Alaska Park Science Anchorage, Alaska Connections to Natural and Cultural Resource Studies in Alaska’S National Parks

Home , Beringia, Lavrentiya, Naukan (village)

National Park Service U.S. Department of Interior

Alaska Support Office Alaska Park Science Anchorage, Alaska Connections to Natural and Cultural Resource Studies in Alaska’s National Parks

Winter 2003 Table of Contents Noatak Beringia: Visions of an International Park Cape Krusenstern National Preserve Caribou Crossing Site in Difficult Times ______5 National Monument Kobuk Valley Cycles in the Forest: Mammals, Mushrooms, Kivalina National Park Noatak Mycophagy, Mycoses and Mycorrhizae ____ 13 Kotzebue Ancient Hunters of the Western Brooks Range: Integrating Research and Cultural Bering Land Bridge National Preserve Resource Management ______21 K A High Latitude Marine Reserve Research A S in Glacier Bay National Park ______27 Norton Sound A L Science News ______32-39 Denali National Park and Preserve ISSN 1545- 4967

Glacier Bay Alaska Park Science National Park http://www.nps.gov/akso/AKScienceWinter2003.pdf and Preserve Editor: Monica Shah Copy Editor: Thetus Smith Project Lead: Robert Winfree, Regional Science Advisor, email: [email protected] Park Science Journal Board: Ted Birkedal, Team Leader for Cultural Resources Bristol Bay Don Callaway, Cultural Anthropologist Alex Carter, Team Manager for Biological Resources Team Gulf of Alaska Joy Geiselman, Deputy Chief, Biological Science Office USGS Alaska Science Center John Morris, Education Coordinator John Quinley, Assistant Regional Director for Communications Jane Tranel, Public Affairs Specialist Ralph Tingey, Associate Regional Director for Resources and Education Robert Winfree, Regional Science Advisor and Chair of Journal Board Funded By: The Natural Resources Challenge Initiative Produced in cooperation with the Alaska Natural History Association and Galaxy Graphics Parks Featured in this Issue Printed with soy based ink

Cover photograph © U.S. Geological Survey 2 About the Authors Alexander G. Andrews is a biological technician Julie K. Nielsen is a graduate student at the School of for the Glacier Bay Field Station, U.S. Geological Survey. Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Don Callaway is a cultural anthropologist for Jeff Rasic is an archeologist for the Alaska Support Center, National Park Service. Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve and Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve. Maggie Hallam is a student in biology and a biological illustrator, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Dr. Rodney D. Seppelt is a principal scientist (bryology) for the Australian Antarctic Division. Dr. Gary A. Laursen is a professor of mycology at the Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska Fairbanks. Dr. Spencer J. Taggart is a research ecologist for the Glacier Bay Field Station, U.S. Geological Survey. Jennifer Mondragon is an ecologist for the Glacier Bay Field Station, U.S. Geological Survey.

The Sixth Reindeer Brigade from the community of Gizhiga, Kolyma/Magadan, Russia, 1991.

Photograph courtesy of Don Callaway

3 4 Beringia: Visions of an International Park in Difficult Times

by Donald Callaway scientific capabilities and findings, conserva- Beringian research was presented to the tion ethics and philosophies, and natural and IWC in Shimonoseki, Japan in 2001. Based Introduction cultural resource management technologies on the results of this assessment, the IWC In 1990 Presidents Gorbachev and (NPS n.d.). granted the communities of Chukotka a Bush signed an agreement to initiate the One such project was the “Beringia: quota of 120 gray whales per year to contin- establishment of an international park in Chukotka Subsistence Harvest Assess- ue their indigenous subsistence activities. the Bering Sea region to recognize the ment Project” (BCSHAP), which was a Photograph courtesyofJohnTichotsky common cultural and natural heritage cooperative effort funded by the National Historic Background of Beringia. This international park would Park Service, the North Slope Borough For several hundred years the indige- combine units of the U.S. national park (NSB), and the office of the Governor nous communities on both sides of the system in Alaska, specifically Bering of Chukotka, Roman Abramovitch. This Bering Strait have been linked through a Land Bridge National Preserve, Cape project documented the current social, number of economic and social institutions. Krusenstern National Monument, Noatak economic, and traditional subsistence Trade, social contacts, and warfare have National Preserve, and Kobuk Valley activities of three Chukotkan communities, been documented by numerous sources National Park with Russian units that have Lavrentiya, Lorino, and Sireniki, and used including the records of the Jesup expedi- yet to be designated. this data to prepare a needs assessment tion, Chukchi and Eskimo oral histories, The U.S. National Park Service’s Shared report that was submitted to the Inter- and the materials and artifacts collected Beringian Heritage Program was established national Whaling Commission (IWC). on both sides of the strait (Gurvich 1988). In Chukotka, survival of many families depends on the harvest of wildlife shortly after the agreement was signed. The This project was not simply an academic Tobacco, beads, and iron were traded resources, especially gray whales. program encourages the participation of exercise. The IWC regulates all whale har- from Siberia to Alaska where they were local residents in the preservation and vests, and its approval of a quota is essential exchanged for furs, jade, and ivory. Left: The Soviet policy of abandoning understanding of natural resources and for indigenous whaling communities in During more recent periods, the inter- “settlements without prospects,” has led protected lands, as “well as working to Alaska and critical to the stability of indige- change and contact has been more inti- to the abandonment of many traditional sustain the cultural vitality of Native peoples nous communities in Chukotka. Economic mate, such as between the contemporary communities. Migration by families from these settlements to larger communities in the Central Beringia region” (NPS n.d.). conditions had deteriorated so badly in Siberian Yupik communities of Gambell has resulted in increased rates of social Since its inception, the Shared Beringian Chukotka that the survival of many fami- (Alaska) and New Chaplino (Chukotka). problems and has had serious detrimental Heritage Program has funded projects lies depended on the harvest of wildlife Separated by only 64 kilometers of water, consequences for the organization of traditional subsistence activities. that: …help link protected lands and the resources, especially gray whales and these two communities had been linked for peoples of both sides of the Bering Strait other marine mammals. The technical centuries through intermarriage (sharing Photograph courtesy of Don Callaway in cultural exchanges, and in exchanges of needs assessment paper produced by this the same clan system), trade, and ceremo-

5 Beringia: Visions of an International Park in Difficult Times Photograph courtesyofJohnTichotsky Photograph courtesyofDonCallaway important cultural features such as sharing, bride service, patri-clans, and ivory carving have been maintained while these same institutions were severely threatened in most Chukotkan communities, at least until the late 1990s. For Chukotka the most dramatic short terms impacts came during the period of the Soviet state farms (circa 1975 - to about 1995). Central Russians and others, drawn by the prospect of high wages (regular One major consequence of the collapse of salaries augmented by cost of living the Chukotka economy in last 10-15 years has been the emigration of European adjustments) and available housing, became Russians and the remarkable increase in the administrators of the state farms and subsistence activities. reorganized existing marine mammal hunting practices. A factory boat that economic basis of communities were delivered whales to the communities reorganized—reindeer herding became a While traditional forms of harvest and distribution faced severe dislocations under the replaced traditional whaling crews. Walrus commodity enterprise; marine mammal management of state farms, certain skills such as skin boat building were maintained. (Sireniki 1992) crews formerly organized along kinship products were not only used for nutrition, lines were now replaced by “brigades” but also as the major food supply to the fox nial exchanges. In the last 70 years, these and the reorganization of cooperatives into headed by European Russians. Access to farms; and “cost free” sharing of wildlife two communities are representative of the state farms have all had serious detrimental the means of production, such as boats and resources, resources now “owned” by the dramatic and traumatic social and political consequences for the organization of tradi- guns, was severely restricted by the con- state farm, was prohibited although this changes that have swept through the Bering tional subsistence activities in the small cerns and policies of the Border Guard. prohibition was often ignored. Straits region (Callaway and Pilyasov 1993). communities within this region. Traditional forms of harvest and distri- During the last ten years, the indigenous The Chukotka side has seen substantial Across the strait, Gambell, like many bution faced severe dislocations as the communities of the Chukotka Peninsula changes as indigenous systems of reindeer indigenous communities in the Alaska arctic, have experienced another round of herding and marine mammal hunting have has very little economic infrastructure, high Photograph courtesyofJohnTichotsky tremendous social and economic changes been collectivized, turned into state farms, unemployment, increased social problems, as a result of the collapse of the Soviet and finally all but fiscally abandoned after and decreasing financial support from Union. Prior to this collapse, the central the collapse of the Soviet system. the state and federal sector. In contrast to government provided substantial support Since the 1930s these two small Native Chukotka and despite some constraints to the Chukotka communities through communities have encountered enormous caused by state and federal management of subsidies and the centralized purchase and changes, changes often engendered by the natural resources, much of rural Alaska has delivery of equipment, supplies, food, and social and economic policies of the nation managed to maintain high levels of subsis- fuel. This government support was provided states in which they are embedded. The tence use. On St. Lawrence Island and in primarily through the state farm system. abandonment of small Native communities the Yukon-Kuskokwim delta, indigenous Between 1989 and 1995, government sup- in Chukotka under the Soviet policy of languages are spoken by young people port diminished to a fraction of its previous Traditional ivory carving was sustained in “settlements without prospects,” the forced (although this is less true in Inupiaq-speak- only a few Chukotka communities, such as level, and the state farm system collapsed. resettlement of Chaplino to New Chaplino, ing communities). On St. Lawrence Island Uelen, but is now experiencing a resurgence. Few regions in the world have experi-

6 enced such complete economic collapse. bulk of protein in an individual’s diet. In diversity extant within the region as a incentives, have repatriated to their Most enterprises and jobs created under 1999, flour, tea, tobacco, alcohol, and sugar whole. Although there are significant dif- Republics of origin. Lavrentiya with a sub- the Soviet system disappeared. People who were the only western products received by ferences among them, these three commu- stantial airport has acted as a regional trans- were fortunate enough to keep a job were the smaller villages in the Chukotka region. nities are characterized by dependence on portation and service hub. It is the only often unpaid for months, or even years. Recently indigenous communities have wildlife resources, the reemergence of tra- community to sustain a substantial Russian Two major local industries, fox farming begun the difficult process of reestablishing ditional practices and values, involvement ethnic presence (nearly a third of the popu- and reindeer herding, were decimated. more traditional forms of subsistence in the wage and service sector, and diverse lation) although only about two-thirds of Local production of milk and chickens, harvesting. Small whaling boats, prohibited ethnic makeup. In addition they had all these respondents consider themselves to once a significant activity in the larger between 1972 and 1990, now harvest been differentially impacted by the demise be permanent residents. In contrast, nearly Chukotka settlements, disappeared. In gray and bowhead whales. And while of the state farms. all the Russian residents of Lorino and addition, most government services, twentieth century technology in the form These three study communities have Sireniki consider themselves to be perma- including essential services like power of boats, motors, and guns has been very different profiles with respect to popu- nent members of the community generation, health, and education are now adopted, many of the repressed cultural lation size, ethnic composition, and econom- being run on a survival basis. traditions such as sharing, status of ic organization. Lavrentiya has a population Survey Research One major consequence of the collapse hunters, traditional carving, and respect of slightly fewer than 1,300 people, Lorino The Chukotka Subsistence Harvest of the Chukotka economy in last 10-15 for elders are reemerging and showing is slightly larger near 1,500 and Sireniki is Assessment Project conducted 400 survey years has been the emigration of European increased prominence. the smallest with about 550 people. research interviews in the study communities Russians and the remarkable increase in All three communities have been charac- using a formal questionnaire. The question- subsistence activities. At the end of the Beringia: Chukotka Subsistence terized by selective emigration in the last naire gathered detailed information about 1980s, subsistence activities provided about Harvest Assessment Project five years. As the economic circumstances household composition, participation in a quarter of the food products for rural vil- The three Chukotka communities and living conditions have deteriorated, subsistence activities, harvest assessments lages. Today, subsistence activities provide selected, Lavrentiya, Lorino, and Sireniki, many Central Russian émigrés, initially of every major species, the use of western over one-half of all food consumed and the were thought to be representative of the drawn to the area by housing and wage foods, food costs, individual and household

Wildlife Resources by

Chart 1. Comparison of three Chukotka communtites: per capita harvest by resource type.

