EDUCATION IN SERIES

Series Editors

Dr. Xiaozhou Xu Professor of Comparative Education Dean of College of Education Director of National Centre for Curriculum of Basic Education Co-director of Seeco Educational Research Centre University, China and

Dr. Carlo Socol Co-director of Seeco Educational Research Centre , China Visiting Professor, Salesian University, Rome, Italy Professor of History of Christianity, Holy Spirit Seminary College Hong Kong, China Director of Association of Historians of the Salesian Society (ACSSA) Rome, Italy

Zhejiang University Press No. 148, Tianmushan Road, Xixi Campus, Zhejiang University, 310028, China

Homa & Sekey Books 3rd Floor, North Tower, Mack-Cali Center III 140 East Ridgewood Ave., Paramus, NJ 07652 U.S.A.

EDUCATION IN CHINA SERIES

Educational System in China Ming Yang

Educational Policies and Legislation in China Xiaozhou Xu Weihui Mei

Basic Libing Wang

Higher Education in China Jianmin Gu Xueping Li Lihua Wang

Technical and Vocational Education in China Xueping Wu Yiqun Ye

EDUCATION IN CHINA SERIES

Higher Education in China

JIANMIN GU XUEPING LI LIHUA WANG

Homa & Sekey Books Paramus, New Jersey, U.S.A.

Authors Prof. Jianmin Gu Dr. Xueping Li College of Education College of Education Zhejiang University Zhejiang University Hangzhou 310028, China Hangzhou 310028, China Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]

Dr. Lihua Wang College of Education

Zhejiang University Hangzhou 310028, China Email: [email protected]

First published in August 2009 Copyright © 2010 by Zhejiang University Press and Homa & Sekey Books All Rights Reserved

ISBN 978-7-308-06923-6 Zhejiang University Press No. 148, Tianmushan Road, Xixi Campus, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310028, China Tel: 86-571-88215650 Fax: 86-571-88215650 Email: [email protected] Website: www.zjupress.com

ISBN 978-1-931907-59-0 Homa & Sekey Books 3rd Floor, North Tower, Mack-Cali Center III 140 East Ridgewood Ave., Paramus, NJ 07652 U.S.A. Tel: 201-261-8810; 800-870-HOMA; Fax: 201-261-8890; 201-384-6055 Email: [email protected] Website: www.homabooks.com

National Depository Library of China Cataloging-in-Publication Data Number: 2009121814

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Gu, Jianmin, 1963- Higher education in China / Jianmin Gu, Xueping Li, Lihua Wang. -- 1st American ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-931907-59-0 (hardcover) 1. Education, Higher--China. I. Li, Xueping, 1967- II. Wang, Lihua, 1972- III. Title.

LA1133.G82 2009 378.51--dc22 2009032875

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Contents

Series Editors’ Preface:::::::::::::::::::::ix Preface:::::::::::::::::::::::::::xi List of Acronyms::::::::::::::::::::::::xv

1 History of Higher Education::::::::::::::::::1 1.1 Higher Learning in Ancient Times:::::::::::::::1 1.1.1 Confucius and his private academe:::::::::::::1 1.1.2 The (institution of supreme learning) and shuyuan (academy or scholarly society):::::::::::::::2 1.2 Modern Higher Education::::::::::::::::::4 1.2.1 The modern college in China:::::::::::::::4 1.2.2 The modern university in China:::::::::::::7 1.2.3 Modern higher education in the Republic of China (19111949):9 1.3 Contemporary Higher Education in China::::::::::::12 1.3.1 Higher education in the early years of the PRC (19491966)::12 1.3.2 Higher education during the “” (19661976)::12 1.3.3 Higher education in the new era (since 1978):::::::::13 2 Structure of Higher Education:::::::::::::::::17 2.1 Forms::::::::::::::::::::::::::17 2.1.1 Form of higher education::::::::::::::::17 2.1.2 Form of ownership:::::::::::::::::::18 2.2 Levels:::::::::::::::::::::::::20 2.3 Disciplines::::::::::::::::::::::::23 2.4 Categories of Institutions::::::::::::::::::27 2.4.1 Discipline-based categories: single-discipline institutions, multidisciplinary institutions, and comprehensive universities::28 2.4.2 Function-based categories: teaching institutions, teaching- research institutions, and research universities::::::::30 3 Higher Education Management::::::::::::::::35 3.1 The Ownership System:::::::::::::::::::35 Contents

3.2 The Administrative System:::::::::::::::::35 3.2.1 Administration of higher education::::::::::::36 3.2.2 Decentralization of higher education administration after 1985:39 3.2.3 Higher education coordination::::::::::::::45 3.3 The Funding System::::::::::::::::::::52 3.3.1 Diversification of higher education funding:::::::::52 3.3.2 Growth of private higher education::::::::::::54 3.3.3 Government expenditures on education::::::::::56 3.4 Planning and Evaluation:::::::::::::::::::57 3.4.1 State education plans::::::::::::::::::57 3.4.2 Evaluation of higher education::::::::::::::58 3.5 The Organizational Management of HEIs::::::::::::64 3.5.1 Organization and structure of HEIs:::::::::::64 3.5.2 Leadership system of HEIs::::::::::::::::66 3.5.3 Rules and regulations of HEIs::::::::::::::68 4 Admission and Graduate Employment:::::::::::::71 4.1 College Admission:::::::::::::::::::::71 4.1.1 Reforms of admission::::::::::::::::::73 4.1.2 Forms of admission:::::::::::::::::::74 4.2 Postgraduate Admission:::::::::::::::::::81 4.2.1 Master’s admission:::::::::::::::::::81 4.2.2 Doctoral admission:::::::::::::::::::88 4.3 Graduate Employment: Policy Changes and Current Situation::::90 4.3.1 Policy changes:::::::::::::::::::::90 4.3.2 Current situation::::::::::::::::::::92 5 Specialized Higher Education:::::::::::::::::95 5.1 Overview::::::::::::::::::::::::95 5.1.1 Levels of tertiary education::::::::::::::::95 5.1.2 Programs of tertiary education::::::::::::::98 5.2 Missions and Programs:::::::::::::::::::98 5.3 Curriculum:::::::::::::::::::::::104 5.3.1 Structure of the curriculum:::::::::::::::104 5.3.2 Sequence of courses in the curriculum:::::::::::110 5.3.3 Degree of control over curricular content::::::::::110 5.4 Establishment and Adjustment of Specialties::::::::::110

vi Contents

5.5 Modes of Education::::::::::::::::::::113 5.5.1 Alternative Work and Study Mode::::::::::::114 5.5.2 College-industry Collaborative Mode:::::::::::115 5.5.3 Employment / Position-oriented or Made-to-order Mode::::115 5.5.4 Platform plus Module Mode:::::::::::::::116 5.5.5 Learning by Doing Mode::::::::::::::::116 5.6 The Management System of Teaching:::::::::::::117 6 Undergraduate Education::::::::::::::::::121 6.1 Overview::::::::::::::::::::::::121 6.2 Missions and Programs:::::::::::::::::::121 6.3 Curriculum:::::::::::::::::::::::124 6.3.1 Curriculum for undergraduate education before 1985:::::124 6.3.2 Curriculum of undergraduate education after 1985::::::129 6.4 Establishment and Adjustment of Undergraduate Specialties::::137 6.5 Modes of Education::::::::::::::::::::143 6.6 The Management System of Teaching:::::::::::::146 7 Postgraduate Education:::::::::::::::::::151 7.1 Overview::::::::::::::::::::::::151 7.2 Academic Degrees System:::::::::::::::::153 7.2.1 Establishment of Academic Degrees Ordinance of the PRC::153 7.2.2 Basic characteristics of the academic degrees system:::::155 7.3 Master’s Degree Education:::::::::::::::::157 7.3.1 Recent developments:::::::::::::::::157 7.3.2 New directions::::::::::::::::::::160 7.4 Doctoral Education::::::::::::::::::::163 7.4.1 Recent developments:::::::::::::::::163 7.4.2 New directions::::::::::::::::::::166 8 Research in HEIs::::::::::::::::::::::171 8.1 Present State of Research in HEIs::::::::::::::171 8.1.1 The research system of HEIs:::::::::::::::172 8.1.2 Personnel engaging in research at HEIs::::::::::172 8.1.3 Research capacities of HEIs:::::::::::::::173 8.1.4 Social contribution of researches conducted by HEIs:::::174 8.2 Features of Research in HEIs::::::::::::::::175 8.3 Organizational Structure of Research in HEIs::::::::::176 8.4 Operation Mechanism of Research in HEIs:::::::::::178

vii Contents

9 Teaching Staff in HEIs::::::::::::::::::::181 9.1 Composition of Teaching Staff in HEIs::::::::::::181 9.2 Recruitment of Teaching Staff in HEIs:::::::::::::185 9.3 Assessment of Teaching Staff in HEIs:::::::::::::188 9.4 Compensation of Teaching Staff in HEIs::::::::::::190

References:::::::::::::::::::::::::::193

Appendices::::::::::::::::::::::::::205 Appendix 1 Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China::205 Appendix 2 Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China:::::::::::::::::::::219 Appendix 3 “211 Project” and “985 Project” :::::::::::223 Appendix 4 National Model Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges:227 Appendix 5 Websites for the Related Data on Chinese Higher Education::::::::::::::::::::231

Index:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::233

viii

Series Editors’ Preface

Of all human activities Education is among the highest and noblest. As a social factor, it has been seen as “an engine of social development”, “a purifier of human harmony” and “an expression of culture”. Without education, the prospects for humanity would be bleak and world prosperity might be a mere dream. Civilization, social development and personal advancement are continuous with education: they precede and follow it. Nations, families and individuals stake their hopes on education. Because of its special role at all levels of human progress, education has been given priority in all ages in countries the world over. As a result, humanity has accumulated a wealth of positive experience and, in the world’s long history, many intractable problems have been solved, setbacks have been tackled and challenges have been turned into opportunities. But we cannot rest on our laurels or stop addressing the present and the future. New challenges and problems have come as a consequence of the faster pace of change and expansion, which characterizes the new century. To promote steady and sustainable development and foster understanding among peoples in this increasingly global world of ours, we should never give up exploring new avenues and finding new opportunities. Education, as history shows, is perhaps the single best approach we can rely on to achieve our goals. With this background, mutual exchange and cooperation become all the more important. China’s rise in the recent past has benefited from educational development spanning a period of sixty years, beginning with the birth of the People’s Republic of China. China has made considerable strides and achieved enviable goals in the field of education during often very difficult times. Now, with a population of about 1.3 billion, our country, which has the largest education system in the world, is well on track in successfully achieving the “popularization of compulsory education” and the “massification of higher education”. Some of China’s achievements may surprise us: a modern education system is basically in place; vocational and technical education policy tries to meet the demands of social and economic development; the internationalization of education has set out along a broad avenue; educational policies and legislation are being regularly improved, etc. At the same time, however, as a developing country, China is facing many hurdles and challenges in her task of further developing the education system. Series Editors’ Preface

Education is part of China’s overall development, and as such it requires her own efforts, wisdom and innovation in order to set up and manage a modern education system able to respond to the unique challenges she faces. To sustain development, however, China needs to learn from the experiences, the achievements, the research and experimentation of other countries, without underestimating in the process her own achievements and characteristics. In a word, since Chinese educational development will necessarily have a Chinese character, while at the same time being an inseparable part of the global educational system, we can expect China to play the role of a good citizen in the global village. Mutual understanding is the precondition for international exchange and cooperation. However, up to now, foreigners have encountered many hurdles in trying to improve their knowledge of Chinese education. On the one hand, not many of them manage to achieve a working knowledge of the and, on the other hand, there is an undeniable shortage of English literature taught in modern China. In order to help foreign friends and scholars know more about today’s Chinese education, the Zhejiang University Seeco Educational Research Centre, which was established in 2007 to promote studies in the field of comparative education, has undertaken the task of producing the present Chinese Education Series. The various volumes endeavor to explain the context of Chinese education during the past sixty years, to introduce educational development in the present situation, to analyze the problems as they develop, and to look forward to the future of Chinese education in different areas, with each author offering his or her own original perspective. We hope that the series will help global society to better know the outline and features of modern Chinese education, that it will arouse interest in it, and will encourage readers to explore the legislation governing its development. We are pleased to announce that the series has obtained the support of the General Administration of Press and Publication of the People’s Republic of China, to whom we express our sincere gratitude. Many thanks are due to Zhejiang University Press and Homa & Sekey Books of U.S.A. for undertaking to publish the series. Finally, we would like to express sincere appreciation to the authors who compiled the books with true professionalism and selflessness, while handling busy schedules, and to all the friends and colleagues who have offered invaluable criticism, advice and encouragement.

