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ESSAY & Dissertation COVER SHEET English Language and Applied Linguistics Postgraduate Distance Learning programmes ESSAY & Dissertation COVER SHEET IMPORTANT: Please complete ALL sections of this template and PASTE it into the FIRST page of your PDF essay or dissertation submission Student ID number 1809848 Module Number (1-6) Dissertation Title of Degree Programme: MA Applied Linguistics Title of Module: Dissertation Date Submitted March 11, 2019 Name of tutor Tutor during modules: Ms. Mila Shin Dissertation supervisor: Dr. Mick Randall Important Declaration: Please read this carefully before submitting: 1) In submitting this essay/dissertation, you are declaring that it complies with the School specifications for the formatting of assessed work (which includes the ‘specified maximum word limit’); 2) In submitting this essay/dissertation, you are declaring that it is your own work and that it complies with the University of Birmingham rules on plagiarism; no part of it is copied from the published or unpublished work of anyone else expect where such quotations are properly cited and acknowledged; 3) If you believe that your performance may have been affected by illness or similar matter, your submission declares that you have followed the guidance on extenuating circumstances and extensions. Please indicate if you have submitted evidence relating to extenuating circumstances* in connection with this piece of work, by ticking this box: * Please contact the School Welfare Officers for guidance regarding an application for extenuating circumstances – [email protected] Saudi Arabia in the US News: Appraisal Theory Applied By Nikolos Peyralans A dissertation submitted to the College of Arts and Law of the University of Birmingham in part fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Applied Linguistics This dissertation consists of approximately 13,500 words Supervisor: Dr. Mick Randall English Language & Linguistics, College of Arts & Law University of Birmingham Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT United Kingdom March 2019 Abstract This study takes twenty-one articles from various US media outlets to determine how they portray Saudi Arabia. Each article is examined using Appraisal Theory, pioneered by Martin and White (2005), which extends Hallidayan principles of Systemic Functional Grammar (Halliday, 2013) and focuses on the interpersonal metafunction. After using this framework to identify appraisal patterns in the texts, they are examined from a Critical Discourse approach to determine how these texts reflect a worldview of Saudi Arabia in the United States. The discussion that ensues creates a unique opportunity for self-reflection on whether or not these worldviews are justified, and how or why they could be changed to better facilitate a dialogue between two dichotomous cultures. While doing this, the study examines the underlying assumptions made in Systemic Functional Linguistics, how Appraisal Theory has often gone unnoticed by Critical Discourse analysts, and how a closer look at Appraisal Theory could open new pathways of inquiry for those interested in launching a Critical Discourse analysis from a stronger empirical basis than previously before. CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 CHAPTER 2 SYSTEMIC FUNCTIONAL 3 LINGUISTICS, CRITICAL DISCOURSE ANALYSIS, AND APPRAISAL THEORY CHAPTER 3 APPRAISAL THEORY: A CLOSER 9 LOOK CHAPTER 4 TEXT ANALYSES: BACKGROUND 24 METHODOLOGY, AND RESULTS CHAPTER 5 DISCUSSION 37 5.1 Weaknesses 37 5.2 Implications 39 CHAPTER 6 CONCLUSION 44 REFERENCES 45 APPENDIX I Original Articles 48 1.1 Cable News Network 48 1.2 Fox News Group 55 1.3 Huffington Post 66 1.4 New York Times 75 APPENDIX II Key to Appraisal Analyses 89 2.1 Abbreviations 89 2.2 Factors to Consider and Framework for 90 Analysis APPENDIX III Appraisal Analyses 92 3.1 Cable News Network 92 3.1.1 CNN1 92 3.1.2 CNN2 93 3.1.3 CNN3 96 3.1.4 CNN4 98 3.1.5 CNN5 100 3.2 Fox News Group 105 3.2.1 FOX1 105 3.2.2 FOX2 112 3.2.3 FOX3 114 3.2.4 FOX4 115 3.2.5 FOX5 118 3.2.6 FOX6 119 3.3 Huffington Post 122 3.3.1 HUFF1 122 3.3.2 HUFF2 126 3.3.3 HUFF3 130 3.3.4 HUFF4 132 3.3.5 HUFF5 137 3.4 New York Times 143 3.4.1 NYT1 143 3.4.2 NYT2 149 3.4.3 NYT3 153 3.4.4 NYT4 156 3.4.5 NYT5 162 APPENDIX IV Transitivity in Main Appraisal Clauses 169 LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1 Processes and Participants in a Transitivity Analysis 6 FIGURE 2 Appraisal Theory According to Martin and White (2005) 11 FIGURE 3 Appraisal Theory According to Martin and White with 12 Examples (2005) FIGURE 4 Modified Appraisal Theory Used for this Project 18 FIGURE 5 Appraisal Theory as Applied by the Author 19 FIGURE 6 Thematic Progression in CNN5 20 FIGURE 7 Discourse Semantics in the Hierarchy of Language 22 FIGURE 8 Positive Appraisal of Saudi Arabia by Agency 25 FIGURE 9 Negative Appraisal of Saudi Arabia by Agency 25 FIGURE 10 Number of Articles by Topic 26 FIGURE 11 Positive Appraisal of Saudi Arabia by Topic 27 FIGURE 12 Negative Appraisal of Saudi Arabia