7 Beringia: Visions of an International Park in Difficult Times

income from all sources, food preferences, communities comes from marine mammals. training and learning about subsistence For Lavrentiya, 46% of the per capita activities, and estimates of the household’s harvest of wildlife resources was marine dependence on wildlife resources. mammals, while Lorino was 68% and Sireniki was 54% (Chart 1). Chart 2 provides Economic Importance of Wildlife a breakdown by species of community Resources in Traditional Communities dependence on marine mammals. With the There is certainly no doubt that the exception of Sireniki, which has limited harvest of wildlife resources is critical to access to whales but is heavily dependent the diet of indigenous communities on on walrus, about 40% of all marine mammal both sides of the Bering Strait. Two simple consumption comes from gray whales. measures can indicate the level of this Chart 3 indicates the per capita harvest importance: per capita consumption of levels of wildlife products for each commu- wildlife products and the replacement cost nity. Lorino clearly consumes considerable at market value of such resources. amounts of wildlife resources, nearly 788 However, one should not be mislead pounds per year (a typical urban American that the economic and dietary impact of will consume about 220 pounds of meat). Chart 2. Chukotka: proportion of marine mammals harvested by species. subsistence activities is necessarily the most This consumption of subsistence resources important outcome of these endeavors. parallels similar behaviors on the Alaska Subsistence resources and the activities side of the Bering Strait. Kotzebue (Alaska) associated with the harvest of these is twice the size of Lavrentiya yet both have resources define and establish the sense significant non-Native populations and are of family and community. The distribution regional transportation and service hubs. of these resources establishes and pro- Lorino is nearly four times the size of motes the most basic ethical values in the Alaska village of Kivalina, yet both are Native and rural culture—generosity, primarily indigenous communities with respect for the knowledge and guidance strong dependence on marine mammal of elders, self-esteem for the successful products. Sireniki and Noatak (Alaska) are harvest of a resource, and family and public about the same size, and both are primarily appreciation in the distribution of the Native; however, Noatak obtains its pri- harvest. No other set of activities provides a mary subsistence diet from land mammals similar moral foundation for continuity and fish while Sireniki relies primarily on between generations. marine mammals.

Per Capita Consumption of Household Income Wildlife Resources The three Russian study communities in The results confirmed the dependence the CSHAP research project demonstrate on marine mammals of the Chukotka study considerable variance in their circum-

Chart 3. Comparison: Chukotka/NANA Region communities. About half to two-thirds of stances. Lavrentiya has about 60% more Per Capita Consumption of Wildlife Resources in pounds. the wildlife resources in the diet of these income than the other two communities

8 and 80% of the community’s income comes and are used by that household or by close from wage sources. Lorino, with consider- extended family members. In Chukotka few ably less income, receives about two-thirds individual households or even extended of its household income from wage sources. families have the financial means to support At most risk is Sireniki where nearly 60% of such activities. income is derived from welfare, pensions, With respect to income sources, Bering or similar forms of transfer payments. Strait Alaska communities mirror that of Many households and communities in Lavrentiya and Lorino, with about 70% of the Alaska Bering Strait region depend their income derived from wage sources. heavily on unearned income and seasonal It should be noted that on neither side of wage work. In general these households the Bering Strait do communities enjoy have lower incomes and their fortunes have robust and diversified economies. Most been declining in an era of legislative sources of wage income are due to employ- program cuts. In addition these communi- ment in the government or service sector, ties can rarely sustain their low purchasing while most of the construction is linked to power under circumstances of even mod- federal, state, or regional programs. Neither est inflation. side, because of a variety of factors includ- There is some risk in comparing the eco- ing transportation costs, has a viable manu- nomic circumstances of Chukotka commu- facturing sector. Similar analysis of other nities with those of their counterparts in economic sectors indicate that all these Alaska. A key difference is that the organi- rural communities on each side of the strait zation for the harvest and distribution of are extremely dependent on transfer pay- wildlife resources in Alaska resides with the ments and programs from federal or “state” Chart 4. Per capita income in dollars, three Chukotkan communities. household or extended family (Magdanz et (oblast) entities. al. 2002). Although the products of subsis- Ten years ago most rural indigenous $26,000. Thus, even if one were to take into available ruble is spent on food. Lorino, tence activities are often widely shared households in Alaska had 15 to 20 times account such issues as purchasing power, despite considerable consumption of throughout the community, the capital for more income than their Chukotka neigh- differences in the provision of health wildlife resources, still spends over 60% engaging in subsistence activities is normal- bors. However, rural indigenous Alaskans services (now sporadic in Chukotka), and of its disposable income on food. Finally, ly borne by the family. Thus, boats, motors, have five to six times less income than subsidized housing, most observers would Lavrentiya with the highest per capita rifles, gasoline, bullets, and all the other non-Native urban dwellers in Alaska whose agree that the economic conditions of income spends over half of its total expenses are purchased by a household per capita income at this time is about indigenous Chukotka households are income on food, much of it western foods. considerably more precarious than their Western foods, such as canned goods, bulk counterparts in rural Alaska. grains, potatoes, or a variety of other Per Capita Income - Kotzebue Kivalina Noatak 1990 Census* processed items are usually imported from $13,906 $4968 $7089 Food and Replacement Costs central Russia. Per Capita Income - Lavrentiya Lorino Sireniki Chukotka The critical nature of modest per capita Alaska 2000 CSHAP $892 $345 $357 income is underscored in an examination Northwest Alaska communities are Table 1: Three Northwest Alaska Communities and Three Chukotka Communities. of household expenditures for food. Of substantially dependent on wildlife * The latest census for which per capita income is available. most concern is Sireniki where nearly every resources. Statistical data indicate that rural

9 Beringia: Visions of an International Park in Difficult Times

Chart 5. Per capita income and food costs in dollars. Chart 6. What role has humanitarian aid played in household diets?

indigenous people, when compared to family in Stebbens. Thus, while Anchorage points out that attaching a dollar value to Table 2 puts this into context. With per other Alaskans, have very low incomes and food costs are about 25% greater than most subsistence uses is difficult, as subsistence capita incomes ranging from $5,000 to a high dependence on unearned income. cities in the western U.S., the rural commu- products generally do not circulate in $14,000, the total replacement cost of What would life be like for rural Alaska nities of northwest Alaska have food costs markets. However, if families did not have wildlife resources in the three communities residents without subsistence resources? more than twice that of Anchorage. subsistence foods, substitutes would have presented in this comparison range from From a strictly economic standpoint the For the Arctic region (which includes the to be imported and purchased. 13% to 77% of the total income for that harvest of wildlife resources is crucial for Bering Strait region), the Alaska Department If one assumes a replacement expense community. the survival of rural Alaska households. of Fish and Game (ADF&G) estimates an of $3-5 per pound, the simple replacement It is important to realize that none of Most rural northwest Alaska communi- annual harvest of 10.5 million pounds of costs of the wild food harvests in the Arctic the Chukotka communities has the income ties are accessible only by air, although wildlife products per year. ADF&G also region would be $31.5 million to $52 million. to replace subsistence resources and that some commodities such as fuel oil and con- many of the northwest Alaska communities struction materials are brought in by barge. Kotzebue Kivalina Noatak simply could not function if they were Bulk items such as food are extremely Per Capita Income - 1990 Census $13,906 $4,968 $7,089 required to import all their food. As expensive to transport. For example, if a the analysis indicates, even the relatively Replacement Cost $3/lb. $1,779 $2,283 $1,383 family of four (with elementary age school affluent (within the region) community children) spends $93.22 for a market basket Replacement Cost $5/lb. $2,965 $3,805 $2,305 of Lavrentiya lacks the financial resources of food in Anchorage, then this same mar- to purchase food to substitute for wild- ket basket will cost $217.96 for a similar Table 2. Replacement Cost of Subsistence Products at $3 and $5 per pound. life resources. And for a community like

10 Sireniki, which currently spends almost all state farm system that supported fox farms Photograph courtesyofJohnTichotsky the Beringia vision unfolds, the resources of its available income on food, the situa- and factory ships has disappeared. will be respected. tion would be disastrous. In fact, Sireniki is Secondly, the commodity view of *Note that marine mammal products on the edge of survival and copes by using a natural resources is gradually being such as walrus ivory are still carved in substantial amount of humanitarian aid. replaced with a more traditional indige- some communities (e.g., Uelen). Tradition- nous orientation. This traditional view ally these products were traded but they Discussion emphasizes the reciprocal relationship are now for sale. Demand for these One might be concerned that under between hunters and hunted. Traditional products is limited, however, because the these trying economic circumstances some values also stress the importance of U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act resource populations, especially marine sharing resources, a non-commercial makes the sale of these Russian products mammals, may be exploited beyond the distribution system (Callaway n.d.). illegal in the U.S. In contrast, indigenous habitat’s carrying capacity. A number of Commercial markets, if there is a profit Alaska artists are permitted to sell their factors mitigate this concern. still to be made, know no constraints. In carved walrus ivory. North Pacific walrus may be at near peak First, the former state farm system did contrast, traditional values cap the harvest levels, but are rarely harvested for treat natural resources as commodities, level when a community’s needs have commodity purposes. Acknowledgments resources to be exploited for their eco- been met.* Thus marine mammal hunting The project principal investigators were nomic return. Marine mammals were with modern technology continues, but whales for the small human populations in Don Callaway, Ph.D., U.S. National Park hunted factory style by “killer” ships to the values that these technologies serve the Chukotka region. Service; John Tichotsky, Ph.D. (Cantab.), provide feed for fox farms. Meat and other have changed. In conclusion, it is important to realize Institute of the North, Alaska Pacific products designated for human consump- In addition, the Chukotka Marine that the absence of formal protected areas University; and Dr. Gennady Zelensky, tion were regulated by market values Mammal Hunters Association has worked is not an absence of resource management. Naukan Native Cooperative of Chukotka. established by the state. However, the closely with the International Whaling Indigenous management regimes are often In addition, major technical support whole structure of this economic system Commission and its technical committees, complex, but one ethic underlies them all was provided by Andrey Khalkachan, had been dictated by the central govern- the North Slope Borough, and the Alaska —one can not take more animals than one University of Alaska Fairbanks; Thomas ment in Moscow and had no real support Eskimo Whaling Commission to identify can use, even if an abundance presents Albert, formerly of the North Slope within the region. In the absence of local nutritional needs and to set sustain- itself. The injunction against waste super- Borough; and Mikhail Zelensky, Mayor of the centralized “command” economy, the able harvest quotas for gray and bowhead sedes any other mandate. In the interim, as Lavrentiya.