Xiaozhou Xu & Carlo Socol Hangzhou, China

x

Preface

For quite some time now, the world has been watching with interest China’s 30-year reform and opening up to the outside world which has not only brought about changes within, but also propelled the country into the global scene as an important player in almost every field of commerce and industry. Among the factors that contributed to this unprecedented progress are, undoubtedly, the developments in its higher education system. Taking inspiration from former Chinese leader who said, “Education should open out towards the world, towards the future and towards modernization,” a wide range of reforms have been introduced into higher education in China in the last 30 years. Several international exchange programs facilitating mutual visits of faculty and research scholars and other collaborative efforts with leading universities in the world have helped to advance the internationalization of higher education in China. As a result, the world is getting to know more about higher education in China and Chinese higher education is becoming more open to the world. This book is an attempt to provide international readers a comprehensive introduction to higher education in China. It is hoped that this work will help readers across the globe make sense of the amazingly huge and complex machinery that higher education in China is today. The authors have taken pains to introduce readers, step by step, to all the important aspects of higher education in China4its history and development, its magnitude and structure, its operational system and management, its processes of enrollment and employment. There is also an overview of the various levels of higher education in China, namely, specialized higher education, undergraduate education, postgraduate education, research and teaching staff. In a word, this is a book that tells you what higher education in China is and how it works. While economic globalization and internationalization of education have greatly reduced the differences among educational systems in various countries, it cannot be denied that higher education in a country needs to be deeply rooted in its culture and traditions. Besides, many aspects of higher education are to be defined

Preface by the practical circumstances prevailing in the country. Thus, China makes it clear that while moving ahead with the rest of the world, it does not wish to limit or diminish its unique national and cultural characteristics. Without doubt, higher education in a country cannot thrive if it is distanced from the ground realities, if it has no roots in the soil, if it ignores the people and their daily needs. Some of the distinguishing characteristics of higher education in China highlighted in this book are the following: First, long history: China is a country with a long tradition of higher education. Although the process of modernization of higher education in China started only in the mid-19th century, mostly through contacts with the western world, one cannot forget the fact that China is a country with a 5,000-year-old history and a culture steeped in the pursuit of learning and excellence whose best-known icon is Confucius, who visualized education as a powerful means for transforming both the self and the State. Not surprisingly, Confucian thought still holds its influence on the social and moral fabric of China. Second, enormous proportions: higher education in China is an institution of enormous proportions. With the rapid growth of education during the last decades of the 20th century, China saw the phenomenon of mass higher education entering its threshold in the beginning of the 21st century. As a result, today there are 2,300 Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) catering to over 27 million college students (20 million full-timers), and over 5 million graduates coming out its colleges every year. Yet, in comparison with other countries, it cannot be said that China is a world leader in higher education. The major task facing higher education in China today is that of ensuring quality at every level of specialization. Third, centralized management: China has long been a society with high centripetal tendencies. This is reflected in every aspect of administration, especially higher education. Even after the formation of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, the power of decision making and management mainly lay in the hands of the central government. In the new climate of reform and modernization, the operational system of higher education has definitely become more diversified. A new system of two-level management (by the central government and provincial governments) has been introduced in which provincial governments play the key role. However, the system still has the characteristics of centralized management which is reflected, for example, in the reform of cost-recovery policies, the merger of higher education institutions, the enrollment expansion of HEIs, the construction of higher education zones, the “211 Project”, and the “985 Project”. Fourth, the pragmatic trend: The pragmatic trend in Chinese higher education is quite obvious. For the lack of the spiritual quality, higher education in China has xii Preface always focused on the needs of economic and social development. While the political function of higher education was emphasized in the past, its economic function has come to the center stage today. This is particularly evident in the phenomenon of HEIs running factories and farms. It is also seen in the kinds of specialties introduced in the curriculum, in the planning of curriculum and the teaching process in HEIs. While education must have a social dimension, and higher education must keep in mind socio-economic development, these cannot be the sole aims of higher education. Another important feature of higher education in China is its non-formal forms. Besides the large-scale formal system, higher education in China has many non-formal forms, such as Distance Higher Education (provided through continuing education departments), Evening University, TV University, Correspondence University and the Self-study Examination of Higher Education, and the like. This book mainly deals with the formal system of higher education in China, keeping universities as the main focus. If this book can arouse the interest of international readers to find out more about higher education in China, we would feel the book has served its purpose, which is what we do hope. This book is the joint work of Professor Jianmin Gu, Dr. Lihua Wang, and Dr. Xueping Li4all from the Institute of Higher Education of Zhejiang University4 and doctoral student Jiyun Wang. Professor Jianmin Gu drew up the outline of this book and cooperated with Ms. Jiyun Wang in writing Section 5 of Chapter 3, Chapters 8 and 9. Sections 1 to 4 of Chapter 3, Chapters 5 and 6 were written by Dr. Lihua Wang, while Chapters 1, 2, 4 and 7 were written by Dr. Xueping Li. Dr. Lihua Wang also took responsibility for editing the English translation of this book. Lastly, we owe a great deal to Seeco Education Research Center of Zhejiang University and Professor Xiaozhou Xu. Without their planning, invitation, and support, the publication of this book would not have been possible.

xiii

List of Acronyms

CAS Chinese Academy of Sciences CASS Chinese Academy of Social Sciences CESRI Central Educational Science Research Institute CPC Communist Party of China GDP Gross Domestic Product HEI Higher Education Institution ICHEFAP International Comparative Higher Education Finance and Accessibility Project ISCED International Standard Classification of Education KMT Kuomintang LBHE & SNC Bureau of Higher Education & Shengyang Normal College MOE Ministry of Education MOF Ministry of Finance MOHE Ministry of Higher Education MOL Ministry of Labor MOP NAEA National Academy of Education Administration NCEE National College Entrance Examination NDRC National Development and Reform Commission NPC National People’s Congress PRC People’s Republic of China RC Republic of China SCCAD State Council Committee on Academic Degrees SEDC State Education Commission UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization

11 History of Higher Education

1.1 Higher Learning in Ancient Times

Historically, higher learning in ancient China can be traced back to the Shang Dynasty (roughly 1600 BC1046 BC), but there is no consensus among historians about its exact origin. Most scholars, however, agree that in ancient China the institution of daxue (a Chinese term for “university” but with a special meaning in the Chinese context) originated from the youxue in the Shang Dynasty. The youxue was a special multifunctional place where education was only a part of its many activities. In the Western Zhou Dynasty (1046 BC771 BC), daxue, was established in the capital city as part of the national educational institutions (guoxue), and was even called “piyong” (imperial daxue) for a time. Roughly speaking, daxue and other similar institutions of higher learning in the later period of ancient China had several main features. They were usually controlled by the upper ruling class for the purpose of educating political elites. The content of education in these institutions centered upon Confucian classics. Education at xue zai guanfu (government-owned agencies) and at li shi heyi (combination of officials and masters) dominated most historical periods of ancient China. Besides the daxue, the early private academe and the distinctive shuyuan (Academy or Scholarly Society) were particularly important alternative types of higher learning institutions in ancient China. The taixue (Institution of Supreme Learning) was another key institution of education for a long period of time.

1.1.1 Confucius and his private academe During the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC476 BC) and the Warring States Period (475 BC221 BC) of Chinese history, the entire society changed dramatically. Government-owned education declined while private education rose remarkably. Moreover, private education, supported by various kingdoms, became the normal way of education. Private educational institutions, as a new form of education, in Higher Education in China

contrast to government-owned ones, recruited not only the children of the elite but also the children of the poor. In reality, many of them were institutions of higher learning, rather than of basic learning. Scholars in these institutions often opened up free discussions and heated debates. Among these scholars, Confucius was a well-known practitioner of private institutional learning at the end of the Spring and Autumn period. His private academy at Xingtan (Qufu, Shangdong Province today) was a fairly large institution with a tang (hall) for giving lectures and a nei (inner room) for accommodating students. Confucius usually offered courses on various subjects based on the students’ individual traits and personal differences. It was believed that Confucius had around 3,000 disciples, 70 of whom were sages. During this period, besides Confucius, Mo-tse, Mencius and other great scholars from different schools of thoughts were committed to initiating various private educational institutions. Similar to the Confucian academe, they were also institutions of higher learning, which provided advanced knowledge instead of general knowledge and high-level professional training instead of practical occupational training. These academies aimed at educating the shi (intellectual elites) who served the ruling class.

1.1.2 The taixue (institution of supreme learning) and shuyuan (academy or scholarly society) 1.1.2.1 The taixue The positive recuperation (xiuyang shengxi) policy in the early (206 BC220 AD) brought about the development of education. Prior to this period, education had been thoroughly destroyed by the infamous policy of “books to be burnt and Confucians to be buried alive” (fenshu kengru) that was followed by the Qin Dynasty (221 BC206 BC). In the context of the policy change, the taixue was initially founded in Chang’an (Xi’an, Province today), the capital city, in the year of 124 BC, which is considered the earliest central institution of supreme learning in ancient China. The proposal of founding the taixue was first sent to the Emperor by Zongshu Dong who believed in the superior value of , and succeeded in convincing the emperor about its importance. Although there were only around 50 boshi dizi (“disciples of doctors”4boshi is a doctor or mentor and dizi, a disciple or student) at the beginning of the taixue, the number grew to 30,000 in due course. The taixue marked the beginning of the government-owned, imperial institution for the most advanced learning in the Chinese feudal society. At the taixue, not only advanced

2 1 History of Higher Education knowledge and scholarship were pursued by mentors and disciples but also the Five Classics (wujin) were taught as the typical Confucian classics. The Five Classics included the Book of Songs (shi), the Book of History (shu), the Book of Change (yi), the Book of Rites (li), and the Spring and Autumn Annals (chunqiu). During the long period between the demise of the Han Dynasty and the unification of the Sui Dynasty (220 AD589 AD), the taixue continued to grow. But the split of the dynasty into multiple princedoms, continuous wars, and social unrest slowed down its growth. However, it is noteworthy that the Institution of the Sons of the Emperor (guozixue) was established in the year of 276 AD in the Western Jin Dynasty, coexisting side by side with the taixue. This guozixue was the common origin of other guozixue, the Temple of the Sons of the Emperor (guozisi) or the Supervision Hall of the Sons of the Emperor () in the later dynasties. All these imperial agencies, with different names, were similar supreme imperial institutions of higher learning for the sons of the emperors in many dynasties. In the Sui Dynasty (581 AD618 AD), the guozijian took charge of the entire education enterprise in the country and consisted of five schools, namely, guozixue, taixue, simenxue (four subjects), shuxue (calligraphy), and suanxue (arithmetic and math). Following the Sui Dynasty, the guozijian in the Tang Dynasty (618 AD907 AD) expanded into six schools, adding law (lixue) to the previous five. The education offered at guozixue, taixue and simenxue of the six schools was classical education of higher learning. Due to the gradual decline and eventual collapse of higher learning in the dynasties of the Yuan, the Ming and the Qing (1271 AD1911 AD), the imperial institution of supreme learning could hardly develop. There were guozixue, menggu guozixue and huihui guozixue in the Yuan Dynasty. The central daxue was named guozixue at first and renamed guozijian later in the Ming Dynasty. In the , guozijian was also called taixue.

