in CoK, stated: "due to increased urbanization, a significant decrease in the coverage of Green Spaces was experienced. He stated that this decrease was before the existence of Kigali master plan". He added that in the past, low priority was given to Green Spaces by city authorities. According to him, resources and efforts used to be concentrated on the building of physical and social infrastructure such as roads, schools and hospital, markets etc which they considered to improve the livelihoods of the public. According to him, all this was done at the expense of Green Spaces. Similarly, the green urbanization expert from MININFRA stated that Green Spaces are decreasing in terms of coverage and accessibility.

Moreover, just to illustrate, the Google Earth image here below shows the land cover change over time. It is an image of Kibagabaga Hospital and its surroundings. In the 2000’s, the land was almost empty of buildings. As years went by, the land has been transformed into an absolute built up area.

Figure 10: Land Cover Change at Kibagabaga Hospital (2000 - 2015) (Google Earth, 2015)

Following the findings presented here above, it is important to note that these results concerned the decrease of Green Spaces in general. Specifically, this decrease is mainly manifested by fragmentation of forests, encroachment & degradation of wetlands and conversion of agricultural land.

5.2.2 Fragmentation of Urban Forests When moving around in Kigali, the natural and manmade forests in the city of Kigali exist under form of small patches or wood lots. As stated by REMA (2013), in the report of Kigali State of Environment, the land upon which Kigali is built now was once heavily forested whereas currently the forest covers an area of only about 77 km2 (10.6%). This is a result of urban development whereby big parts of forests are converted to other land uses

mainly housing units. The following image of Google Earth is illustrating the situation.

Figure 11: A Sampled Area in Rukurazo of Kibagabaga Cell (2005 – 2015) A resident of Kibagabaga in Kimironko sector revealed that in about 30 years back, that area was composed by bushes and forests. He added that before Kigali became a town as it is now, it was a rural area where the main economic activity was agriculture; so during the preparation of agricultural land, farmers had to cut down trees and clear the natural vegetation. 5.2.3 Encroachment and Degradation of Wetlands According to REMA (2006), Kigali’s wetlands have been threatened and degraded by human activities including the conversion to agriculture, human settlements and industrial activities such as brick making and sand mining, livestock activities and sand quarries. For that reason, by 2006, only 24 % of Kigali’s original wetland areas remained. This is complemented by a respondent who said that: "due to land scarcity in Kigali, people have invaded coasts of wetlands by practicing agriculture and developing residential houses". This is best demonstrated by the Google Earth image here below:

Figure 12: Enchoachment of Wetland in Nyarugenge Sector (Google Earth, 2015)

5.24 Conversion of Agricultural Land According to REMA (2006), the expansion of urban development into Kigali’s rural areas has increased the number of people living in areas that used to be agricultural zones. This has led to land fragmentation and to a reduction in farm size. As confirmed by local people met on the field, most of the land which is still cultivated, has been already bought and sooner or later will be converted and developed into housing units. Another respondent declared that some time back in 1980’s, many parts of Kimironko and Kigali in general were rural and cultivated at big scale. He added that as the city expands, agricultural land disappears progressively. 5.3 Major Challenges to the Management of Green Spaces in the UPKC The management of Green spaces in City of Kigali is confronted to a number of challenges including among others, urban sprawl, lack of public awareness on importance of Green Spaces, non-involvement of private sector, poor implementation of the KCMP and other policies related to Green Spaces. 5.3.1 Urban Sprawl Urban Sprawl is the spreading out of a city and its suburbs over more and more rural land at the periphery of an urban area. Most of time, this involves the conversion of green space (rural land) into built-up, developed land over time (Haregewoin, 2005). According to the results of household questionnaire survey, the factor identified to be the main cause of reduction of green space in UPKC as reported the majority of respondents (85.42%) is ”unplanned housing development.

An environment officer from City of Kigali stated during interview that” urban green spaces have been decreasing due to increased urban sprawl”. He continued saying that for all cases, the sprawl is done in unplanned and uncontrolled manner. According to him, this phenomenon is always followed by excessive land consumption. Additionally, he stipulated that most of the time, the land which is cleared is the one covered by green space.

In line with this, as emphasized by the green urbanization expert from MININFRA, pressure on land for housing due to high growth of urban population followed by slum settlements which consist of occupying land illegally and in anarchic way is among the main causes of degradation of urban green spaces. 5.3.2 Poor Implementation of the KCMP and other Policies related to UGS On the subject of existence of regulations for the planning and protection of green spaces in City of Kigali, especially in the existing master plan, the master plan implementation officer replied that: “regulations are there but continuous and massive sensitization of the general public and strict enforcement of compliance with the master plan is still needed”. He added that punitive sanctions should be applied to those who violate the KCMP. Another respondent said that the main challenges in promoting green spaces are: Insufficient capacity in terms of staff to implement the master plan, lack of affordable houses, proliferation of informal settlement, insufficient funds to relocate people in areas zoned green spaces and environmentally sensitive areas. He added that: "even people living in areas zoned green spaces in the KCMP are not yet relocated". 5.3.3 Lack of Public Awareness on Importance of UGS One interviewed stated that the general public is not well involved in the implementation of different policies including KCMP and so considers the task as the sole responsibility of city authorities. Another interviewed said that regulations are there but not rigorously implemented. He added that the local community is not appropriately involved in establishing, updating and validating these policies. As per the environmental officer during interview, poor awareness on the importance of green space, individual unwillingness to provide and promote green spaces in their private territory is one of challenges hindering urban green spaces.