REFERENCES Callaway, Donald G. and A. Pilyasov. 1993. Gurvich, I.S. 1988. National Park Service. n.d. Comparative Analysis of the Settlements of New Ethnic Connections Across Bering Strait. In Crossroads Shared Beringian Heritage Program brochure. Chaplino and Gambell. Polar Record 29 (168):25-36. of Continents, edited by W. Fitzhugh and A. Crowell. http://www.nps.gov/akso/beringia Smithsonian Institution Press. Callaway, Donald G. n.d. Sharing: Traditional Practices in a New Economic Magdanz, James S., Charles J. Utermohle, World. Northern Expanse (forthcoming). and Robert J. Wolfe. 2002. The Production and Distribution of Wild Food in Wales and Deering, Alaska. Technical Paper 259. Juneau, Alaska: Division of Subsistence, Alaska Department of Fish and Game.

11 12 Cycles in the Forest: Mammals, Mushrooms, Mycophagy, Mycoses and Mycorrhizae

by Gary A. Laursen, Dr. Rodney D. poor soils. (Glossary at end of article with Extensive spruce stands could not Seppelt, and Maggie Hallam select terms included) exist in Alaska’s northern boreal

Photograph courtesyofGaryA.Laursen forests if it were not for symbiotic Cycles in the Forest Introduction Cyclic interactions are omnipresent in Alaska’s far northern interior boreal mycorrhizal associations with above natural ecosystems. In the northern boreal and taiga deciduous broadleaf and conifer and below ground fungi that are forests like those found in Denali National forests (Figure 1) present a mosaic land- eaten and dispersed year round by Park, such interactions involving the small- scape with discontinuous permafrost the rodents. er microtine and sciurid rodents are vital to (Figure 2). These forested landscapes, such the health and survival of the forest ecosys- as those seen in Denali National Park and tem. These small mycophagous (mushroom Preserve, support a host of animal, plant, eating) mammals consume selected above and fungal inhabitants and their associated Biotic influences include the building of and below ground mushrooms (gilled agar- biological interactions (Laursen et al. 2001, squirrel and bird dwellings; bark stripping ics, false and true truffles) and distribute 2002). Forest growth, propagation, regen- by woodchuck, bear, and porcupine; and the fungal spores through their droppings eration, disease, death, and decomposition browsing by hare and moose. Less obvious along prescribed runways. Squirrels utilize are continual processes, and each is impor- biotic influences include the interactions spruce trees to dry and preserve these fungi tant to different components of the total between heart and root rot fungi, broom aerially and then make storage caches in forest cycle. rusts (Figure 4), and other fungi that cause old nest sites hollowed out of “witch’s Both biotic and abiotic factors play a sig- blights, cankers, casts, crooks, galls, and brooms,” the tangle of small branches and nificant role in determining the interaction the “diamond-formations” that are found twigs that result from rust fungus infections between components of the ecosystem. in some diamond willows. A multitude of (mycoses) of tree crowns. Extensive spruce Such interactions may have positive or insects also invade forest canopies, laying stands could not exist in Alaska’s northern negative influences on the landscape. These eggs, causing galls and minor lesions, Figure 1. Interior mixed deciduous/conifer boreal forest stand and small mammal boreal forests if it were not for symbiotic complex interactions, or “cycles in the drilling into the damaged stems, and eject- habitat. mycorrhizal associations with above and forest,” result in the development of com- ing a form of fecal “sawdust” (frass). below ground fungi that are eaten and plex ecological communities (Figure 3). Insects forage on young plant parts and dispersed year round by the rodents. Abiotic influences on the forest ecosys- carve extensive galleries under the bark Figure 2. Left: Boreal forest landscape mosaic with underlain permafrost. Ironically, similar fungi are responsible for tem include drying or desiccation, frost, where they lay eggs and deposit yeasts the forests’ demise and decomposition, freeze-thaw action, lightning strike, fire, and other fungi. These fungi may also sub- Photograph courtesy of Gary A. Laursen which return vital nutrients to the relatively and flood. sequently invade host plants, altering

13 Cycles in the Forest: Mammals, Mushrooms, Mycophagy, Mycoses and Mycorrhizae

Photograph courtesyofGaryA.Laursen Squirrels utilize spruce trees to dry and preserve these fungi aerially and then make storage caches in old nest sites hollowed out of “witch’s brooms”, the tangle of small branches and twigs that result from rust fungus infections (mycoses) of tree crowns.

Figure 4. Chrysomyxa arctostaphyli broom rust.

their morphology, inducing disease, and (sac) and basidiomycete (club) fungi, both eventually contributing to their slow as above ground (epigeous) and below demise and decomposition. Plant parasites, ground (hypogeous) ectomycorrhizal forms such as mistletoes, also play a part in influ- (Treu et al. 1996). The fungal filaments or encing these cyclic interactions in the high hyphae (Figure 8) have an intimate associa- latitude forests. tion with the outside of small roots of trees and greatly assist nutrient uptake into the Role of Small Mammals roots of these host plants. The hyphae coa- in the Forests lesce on the outside of the root to form a At least three mycophagous small “mantle” of fungal tissue (Figure 9). This is mammals—the northern flying squirrel also true for boreal forest elements of the (Glaucomys sabrinus, Figure 5), the red expansive temperate coastal rain forests of squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, Figure southeast Alaska (Bruner et al. 2001). 6), and the redback vole (Clethrionomys Mycorrhizal fungi (myco = fungus; rhiza rutilus, Figure 7) play important roles in the = root. Literally, root fungi) are essential to dynamic reshaping of arctic woodlands and the survival of Alaska ecosystems. No tree forests. By their foraging, voles and squirrels, species would exist in Alaska without this as well as moose and caribou, play vital symbiotic or mutually beneficial relationship. roles in transporting and transferring micro- Healthy white spruce live in a mutually scopic spores of important ectomycorrhizal beneficial symbiosis with their mycorrhizal fungi, without which forests would die. fungal partners. The hair-like fungal hyphae or mycelium surround the spruce root tips Importance of Fungi in Forests (Figure 9) and invade between cells inside In northern high latitude forests, white roots (Figure 10). The mycelial filaments are spruce (Picea glauca var. albertiana) and much finer than the roots and root hairs, Figure 3. Mammals, mushrooms, mycophagy, mycoses and mycorrhizae boreal forest cycle. black spruce (Picea mariana) are important and greatly increase the surface area avail- symbiotic hosts to numerous ascomycete able for absorption of nutrients and water

14 Photographs courtesyofGaryA.Laursen

Figure 5. Inset-top: Glaucomys sabrinus, the northern flying squirrel eating a truffle fungus.

Figure 6. Inset-middle: Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, the northern red squirrel.

Figure 7. Inset-bottom: Clethrionomys rutilus, the red-backed vole.

Figure 8. Right: Extended mantel hyphae of an ectomycorrhiza x100

15 Cycles in the Forest: Mammals, Mushrooms, Mycophagy, Mycoses and Mycorrhizae Photographs courtesyofGaryA.Laursen

Figure 9. Ectomycorrhizal mantel hyphae, Figure 10. Mantel mycorrhiza and interior Figure 11. Ectomycorrhizal root xsect., Figure 12. Birch root ectomycorrhizal with x400. Hartig net between cortical cells, x1000. x250. pinnate branching habit.

from the nutrient poor soils. In addition, microbes. In return, the spruce roots pro- would otherwise be possible because of the uva-ursi), acting as an intermediate host in the glove-like covering of mycelium provide a supply of essential sugars and amino presence of mycorrhizal symbioses and, one stage of the life of the broom rust, coin- vides physical protection for the delicate acids that are necessary for growth of the conversely, these fungi would not be pres- cide. Germinating rust spores on the spruce root tips and also a barrier to the entry of soil fungal mycelium and production of fungal ent without their host trees. Even broad- result in a perennial systemic infection on microorganisms (Figure 11). The mycelium fruiting bodies, the mushrooms. leaved birches are not immune from this the host tree. The rust fungus produces produces antimicrobial compounds that It is possible that the present northern dependency (Figure 12). auxins (plant growth hormones) that deter competition from other fungi and limit of spruce is at higher latitudes than The diversity of these fungal-root stimulate prolific branching on the spruce

Photographs courtesyofGaryA.Laursen associations provides a multitude of plants at the site of infection, causing the familiar with a range of strategies for functioning “witch’s broom” (Figure 14). Other parts of efficiently under seemingly adverse condi- the host tree continue to grow normally. tions. It has been estimated that around Fruiting of the rust fungus occurs on the 95% of all plant species characteristically needles of the witch’s broom, causing the form one of several types of mycorrhizal telltale rusty-orange coloration. In the fall, associations. Significant amounts of organ- needles of infected branches are shed and ic carbon may also be transferred between the broom then appears as a mass of dead different plants through interconnecting twigs (Figure 15). fungal mycelia, thereby reducing competi- Northern flying squirrels and red squir- tion for available resources and maintain- rels take advantage of these dense and often ing community diversity. massive branch clumps. Squirrels hollow out brooms, construct nest sites (Fig. 16 a & Parasitic Fungi— b.), raise their young, and then cache dried Where the Broom Rust Fits In epigeous and hypogeous fungal fruit bodies Parasitic fungi, and especially the spruce (Figs. 17a & b.) in these old nest sites that broom rust (Chrysomyxa arctostaphyli, serve as winter food larders (Phillips 1998). Figure 13), occur abundantly in the boreal Left behind by these sciurid and micro- Figure 13. Left: Chrysomyxa arctostaphyli broom at treetop. forests of Interior Alaska, where the geo- tine rodents and insects are feces and Figure 14. Top-right: Chrysomyxa arctostaphyli broom with fruiting rust. graphic ranges of spruce and kinnikinnick frass that contain viable but dormant Figure 15. Bottom-right: Broom and potential nest/cache site with copious branching. or mealberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi var. fungal spores. During the following spring,

16 spores germinate and produce new hyphal growth that becomes associated with the rootlets of young plants, once again creating the beneficial mycorrhizal associations. Each summer and fall a new crop of fungal fruiting bodies appear, ready to be harvested by the mycophagous mammals and insects that are attracted to the 16a nutrient rich spores.