1.1.2.2 The shuyuan The earliest shuyuan in Chinese history also emerged in the Han Dynasty, three centuries after the taixue. In 178 AD, the Hongdumen Academy (hongdumenxue) was founded at Hongdumen, Luoyang, where literature and art were studied and taught. It is commonly viewed as the first special shuyuan in Chinese history. Its focus on phraseology and ode (cifu), novel (xiaoshuo), epistolary art (chidu), and calligraphy and painting (zihua) went beyond the long-standing educational ideology according to which Confucian classics was to dominate the content of teaching. For similar reasons, the Hongdumen Academy, like the taixue, developed very

3 Higher Education in China

slowly during the period of the Three Kingdoms, the Wei, the Jin, and the Nan-Bei Chao (Northern and Southern) Dynasties. In the early Song Dynasty, shuyuan became a real institution of higher learning, no longer as the National Library or a private learning center in the Tang Dynasty. At that time, the distinctive features that characterized the teaching at shuyuan were: the connection between research and teaching, freedom of teaching, freedom of learning; the predominance of self-study in students’ learning process, teachers’ emphasis on enlightenment in their teaching and the close relationship between students and teachers. The well-established “Four Great Shuyuan on Earth” in history, namely: Bailudong Shuyuan (in Lushan, Jiangxi Province), Yuelu Shuyuan (in , Province), Yingtianfu Shuyuan (in Shangqiu, Henan Province) and Shitougu Shuyuan (in Hengyang, Hunan Province) flourished in the . The shuyuan was transformed into a government agency when the Qing Dynasty started to control the country. As a result, it functioned very passively, serving simply as a vassal of the imperial examination system. In 1901, the shuyuan was replaced by “college”, a modern or new type of Higher Education Institution (HEI), leading to the discontinuation of the academy which had a history of nearly one thousand years.

1.2 Modern Higher Education

The traditional higher education in the Qing Dynasty was gradually replaced by the modern system of higher education; this transformation of traditional higher education was shaped slowly between 1840 and 1911. In these seventy years of the last dynasty, the emergence of modern higher education in China was the result of both the introduction of western systems of higher education and the impact of other social reforms in the late Qing Dynasty. There were two important types of modern HEIs in the late Qing Dynasty. The earliest type was the modern college (yangwu xuetang), a new, government-owned type of specialized institution aimed at training the kind of modern workforce the nation badly needed at that time. Another type of institution was the modern university (daxuetang), a western-style university offering 4-year courses, primarily focusing on specialized academic disciplines.

1.2.1 The modern college in China The first and second Opium Wars prompted the Qing Dynasty to initiate a wide range of social reforms. Many top officials were determined to learn from the outside world,

4 1 History of Higher Education especially from the industrialized nations. The Modernization Movement (Yangwu Movement), an unprecedented military, technological, industrial and educational movement advocated by a group of open-minded reformists of the time, opened the door of the antiquated dynasty to “new”, “modern” and “western” things in an attempt to bring about social changes and create a powerful and wealthy nation. The reformists set up “modern industries”, supported “western learning” and introduced “new education” through diverse channels. In the course of the movement, numerous untraditional things were borrowed in an enormous amount from the West and introduced continually into the last dynasty in Chinese history, all of which were fundamentally different from those that had existed for long in the past dynasties of ancient China. Modern education, as an essential part of the Modernization Movement, emphasized western languages (xiwen) and western technical knowledge (xiyi). Historically, the Imperial College (jingshi tongwenguan), created in 1862, was the first modern college established by the Qing government with the aid of some active reformists. Initially, it simply served the purpose of training translators in English, French, Russian and other foreign languages. Nevertheless, it started to expand in 1867 from a one-subject college to a polytechnic consisting of many modern subjects like physics and chemistry. Forty years later, it merged into the Imperial University (jingshi daxuetang, established in 1898, which became later). The Imperial College, as the first government-owned, modern college in the late Qing Dynasty, marked not merely the emergence of Chinese modern higher education but also the start of a gradual transition from traditional to modern Chinese higher education. Table 1.1 shows that, between 1862 and 1898, the reformists initiated a total of 44 modern colleges like the Imperial College. These earliest institutions had two new features. Firstly, they offered, for the first time in modern China, courses on western learning (xixue) like foreign languages, natural sciences and practical technologies challenging the traditional ideologies and practices of education. Secondly, great importance was attached to military colleges in the system. Out of the total of 44 earliest modern colleges, 22 were military colleges. Military technology was considered as the key to defeat foreign invaders; so they hoped to achieve a military technology-centered modernization through modern military education.

5 Higher Education in China

Table 1.1 The Earliest Modern Colleges (Yangwu xuetang) (18621898)

Location of Number of Year of Founder or funding Types of colleges founding colleges founding organization 1 1862 Xin Yi Colleges of 1 1863 Hongzhang Li foreign language 1 1864 Hongbin Mao (Waiyu xuetang) Xinjiang 1 1887 Xiangqin Liu Taiwan 1 1888 Mingchuan Liu 1 1889 Shun Chang 1 1893 Zhidong Zhang Hunan 1 1895 N 1 N N I 1866 Zongtang Zuo Shanghai 1 1873 N Shusheng Zhang; 1880; Guangdong 3 Zhidong Zhang; 1886; 1886 Zhidong Zhang 2 1880; 1888 Hongzhang Li Military colleges Beijing 1 1888 Huan Yi (Junshi xuetang) 2 1889; 1894 Ruchang Ding; N Guoquan Zeng; 1890; 3 Zhidong Zhang; 1895; 1896 Zhidong Zhang Liaoning 1 1890 Northern Fleet Hebei 1 1896 Shikai yuan Hubei 1 1896 Zhidong Zhang Zhejiang 2 1897 Shoufeng Liao Guizhou 1 1898 Yuzao Wang Shaanxi 1 1898 Guangtao Wei 1 1898 Huaxi Deng Shanxi 1 1898 Pinzhi Hu Guangdong 1 1866 N Fujian 1 1876 Richang Ding Tianjin 1 1880 Hongzhang Li Shanghai 1 1882 N Colleges of Zhidong Zhang; science & Hubei 2 1891; 1892 Hubei Mining technology (Keji Administration xuetang) Tianjin 1 1894 Hongzhang Li Hebei 1 1895 Jinru Railway Corp. Zhidong Zhang; 1896; Jiangsu 3 Zhidong Zhang; 1896; 1898 Yuntai Hu Hubei 2 1898 Zhidong Zhang

Note: *N stands for no exact figure or record. Source: (Li, 2005: 63-71).

6 1 History of Higher Education

Overall, in the last decade before the 1911 Xinhai Revolution, some other types of modern colleges, namely, specialized HEIs, emerged. Among them were colleges of higher education (gaodeng xuetang), industrial colleges (gaodeng shiye xuetang), senior normal colleges (youji shifan xuetang), colleges of politics and law (fazheng xuetang), and some private colleges and missionary colleges, as well. After the Renyin School System (1902) and the Zouding School System (1904) were introduced, colleges of higher education were created in large numbers in individual provinces. Many well-known provincial shuyuan directly became new colleges of higher education. It was literally the first time in modern China that so many colleges of higher education appeared. Besides, many so-called universities (daxuetang) with less than three subjects were named colleges of higher education in order to meet the related requirements in the two school systems. For instance, University of Zhejiang (Zhejiang daxuetang) became Zhejiang College of Higher Education (Zhejiang gaodeng xuetang) in 1903. Industrial colleges did not become an independent type of modern college until the 1904 Zouding School System was introduced. They actually included various colleges of agriculture, industry, commerce and mine. However, like colleges of higher education, industrial colleges developed only with great difficulties for some reasons. In 1909, there were 5 colleges of agriculture, 7 colleges of industry, and 1 college of commerce (Zhu, 1989: 221). Senior normal colleges also did not emerge as an independent type until 1904. Normal education was regarded as a separate system and divided into junior normal schools and senior normal colleges in the Zouding School System. In 1909, there were 30 normal colleges nationwide (Zhu, 1989: 468). Colleges of politics and law were not considered as a separate type in the 1904 Zouding School System, but they grew so fast between 1905 and 1911 that they eventually became very noticeable in higher education in the last few years of the Qing Dynasty. In 1909, there were 46 provincial colleges of politics and law, nationwide. Actually, there were numerous such institutions scattered in local regions and counties (He, 1999: 87).

1.2.2 The modern university in China During the reform movement of the 1890s, the modern university in the western sense began to emerge in China. It has been generally acknowledged that the establishment of three main HEIs in Tianjin, Shanghai and Beijing marked the birth, though in rudimentary form, of the modern or new university system in modern China, where some specialized, modern disciplines or the four-year system from

7 Higher Education in China

abroad took their definitive forms. In 1895, Xuanhuai Sheng established the Sino-Western College (zhongxi xuetang, the predecessor of ) in Tianjin with the approval of Emperor Guangxu. The college focused on disciplines like foreign languages, science and technology, and engineering. It was renamed Beiyang University (beiyang daxuetang) in 1903. The college was a two-tier institution, consisting of the First-Class Hall and the Second-Class Hall. The First-Class Hall initially planned to offer five separate programs of teaching in five specialized disciplines (actually not offered until 1905) aimed at training future professionals, with a four-year system, which for long had been adopted by many western universities. In 1896, Xuanhuai Sheng gained the Emperor’s approval for a second time to set up Nanyang College (nanyang gongxue, the predecessor of Shanghai Jiaotong University). The college had four halls and was more complex than the previous college in Tianjin. It had a Normal Education Hall in the beginning and added an Upper Hall, a Middle Hall and an External Hall a few years later. The latter three halls adopted the four-year system like the Sino-Western College. In 1900, the Upper Hall started to recruit students who had graduated from the Middle Hall and at that time it was like a western-style specialized institution offering politics, economics, law and other subjects. The Nanyang College was renamed Nanyang Industrial College (nanyang gaodeng shiye xuetang) in 1905 and then Nanyang University (nanyang daxuetang) in 1911. In 1898, Emperor Guangxu ordered to found the Imperial University (jingshi daxuetang, the predecessor of Peking University) in Beijing. It had general divisions (required for all students) and special divisions (where students chose one or two subjects). It expanded into a larger institution in 1909 with eight subjects: classics, literature, politics & law, engineering, agriculture, business, medicine and science (gezhi). Public HEIs in the late Qing Dynasty consisted of public universities, provincial colleges of higher education, provincial specialized colleges, private institutions and missionary institutions. In 1909, there were only three public universities (Imperial University, Beiyang University and Shanxi University), 24 provincial colleges of higher education and 127 provincial specialized colleges. In the latter two types of HEIs, there were a total of 26,938 students in 1909. In addition, there were some private and missionary institutions; in 1911, for example, there were more than 10 missionary institutions (Gu, 2008: 19).