5.3.4 Green Spaces not ranked among Priorities During interview with the green urbanization expert, this official mentioned less importance attributed to the Green Spaces by urban managers as one of major challenges to the management of urban green spaces in City of Kigali. Another implementer of Kigali Conceptual Master Plan mentioned that the violation of the Kigali master plan by converting green spaces to other land uses like residential and commercial houses said to be more profitable, is caused by low priority given to green spaces. Local government and central government do not reserve adequate and sufficient budget to compensate people who have to be relocated from wetlands and other areas zoned green spaces. This failure to avail funds for relocation of people living in areas zoned green spaces may be translated to low priority.

5.3.5 Poor Involvement of Private Sector According to some interviewed, the private sector is not efficiently involved and encouraged to invest in green space development because it is not yet a promising business. They mentioned that there is no tangible encouragement for private people to provide green spaces. As one respondent stated, I quote, “even though there are lands zoned for green spaces, no development was done so far”, end of quote. Another one highlighted some examples of green spaces generating income for private investors such as protected and maintained gardens which generate money through photo taking during weddings and other ceremonies and events.

5.4 Alternative Solutions towards a Sustainable Management of UGS These solutions include among others, Control of Urban Sprawl, Ranking Urban Green Spaces among priorities, raising public awareness on importance of UGS; involving private sector, reinforcing the implementation of the KCMP and other policies in regards to Green Spaces. 5.4.1 Green Spaces should be ranked among priorities City authorities should demonstrate a strong political will to promote and maintain green spaces. A significant portion of the city’s budget should be allocated to the promotion and protection of green spaces in the City. Additionally, the solutions suggested by one interviewed include the attribution of much importance to green space by strictly forbidding its conversion to other land uses by applying punitive measures. In recent years, the government has done a lot about promotion of environment and particularly Green Spaces but much work is still needed.

5.4.2 Raising Public Awareness The City of Kigali should put emphasis on raising public awareness on the importance of urban green spaces through continuous sensitization. Raising public awareness on importance of green spaces will increase the respect given to green spaces. Moreover, an interviewed suggested that continuous sensitization of the general public on the importance of green spaces should be undertaken by considering the general public as integral part of the management of community green spaces. According to my point of view, it should be better if the local community was seriously sensitized and involved in all stages from formulation to implementation of policies, laws and regulations related to UGS so that they should know what to be complied with. This awareness should be increased through meetings, media and other communication tools. 5.4.3 Involving Private Sector Private investors should be encouraged and motivated to acquire green spaces and manage them on behalf of the state by thinking on how green space can generate financial incomes. During an interview session with one of implementers of KCMP, the interviewed revealed that government should develop public private partnerships in green space development through different initiatives such as provision of incentives (tax hold for green space, shareholding etc…), raise awareness to the private owners of land and semi-public realms which can be accessed by the general public, providing subsidies for green spaces development. Once they invest in green spaces, they will develop them into attractive and tourist sites. This will generate substantial revenue for themselves and the state and people will begin to perceive green spaces as equally profitable as other land uses. This practice to a very large extent will reduce the conversion of green spaces into other land uses. 5.4.4 Reinforcing the Implementation of the KCMP and other Policies in regards to UGS Areas zoned for green spaces should be well protected and managed and should be prevented from being converted to other land uses. An interviewed stated that Government should avail funds to relocate people who are still living in areas zoned for green spaces in the KCMP; this will help in developing, restoring and protecting these areas. Another one suggested that tough punitive sanctions should be taken against those who convert green spaces to other land uses without permission issued by competent authority. In brief, the most effective solution repeated by a high proportion of interviewed was the punishment of people who violate the KCMP. They mentioned that tough punitive sanctions should be taken against those who construct houses without related permits.

5.4.6 Control of Urban Sprawl As pointed out by a good number of interviewed, sustainable solutions to urban sprawl include among others, multiple story housing, building in heights or high density buildings also known as compact city. According to my opinion, people should know that it is not possible for every person to own a house in the city; government in partnership with private sector should invest in affordable housing and apartments. This will limit the spread out of inappropriate and substandard housing units along large areas and consequently reduce the land consumption. Houses should be constructed where they are planned for.

CHAPTER FIVE: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Conclusion The main objective of this study was to assess the dynamics of Urban Green Spaces in Rwanda between 1986 and 2015 by taking City of Kigali as case study. To achieve this main research objective, three specific objectives were formulated. These include: i) To classify the main categories of Green Spaces in UPKC, ii) To assess the evolution of Green Spaces in UPKC between 1986 and 2015, iii) To assess major challenges to the management of Green Spaces in the UPKC between 1986 and 2015; iv) To propose alternative solutions towards a sustainable management of UGS in the study area.