Closing the Cycle So it is that the forest cycle begins anew. Seedling establishment requires the development of a mycorrhizal association for the efficient extraction of moisture and soil 16b nutrients. The fungal root mantle provides a protective physical barrier and microbial defense mechanism for the young and ten- der roots in a soil that will become, if not already, nutrient poor, yet able to sustain tree growth for 150 to 250 years or more. Soil and litter buildup ensures sufficient organic detritus to harbor the many non- 17a mycorrhizal fungi that break down organic matter and release the otherwise bound nutrients to the soil. The litter also provides shelter for small mammals and insects and a suitable bed for future fruitings of mycorrhizal species of fungi. Fungi that are harvested, dried, and 17b Photographs courtesyofGaryA.Laursen

Figure 16a. Flying squirrel nest and cache site.

Figure 16b. Flying squirrel nest opening.

Figure 17a. Drying agarics (gilled mushroom) next to a flying squirrel.

Figure 17b. Drying Lactarius sp.

Figure 18a. Cone scale middens with surrounding Hylocomium spendens mosses. 18a 17 Cycles in the Forest: Mammals, Mushrooms, Mycophagy, Mycoses and Mycorrhizae Photographs courtesyofGaryA.Laursen stored in the tangled masses of branches ly important because they disperse mycor- of the witch’s brooms are consumed rhizal and other fungal spores in their dung throughout the winter months. The spores, pellets in the form of “nutrient pills”—rich after passing through the animals and being in yeasts, nitrogen-fixing bacteria, and the deposited in dung, will, in their turn, vital nutrients necessary for germination, germinate and grow. Witch’s brooms and early growth, and establishment. cone scale middens (Figure 18) provide Waves of decomposer fungi, in a 19a both nesting sites and caches for copious multitude of different shapes, sizes, and reserves of dried fungal fruiting bodies forms, soon become residents in the forest. eaten during the long winter months. Examples are the agarics (gilled), polypores Fungal spores pass through the animals and (bracket and shelf fungi), tooth fungi, are shed in the dung pellets where they are chanterelles, coral fungi, puffballs, and cup effectively wrapped in protective nutrient fungi. The above ground forms, such as rich packets. As with some flowering plant the agarics Amanita, Cortinarius, Lactarius, seeds, passage through an animal not only Pholiota, and Russula, the boletes such 19b disperses the seed (or fungal spores in this as Boletus, Fuscobolitinus, Leccinum, and case), but the digestive chemicals of the Suillus, and tooth fungi, such as Hydnum animal also prepare the seed (or spore) for and Sarcodon species, are particularly germination after defecation (Figure 19). abundant and striking on the forest floor. Squirrels also search in middens for hypo- These above ground forms are accompa- geous false truffle fungi (Figure 20) and true nied by their below ground cousins such as truffle fungi (Figure 21). the false truffles Alpova (Figure 20a), 20a With age, healthy trees gradually become Gauteria (Figures 20b), and Hysterangium stressed and, over a period of time, prone (Figures 20c and 20d), and the true truffle, to increased attack from insect and fungal Elaphomyces (Figure 21) and Geopora infections. With death, the trunks and species. Their fruit bodies are harvested, branches are returned to the debris-choked dried, cached, and used for winter food by forest floor to join a host of invertebrate small mammals. animals and decomposer fungi, which slowly break down the plant cellulose and Conclusion 18b 20b lignin by mechanical and chemical means, This complex cyclical biological system thus releasing nutrients to again be recycled is dynamically balanced. Any change in into the ecosystem. the physical environment will be reflected Figure 18b. Cone scale middens with diggings for hypogeous truffle fungi. Fallen trees play a significant role on the in the biotic components of the ecosystem. debris-strewn forest floor by providing Under the influence of global climate Figure 19a. Fecal Glomus spores. convenient raised walkways or highways warming, hypothesized increases in micro- Figure 19b. Fecal Elaphomyces muricatus, Gauteria sp. and Hysterangium separabile spores. for travel by smaller animals (Figure 1). bial activity can only increase concerns These animals, in their turn, deposit spore- for altering the arctic and subarctic carbon Figure 20a. Alpova diplophloeus basidiome (fruitbody). laden feces on the logs and upon the forest pool and contribute to an increase in Figure 20b. Gauteria otthii basidiome (fruitbody-field). floor debris. Flying squirrels are particular- the emission of greenhouse gases. Climate

18 warming trends are having adverse effects Photographs courtesyofGaryA.Laursen Glossary by increasing plant stress through desicca- abiotic — pertaining to non-living mushrooms — fruiting bodies of fungi tion. Of concern is the possible decline or conditions. that support sexual reproduction. demise of the northern boreal spruce forest biotic — pertaining to life or specific life mycelium — the vegetative part of a in the next 50 to 100 years, and what might conditions. fungus, consisting of a mass of replace these forests. Any changes in the boreal — northern. branching filaments called hyphae. ectomycorrhizal—describes when fungi mycophagous — mushroom eating. forest structure will impact the ecosystem associated with plant roots are external, mycorrhizal — the symbiotic association at all levels— the large megafauna, small not within the cell structure of the between fungal mycelium and plant mammals, invertebrates, microbes, trees, plant root. roots. shrubs, herbs, bryophytes, lichens, and hyphae — vegetative threadlike filaments, mycoses — fungus infections. even microscopic soil algae. which form the mycelium and fruitbody sciurid — mid-sized rodents consisting of Continued integrated research will assist of a fungus. the squirrels. in comprehending the effects of altering microtine — small rodents consisting of taiga — intermediate zone between the one aspect of these biotic cycles in the Figure 20c. Glaucomys sabrinus with the lemmings, voles, and mice. boreal forest and tundra. Hysterangium separabile fruitbody. ecosystem.

Acknowledgments acknowledge National Park Service direc- Research was supported by grants from tion provided by Bob Gerhard and Peter the National Park Service (Nos. PX9830- Richter of Alaska Region Beringia Program, 93-062, PX9830-92-385, PX9830-0-0451, and Dave Spirtes, Lois Dalle-Molle, PX9830-0-0472, and PX9830-0-0512) made Rich Harris, and Leigh Selig of the to the University of Alaska Fairbanks, Insti- Bering Land Bridge National Preserve. tute of Arctic Biology and the senior author. Appreciation for UAF logistical and secre- We are indebted to Steve Martin, tarial support is extended to Stan Williams Gordon Olson, Dr. Roseann Densmore, and Laura Morisky, Dept. of Biology Figure 21. Elaphomyces muricatus cleis- Figure 20d. Hysterangium separabile tothecium (fruitbody), a true truffle with Steve Carwile, and Joe Van Horn of and Wildlife, and to Richard Veazey for fruitbodies. roots. Denali National Park & Preserve. We also photographic services and technology.

REFERENCES

Bruner, B.L., G.A. Laursen, E. Follmann, E. Rexstad, W. Laursen, G.A., R.D. Seppelt, and M. Hallam. 2001. Treu, R., G.A. Laursen, S.L. Stephenson, J.C. Landolt Smith, and J. Nichols. 2001. Cycles in the Forest: Mammals, Mycophagy, and and R. Densmore. 1996. Small Mammals and Forest Interactions Mycorrhizal Mycorrhizae. NTFP Conference, Anchorage, Nov. 7-10. Vascular Plant-Fungal Symbioses (Mycorrhizae) from Fungi as Model Organisms for Understanding Natural Denali National Park and Preserve. Webs. NTFP Conference, Anchorage, Nov. 7-10. Phillips, K.L. 1998. Mycorrhiza 6: 21-29. Springer-Verlag. Mycophagy of Basidiomes by Microtine Rodents Laursen, G.A., R.D. Seppelt, and M. Hallam. 2002. from Subarctic Meadows in Denali National Park Cycles in the Forest: Mammals, Mycophagy, and and Preserve. Mycorrhizae, p. 42. In Arctic Forum 2001. In Proceedings of the Alaska Statewide High School The Arctic Research Consortium of the U.S. (ARCUS), Science Symposium, Program and Abstracts (Edited by Fairbanks, AK. G.A. Laursen and D.L. Schamel).

National ParkServicephotograph Ancient Hunters of the Western Brooks Range: Integrating Research and Cultural Resource Management

By Jeff Rasic spear points. the accumulation the result of occasional In addition, we had been in a holding stops by a few hunters over centuries? Were “Look at this one!” “Hey, here’s another pattern for the first three days of the season, there similar sites on the numerous hilltops over here!” “This one is huge...and almost huddled in our tents waiting for the snow visible from this knoll? complete!” In the first ten minutes at the to melt from a July storm. The crew had just But our purpose here was not to tally a Caribou Crossing site—a barren, remote found a focus for their pent up enthusiasm. high artifact count. Nor did we have a hilltop in northwestern Alaska surrounded The systematic, painstaking, and sometimes special interest in projectile points. Points, by rocky peaks and hundreds of miles from tedious work of mapping and documenting however, and lots of them, were what this the nearest road or village—the crew of the site could wait a few minutes while site presented, and they were obviously eight archeologists found almost 30 large, we enjoyed this amazing place. Despite the vital to the storythe site had to tell. masterfully made stone spear points. We apparent chaos of archeologists running in Information from Caribou Crossing was suspected they were 10,000-11,000 years all directions, the knoll quickly sprouted a also part of a larger, multi-year program old. Even the old sourdoughs on the crew forest of small pin flags, which marked the aimed at understanding how the earliest had given in to the excitement and were precise locations of artifacts and ensured hunter-gatherers in the region made a scurrying around like kids hunting for each was returned to its original location. living. The research sought information Test excavations underway at the Caribou Crossing site. A grid is projected onto the Easter eggs. And for good reason; rarely We would map these later and examine on how people structured their seasonal site to provide reference points for measur- does an entire field season encompassing spatial patterns to reconstruct site activities movements across the landscape, how they ing artifact locations in three dimensional dozens of sites yield so many stone tools, and to establish the age of artifacts by asso- procured food and other resources, and space. Sergei Slobodin, an archeologist from Magadan, Russia, and Sabra Gilbert-Young, particularly tools this old. The vast majority ciating them with any radiocarbon samples how they organized family or social groups. a graduate student at Washington State of known sites in the region consist of a we might recover. One of the most fascinating problems in University, take notes. surface scatter, with perhaps five or ten Holding these well-crafted tools in the archeology is how humans initially settled pieces of stone flaking debris. The sites are hand, one could not help ponder some the Americas at the end of the last ice Left: Screening sediment to retrieve small artifacts at the Tuluaq Hill site. Wrench often impossible to date, a guess of 200- interesting questions. What animals were age, sometime before 12,000 years ago. It Creek and the De Long Mountains in the 12,000 years old is the most precise arche- hunted using these massive points? Why is truly an impressive story as nearly all background. ologists can be. Particularly rare are sites were these painstakingly-made weapons corners of the New World were settled in National Park Service photograph dated to the early end of this time range, thrown away with apparent carelessness an archeological instant, perhaps in less and few sites anywhere in the Americas and in such large numbers? Was the hilltop than a thousand years. In the process, have yielded such a dense accumulation of crowded with people all at once, or was people encountered unfamiliar plants and