8 1 History of Higher Education

1.2.3 Modern higher education in the Republic of China (19111949) Modern higher education continued its development with several important adjustments over the period of the Republic of China (RC) (19111949). The entire period was generally classified into three developmental phases: the period of the Nanjing Interim Government (1912), the period of the Northern Warlords (Beiyang Warlords) (19121928) and the period of the National Government (19271949). The measures taken in 1912 by the temporary government for educational change set the tone for higher education development in the succeeding years. They included the new Renzi Guizi School System promoted by Yuanpei Cai, the Minister of Education, the promulgation of the University Ordinance and the Specialized College Ordinance, and the permission given to establish private universities and specialized colleges, except private normal colleges. During the second period, some progresses were still made, though it was a tough time of frequent wars. The Amendment to University Ordinance (1917), the Renxu School System (1917), and the Statute (1924) were issued. In 1925, there were 58 specialized colleges. In 1927, there were 34 public universities, including 24 national universities and 10 provincial universities, and 18 private universities approved by the Ministry of Education (MOE) of the RC as a result of another rising tide of interest in private universities (Yang, 2006: 46-47). During the last period under the control of Kuomintang (KMT), a series of new statutes and regulations were released by the MOE of the RC: the Faculty Qualifications Statute (1927), the University Establishment Act (1929), the University Regulations (1929), the Specialized College Regulations (1929), the Specialized College Establishment Act (1929), the Amendments to Specialized College Regulations (1931), the Establishment Regulations for Research Institutes at Universities (1934), the Degrees Conferment Act (1935), etc. Detailed specifications on major issues like purposes, establishment benchmarks and management of higher education were laid down. However, many of them were not enforced because of endless wars. During the period of the Revolutionary War (19241949), in the regions under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC), a great number of different but unique HEIs came into existence. The institutions such as the Sino-French University (1925), the University of the Chinese Workers’ and Peasants’ Red Army (1933), the Chinese People’s Anti-Japanese Military and Political University (1936), and the School of the CPC Central Committee (1942) were characterized by the CPC’s educational ideals. They trained political, military, economic and cultural workforces for the CPC’s revolutionary war, emphasizing the link between theory

9 Higher Education in China

and practice, political attitudes, and well-rounded individual personalities (with high qualities in moral, intellectual and physical aspects) in terms of training objectives. Unlike the universities in the regions under the control of KMT, they were just specialized colleges. In 1949, there were 205 HEIs throughout the country, including 49 universities, 28 technological institutions, 61 private institutions, and 21 missionary institutions (Yu, 1994: 3). Table 1.2 provides a snapshot of HEIs in China in 1947, by their types, number of faculty members, students, and graduates. Table 1.3 offers a chronological profile about the growth of different types of HEIs and their faculty, students, and graduates, from 1912 to 1946.

Table 1.2 Profile of HEIs across China in 1947

Number of Number of Number of Number of HEIs faculty students graduates Types of HEIs Total 207 20,133 155,036 25,089 National 74 12,775 81,153 14,852 Provincial/City’s 54 2,276 15,727 2,708 Private 79 5,102 58,156 7,538 University 55 12,124 93,398 16,656 National 31 9,345 62,257 12,160 Private 24 2,779 31,141 44,496 Independent 75 5,159 42,346 5,134 National 23 2,318 13,576 1,882 Provincial 21 1,206 8,188 977 Private 31 1,635 20,582 2,275 4-year institutions 77 2,850 19,292 3,308 National 20 1,092 5,320 810 Provincial 33 1,070 7,539 1,732 Private 24 688 6,433 767

Source: (He, 1999: 288).

10 1 History of Higher Education

11 Higher Education in China

1.3 Contemporary Higher Education in China

1.3.1 Higher education in the early years of the PRC (19491966) The People’s Republic of China (PRC) was founded in 1949. Between 1949 and 1966, higher education in China underwent two different periods of transition4one, between 1949 and 1957, known as the period of “rebuilding for socialism” and the other, between 1958 and 1966, known as the period of “overall socialism construction”. During the period of rebuilding for socialism, the old educational system adopted by KMT in Old China, which was regarded ideologically outdated and destructive, was abolished from the very start. Public and private HEIs in Old China were taken over and private institutions were renamed as public ones. Those institutions supported by foreign funds or foreign organizations were either cancelled or reorganized. In 1950, the MOE of the PRC issued several educational documents, such as the Provisional Regulations for HEI, the Provisional Regulations for Higher Specialized College, and the Decision on Leadership in HEI. In the same year, the State Council of the PRC issued the Decision on School System Reform, a piece of document on the policy of the new national school system. All these new documents signified the beginning of the formal transition of higher education from old forms to new ones. In the context of rebuilding a new republic of socialism, an extensive adjustment of HEIs and departments was initiated in 1952, which fundamentally changed the course of Chinese higher education in many ways. The adjustment was implemented on the basis of the educational model that was prevalent in the Soviet Union. In practice, it copied the Soviet higher education system under the slogan “follower of Soviet Union” in a radical and revolutionary way, which was to influence the development of Chinese higher education in many aspects over the next decades. During the period of “overall socialism construction”, higher education in the PRC progressed steadily. After 1961, the guideline of “adjustment, consolidation, enrichment and enhancement” was carried out in Chinese higher education, leading to the normalization of the entire higher education enterprise. In September 1961, the well-known Provisional Ordinances for HEIs Directly under the MOE of the PRC was ratified by the CPC Central Committee. In some sense, the ordinances facilitated the institutional development of major HEIs in the early years of the 1960s.

1.3.2 Higher education during the “Cultural Revolution” (19661976) During the period of the “Cultural Revolution”, Chinese higher education was completely destroyed. All sorts of vicious things were allowed to take place in the field of higher education: abandonment of the existing system and established

12 1 History of Higher Education practices; spreading of cultural and educational nihilism; destruction of institutional leadership, preaching anarchism; denial of culture, modern scientific knowledge and advanced research, willful attack and wanton torture of scholars, intellectuals and teachers who did not espouse revolutionary thoughts; exaggerating students’ role in universities, mobilizing them to “enter college, control college and reframe college”; preaching one-sided pragmatism; destruction of library books, documents, research data, scientific instruments and equipment. All these mindless acts of violence and destruction had a catastrophic effect on higher education in the PRC.

1.3.3 Higher education in the new era (since 1978) Chinese higher education has changed dramatically since 1978. The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC was held in December 1978, setting off policies of reform and opening-up to the outside world. It initiated a renewal of Chinese higher education enterprise and brought about a wide range of reforms in Chinese higher education over a long period of time. In the context of renewal and reforms, a variety of new national policies were made by the central government, which fundamentally changed the landscape of Chinese higher education in contemporary times. In 1977, the Unified National College Entrance Examination was formally resumed. One year later, the National Conference on Science and the National Conference on Education were held. In 1983, the MOE of the PRC hosted the National Conference on Higher Education Work. Two years later, the historic educational policy, the Decision on the Reform of the Education System was formally issued by the CPC Central Committee, which virtually began a brand new chapter of the Chinese educational reform. In this document, several key policies of great importance regarding Chinese higher education reform were made; for example, the reform of admission and recruitment system, the reform of college graduates’ employment system, greater institutional autonomy, etc. In the same document, the principle of managing HEIs at differing levels was further defined, that is, a three-tier administrative system (the central ministry, the provincial government and the regional city) was introduced. In 1986, the Provisional Regulation on Responsibilities for Administrating Regular HEIs was promulgated by the State Council of the PRC, which detailed the specific administrative responsibilities of the governments at central, provincial and regional levels. In the early 1990s, Chinese higher education moved forward under the new environments of the market economy. Unlike the past decades, it began to be driven

Regular HEIs are in contrast to adult HEIs in China. For simplification, HEI in the text means regular HEIs, unless otherwise indicated.

13 Higher Education in China

by market forces as opposed to planned forces (the state/central government forces). In October 1992, the market influence came into force in various areas in the PRC, including the education enterprise. At the end of that year, the goals of Chinese higher education reform and development in the 1990s were put forward at the National Conference on Higher Education Work: “larger size, higher quality, optimized structure and improved effectiveness” (Hao & Long, 2000: 480). In 1993, another influential document on Chinese education, the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development was issued by the central government. Although it covered the education enterprise at all educational levels, it highlighted two important issues in terms of higher education: quality-oriented development of higher education, and deeper systemic reform of higher education. The “emphasis” and “core” of the systemic reform of higher education were clearly identified. The emphasis of systematic reform centered on the improvement of three sets of relationships for the purpose of establishing a healthy higher education system where the government would supervise at macro level and HEIs would operate with more autonomy in response to societal needs. The three sets of relationships included the relationship between the government and the HEIs, the one between the central government and provincial governments, and the one between the State Education Commission (SEDC, the previous MOE) and the various central ministries. The core of the systematic reform was to provide “greater institutional autonomy” to HEIs and encourage “autonomous institutional operation in response to societal needs”. In 1995, the notable “211 Project” was sponsored by the SEDC, which was aimed at supporting the development of 100 major universities throughout the country to make them reach world-class level of scholarship and quality by the 21st century. The Master Plan of the “211 Project” issued in 1995 brought forward the general goals, main tasks and related requirements of the project. The first group of major universities approved by the State Planning Commission to join the “211 Project” in the same year included the Peking University, the and some other top universities in the PRC. The central government earmarks funds for the HEIs included in the project. At the end of 1997, an inter-ministerial coordinating task force on the “211 Project” was created by the State Council of the PRC to supervise the operation of the project. In 2007, there were a total of 107 HEIs supported by the “211 Project” funds. In May 1998, in a famous address during the centennial celebration of the founding of Peking University, President of the PRC proposed that “China needs to build a group of leading universities with world class characteristics in order to realize the modernization of the country”. Shortly after this, the central

14 1 History of Higher Education government started the project of establishing world class universities, which was called the “985 Project” later. Between 1999 and 2006, the MOE (the previous SEDC between 1985 and 1998) finished signing a series of cooperative agreements with some provincial or municipal governments on developing first-class universities, covering 33 major universities across the country. According to the agreements, these major universities were to be jointly funded by the central government and the provincial or municipal governments. The designated government funding for the “985 Project” exceeded that of the “211 Project”. Between 1999 and 2006, a total of 34 HEIs were approved by the MOE to join the elite club of the “985 Project”. In August 1998, the first Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (hereafter referred to as the Higher Education Law) was passed by the National People’s Congress (NPC, the national legislative body of the PRC). As a legal product of the past developmental experience of Chinese higher education, it identified the directions for Chinese higher education reform and development in the 21st century. In January 1999, the State Council of the PRC formally approved the Action Plan for Vitalizing Education for the 21st Century framed by the MOE. According to the Action Plan, the enrollment rate of higher education was to reach 11 percent by 2000 and be close to 15 percent by 2010. Besides, a few major universities and a group of academic disciplines were expected to reach the highest level and quality in academia in the world (MOE, 1999). At the beginning of the 21st century, Chinese higher education witnessed a period of unprecedented expansion. Started in 1999, the expansion has quickly moved Chinese higher education from the elite phase to the mass phase in just a few years. In 2002, the gross enrollment rate of higher education reached 15 percent for the first time. There were 25 million college students in Chinese HEIs of various types in 2006, which literally outnumbered the size of college students in the US. In 2006, universities and colleges recruited a total of 5.4 million new students, five times the total number in 199841.08 million (Zhou, 2007). The gross enrollment rate of higher education increased from 11.5 percent in 2000 to 21 percent in 2005, and it was projected to reach 25 percent in 2010 as shown in China’s Eleventh Five- Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development (Central People’s Government, 2006). Designed by 31 provincial, municipal, and autonomous regional governments in Mainland China, all the eleven five-year plans for local economic and social development listed the specific gross enrollment rates of higher education in 2005 or 2010 (see Table 1.4). However, the PRC started to control the excessive growth of enrollments in 2006 and to focus its efforts on improving the quality, not simply on increasing

15 Higher Education in China

quantity, of higher education any longer. A wide range of concrete measures taken by the MOE of the PRC include assessing of teaching nationwide, developing 1,500 brand-name courses in colleges and universities across Mainland China, setting up a large number of national model teaching bases and national model teaching centers of foundation courses, advancing bilingual teaching and recruiting outstanding faculty from abroad, encouraging full professors to participate in teaching foundation courses, and selecting and honoring outstanding national model teachers as well.