by Topic 28 FIGURE 13 Thematic Progression in FOX5 29 FIGURE 14 Appraisal in FOX4 30 FIGURE 15 Transitivity Analysis of Positive Appraisal Clauses 32 FIGURE 16 Transitivity Analysis of Negative Appraisal Clauses 33 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS KSA Kingdom of Saudi Arabia SFL Systemic Functional Linguistics AT Appraisal Theory CDA Critical Discourse Analysis CL Corpus Linguistics + Positive attitude - Negative attitude Des Desire (affect) Hap Happiness (affect) Sec Security (affect) Sat Satisfaction (affect) Norm Normality (judgement) Cap Capacity (judgement) Ten Tenacity (judgement) Ver Veracity (judgement) Prop Propriety (judgement) Reac Reaction (appreciation) Comp Composition (appreciation) Val Valuation (appreciation) Leg Legitimacy (heteroglossia) App Approval (heteroglossia) Acc Acceptance (heteroglossia) Sin Sincerity (heteroglossia) Auth Authority (judgement) Culp Culpability (judgement) Inf Influence H Heteroglossia M Monoglossia CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION This dissertation examines a number of news articles surveyed across various media outlets in the United States to see how a specific topic is approached in terms of evaluative language. Using evaluative language in a text is often a covert way of the speaker or writer positioning themselves in relation to the content they are attempting to portray. Interlocutors are frequently unaware of the evaluative language being used to describe an event or an occurrence. While there are obvious linguistic cues that can be used to give the impression of a speaker’s opinion- stance, many appraisal systems lie beneath the surface. Every day when people use language to express experiential content, they are knowingly or unknowingly positioning themselves in relation to their content by selecting specific language rather than other language to express that content. The use of evaluative language has been treated in Critical Discourse studies and in Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL) under the title of Appraisal Theory (AT). Appraisal Theory is often cited as falling under the interpersonal metafunction of Hallidayan SFL (Martin and White, 2005; Matthiessen, 2007; Martin and Rose, 2003). However, as will be demonstrated in this examination, the limits of evaluative language and of appraisal are often blurred by the inability to separate a person’s informative (i.e. content-related) language from their position regarding it. This dissertation will take twenty-one articles that were tagged by their respective media outlets with “Saudi Arabia” as a key word and will examine how each author positions themselves in relation to this country in general. The questions that this type of analysis could answer are as follows: What are the general opinions of people in the United States toward Saudi Arabia? How are they treated in the media? What are the most common themes of evaluative stance present? Do these differ based on the political leanings of the media outlet? This type of analysis, treated specifically in Appraisal Theory, has been carried out in various forms for mostly small texts or singular texts to look at a particular author’s evaluative stance toward the topic, actors, or entities in question (Coffin, 2005; Butt, Lukin, and Matthiessen, 2004; Martin and White, 2005). However, the gathering of numerous texts from different authors about a single topic (in this case “Saudi Arabia”) has not yet been done and has not played an important role in Critical Discourse Analysis (CDA). Recently, Corpus Linguistics (CL) has been a dominant topic in eliminating many of the valid criticisms leveled at CDA for its 1 subjective nature, lack of quantitative analysis, and generalizability. This dissertation will attempt to show that Appraisal Theory also offers an important perspective that can help CDA be cleared of its often idiosyncratic approaches and subjectivity. The organization of this examination into US media portrayal of Saudi Arabia will start by giving an overview of how SFL, CDA, and AT fit together into a web of linguistic theories and methodologies that help reveal under-studied aspects of human language and its connection to societal beliefs and prejudices. It will then move on to focus on the key role of appraisal in language and how, although often subconscious, appraisal is present at every level of discourse. A sociopolitical background will then be given regarding the topic at hand: the relationship between Saudi Arabia and the United States. The methodology for selecting and examining the texts will then be discussed, followed by the findings of the analyses. After that, a discussion about what the appraisal patterns exposed imply for society, how these patterns of portrayal may have consequences in everyday reality, and the importance of stance in language will ensue. The items examined from Appraisal Theory will then be discussed to show how AT can be expanded, adapted, and applied to critical approaches to linguistic analyses in the future.
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