21 Ancient Hunters of the Western Brooks Range: Integrating Research and Cultural Resource Management

animals, a countryside largely devoid of archeologists agree that the first Americans To understand this process, it is critical to perspective, a recent study estimates only other people, and all occurring in the face of originated in Asia and passed through have good information from Alaska—the about one percent of the land area has been drastic environmental changes as the climate Alaska. At some point, these people must gateway to the New World as it has been viewed by archeologists, perhaps another shifted to one more like that of today’s. have adapted to high latitude living, with called—as a comparison with the early 85,000 sites remain undiscovered. The adaptations of early Alaskans is of its extreme seasonality, rapid fluctuations archeology of mid-latitudes. Threats to the resource are real, espe- special interest in this story since most in food availability, and harsh temperatures. The Caribou Crossing project in 2002, cially considering much of the archeological

Illustration bySaraMoore conducted by the cultural resources branch record in northern Alaska is largely a surface of the Western Arctic National Parklands, phenomenon. Due to slow sediment depo- aimed to investigate both site-specific sition in the region, tools discarded thou- questions and contribute to some of these sands of years ago are still visible on the broader issues. As a federal agency, however, ground and are thus vulnerable to erosion, federal environmental policy and historic breakage from animal trampling (easy to preservation laws, particularly the National imagine for anyone who has seen the herds Historic Preservation Act, were driving of several thousand caribou that migrate forces behind the work. Section 110 of this yearly through the Brooks Range), and dis- act directs federal agencies to identify and persal due to frost heaving. Other impacts evaluate historic properties on their lands, result from current human use. People may and manage and maintain them so as to unknowingly (but nonetheless illegally) preserve their values. Furthermore, the pick up an artifact as a souvenir, or may National Park Service is unique among disassemble an ancient tent ring in order federal agencies in that a central part of its to weigh down a tarp. This is a difficult mission is to ensure important historic problem to quantify unless detailed base places and the information they hold are line information exists, since the absence cared for and made available for public of artifacts is impossible to detect. It is understanding and enjoyment. These laws likely a serious one, given that modern park and policies recognize that not only are visitors are drawn to the same places that sites valued by living people as links to their attracted past inhabitants of these lands— heritage and traditions, but are also impor- flat, well-drained ground, good viewpoints, tant for their ability to provide information and shelter from the wind. about history and past human behavior. For cultural resource managers, tackling A logical first step toward managing the this issue is a huge problem—how can we resources is to inventory and evaluate them, protect or even find all of the thousands of a tall order in the vast, remote, and rugged sites that exist? One way of prioritizing is parks of Alaska. Many sites are already to focus survey efforts in areas with the known. In the Brooks Range alone, 16.5 highest potential for impacts, such as popu- million acres of contiguous parklands lar access points or shorelines subject to (Kobuk Valley National Preserve, Noatak intense erosion. Another key factor in set- Thick, steep-edged tools like this one are often found in late ice age sites in the Noatak River National Preserve, and Gates of the Arctic ting work priorities is the information basin and co-occur with damaged spear points. They show wear marks and damage that indicate use as woodworking tools, and they appear to be part of the tool kit used to National Park and Preserve) contain more value of particular sites. Those most likely manufacture and repair hunting weapons. This specimen is just over 4 inches (11 cm) long. than 1,500 documented sites. To put this in to have high quality information can be tar-

22 National ParkServicephotograph National ParkServicephotograph geted for more detailed documentation and found as early as the 1960s, but their protection. While seemingly self-evident, age and significance were ambiguous. No this is a challenge in northwestern Alaska independent dating (from associated where knowledge about the range of varia- radiocarbon dates or stratigraphy) was tion in sites and artifact types, and more available, and guesses based on the artifact importantly the causes of the variation, is shapes and styles varied from 2,000 years still in a formative stage. While a site’s abil- to 8,000 years old. Sometimes they were ity to inform us about an interesting theme not even recognized as projectile points, in human history or prehistory determines but instead simply “bifaces”, a general the significance of a site, themes are contin- term without any functional or temporal ually being redefined as we learn more implication. about the archeology of the region. Thus we Identification of these tools began to are presented with a moving target, and one change in 1993 when Western Arctic we ourselves are responsible for clarifying. National Parklands archeologist Robert Another of our goals at Caribou Crossing Gal and U.S. Geological Survey geologist Archeologists catalog artifacts as they are in 2002 was to flesh out an emerging Tom Hamilton discovered a site, later Test excavations underway at the Caribou collected and record precise location construct that NPS archeologists were named the Irwin Sluiceway, in the Anisak Crossing site in 2002. information for each item. examining as both a research and resource River drainage, about 70 miles east of National ParkServicephotograph management tool: the Sluiceway Complex. Caribou Crossing. Gal recognized the tools This was a provisional term we had begun as projectile points since they had impact to use in reference to a handful of sites from fractures—scalloped scars running down the western Brooks Range, which con- the face or edge of the point, which is a tained the distinctive projectile points seen clear indication of a high velocity shock. He at Caribou Crossing. The term “complex” also knew these tools were not quite like refers to a patterned set of artifact types or anything previously noted in the region. manufacturing techniques. It is an impre- The general outline of the points was not cise term that simply notes a set of traits unique and could not be differentiated that occur together and seem different from tools 1,000 or 11,000 years old; how- from other phenomena archeologists have ever, manufacturing details were very dis- observed. It skirts the tough questions of tinctive. The flaking was quite regular, made whether the manufacturers of the tools in a serial fashion down each margin of the shared common ideas or values (culture), point. The edges along the base were ground spoke the same language, or even whether or polished smooth—probably to help the artifacts date to the same period. avoid damage to the wood or antler shafts Until recently few sites in northwestern to which the stone points were mounted. Alaska were dated to older than 9,000 years These features were reminiscent of early old, and before five years ago, there was no technologies known from the central concept of a Sluiceway Complex or recog- Brooks Range and North Slope, as well as A few of the 117 chert projectile points recovered during work at the Caribou Crossing site in 2002. Every single specimen was broken, and not one was a tip fragment. Instead, all nition of the artifact styles we were now Paleoindian materials from the western U.S. are damaged basal portions that would have remained hafted in spear shafts. These were discovering. Similar spear points had been It was not until 1998 that an age for the discarded at the site in the process of re-arming spears with serviceable points.

23 Ancient Hunters of the Western Brooks Range: Integrating Research and Cultural Resource Management

Site Sample Radiocarbon Age Context ture of artifacts from different time periods. blades—long, thin stone flakes that were (years before present) Dated occurrences of these artifacts at less mounted in slotted handles for use as cutting MIS-495 Beta-165298 9910±40 Hearth feature complicated sites would help refine their tools or projectile armaments. Microblades Beta-165299 10,010±40 Hearth feature age range. occur in some, but not all, of the earliest NR-5 Beta-146117 9550±60 Wildfire? Sealed stratum In addition to the new field discoveries, sites in Alaska and are interpreted to indicate Beta-146116 9640±300 Wildfire? Sealed stratum in 1999 more Sluiceway-like artifacts were cultural contacts with Siberia since this Irwin Sluiceway Beta-120696 9550±50 Hearth feature “rediscovered” in old museum collections. technology is seen much earlier there than Beta-134677 10,050±70 Hearth feature Beta-131336 10,060±80 Hearth feature One such discovery was a collection at the it is in Alaska. It would be interesting to Tuluaq Hill Beta-133394 7950±40 Hearth feature? Haffenreffer Museum at Brown University know if microblades were also part of the Beta-122323 11,110±80 Isolated charcoal fragment from the NR-5 site. Located on the Noatak Sluiceway Complex tool kit, and we contin- Beta-159913 11,120±40 Hearth feature River in what is now Noatak Preserve, the ue to pursue this question. They have since Beta-159915 11,160±40 Hearth feature Beta-122322 11,180±80 Hearth feature site was identified and tested by Brown been found at Caribou Crossing and another Beta-159914 11,200±40 Above hearth D University archeologist Douglas Anderson Sluiceway Complex site on the Kelly River. Beta-133393 11,200±40 Hearth feature in the early 1960s. It was briefly described in Other small collections housed at the a 1972 article, but never given much atten- University of Alaska Museum have also Table 1. Radiocarbon dates for charcoal samples from early Noatak river basin sites. tion in subsequent academic discussions been found to contain Sluiceway-like arti- Irwin Sluiceway site—and perhaps the dis- confirmed that the charcoal was from a since its age and relationship to recognized facts, and additional new sites in Noatak tinctive projectile points it contained—was human-made hearth. We also found hun- complexes was unclear. The collection con- National Preserve were discovered during established. In the summer of 1998, Dennis dreds of pounds of flaking debris and tains about a dozen spear points, identical to surveys conducted between 1998 and Stanford, a Paleoindian expert from the more than 300 bifaces that were broken in those from the Irwin Sluiceway and Tuluaq 2002. Small scale testing at some of these Smithsonian, collaborated with Gal on the process of manufacture. These artifacts Hill sites, and a number of scraping and sites has yielded radiocarbon dates. A testing the site, and the work uncovered indicated that Tuluaq Hill was an intensive- cutting tools, some of which replicated revisit to NR-5 showed that the artifacts at a well-preserved fire hearth. Charcoal ly used workshop site where people shaped types seen at Tuluaq Hill. We were now the site where Anderson excavated occur samples from the ancient campfire were chunks of chert into large bifaces, which beginning to piece together components of in a discrete, sealed sediment layer, which radiocarbon dated to 10,000 years old. were later made into tools such as projectile the Sluiceway tool kit other than spear has been dated to at least 9,550 years before Altogether the site yielded about ten points or knives. We also recovered 64 worn points. The collection also contained micro- present. A site near Natinakunit Pass (MIS-

projectile points and a small amount of out or broken projectile points that were National ParkServicephotograph 495) produced radiocarbon dates from a flaking debris; it appeared to be the remains discarded at the site in the process of hearth feature of 9,910 and 10,010 years of a single, briefly occupied hunting camp re-arming spears. ago. In all, 19 sites with probable Sluiceway and lookout site. The information from Tuluaq Hill artifacts have been identified in northwest- During the same season, an NPS inven- helped support an early age range for ern interior Alaska, centered on the Noatak tory project was conducted on Wrench the Sluiceway technology, but a complex River Basin and the adjacent North Slope Creek, another Noatak River tributary history of site use and relatively shallow foothills. This is a substantial data set for located in the western portion of the stratigraphy at Tuluaq Hill still left many looking at how some of the earliest known preserve. More spear points of the same questions unanswered. While the radiocar- inhabitants of the region lived. style were found at a site named Tuluaq Hill. bon samples were spatially associated with Test excavations at Caribou Crossing in The site yielded charcoal samples radiocar- Sluiceway-style artifacts, a concern at this Dozens of microblades — small, regularly 2002 unfortunately did not produce hearth bon dated to between 11,100-11,200 years. site is whether people at other times in the shaped slivers of stone — could be detached remains nor samples suitable for radiocar- from a single core and set in pieces of slotted Later work at the site in 1999 and 2001 past had also been drawn there for the same bone, antler, or wood for use as cutting tools bon dating, but an age estimate of about yielded more dates in this time range and stone raw materials, thus resulting in a mix- or projectile armaments. 10,000 years seems reasonable based on the