Table 1.4 The Gross Enrollment Rates in 31 Administrative Divisions across Mainland China in 2005 and 2010

Municipality*/Province/ Estimated 2005 (%) 2010 (%) Autonomous region ranking in 2010 Shanghai 55 (2004) 60 1 Beijing 53 60 1 Tianjin N 60 1 Zhejiang 34 45 4 Jiangsu 34 40 5 Liaoning N 38 6 Jilin N 35 7 N 30 8 N 30 8 Hubei 25 30 8 Shaanxi 22 (2004) 30 8 Guangdong 22 28 12 Shanxi 21 28 12 Shandong N 26 14 Fujian 19 25 15 N 25 15 Anhui N 25 15 Jiangxi 21 25 15 Nei Monggol 20 25 15 Hunan N 25 15 Ningxia 19 25 15 Xinjiang 18 N 22 Henan 17 23 23 Hebei N 23 23 Hainan 15 20 25 Qinghai 15 20 25 15 20 25 Yunnan N 18 28 Guangxi 15 N 29 Guizhou N 15 30 Tibet 11 (2004) N 31

Notes: * the current Municipalities of the PRC are Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai and Chongqing. ** N stands for no exact figure. Source: (Shang, 2008).

16

22 Structure of Higher Education

2.1 Forms

2.1.1 Form of higher education Compared with many developed countries, the diversification of educational form in China’s higher education emerged rather late. Prior to 1949, the form of education had been very simple. After the founding of the PRC in 1949, a wide range of non- formal types of higher education developed rapidly, such as the Workers’ University, the Amateur University of Workers, the Peasants’ University, Colleges of Education, Teachers’ College, College of Administrative Cadres, Radio and TV University, Correspondence Department and Evening School within University, the University of the Elderly, and the National Self-Study Examination of Higher Education. The MOE issued a Pilot Scheme for the Self-Study Examination of Higher Education in 1980. In the following year, implementation of the scheme started throughout the country. This unique form of learning has been very popular in China for decades, making great contributions to the development of the higher education enterprise. On the whole, China’s non-formal higher education has developed dramatically since the 1980s. According to the 2007 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise released by the MOE in April 2008, there were a total of 413 adult HEIs with 5,241,600 total enrollments, 1,911,100 freshmen, and 1,764,400 graduates in the year of 2007. Moreover, there were a total of 9,562,700 persons registered for the National Self-Study Examination of Higher Education and 542,300 participants obtained graduation certificates in the same year (MOE, 2008a). Both formal and non-formal learning play their respective roles in the higher education system. The former plays a leading role and the latter a supporting role in meeting the social and personal needs of higher education. One single form of learning alone cannot fully satisfy the complex and diverse needs of individual learners. Compared with the formal system of higher education, non-formal higher Higher Education in China

education has more flexible modes of organization, shorter cycle of learning, easier access to learning, lower tuition fees, greater emphasis on practical knowledge and skills in the educational process, and larger class size, etc. However, there have been weaknesses in non-formal higher education, such as poor educational facilities and conditions, lower quality of teaching, and narrow specialty or subject coverage, etc. In recent years, the process of development in China’s non-formal higher education has shown the following directions: (1) to establish a more flexible operating mechanism between formal and non-formal higher education and to enhance both the correlation and complementarities of the two forms of education by way of more rational coordination and planning; (2) to enhance the quality of non- formal learning by improving the assessment criteria, perfecting teaching conditions and optimizing educational resources; (3) to expand the size of non-formal learning in regular HEIs (in contrast to adult HEIs) by making full use of the institutional resources and advantages in order to absorb more students to attend evening schools, correspondence departments and long-distance learning classes; (4) to facilitate the development of non-formal higher education in the corporate sector through initiating or expanding on-the-job training system in large and medium-sized enterprises.

2.1.2 Form of ownership The form of ownership of higher education in modern and contemporary China has not shown a developmental continuum like in many other countries since 1840s. Private higher education was completely abandoned shortly after the founding of the PRC. From the 1950s to the early 1980s, private HEIs which were in existence for over half a century were all replaced by public ones. Public HEIs were fundamentally state-owned or government-owned institutions from then on. In the early 1980s, higher education reform in China began to break out of governmental monopoly by going beyond the boundary of public education. A new system of higher education gradually emerged, in which both government-owned institutions and non-government-owned ones coexisted in one single national system. The 1982 Constitution of the PRC stipulated that “the state encourages collective economic organizations, state-owned enterprises, public enterprises and social forces to participate in the education enterprise in accordance with the law” (NPC, 1982). In the form of the Basic Law, it ratified explicitly the legitimacy of private education including private higher education. As a result, social or non-collective forces (similar to private forces in many other countries), as part of the growth of non- government forces in the wider society since the 1980s, started to reshape the

18 2 Structure of Higher Education developmental pathway of private higher education. In 1993, the Provisional Regulations on the Establishment of Private Colleges and Universities promulgated by the State Education Commission (SEDC) formally acknowledged private higher education as “an integral part of China’s higher education”. In 2002, the Private Education Promotion Law was released. Two years later, the implementation regulations on the Law was issued. Due to the gradual deregulation of government policies and the growing enthusiasm of the masses for private education, from the beginning of the 21st century private colleges and universities have become an important part of the entire higher education enterprise, furthering the massification of higher education in China. According to the 2007 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise released in April 2008 by the MOE, in the year 2007, a total of 4,370,300 students enrolled in 1,575 private HEIs, most of whom enrolled in two main types of private HEIs (private colleges and universities, and independent colleges). There is a third type, roughly classified as “other types”, which is a mixture of 960 small-sized institutions recruiting only 873,400 students in total (see Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Private Higher Education in China in 2007

Number of students Number of Specialized Students in private Undergraduate Subtotal education other forms of HEIs students students education Private colleges & 297 211,200 1,410,000 223,600 1,630,700 universities Independent 318 1,656,800 209,400 8,700 1,866,200 colleges Other types 960 N N N 873, 400 Total 1,575 1,868,000 1,619,400 232,300 4,370,300

Note: * N stands for no figure. Source: MOE, 2008a.

Currently, the vast majority of private colleges and universities in China set an institutional objective of training market-oriented and practice-based manpower. Private HEIs in China are primarily tertiary vocational and technical colleges or short-cycle colleges with a great emphasis on knowledge application and vocational skills. In recent years, the development of private higher education has been facing a

The SEDC replaced the MOE between 1985 and 1998.

19 Higher Education in China

number of key challenges, such as: (1) a lack of understanding of some fundamental problems in private higher education, for example, the specific relationship between public and private higher education, the status of private higher education, the relationship between institutional autonomy and necessary social constraints on institutions, the coordination between governmental intervention and market regulation, the lasting contradiction between the public good of private institutions and the maximization of profits of private investments in private higher education, and so on; (2) an incomplete and inadequate management system where the needs of promoting private higher education are not easy to meet, for example, the oversimplified means of management, the lack of a separate body responsible for managing private higher education at local governmental level, and so on; (3) a variety of problems which have existed within private HEIs for long4for example, the limited educational conditions and resources for running the institutions, lower educational levels affecting the growth of competitiveness of the institutions, inadequacy of academic strengths, lower level of internal management of the institutions, poor qualities of the enrollments, too frequent change of faculty members, and so on. In reality, most of the problems are closely related to these institutions’ competition with public HEIs.

2. 2 Levels

According to the Higher Education Law issued in 1998, both the basic duration of study and the academic standards at the three levels of higher education vary. In terms of the basic duration of study, specialized higher education takes two or three years, undergraduate education takes four to five years, and postgraduate education takes two to four years respectively. At the postgraduate level, a master’s degree usually requires two to three years, while a doctoral degree takes three to four years. In terms of the academic standard, there are different emphases at different levels. Students’ basic skills and primary capabilities related to work should be developed at the level of specialized higher education; students’ primary capabilities to conduct research should be developed at the level of undergraduate education; the focus of master’s education is on requiring students to fully master elementary theories in a certain discipline, integrated specialized knowledge, some related skills, methods and knowledge, and the capabilities to conduct both professional work and research work as well; and the emphasis of doctoral education is on students’ capabilities to engage in both professional work and original research work (NPC, 1998: Article 16-17). The first school system of the PRC, Decision to Reform the School System

20 2 Structure of Higher Education

(1951), stipulated that “universities, colleges and specialized colleges” are HEIs in China; “universities and colleges should set up graduate divisions” to train faculty and researchers. From the early 1950s through the late 1980s, China’s higher education had a notable feature: graduate students and specialized higher education students accounted for an extremely low proportion of the total higher education enrollments, while undergraduate students made up a very high proportion of the total. This structural feature of higher education was even called a phenomenon of “one large middle division and two small ends”. The middle division was undergraduate education. The two small ends included specialized higher education at the lower end, and graduate education at the upper end. In 1989, the ratio of undergraduate students to specialized education students in regular HEIs was 100 : 58 and the ratio of undergraduate students to postgraduate students stood at 100 : 7 (Xu, 1995: 186). As a result, graduates with advanced degrees and specialized higher education diplomas had been insufficient on the labor market for a long time. In the early 1990s, China’s higher education structure started to change dramatically. Two pieces of educational documents issued by the MOE greatly affected the rapid growth of specialized education. They were the Proposals on Strengthening Regular Specialized Education (1991) and the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development (1993). In three consecutive years, from 1992 to 1994, the total number of freshmen at specialized higher education level exceeded the total number of freshmen at undergraduate education level each year. In 1994, the total enrollments at specialized higher education level reached 1,281,700, accounting for 45.8 percent of those at the levels of undergraduate and specialized higher education. From 2000 to 2004, the total enrollments at specialized higher education level increased sharply, rising from 2,160,800 in 2000 to 5,956,500 in 2004. Over the years, the proportion of the total enrollments at specialized higher education level to those at the levels of undergraduate and specialized higher education increased from 38.9 percent in 2000 to 44.7 percent in 2004 (Li, 2005: 189 & 196). Thus, the aforementioned phenomenon of “one large middle division and two small ends” practically disappeared. Moreover, the number of entrants in short-cycle programs exceeded those in regular programs in 2007, as indicated in Table 2.2. On the other hand, postgraduate education in China also made great progress in the past few years. According to the guidelines of the MOE, graduate schools within the institutions had been established in 55 Chinese HEIs by the year of 2000. The growth rate of both entrants and the total enrollments of postgraduate education increased remarkably in the past few years. The number of entrants at the postgraduate level increased from 72, 500 in 1998 to 364,800 in 2005, showing an

21 Higher Education in China

increase rate of 403 percent; over the same period, the total enrollments rose from 198,900 in 1998 to 978,600 in 2005, showing an increase rate of 392 percent (Ji, 2006: 2). As indicated in Table 2.2, the size of postgraduate student population in China grew even larger in 2007; the number of entrants rose to 397,925 and the total enrollments rose to 1,104,653 in 2007.