Based on findings, for the first specific objective, it was found that urban green spaces of the study area are classified mainly into wetlands, forests, trees, gardens and agricultural lands. For the second objective, the results from both satellite image classification and interviews showed that the coverage of urban green spaces for the two selected sectors (Kimironko and Nyarugenge) has decreased over the study period. Image classification revealed that between 1986 and 2015, registered a decrease of about 88.412 hectares while for Nyarugenge sector, the decrease is evaluated to a total of 101.533 hectares. Additionally, this decrease was also confirmed by the majority of respondents (interviewed).

For the third objective, results revealed that there is a number of challenges namely Urban Sprawl, poor implementation of KCMP and other policies related to UGS, non-involvement of private sector, lack of public awareness on UGS and low priority given to UGS. Finally, to address the above mentioned challenges, alternative solutions towards sustainable management of UGS were proposed. These include among others: Control of urban sprawl, ranking Urban Green Spaces among priorities, raising public awareness on importance of UGS; involving private sector, reinforcing the implementation of the KCMP and other policies in regards to Green Spaces.

5.2 Recommendations Best practices and experience gained from literature and field surveys during the present research enabled the following recommendations to be made in order to promote urban green spaces in the City of Kigali, these include among others: control of urban sprawl, ranking Green Spaces among priorities, raising public awareness, involving the private sector and reinforcing the implementation of the KCMP and other policies in regards to Green Spaces. Green Spaces are an integral part of environment. However, environment being a cross cutting subject, these recommendations should be jointly executed by different players but mainly by CoK, REMA, RHA, RNRA, Donors and private sectors.

To the Government

The Government should rank urban green spaces among its priorities. This should be done through different endeavours including availing budget for the promotion of Green Spaces, encouraging the private sector to invest in Green Spaces, raising awareness of the general public on importance of Green Spaces and setting up punitive measures against those who convert or degrade any green spaces.

To CoK

The City of Kigali and its administrative structure including districts, sectors and cells should play the foremost role in protecting UGS through rigorous implementation of KCMP and other policies in relation to Urban Green Spaces. This should be done by granting building authorization and monitoring whether any development is in line with the master plant. The CoK should also undertake continuous sessions of raising public awareness. Moreover, the CoK should increase effort in establishing and managing more green areas and public parks.

To REMA

Rwanda Environment Management Authority (REMA) being institution mandated to facilitate coordination and oversight of the implementation of national environmental policies should reinforce effort in controlling, monitoring and evaluation of how well policies and related legal frameworks are integrated into all development programs.

REMA should also take the lead in suspending or termination of activities that do not conform to any law related to the protection of Green Spaces. To RHA

Rwanda Housing Authority being an institution directly in charge of housing development should play a key role in controlling urban sprawl. In conjunction with different partners, RHA should encourage and facilitate real estate developers in investing in affordable houses. It is also recommended to RHA to enforce the high density settlements or compact city whereby any housing development takes place on a small plot as much as possible. RHA should educate people to settle on small pieces of land and avoid overuse of it. This will eradicate the spread out of housing units along large areas and consequently reduce the land consumption.

To RNRA

Rwanda Natural Resources Authority having in its mandate the protection and promotion of natural resources should play a primordial role in preserving Urban Green Spaces. This should be achieved through availing enough budgets for the restoration of degraded urban forests, for the relocation of people residing in wetlands and other areas zones as green spaces. Moreover, RNRA should materialize the buffer zones of wetlands in order to avoid encroachment.

To Private Sector

The private sector should perceive Urban Green Spaces as profitable as other land uses. This should be done by acquiring and developing Green Spaces into modern parks and attractive and tourist sites. This will generate substantial revenue for themselves and the state and people will begin to perceive green spaces as equally profitable as other land uses

To Local Community

Local community should be aware that they have a paramount role in implementation of UGS related policies. Local community should change the mind-set of converting green spaces to other land uses. Rather, they should multiply effort in planting a lot of trees and developing gardens in their premises.

Finally, the researcher recommends to future researchers the following suggestions: a study on the quality, accessibility of available green space and its distribution per capita.

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APPENDICES

Interview Guide

A. Interview Guide for Local Government Authorities. Interviewees  Land officers, Environmental officers,  Master plan implementation officers  District and sector authorities (mayors & vice mayors)(where possible)

Questions: 1. Since you are working here, what would you say about the evolution (in terms of coverage) of green spaces in City of Kigali in general, and in your cell/sector or district in particular?………………………………………………………………………… …………… 2. According to the literature, the coverage of green spaces in Kigali has been decreasing over that time? If yes, what are the major causes that contributed to that..decreasing? …………………………………………………………………………………… 3. Are there any regulations for the planning and protection of green spaces in Kigali City, especially in the existing master plan? If yes, are they rigorously implemented?

………………………………………………………………………………………. 4. As one of many implementers of Kigali City Master Plan, what are major challenges in managing, protecting and promoting green spaces? ……………………………………………………………………………………

5. What are alternative solutions to overcome those identified challenges? ……………………………………………………………………………………

Thank you so much!