24 National ParkServicephotograph were instead visiting this location repeatedly. tion have only added to their allure. Our Radiocarbon dating is based on the They knew animal behavior well enough understanding of human history in this principle that all living organisms—and to predict their migrations through this region is very much a work in progress. thus the wood charcoal or bone deposited narrow valley, probably using the natural Because sites must be evaluated in terms of in archeological sites—contains a small topography to limit animal movement and what they can teach us about the past, it is proportion of radioactive carbon-14. Upon kill large numbers of animals. Which prey important to have good baseline knowl- an organism’s death, carbon-14 is no longer species was hunted is still a mystery since edge about the sites we encounter and to ingested, and it begins to decay at a known no faunal remains (bones) are preserved at understand how they relate to interesting rate (a half life of 5,730 years). The amount the site. It was almost surely a herd animal. research problems. In this sense, research of carbon-14 remaining in an organic sam- Therefore bison, which still roamed north- and resource management must proceed ple can then be used to calculate its age; ern Alaska at this time, as well as caribou, simultaneously. Ten years ago, before the however, the amount of carbon-14 in the Game trails crisscross the Caribou Crossing are good bets. The huge store of meat pro- age of Sluiceway Complex artifacts were atmosphere has fluctuated slightly over time. site. Despite its name, it is not clear which known, a site like MIS-495 would probably The small errors compound with animals were hunted 10,000 years ago duced by group hunts like this probably when this site was likely occupied. meant that fairly substantial settlements have received little attention. Seen from the increasing age and can result in radiocarbon were located nearby, in order to make use perspective of a regional research question ages that are too young. For example, a radiocarbon dates accumulating at similar of these stores without having to transport about hunters and with enough back- radiocarbon date of 10,000 years BP is sites (Table 1). The fieldwork did yield them long distances. ground knowledge to spur interest, the site equivalent to about 11,400 calendar years, surprising information about prehistoric The traces of past human activity—along was given a second look and as a result and a radiocarbon age of 11,200 years is technology, and hunting and storage tactics. with wildlife sightings, animal tracks, flora, became one the few sites in the region equivalent to approximately 13,300 calendar The sheer number of projectiles points, 145 etc.—are another of the rich layers of expe- radiocarbon dated to the early Holocene. years. To control for these discrepancies, from two nearby localities, is unmatched rience that make being in the wild places of NOTE: Ages cited in this article are scientists have documented the variation in in any Alaska site of any age. This dense an Alaska national park a memorable and expressed in radiocarbon years before atmospheric carbon-14 and developed cal- accumulation, along with other lines of enriching adventure. It is encouraging to present (BP), which differ from actual cal- ibration curves that can be used to convert evidence, suggests it is unlikely to have think that these are still wild and beautiful endar years. By convention “present” is radiocarbon ages into calendar years, resulted from a single occupation. People places, and 11 millennia of human habita- established as 1950. known as calibrated radiocarbon years.

REFERENCES Anderson, D.D. 1972. Larsen, H. 1968. Reanier, R.E. 1995. An Archaeological Survey of Noatak Drainage, Alaska. Trail Creek: Final Report on the Excavation of Two The Antiquity of Paleoindian Materials in Arctic Anthropology 9(1):66-117. Caves on Seward Peninsula, Alaska. Acta Arctic 15:7-79. Northern Alaska. Arctic Anthropology 32(1):31-50. Anderson, D.D. 1988. Rasic, J.T. and R. Gal. 2000. Onion Portage: The Archaeology of a Stratified Site An Early Lithic Assemblage from the Tuluaq Site, West, F.H. (editor). 1996. from the Kobuk River, Northwest Alaska. Northwest Alaska. American Beginnings: Anthropological Papers of the University of Alaska 22(1-2). Current Research in the Pleistocene 17:66-68. The Prehistory and Paleoecology of Beringia. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. Hopkins, D.M., J.V. Mathews, C.E. Schweger, and S.B. Rasic, J.T. 2000. Young (editors). 1982. Prehistoric Lithic Technology at the Tuluaq Hill Site, Paleoecology of Beringia. Academic Press, New York. Northwest Alaska. M.A. Thesis, Department of Anthropology, Washington State University.

High Latitude Marine Reserve Research in Glacier Bay National Park

By S. J. Taggart, J. Mondragon, ecosystem. Tanner crabs and halibut, while the entire A. G. Andrews, J. K. Nielsen The legislation that closed commercial bay is a reserve for red king crabs and fishing in the park specifies the species and Dungeness crabs. The network of closed Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve the areas that will be protected. All com- areas adjacent to the open portion of the bay is dominated by the marine waters that mercial fishing was left open in a three-mile provides a large-scale laboratory to study make up nearly one-fifth of the park’s band of water adjacent to the park’s shore marine reserve effectiveness. The marine area. Since the late 1800s, the nutrient along Icy Strait and the Gulf of Alaska, reserves in Glacier Bay are changing the rich waters of Glacier Bay have supported while it was closed in Glacier Bay proper protected populations beneath the waters highly productive commercial fisheries. (Figure 1). Commercial fishing for Tanner in ways that we are just beginning to see. Congress closed fishing in parts of Glacier crab (Chionoecetes bairdi) and Pacific halibut To manage the marine resources and Bay National Park in 1999, creating one of (Hippoglossus stenolepis) was immediately understand marine reserve processes in North America’s largest marine reserves. closed in five areas that vary in shape Glacier Bay, the U.S. Geological Survey Throughout the world, marine reserves and range in size from 40 to 280 km2. In (USGS), with support from the National are being promoted as effective tools for the central part of the bay, fishing is being Park Service (NPS), is conducting research Figure 1: The open, closed, and phase-out areas for commercial fishing in Glacier managing fisheries while simultaneously phased out through a grandfather clause, in order to answer some fundamental Bay National Park and Preserve. The red meeting marine conservation goals and which allows fishermen to continue fishing questions. First, since the reserves only stars represent study locations for the maintaining marine biodiversity. Increases in the central part of the bay for Tanner protect the animals that reside within the long-term study monitoring changes in the Dungeness crab population before and in individual size, density, biomass, and crab, salmon, and Pacific halibut. Over boundaries of the protected area, we need after commercial fishing. diversity have been demonstrated in the next several decades, as fishermen to know the distribution and abundance studies of fish and invertebrates from retire, Glacier Bay proper will become a of resources in each reserve. Secondly, it both temperate and tropical marine single large reserve for all species. For red is important to understand how animals reserves (Halpern 2003). Studies on the king crabs (Paralithodes camtschaticus) and are moving in relation to the reserve

Left: There has been a dramatic shift in the effectiveness of marine reserves at high Dungeness crabs (Cancer magister) the boundaries and how much time theyare size of male Dungeness crabs following the latitudes, however, are rare. The formation legislation immediately closed commercial spending in the protected areas. If animals closure of commercial fishing in Glacier Bay of marine reserves in Glacier Bay National fishing in all of Glacier Bay proper. are spending a significant portion of time National Park. Park provides a unique opportunity for Thus, for the immediate future, there is a inside the reserves, then we may start to © U.S. Geological Survey marine reserve research in a high latitude reserve network of five closed areas for observe some of the population changes,

27 High Latitude Marine Reserve Research in Glacier Bay National Park

such as higher abundance, that have been abundance inside the reserve boundaries is tagged within each of the reserve areas and demonstrated in protected areas in other the first step. The next step is to determine the area open to fishing, and their move- parts of the world. the movements of the population in rela- ments will be detected by strings of sub- tion to the reserve boundary. mersible data loggers that create acoustic Distribution and Abundance of gates along the reserve boundaries. Fisheries Resources in Reserves Tanner and King Crab Movement In September 2002, we initiated the In 1999 researchers conducted a pot survey in Marine Reserves research by tagging 21 Tanner crabs and 16 to determine the distribution and relative We have initiated a research program to king crabs in the East Arm reserve and abundance of Dungeness crabs throughout measure how often breeding adults enter installing a string of data loggers along the Glacier Bay. Although Dungeness crabs and leave the protected areas. Our long- boundary. The data loggers are recording occurred throughout the park, they were term vision is to simultaneously measure tagged animals that move across the reserve very rare in the northern portion of the bay the transfer rate among multiple reserves border. We have relocated tagged crabs (Taggart et al. 2003). In the summer of 2002, and the adjacent area remaining open to every two to three months since being researchers systematically sampled for commercial fishing. Red king crabs, Tanner released by visiting a series of grid stations Figure 2: The catch per pot Tanner and red king crabs throughout crabs, and Pacific halibut will be sonic- and systematically searching with underwa- (or Catch-Per-Unit-Effort) of Tanner crabs Glacier Bay. Sampling occurred on a one throughout Glacier Bay. mile (1.6 km) grid blanketing the entire bay. © U.S.GeologicalSurvey From this sampling, estimates of the relative abundance and size frequency of the crabs inside and outside ofthe newlycreated reserves were made. Tanner crabs were widely distributed and their density was approximately equal in the closed and open areas (Figure 2). On the other hand, their distribution varied widely between protected areas; the majority of the Tanner crabs in the protected areas were in two reserves. In addition, two of the reserves had areas where juvenile Tanner crabs were abundant and thus might be potential nursery areas. In contrast to Tanner crabs, red king crabs were highly aggregated, and 73% were in a small part of a single reserve (Figure 3). These studies illustrate that basic sys- Figure 3: The catch per pot tematic sampling could provide vital infor- (or Catch-Per-Unit-Effort) of red king crabs mation on where future marine reserves throughout Glacier Bay. should be located and that reserves in close proximity to each other may have very dif-

ferent relative abundances of animals. A USGS researcher releases a tagged king crab into the East Arm marine reserve in Knowing there are areas with high relative Glacier Bay National Park.

Figure 4: Average size abundance distribution for male Dungeness crab at all sites closed to commercial fishing. Each line represents a year from 1992 to 2002; blue lines are years before commercial fishing closed, and the red lines are the years after fishing closed. the dashed line shows the legal size limit (165mm) for male Dungeness crab. ter hydrophones. Tanner crabs have shown tended to move as a group. To date, three of large variation in the distance that they the male Tanner crabs have moved across move. A few individuals have been relocat- the reserve boundary, and one male and ed in the same area, but one male has trav- one female king crab have been located on eled at least 32.5 km since it was released. the boundary. The king crabs were highly aggregated We will continue to track these crabs when they were tagged, and they have over the next two years to estimate how much time the population spends in the reserve and determine the transfer rate across the boundary. This study will Knowing there are areas with high enable us to evaluate the effectiveness of relative abundance inside the reserve the East Arm marine reserve and develop boundaries is the first step. The next predictions about long-term changes in the Tanner and king crab population step is to determine the movements demographics inside the reserve. If the of the population in relation to the transfer rate is low, then we would expect reserve boundary. to see increases in body size and or popu- Researchers attach a sonic tag to a Tanner crab in order to study the movement of animals lation abundance in the reserve. inside a marine reserve in Glacier Bay National Park.