Table 2.2 Data on the Number of Students in Regular HEIs in 2007

Entrants Anticipated Degrees graduates Graduates Autumn Spring Enrollments awarded Total for next session session year Postgraduates 255,902 247,793 397,925 217,455 N 1,104,653 365,197 Doctoral 36,247 33,305 55,955 20,677 N 208,038 85,241 degrees Master’s 219,655 214,488 341,970 196,778 N 896,615 279,956 degrees Regular & short-cycle 3,774,708 1,565,549 5,460,530 4,974,290 18581 17,388,441 4,587,743 programs Regular 1,726,674 1,565,549 2,530,854 2,234,518 1696 9,433,395 2,056,794 programs Short-cycle 2,048,034 N 2,929,676 2,739,772 16885 7,955,046 2,530,949 programs Regular & short-cycle 815,163 51,663 1,844,431 284,878 N 5,248,765 1,788,161 programs in adult HEIs Regular 218,303 51,663 777,677 100,788 N 2,120,297 680,610 programs Short-cycle 596,860 N 1,066,754 184,090 N 3,128,468 1,107,551 programs

Note: *N stands for no figure. Source: (MOE, 2007b).

At present, there are three main issues concerning the levels of China’s higher education: (1) to continue with the gradual expansion of higher education at the three levels, promoting the massification of China’s higher education; (2) to restructure the relationships between the three levels so as to better adjust to the increasingly changing needs of the labor market (the manpower demands of high, medium and low levels); (3) to focus on shaping the features of specialized higher education or short-cycle higher education as a unique educational level, to expand education leading to professional degrees, and to improve the quality of doctoral degrees.

22 2 Structure of Higher Education

2.3 Disciplines

After the founding of the PRC, the restructuring of Chinese higher education started to follow the Soviet Union model. From then on, Chinese higher education embarked on training high-level specialized manpower for meeting the needs of economic development, particularly the development needs of a variety of industries in new China. Owing to the influential 19511953 adjustment of colleges and departments in numerous Chinese HEIs, some main characteristics took form in the structure of disciplines in the 1950s and remained unchanged until the late 1970s. These characteristics included an overemphasis on engineering disciplines; too many classifications of engineering disciplines with too narrow specialties within each classification; within institutions, direct and clear separations of disciplines between science and engineering, between science and agriculture, and between science and medicine; neglect of some disciplines (e.g., finance and economics, political science and law, etc.); and the abolition of politics, sociology, psychology, anthropology and some other disciplines, for ideological reasons. In the 1980s, economic factors started to affect the structure of disciplines in Chinese HEIs. Some disciplines like finance and economics, political science and law developed again and the number of specialties within these disciplines increased gradually. Since the 1990s, the structure of disciplines in China has undergone dramatic changes. Categories of disciplines and types of specialties within disciplines have returned to normal. The government had issued a General Catalog of Specialties in HEIs in 1963, unifying all institutions’ specialties for the first time. The Catalog was revised twice, in 1987 and 1993. The 1993 General Catalog of Undergraduate Fields of Study in HEIs covered 10 categories of disciplines (Level I). Under Level I, there were 71 specialties (Level II) in total. Under Level II there were a total of 504 programs. A new General Catalog of Undergraduate Fields of Study in HEIs was officially promulgated by the MOE in 1998. In 1999, all HEIs started to follow this new catalog which had 11 categories of disciplines, namely, philosophy, economics, law, education, literature, history, science, engineering, agriculture, medicine and administration. Administration was added as a new category of discipline in 2001. Compared with the 1993 Catalog, in the 1998 Catalog, physical education was classified under the discipline of education; art under literature; forestry under agriculture; teacher training was classified under such disciplines as education, literature, history and science. More importantly, there were still 71 specialties at Level II, but below Level II there were only a total of 249 programs. The decrease rate literally reached 50.6 percent (“A Great Event”, 1998). The categories of

23 Higher Education in China

disciplines at the specialized higher education level had not been established until 2004. The MOE promulgated a guiding catalog of fields of study for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education (Pilot Scheme) for the first time in 2004. Prior to this, the classification of disciplines, and specialties within disciplines, had been chaotic at the level of specialized higher education. By and large, it was common to see short-cycle and higher vocational and technical colleges completely imitating and directly adopting the classification of disciplines at the undergraduate level. From 1998 to 2004, the growth of freshmen admissions to the institutions’ differing categories of disciplines was very fast. Several striking features could be found in the growth process: (1) the total number of entrants in social science disciplines increased at a higher rate than that in natural science and technology disciplines; (2) the growth rate of entrants in engineering disciplines took the lead; (3) the growth rate of entrants in humanities was not high and did not climb radically; the number of entrants in agriculture declined sharply; (4) the uneven proportion of the entrants for social science disciplines and natural science disciplines changed noticeably, and the ratio of the total entrants in social science disciplines to natural science disciplines changed from 1:1.64 in 1998 to 1:1.07 in 2004; (5) the proportion of the total entrants in applied science disciplines increased, and the ratio of the total entrants in applied science disciplines to basic science disciplines changed from 2.88:1 in 1998 to 2.98:1 in 2004 (Xie, Wen & Li, 2007: 49-50, 59 & 61). The updated development in the structure of disciplines in Chinese regular HEIs is shown in Tables 2.3, 2.4 and 2.5. Tables 2.3 and 2.4 show the number of specialties and educational programs and the number of students across 11 categories of disciplines in 2007. Table 2.5 shows the number of engineering students across 21 specialties within engineering disciplines in 2007. Currently, the adjustment of the structure of the disciplines in China’s higher education is facing the following problems: (1) adjusting the proportion of disciplines in social sciences, the humanities, sciences and engineering according to the demands of the market, and adjusting the ratio of applied science disciplines to basic science disciplines; (2) further expanding the scope and number of the applied science specialties (e.g., IT, life sciences) and their programs, greatly satisfying the growing market needs of manpower in such popular, “hot” disciplines and specialties; (3) carrying on the periodic review of disciplines and specialties in an effort to reduce redundant configuration of disciplines in HEIs.

24 2 Structure of Higher Education

25 Higher Education in China

26 2 Structure of Higher Education

Table 2.5 Number of Engineering Students by Subfield of Study in Regular HEIs in 2007

Graduates Entrants Enrollments Total 1,301,226 1,995,634 6,005,229 Applied Geology 13,163 33,298 89,399 Materials Science 27,878 43,880 147,458 Mechanical Engineering 170,392 367,912 1,027,633 Instrument & Meter 10,935 15,797 57,059 Thermal & Nuclear Energy 14,910 22,158 73,494 Electronics & Information 711,412 912,063 2,811,167 Civil engineering & Architecture 120,394 205,199 620,192 Hydraulics 13,077 17,984 59,035 Survey & Measure 6,758 14,033 38,343 Environment & Safety 32,022 36,908 127,303 Chemical engineering & Pharmaceutics 39,516 82,654 229,748 Transportation 57,799 105,173 288,524 Oceanic 1,104 2,212 7,402 Light Industry, Textile & Food 45,185 85,690 252,643 Aeronautics & Astronautics 2,461 3,737 13,421 Weaponry 1,716 2,850 10,611 Engineering Mechanics 2,310 3,225 11,680 Biotechnology 22,679 30,083 101,846 Agriculture Engineering 4,687 5,178 20,040 Forestry Engineering 1,584 2,552 8,591 Public Security Technology 1,244 3,048 9,640

Source: (MOE, 2007b).

2. 4 Categories of Institutions

According to the Higher Education Law (1998), universities, separately-established colleges, and specialized colleges were three categories of HEIs in China: undergraduate education and postgraduate education were offered in universities and separately-established colleges; and specialized education was offered in specialized colleges. Table 2.6 shows the number of regular HEIs in China in 2007. There were a total of 1867 regular HEIs, of which 1,147 were short-cycle colleges (traditionally called specialized colleges in China for decades and currently called vocational and technical colleges in most cases), and 720 were universities and colleges (the institutions awarding advanced degrees and baccalaureate degrees).

27 Higher Education in China

Table 2.6 Number of Regular HEIs in 2007

Universities & Short-cycle Total colleges colleges

Total 1,867 720 1,147 Comprehensive University 417 150 267 Natural Sciences & Technology 666 193 473 Agriculture 75 33 42 Forestry 18 6 12 Medicine & Pharmacy 128 77 51 Teacher Training 178 122 56 Language & Literature 36 14 22 Finance & Economics 172 50 122 Political Science & Law 67 20 47 Physical Culture 27 14 13 Art 68 29 39 Ethnic Nationality 15 12 3 Non-state/Private Colleges 276 29 247

Source: (MOE, 2007b).

In addition to the above basic classification commonly assigning HEIs to three categories, there have been some other types of classification framework. In general, Chinese HEIs can be classified on the basis of different standards of classification. Two types of classifications are described in the following section. One classification of HEIs is based on discipline coverage and the other is based on functions of institutions. They both classify HEIs into three categories respectively.

2.4.1 Discipline-based categories: single-discipline institutions, multidisciplinary institutions, and comprehensive universities In the Middle Ages, the earliest universities in Italy and France originally were teaching institutions serving the professions based on a single subject. The University of Bologna at first was only a law school, the University of Salerno was a medical school, and the University of Paris only had theology at the beginning. In modern times, many countries still retain a number of unique, single-discipline-based professional institutions. In China, there are a number of single-discipline-based professional institutions, for instance, the Central Academy of Fine Arts (Beijing), the China National Academy of Fine Arts (Hangzhou), and the Beijing Film Academy. The 1951 Decision to Reform the School System of the PRC proposed three categories of HEIs following the Soviet Union’s school system: universities, colleges

28 2 Structure of Higher Education and specialized colleges. The three categories of institutions were required to provide students with specialized higher education, thus building a pool of high-level manpower for the state. In the course of the 19511953 adjustment of colleges and departments, a great number of colleges of engineering and comprehensive universities became the focus of the adjustment. As a result, while retaining a small number of liberal-arts-intensified universities, a large number of single-discipline- based colleges were established, the majority of which were virtually colleges of engineering. Since then, comprehensive universities, single discipline or multidisciplinary colleges, and specialized colleges constituted the three categories of institutions in China. While there were a total of 49 comprehensive universities in 1949, only 14 were left in 1953 (Qu, 1993: 645; Yu, 1994: 3). The structure with too many single discipline institutions and engineering institutions made an oversimplified separation among social science disciplines, natural science disciplines and engineering disciplines. Moreover, a model of manpower training which tended to overspecialization was formed in China and it lasted for nearly half a century, until the late 1990s. From the 1970s to the late 1990s, China’s higher education underwent restoration, new readjustment and development, but the fundamental problem of the established structure remained the same: too many single discipline institutions and too few comprehensive universities. In 1997, there were a total of 1,022 HEIs in China, most of which (950) were still single discipline or multidisciplinary institutions, and only 72 were comprehensive universities (Min, 2002: 653). In the late 1990s, China started to re-establish a number of comprehensive universities and initiate a reform toward comprehensive development within most HEIs. Through the merger of institutions, the collaboration between institutions and other operating forms, a variety of comprehensive universities (in the true sense of the Western type of university) were reshaped in the end, such as the new Zhejiang University and . Meantime, Peking University, Tsinghua University, , and some other famous universities underwent a restructuring process in view of becoming more comprehensive than ever before, where several new colleges and departments were reorganized and key disciplines were strengthened within institutions. Soon a wide range of single discipline and multidisciplinary institutions, like these elite universities, began to move toward a more comprehensive development. This produced two results: a large number of regional multidisciplinary colleges emerged, replacing the previous single discipline institutions; and many multidisciplinary institutions widened their discipline coverage by creating new colleges or departments and expanding the scope of existing disciplines. As shown in Table 2.6, in 2007, there were a total of 1,867 HEIs

29 Higher Education in China

in China, of which 276 were non-state / private colleges and the remaining 1591 were state / public institutions. Of the total 1,591 state / public institutions, 417 were comprehensive universities, 666 were institutions of natural sciences and technology and almost all of them were virtually multidisciplinary ones, and just a small number were of single discipline such as agriculture, forestry, art, etc.

2.4.2 Function-based categories: teaching institutions, teaching-research institutions, and research universities In terms of the basic functions of HEIs, teaching as the primary function originated in the earliest universities in the Middle Ages; research as a function has played its role in HEIs since the founding of University of Berlin in 1810 and the new idea of “a combination of teaching and research”. Nowadays, HEIs across the globe generally position themselves on the basis of their basic functions. Therefore, categories of teaching institutions, teaching-research institutions, and research universities are easily found in different national higher education systems, each category of which reflects certain options of the institutions’ basic functions, foci of institutions’ missions, or specific tasks of the institutions’ actual operation. In reality, more subcategories can be classified. For instance, the category of teaching institutions can be further divided into two subcategories: teaching institutions at undergraduate level, and those at specialized higher education level. The 1993 Outlines of Educational Reform and Development required that “standards for classifying HEIs should be stipulated to make all categories of institutions identify their own division of roles and develop individual characteristics of each category” (CPC Central Committee & State Council, 1993). Thereafter, many researchers in academia attempted to classify Chinese HEIs. Two typical groupings were even classified by two scholars in 1996 and 2000. In 1996, Professor Luting Ma at the National Center for Educational Development and Research proposed four groupings, including research universities, teaching-research universities, teaching- oriented undergraduate institutions, and specialized/vocational colleges. In 2000, Jinggang Dai, an expert at the Division of HEIs Establishment of the MOE, suggested three groupings, including research universities, teaching institutions, and vocational and technical institutions (Ma, 2004: 6771). China’s classification of categories of institutions can be discussed in detail within the context of the recent restructuring of higher education concerning the basic groupings of institutions. In this respect, some related issues should be taken into account: (1) to carry on searching for a better classification framework so as to help all HEIs of various types across the country position themselves more clearly and

30 2 Structure of Higher Education more logically; (2) to control moderately the direction for a more comprehensive development in multidisciplinary institutions and comprehensive universities, avoiding the tendency to be too comprehensive, being small but complete; (3) to focus on shaping the uniqueness characteristics of each category; in particular, to steer categories of single discipline institutions and teaching institutions to move forward differentiating themselves from other categories as well as avoiding blind competition among categories; (4) to develop the category of Chinese research universities through the “985 Project” (see Tables 2.7 and 2.8), centering on creating a group of world-class, high-level universities.

Table 2.7 The First Group of “985 Project” Jointly Sponsored Key Universities

Date of signing the University Joint sponsors Sponsorship Agreement MOE(a) and Jiangsu Province Jul., 1999 Fudan University MOE and Shanghai City Jul., 1999 Shanghai Jiaotong MOE and Shanghai City Jul., 1999 University University of Science & Technology of CAS(b), MOE and Anhui Province Jul., 1999 China Xi’an Jiaotong MOE and Shaanxi Province Sep., 1999 University Zhejiang University MOE and Zhejiang Province Nov., 1999 Institute of COSTIND(c), MOE and Heilongjiang Nov., 1999 Technology Province MOE and Tianjin City Dec., 2000 Tianjin University MOE and Tianjin City Dec., 2000 MOE and Jiangsu Province Feb., 2001 Huazhong University MOE, Hubei Province and of Science & Feb., 2001 City Technology MOE and Jilin Province Feb., 2001 MOE, Fujian Province and Feb., 2001 City MOE and Hubei Province Feb., 2001 MOE and Shandong Province Feb., 2001 Ocean University of MOE, Shandong Province, SOA(d), Feb., 2001 China and City MOE and Hunan Province Feb., 2001 Central South MOE and Hunan Province Feb., 2001 University Beijing University of COSTIND, MOE and Beijing City Apr., 2001 Technology

31 Higher Education in China

(continued) Date of signing the University Joint sponsors Sponsorship Agreement University of MOE, Liaoning Province and Dalian Aug., 2001 Technology City Beijing University of Aeronautics & COSTIND, MOE and Beijing City Sep., 2001 Astronautics MOE and Chongqing City Sep., 2001 Sichuan University MOE and Sichuan Province Sep., 2001 University of MOE, Sichuan Province and Electronic Science & Sep., 2001 City Technology of China Zhongshan University MOE and Guangdong Province Oct., 2001 South China University of MOE and Guangdong Province Oct., 2001 Technology University MOE and Gansu Province Dec., 2001 MOE, Liaoning Province and Northeast University Jan., 2002 City Northwest COSTIND, MOE, Shaanxi Province Polytechnical Jan., 2002 and Xi’an City University MOE and Shanghai City Jun., 2002 Central University SEAC(e), MOE and Beijing City Jun., 2002 for Nationalities Beijing Normal MOE and Beijing City Aug., 2002 University Renmin University MOE and Beijing City Sep., 2003 of China

Notes: (1) MOE: Ministry of Education; (2) CAS: Chinese Academy of Sciences; (3) COSTIND: Commission of Science, Technology and Industry for National Defense; (4) SOA: State Oceanic Administration; (5) SEAC: State Ethnic Affair Commission. Source: (MOE, 2003a).

32 2 Structure of Higher Education

Table 2.8 The Second Group of “985 Project” Jointly Sponsored Key Universities

Date of signing the University Joint sponsors Sponsorship Agreement Chinese University of CAS(1), MOE(2) and Anhui Province Oct., 2004 Science & Technology Dalian University of MOE, Liaoning Province and Mar., 2005 Technology Dalian City Fudan University MOE and Shanghai City Jun., 2005 Shanghai Jiaotong MOE and Shanghai City Jun., 2005 University Tongji University MOE and Shanghai City Jun., 2005 Chongqing University MOE and Chongqing City Jul., 2005 Zhejiang University MOE and Zhejiang Province Jul., 2005 Shandong University MOE and Shandong Province Aug., 2005 Jilin University MOE and Jilin Province Aug., 2005 Zhongshan University MOE and Guangdong Province Sep., 2005 South China University MOE and Guangdong Province Sep., 2005 of Technology MOE and Gansu Province Apr., 2006 Nanjing University MOE and Jiangsu Province Sep., 2006 Southeast University MOE and Jiangsu Province Sep., 2006 Ocean University of MOE, Shandong Province, SOA(3) Dec., 2006 China and Qingdao City

Notes: (1) CAS: Chinese Academy of Sciences; (2) MOE: Ministry of Education; (3) SOA: State Oceanic Administration. Source: (MOE, 2007d).

33

33 Higher Education Management

3.1 The Ownership System

When the PRC was founded in 1949, there were a total of 205 HEIs in the regions controlled by the former government of the Republic of China (19111949), among which 124 were public, 21 were supported by foreign funding, and 60 were private (Yu, 1994:3). In 1952, the State Council of the PRC transformed all private and foreign funded HEIs into public ones. From 1952 to 1982, all HEIs in China were public HEIs owned by the state. Within the state, the ownership of HEIs was shared between the central and local governments. At the central level, the ownership of HEIs was shared among various central commissions and ministries, including the MOE. At the local level, the ownership of HEIs was controlled by the provincial governments or city governments at various periods of time. Since private HEIs emerged in China in the 1980s, non-government entities, including individuals, non- government organizations, and private businesses, have become owners of HEIs. Private HEIs are subject to regulation and administration by provincial governments. The ownership system of higher education is closely connected with the administrative system of higher education in China. The changes in the regular HEIs owned by the MOE, other central commissions and ministries and local governments reveal the shifting distribution of administrative and coordinating authorities among these organizations. A detailed analysis of the ownership system of higher education in different periods of time is provided in Section 3.2 in conjunction with an analysis of the administrative system.

3.2 The Administrative System

The administrative system of higher education concerns the distribution of administrative and coordinating powers among various constituents of the higher education system. The administrative authority of higher education in China is shared

Higher Education in China

between the government’s administrative departments of education and the HEIs. The government administrative departments of education in charge of higher education include the MOE and the education departments of other central commissions and ministries at the central level and the departments of education in 31 provinces (Municipalities and autonomous region). They represent the top two levels of administrative authority in the Chinese higher education system. The coordinating authority of higher education used to be held solely by the government administrative departments of education before the 1980s when there was no market economy in China. Since that time, higher education has been increasingly subjected to market forces.

3.2.1 Administration of higher education In reforming the administration of higher education in China, strategies of centralization and decentralization have proceeded simultaneously. These reforms concern the role and authority of the central and local governments and their relationships in the administration of higher education. Models of higher education administration in China have vacillated between centralization and decentralization since the founding of the PRC, as indicated in Table 3.1. Table 3.2 presents the number of HEIs administered by different central and local authorities at various periods of time. Each year’s data in Table 3.2 reflects a model of administration indicated in Table 3.1. For example, the 1955 data represents the centralized model of administration from 1952 to 1957.

Table 3.1 Models of Administration in Chinese Higher Education

Corresponding Periods Patterns sociopolitical events 19521957 Centralized leadership and administration Reconstruction 19581963 Decentralized local administration Unified central leadership and shared administration New Economic 19631965 between the central and local governments Construction 19661976 Decentralized local administration “Cultural Revolution” 19781985 Unified central leadership Post–1978 Reform Era Unified central leadership and shared administration 1985present between the central and provincial governments

36 3 Higher Education Management

Table 3.2 The Number of HEIs Administered by Different Authorities

1955 1958 1964 1976 1985 2006 MOE 6 - 38 73 227 251 Other central ministries 80 - 285 38 Local governments None 705 183 - 691 1756 Of total: private None None None None - *276 Total 227 791 434 392 1014 1867

Notes: *This number only refers to accredited private HEIs, excluding nearly 1,000 non- accredited private HEIs. Sources: 1955, 1958, & 1964 data were from NAEA, 1999, p.52-54; 1976 figure was from the MOE, 1985; 1985 data were from Hayhoe, 1989, p.167; and 2006 data were from the MOE, 2006b.

The administrative system of higher education between 1952 and 1957 was highly centralized. It was a model in which the central government monopolized decision-making authority for both macro administration of higher education and day-to-day operations of HEIs. At the central level, the administration of higher education was shared among various commissions and ministries. The State Administrative Council, the predecessor of the State Council from 1949 to 1954, passed the Decision on the Leadership in HEI in 1950, establishing the unified leadership of the MOE over all HEIs in China (NAEA, 1999). A separate Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) came into being from 1952 to 1958 (Su, 1991), due in part to the rapid expansion of higher education and the idea that higher education involved specialized professional training and should therefore be administered separately and independently of basic education (Su, 1991). In 1955, all of the 227 HEIs were directly administered by the MOE or other ministries and commissions such as the Ministry of Health or the State Ethnic Affairs Commission (Bie, 1995). The MOE shared the decision-making and administrative authority with other commissions and ministries. From 1958 to 1963, China shifted to a decentralized local administrative system for higher education. The Regulation for the Decentralization of the Administrative Authority of Education, which was passed in 1958, authorized local governments to make local education regulations and to revise and even to abolish educational regulations issued by the State Council or the MOE (Bie, 1995). In February 1958,

37 Higher Education in China

the MOE and MOHE merged to form a single MOE . At the same time, CPC committees were founded in every HEI which assumed the overall leadership. Apart from a few comprehensive universities and several short-cycle colleges with strong industrial orientations (i.e., agriculture and health), which remained under the control of the central government, other HEIs were delegated to local governments for administration. Among the 791 HEIs in 1958, only 86 were under the direct administration of the central government, including six administered by the MOE, while the rest of the 705 HEIs were administered by the local governments (NAEA, 1999: 52-54). In May 1963, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council issued the Decision on Unifying Management in the Higher Education System. This decision established a system that prioritized the unified leadership of the central government in the planning and administration of higher education, and mandated separate administration of HEIs at two levels: the central and the local (Xiao & He, 1996). As a result, the higher education administrative system changed to one in which there was unified central leadership by the MOE and shared administrative authority between the central and the local governments from 1963 to 1965. The MOHE was reestablished in December 1963 to administer higher education affairs, separate from the MOE. After the readjustment, 251 of the total 434 HEIs were under the direct administration of the MOE and other commissions and ministries in 1965 (NAEA, 1999: 52-54). The administration of higher education was in total disarray during the “Cultural Revolution” (1966 to 1976), with the abolition of the MOE, the MOHE, and all local administrative departments of education. From 1966 to 1970, there was an absence of normal education administration; while Revolutionary Committees made up of workers, peasants and soldiers at all levels ran most administrative affairs of the country’s educational institutions. In order to resume control over the development of education, a Science and Education Committee was formed under the State Council in July 1970 to oversee all levels and types of education at the

The MOE was formed in October 1949, and the Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) was formed and separated from the MOE in November 1952. In February 1958, the MOE and MOHE merged to form a single MOE. In December 1963, the MOE was once again separated into MOE and MOHE. Once again, in July 1966, the MOE and MOHE merged to form a single MOE, which was abolished shortly after. From late 1966 to July 1970, the central administration of education was in a void. In July 1970, the Science and Education Committee under the State Council took charge of national education administration until the re- establishment of the MOE in January 1975.