29 High Latitude Marine Reserve Research in Glacier Bay National Park

© U.S.GeologicalSurvey Changes in size of Dungeness crab after fishing closure In anticipation of commercial fishery closures, scientists from the U.S. Geological Survey, the University of Alaska Fairbanks, and the National Marine Fisheries Service initiated a study in 1992 to document changes in the population structure of Dungeness crabs. Study sites were selected both inside and outside the proposed closure areas and sampled with commercial pots and scuba transects (Figure 1). Since 1992, we have collected seven years of pre-closure and four years of post-closure data. After the 1999 closure of Glacier Bay to commercial fishing, the number and size of male Dungeness crabs increased dramatically (Taggart et al. In Press) (Figure 4). Harvest regulations allow only large male Dungeness crabs to be removed by the fishery. Therefore, one would expect changes to occur more quickly among the male crab population. During the pre-closure phase of the study, the number of male crabs over 165 mm (legal size) was relatively small compared to the number of sub-legal sized males. After the fishery closure, the number of male crabs over 165 mm began increasing, and by 2000, the number of crabs larger than 170 mm exceeded the highest abundance we had recorded during any of the 7 pre-closure years. This trend continued, and in each subsequent year since the closure, the number and size of male crabs increased. In contrast, at a control site outside of the park that is still open to commercial fishing, there was not a The number and size of male Dungeness crabs increased dramatically after the 1999 closure of Glacier Bay to commerial fishing. large shift in the size of male crabs. At

30 all sites, female and sub-legal sized male the genetic consequences of commercial ally prompted by major declines in the Acknowledgments crabs, the portions of the population not fishing could potentially be mitigated by abundance of the harvested species result- Special thanks to J. de La Bruere for his directly targeted by commercial fishing, strategically located marine reserves ing in the collapses of the fishery (Jackson expert ability to operate the R/V ‘Alaskan did not increase in size or abundance (National Research Council 2001; Trexler et al. 2001). In Alaska, such closures for Gyre’ and his effort toward this work. We following the closure. and Travis 2000). The results of our crustaceans normally remain in effect thank T. Lee and E. Knudsen for their Our data demonstrate that a marine research in Glacier Bay support the con- only until there is evidence that the stocks continued support of long-term studies reserve can markedly increase the size cept that marine reserves could help are rebounding (Orensanz et al. 1998); so at Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve. of male Dungeness crabs. Fisheries that maintain genetic diversity in Dungeness there are limited opportunities to compare The U.S. Geological Survey and the remove most of the large individuals from crabs and other crab species subjected to changes in the populations of a closed area National Park Service funded this work. a population can select against genotypes size limit fisheries. with nearby populations still being that promote fast growth (Reznick et al. exploited. The ongoing marine reserve 1990), and slower growth can reduce pro- Implications research in Glacier Bay will provide valu- ductivity of fisheries (Conover and Munch Controlled experiments testing the able information to managers, scientists, 2002). If reserves protect adult animals so impact of human exploitation on the and the public to evaluate the utility of they have the opportunity to grow to a population structure of marine species reserves as a management tool for solving larger size, and there is gene exchange are rare and even more unusual for local, national, and global marine conser- between the reserve and the adjacent area, crustaceans. Closures of fisheries are usu- vation issues.

REFERENCES Conover, D.O. and S.B. Munch. 2002. National Research Council. 2001. Taggart, S.J., P.N. Hooge, J. Mondragon, E.R. Hooge, Sustaining fisheries yields over evolutionary time scales. Marine protected areas: tools for sustaining ocean and A.G. Andrews. 2003. Science 297:94-96. ecosystems. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. Living on the edge: the distribution of Dungeness crab, Cancer magister, in a recently deglaciated fjord. Halpern, B.S. 2003. Orensanz, J.M., J. Armstrong, D. Armstrong, Marine Ecology Progress Series 246:241-252. The impact of marine reserves: do reserves work and R. Hilborn. 1998. and does reserve size matter? Crustacean resources are vulnerable to serial depletion Taggart, S.J., T.C. Shirley, C.E. O’Clair, and J. Mondragon. Ecological Applications 13:S117-S137. - the multifaceted decline of crab and shrimp fisheries In Press. in the greater Gulf of Alaska. Dramatic increase in the relative abundance of large Jackson, J.B.C., M.X. Kirby, W.H. Berger, K.A. Bjorndal, Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries 8:117-176. male Dungeness crabs, Cancer magister, following L.W. Botsford, B.J. Bourque, R.H. Bradbury, R. Cooke, closure of commercial fishing in Glacier Bay, Alaska. J. Erlandson, J.A. Estes, T.P. Hughes, S. Kidwell, C.B. Reznick, D.A., H. Bryga, and J.A. Endler. 1990. Proceedings of the American Fisheries Society. Lange, H.S. Lenihan, J.M. Pandolfi, C.H. Peterson, R.S. Experimentally induced life-history evolution in a natu- Steneck, M.J. Tegner, and R.R. Warner. 2001. ral population. Nature 346:357-359. Trexler, J.C. and J. Travis. 2000. Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal Can marine protected areas restore and conserve stock ecosystems. Science 293:629-638. attributes of reef fishes? Bulletin of Marine Science 66:853-873.

31 Science News

International along with National Park Service staff brought together the scientists conducting hall, and a landing strip. National ParkServicephotographs to the town of Eagle and Yukon-Charley research in and around the preserve with The conference field trip received Mammoth Conference Rivers National Preserve. In Eagle, a local residents. There was a great showing wide support from a variety of funding Visits Yukon-Charley community picnic and public lecture of local interest among Eagle residents. sources and participants: the Interna-

National ParkServicephotograph Researchers talked informally about their tional Mammoth Conference, the Alaska Research Sites projects, and an enthusiastic question and Quaternary Center, Cultural Services answer session resulted. Topics included Branch of the Yukon Tourism and Culture This May the 3rd International Mam- volcanic ash stratigraphy and dating, Department, the International Arctic moth Conference drew quaternary scien- Holocene flood history of the upper Research Center, the Shared Beringian tists—paleontologists, biologists, geolo- Yukon, and the archeology of the Calico Heritage Program, Yukon-Charley Rivers gists and archeologists-from around the Bluff site. Field trip stops included the National Preserve, and Tanana Chiefs world to Dawson City, Yukon Territory. Calico Bluff archeological site, where Conference. The conference focused on mammoth recent excavations have documented Abstracts of papers presented at the 3rd evolution and ecology as a springboard for one of the best middle Holocene human International Mammoth Conference are addressing broader issues of Pleistocene occupations in Interior Alaska; Chester available at: and Holocene ecology and environmental Bluff, where sediments document a series http://www.yukonmuseum.ca/mammoth/ change. This year, because of its Beringian of catastrophic floods that temporarily progabst.htm venue, it focused heavily on Beringian reversed the flow of the Yukon River; themes—the evolution of mammoth faunas and historic sites at Coal Creek and Information about research opportuni- and ecosystems, permafrost preservation, Slaven’s Roadhouse. ties in Yukon-Charley Rivers National and the effects of past climate change Superintendent Dave Mills also led a Preserve can be found at: on vegetation and animal communities. side trip to the preserve’s Coal Creek field http://science.nature.nps.gov/permits/ Participants attended workshops, poster camp. This restored gold mining camp now servlet/ParkResPrefAppViewServlet? and paper presentations, and field trips serves as a year-round operations center parkCode=YUCH to key Beringian geological and paleonto- Field trip participants discuss archaeological for science and fire operations, emphasiz- logical sites. surveys near Calico Bluff on the Yukon ing adaptive reuse of the historic district —by Jeff Rasic, Archeologist, River. More than 250 species of fossils have One field trip brought a group of been identified from the Upper and landscape. Restored facilities include Gates of the Arctic National Park and Preserve, Russian, Canadian, and American scientists Mississippian age Calico Bluff Formation. multiple historic cabins and offices, a mess Yukon-Charley Rivers National Preserve

32 Conservation and calf survival has resulted in an aging (Figure 1), and all 17 calves survived until natural conditions. population, with increased adult mortality released at about two to four weeks of age. The plight of the Chisana herd presents a Complexity: The and reduced reproductive rates, further Within a few days, the animals returned to complex policy issue for the Park Service. Chisana Caribou Herd hastening the decline. their native summer range in WRST. The NPS management policies are specific in Last year the Yukon government National Park Service, Alaska Department maintaining native populations, natural The Chisana caribou herd, inhabiting afforded the herd its highest level of of Fish and Game, and United States processes, and genetic diversity. ANILCA eastern Wrangell-St. Elias National Park protection under the Yukon Wildlife Act. Geological Survey-Biological Resources specifies maintaining “healthy” wildlife pop- and Preserve (WRST) and neighboring In spring of 2003, the Yukon Department Division have developed a monitoring ulations. The Chisana herd, a native species Yukon Territory, may be the only herd of of Environment implemented a captive program to track the herd, as well as deter- that is genetically distinct, is declining due the woodland subspecies, Rangifer taran- rearing program adjacent to WRST—20 mine the effectiveness of the captive rearing to natural processes (weather impacts and dus caribou, found in Alaska. Preliminary females were captured and radio-collared, program. As of late July, the released cap- predation by native predators), calling into genetic analyses indicate that Chisana 17 of which were pregnant. The females tives have shown less than 50% mortality question whether a “healthy” population caribou may be distinct from caribou found were contained in “predator proof” pens rate among calves, an improvement over and genetic diversity are being maintained.

throughout the rest of Alaska. National ParkServicephotographs Yukon Department of Environment, Alaska Department of Fish and Game, and WRST began a cooperative research program on the herd in 1987. The Chisana herd has declined from about 1,900 animals in 1988, to only about 315 in 2002. Although all licensed hunting of the herd was stopped in 1994, the herd has continued to decline. High mortality of calves (sometimes 100%) was observed, and is believed to be due to predation (Farnell and Gardner 2002). The vast majority of these losses occur on preserve lands that contain most of the calving grounds. Low Figure1.

33 Science News

Preliminary discussions with the U.S. Department of Environment, Government National ParkServicephotograph National ParkServicephotograph Fish and Wildlife Service suggest that the of Yukon, Whitehorse, Yukon, Canada. herd may warrant protection under the En- 22pp. dangered Species Act. If listed, the Chisana herd would constitute the only terrestrial -by Mason Reid, Wildlife Biologist, mammal listed under the Endangered Wrangell-St. Elias National Park and Preserve Species Act in Alaska, and would occur primarily on NPS lands. Furthermore, such a listing will instigate discussions of Wolverines’ Secrets predator control on NPS lands since NPS management policies provide for predator Soon to Be Uncovered control as part of an approved recovery In 1961, Frank and John Craighead plan for threatened and endangered species. built and placed the first radio-transmit- The Yukon Territory school system has a ting collar on Marian, a female grizzly website on the captive rearing program at: bear in Yellowstone National Park, in http://www.yesnet.yk.ca/schools/stelias/ order to learn the secrets of her daily Satellite-transmitting radiocollar placed on Wolverine habitat in the upper Noatak valley. wolverines. caribou/ wanderings. Over 40 years later, home- made radio transmitters have yielded to Farnell, R. and C. L. Gardner. 2002. satellite transmitters — small, high-tech and longitude coordinates) and activity weather, distance from Kotzebue, and Status of the Chisana caribou herd: 2002. transmitters that send location (latitude information about an animal to satellites short, winter days all contributed to the that process the data and then e-mail the limited information by traditional obser- National ParkServicephotograph information to biologists. Technological vation from aircraft. improvements of satellite transmitters Ultimately, using a small number of have reduced the weight of the transmit- satellite-telemetered wolverines, biolo- ters from nearly 25 pounds (11 kg) to less gists will be able to characterize the than 9 ounces (257 gm), for the current movements and home ranges of wolver- wolverine design. ines throughout the valley. Although As part of a larger ecological study technology will never substitute for of wolverine distribution and survival, traditional field observations, satellite biologists tested prototype satellite trans- transmitters may prove to be the best mitters to track the movements of ten method to study the movements of these wolverines (7 males, 3 females) in the far-ranging, secretive carnivores. Noatak National Preserve between 1999 and 2002. During the 113 days that the -by Brad Shults, Wildlife Biologist and transmitters operated, 617 locations were Pilot, Western Arctic National Parklands; recorded for these ten wolverines. For Kyran Kunkel, Turner Endangered Species comparison, during the same three years, Fund, Bozeman, Montana; and researchers were only able to obtain 150 locations of these same wolverines by Fredrik Dalerum, Stockholm University, Tranquilized wolverine being fitted with a satellite radiotransmitter. observing them from aircraft. Inclement Stockholm, Sweden

34 High Whale Numbers 16-year-old daughter (#1042) was also risk of whale-vessel collisions. Given the —Chris Gabriele, Wildlife Biologist, seen nearby with her calf. Collaborative number of whales in the bay and the fact Glacier Bay National Park and Preserve Found at Glacier Bay studies with other researchers revealed that that they are feeding in mid-channel, Park National Park and the 16-year-old along with other whales Superintendent Tomie Lee has requested Editor’s note: An article by Chris Preserve spent time in Tenakee Inlet, southeast of vessels to use extra caution while navigating Gabriele and others on underwater Glacier Bay in October and November through any areas where whales are acoustic monitoring research of humpback A record number of humpback whales 2002, presumably eating herring that over- likely to be. The whale monitoring effort is whale songs at Glacier Bay appeared in were in Glacier Bay National Park this winter there. a long-term project of park biologists, the fall 2002 issue of Alaska Park Science, summer, and biologists recorded a rare A 13-knot speed limit has been in place with significant assistance from volunteers available at sighting of three generations of related in lower Glacier Bay since late May to and several vessel operators who contact http://www.nps.gov/akso/ whales. reduce whale disturbance and decrease the the park with sightings. AKScience2002.pdf Since 1985, park biologists have moni- tored humpback whale populations in National ParkServicephotograph Glacier Bay and nearby Icy Strait. This year’s survey estimates at least 40 whales in Glacier Bay and another 20 in Icy Strait, with movement between the areas, accord- ing to NPS whale biologists Chris Gabriele and Janet Doherty. Humpback whales are distributed throughout Glacier Bay, with high concentrations seen recently in three areas: the Bartlett Cove/Point Carolus area has about two dozen whales; the Upper Sitakaday Narrows has about 10 whales; and the Beartrack Cove area has three to four whales. Whales entered Glacier Bay early this year, arriving into the lower bay in mid- May. By June 12, 30 whales had been at the entrance to the bay. “All observations to date suggest that the marine mammal and bird activity this year is due to the high abundance of capelin smelt, a small school- ing fish,” Gabriele said. Whales return to southeast Alaska each summer after a 1,500-mile migration from Hawaii. Among those back this year are four related whales, representing three generations. A whale designated as #581 was seen in June in Icy Strait with a calf; her

35 Science News

On-Line Institute of the University of Alaska Fair- • assess volcanic hazards associated with Mysteries in the Rocks National ParkServicephotographs banks (UAFGI), and the State of Alaska anticipated activity, including kinds of Volcano Information Division of Geological and Geophysical events, their effects, and areas at risk; and of Ancient Chukotka The Alaska Volcano Observatory (AVO) Surveys. AVO was formed in 1988, and uses • provide timely and accurate information In 1965, a geologist conducting work has an on-line atlas and database of photos federal, state, and university resources to: on volcanic hazards, and warnings of in northern Chukotka discovered a series of selected Alaska volcanoes, including • conduct monitoring and other scientific impending dangerous activity to local, of petroglyphs on rocky cliffs along many in national parks. The Alaska Volcano investigations in order to assess the state, and federal officials and the public. the Pegtymel’ River. The geologist had Observatory is a joint program of the nature, timing, and likelihood of volcanic stumbled upon the northernmost petro- U.S. Geological Survey, the Geophysical activity; The following links will take you to a glyphs known to prehistorians. On his variety of useful databases: return to Magadan, he reported his find htgahcuts fR.McGimsey, 1990 Photograph courtesyof to Nikolai N. Dikov, a director of archeo- Atlas logical research in the Russian Far East. http://www.avo.alaska.edu/avo4/atlas/atlas. When Dikov visited the site in 1967 with htm a crew of archeologists and artists, they Photos surveyed the area, conducted test excava- http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/dds/dds-39/ tions at the occupation sites, and recorded http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/dds/dds- the petroglyphs. 39/captions.txt Dikov’s research culminated in the publication Naskal’nye Zagadki Drevnei Catalogs of volcano-related Chukotki (Petroglify Pegtymelia), in which earthquake events he explores the origins of these intriguing 2002: http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/ images—who made them, when, and why. open-file/of03-267/ The author divides the petroglyphs into 2000 - 2001: http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/ five canons based on the style of art, open-file/of02-342/ then compares the canons with art from 1994 - 1999: http://geopubs.wr.usgs.gov/ other regions of Eurasia. Dikov utilizes the open-file/of01-189/ archeological and ethnographic data to

36 attempt to date the petroglyphs. Information about visiting Alaska’s national recycled newspapers and bio-safe resins A large number of the petroglyphs parks and other public lands is still available are incorporated into the lobby. are of swimming deer pursued by at the Alaska Public Lands Information Timber grass bamboo was used in the spear-wielding men in boats. These Center on 4th Avenue. Questions about all elevator cabs and in the directorial and undoubtedly portray the taking of your public lands in Alaska can be directed conference rooms. Unlike hardwood trees, migrating deer as they swam across to them at 271-2737. which require more than 120 years to grow the Pegtymel’ River. Other scenes The new building is also green. Green to maturity, bamboo grows to maturity in depict whaling, bear hunting with in that many new features in the building less than six years and is a renewable dogs, and strange mushroom figures, utilized recycled materials. For example, resource. Bamboo can be harvested from which appear to be human females fiberboard in the elevators is made from the same plant multiple times. Timber grass with mushroom headdresses. sunflower seed hulls, recycled newspapers, bamboo is not a food source or habitat Dikov includes excellent illustrations and bio-based resins. Fiberboard made from for pandas. of all 104 petroglyph groups and about It’s Easy To Be Green All the carpeting in the building is made Photograph courtesyofGregDaniels three dozen photographs of selected The National Park Service’s Alaska from fibers with recycled content, and groups. Anyone interested in rock art Regional Office has moved into its new carpets were produced using 71% less will be intrigued by this book, which has location in downtown Anchorage. The water than traditional methods. The ceram- been published in translation by the new mailing address and contact infor- ic tile entry is made with 70-75% recycled Beringia Heritage International Park mation are: 240 West 5th Avenue, Room solid waste—a combination of post- Program, National Park Service, 240 West 114, Anchorage, AK 99501; Main Phone: consumer recycled glass, post-industrial Fifth Avenue, Anchorage, Alaska 99501, 907-644-3510. A complete listing of grinding paste from the computer industry, under the title Mysteries in the Rocks direct phone numbers for individual and post-industrial mining waste from of Ancient Chukotka (Petroglyphs of employees is on our internet site at: the sand and gravel industry. In addition, Pegtymel’). http://www.nps.gov/akso. office lighting contains occupancy sensors The office building houses about 225 that turn lights on or off, saving on energy -by Richard L. Bland, Park Service employees who provide tech- use and cost. Museum of Natural History, nical and administrative support and over- University of Oregon, Eugene, Oregon sight for the 16 national parks in Alaska. -Communications Office, Alaska Region

37 Science News

Working on the Edge: more about the individual’s life, and whether the houses were built in the same the Brooks River multi-room style as contemporaneous Cutbank Archeological houses elsewhere on the Alaska Peninsula and Kodiak Island. In 2002, archeologists Data Recovery Project began excavations designed to answer these questions (Figure 2). The Brooks River is the heart of Katmai The site held surprises. Between the National Park and Preserve. Brooks Camp two houses, visible on the surface, was a is the gateway to the geologically signifi- third older house. In addition, the burial cant Valley of 10,000 Smokes and the appears to be more recent than all three home of many of Katmai’s famous brown of the houses, although further excavation bears. The area is also a National Historic in 2003 will provide more information. Landmark and an archeological district The newly discovered house had an consisting of 19 different sites. People have ingenious deep cold-trap entrance tunnel. made their homes along the Brooks River Within the third house, archeologists for at least 4,500 years, and many of found incised pebbles (Figure 3) lightly the descendants of earlier Brooks River etched with stylized human figures. The residents still live on the Alaska Peninsula. pebbles resemble those commonly found Figure 2. (above) Figure3. (below) Descendant communities and park arche- on Kodiak Island, suggesting a long-dis-

National ParkServicephotograph ologists share an interest in protecting tance connection. these important archeological sites. Further scientific investigations are in The Brooks River Cutbank site has progress at the Cutbank site. Geologists been steadily eroding as the river mean- are currently identifying the volcanic ders (Figure 1). The site is fairly recent, tephras found in the soils, and archeolo- dating to the Bluffs Phase (A.D. 1450- gists conducted a second excavation sea- 1800). In 1999 NPS archeologists discov- son. In the summer of 2003, archeologists ered human remains eroding from the studied the third house, its chronological river bank. In compliance with federal relationship to the two nearby houses, and law and NPS policy, archeologists cultural connections across the region. contacted culturally affiliated Alaska Erosion cannot be stopped, but through Native groups through the Council of archeological investigation and partnering Katmai Descendants. Archeologists and with local communities, we can learn the council agreed on a plan for the about prehistoric lifeways before the evi- disposition of the human remains and an dence vanishes. excavation at the site that would address questions of mutual interest. Both were —by Dale M. Vinson and interested if the the burial could be linked Barbara E. Bundy, stratigraphically to either of the two near- Lake Clark-Katmai Studies Center est houses, allowing researchers to learn

38 National ParkServicephotograph

Figure 1.

39 Alaska Park Science National ParkServicephotograph National Park Service Alaska Support Office 240 W. 5th Avenue Anchorage, Alaska 99501 National ParkServicephotograph

Cindy Williams, an undergraduate anthropology student at University of Alaska Anchorage, searches for small artifacts.

Top-Right: Black chert at a prehistoric chert quarry on Wrench Creek.