38 3 Higher Education Management central level until the restoration of the MOE in January 1975 (Yang, 2001). During the “Cultural Revolution”, all HEIs were closed from 1966 to 1969. When about 80 HEIs did reopen in July 1970 (Henze, 1984:105), they admitted students on the basis of class background and working experience, instead of academic competence. By the end of the “Cultural Revolution”, the central government reaffirmed the 1963 Decision on Unifying Management of the Higher Education System as correct and resumed the higher education administrative system. It was a unified central leadership by the MOE and shared administrative authorities between central and local governments in the administration of higher education from 1978 to 1985. The central government, especially the MOE, regained dominant authority in the planning and administration of higher education. Although the reconstructed administrative system of higher education introduced several important changes including a proposal for increasing the institutional autonomy of HEIs, it was still not adequate for HEIs to fulfill the demand of changing economic and social environments. There were constant calls by the academics and some government officials for further reforms in the entire higher education system in the direction of decentralizing the administration and increasing the institutional autonomy of HEIs.

3.2.2 Decentralization of higher education administration after 1985 Since 1985, the trend in the administration of Chinese higher education has been one of gradual delegation of decision-making authority and responsibility from the central government to provincial governments. This is evidenced by a series of important central policies issued at that time. These landmark policies include the Decision on the Reform of the Education System (1985), the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development (1993), and the Higher Education Law (1998). As part of the administrative decentralization which began in the 1980s, the government, especially the central government, withdrew from directly managing businesses and social institutions, including HEIs. The purpose was to change the government from being a service provider to being a service regulator and enable businesses and social institutions to operate independently and autonomously. The majority of central commissions and ministries other than the MOE have turned over the HEIs under their jurisdictions to the MOE or provincial governments. As a result, the authority of central commissions and ministries other than the MOE in planning and administering higher education has significantly diminished. The provincial governments have gained increasing authority in the planning and administration of

39 Higher Education in China

the local economy. This has enabled them to assume greater powers and responsibilities for the administration of higher education since 1985. The current higher education system in China was originally established during the 1950s. Higher education was organized along the lines of China’s six large geographical regions and major industrial sectors that were managed by central line ministries (ministries in charge of a particular line of business such as railway, construction, or agriculture, etc.) (Ding, 2001: 179). There were barriers to communication and cooperation among the vertically divided central commissions and ministries (63 at the highest point). There were also barriers to communication between the central ministries and provincial governments. These structural challenges contributed to the fragmentation of the Chinese higher education system into many self-contained mini-systems. Each mini-system was accountable only to the authority that administered it (Ding, 2001). The fragmentation of the higher education system led to serious and widespread duplication of institutions and academic programs, which resulted in too many graduates in some fields of study in some years and too few at other times. The Outlines of Educational Reform and Development (1993) and the Higher Education Law (1998) sought to solve this problem by establishing a two-tier administrative system of higher education consisting of the central and provincial governments and enhancing provincial governments’ decision-making powers over the HEIs under their jurisdiction. A system of funding HEIs at three levels consisting of the central, provincial, and local governments, but administering them at two levels appeared in the 1990s. Public HEIs in China can be established and funded by the central government, including the MOE, and other central commissions and ministries, or by provincial governments, or by city-level governments. However, only the central government and provincial governments have the authority to supervise them. Public HEIs established and managed by city-level governments are subjected to administration by provincial governments. The administrative authority over private HEIs is vested in provincial governments. Fig. 3.1 shows the administrative structure of regular higher education in China.

40 3 Higher Education Management

CPC Central Committee & State Council

NDRC & MOF

Dept. of Education in other MOE Central Ministries

Provincial Dept. of Public HEI Education Public HEI

Public HEI Private HEI

Fig. 3.1 Structure of the Higher Education Administrative System

Notes: The dotted lines indicate the flow of government planning and allocations for higher education. NDRC stands for the National Development and Reform Commission; MOF stands for the Ministry of Finance; Dept. stands for Department.

In the administration of regular higher education, policies, regulations, and laws enacted after 1985 have given provincial governments increasing powers over HEIs under their jurisdictions. The State Council issued the Provisional Regulation on Responsibilities for Administrating Regular HEIs in 1986. It provided provincial governments the following powers: (1) to establish, adjust, and close short-cycle academic programs; (2) to make annual and long-term admission plans for regular HEIs with the provincial planning department (with the approval of MOE) and assist in finding employment for graduates; (3) to organize collaboration and exchange among HEIs; (4) to appoint and remove the president and vice-presidents of provincial HEIs; (5) to carry out evaluation; and (6) to coordinate logistic services. The Higher Education Law granted provincial governmental additional authority to

The NDRC is a macroeconomic management agency under the State Council. It studies and formulates policies for economic and social development, maintains a balance of economic aggregates and guides the overall economic system restructuring. Its predecessor, the State Planning Commission (SPC) was founded in 1952, and was renamed as the State Development Planning Commission (SDPC) in 1998. After merging with the State Council Office for Restructuring the Economic System (SCORES) and part of the State Economic and Trade Commission (SETC) in 2003, the SDPC was restructured into the NDRC.

41 Higher Education in China

establish, adjust, or close short-cycle colleges under their jurisdiction. Private HEIs, regular or adult, have been under the administration of provincial bureaus of education from the beginning. The Private Education Promotion Law in 2002 gave provincial governments the legal right to administer private HEIs. The reform of the fiscal administration system in 1980 separated revenue and tax collection at two levels: the central and the provincial. Provincial governments have become responsible for government allocations for HEIs under their jurisdictions since 1985. They are also responsible for distributing national subsidies to HEIs under their jurisdictions and government financial assistance to students including national student loans. Due to enormous differences in the cost of living among different provinces, provincial governments have acquired the authority and responsibility to determine tuition and fees for all HEIs located in their provinces, including the centrally administered HEIs. The increase in the decision-making authority and control over most regular HEIs have made it possible for provincial departments of education to assume a principal role in the administration of regular HEIs, which has been an important objective of the education policies since the 1990s such as the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development and the Higher Education Law. The MOE continues to be responsible for the overall planning, policy guidance, organizational coordination, supervision and inspection, and service provision in the higher education system. The MOE has retained its authority in the establishment of universities, coordination and approval of admission plans for HEIs, in the supervision of special program funding, provision and management of information services, and in the control of finance, administration, and evaluation of the regular HEIs directly under its jurisdiction. Tables 3.3 to 3.5 illustrate the increase of responsibilities for the MOE and provincial governments in the administration of regular HEIs and the corresponding decrease of responsibilities for other central commissions and ministries after the 1990s.

Table 3.3 The Number of Regular HEIs Administered by Different Authorities in 1990 and 2006 (Unit:in person) 1990 2006 Increase % Other commissions & ministries 318 38 -88 MOE 36 73 103 Provincial governments 721 1,756 144 Total 1,075 1,876 74

Sources: 1990 data were from Educational Statistics Yearbook of China, 1990, p.22; and 2006 data were from the MOE, 2006b.

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Table 3.4 The Total Enrollments of Regular HEIs Administered by Different Authorities in 1990 and 2006 (Unit:in person) 1990 2006 Increase % Other commissions & ministries 669,863 362,598 -46 MOE 232,432 1,293,444 456 Provincial governments 1,160,400 15,732,399 1,256 Total 2,062,695 17,388,441 743

Sources: 1990 data were from Educational Statistics Yearbook of China, 1990, p.24; and 2006 data were from the MOE, 2006b.

Table 3.5 The Distribution of HEIs and Total Enrollment Under Different Authorities in 2006

Other central ministries MOE Provincial governments % of regular HEIs 2.0 3.9 94.1 % of total enrollment 2.1 7.4 90.5

At the central level, the authority of higher education administration has been gradually centralized in the MOE with the transfer of most HEIs which were under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries to either the MOE or provincial governments. In 1990, there were a total of 318 HEIs administered by 63 central commissions and ministries other than the MOE. In 2006 only 38 HEIs still remained under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries. These 38 HEIs are either HEIs for ethnic minorities or those have strong industrial orientations. The HEIs previously administered by other central commissions and ministries have either been abolished, or transferred to the MOE or provincial governments, or turned into training departments within those commissions and ministries. Correspondingly, the total enrollment of the HEIs administered by other central commissions and ministries decreased 46 percent, between 1990 and 2006, while the total enrollment of the HEIs administered by the MOE increased 456 percent and the total enrollment of provincial HEIs increased 1,256 percent. The authority and importance of other central commissions and ministries in higher education planning and administration has declined significantly as a result of the sharp decrease in the number of HEIs and enrollment under their jurisdiction. At the same time, enrollment in the provincial HEIs as a percentage of the total enrollments in higher education has increased dramatically from 56.3 percent in 1990 to 90.5 percent in 2006 (see Table 3.5). The sheer percentage of the total number of students enrolled in provincial HEIs gave provincial governments considerable leverage in the planning and administration of higher education. Correspondingly, the

43 Higher Education in China

percentage of provincial governments’ expenditure on higher education has continued to increase, particularly since 1999, while the percentage of central government expenditure on higher education has continued to decrease, as indicated in Table 3.6. In the present administrative structure of higher education, the authority of both the MOE and provincial governments has increased, while the authority of other central commissions and ministries has diminished drastically.

Table 3.6 Central and Provincial Government Expenditures on Higher Education

Total government Percentage of central Percentage of provincial Year expenditure* (billion yuan) government expenditure government expenditure 1995 18.6 51.6 48.4 1996 21.8 51.2 48.8 1997 25.4 51.1 48.9 1998 34.3 57.4 42.6 1999 43.0 50.5 49.5 2000 51.3 47.1 52.9 2001 61.3 45.0 55.0 2002 73.3 44.8 55.2 2003 81.8 43.7 56.3 2004 94.3 40.3 59.7 2005 95.9 38.2 61.8

Source: China Educational Finance Statistical Yearbook 19962006.

Despite the reform of the administrative system of higher education, the reporting system between the government and HEIs has not changed. The regular HEIs under the jurisdiction of the MOE report to the MOE, those under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries report to the education departments of those central commissions and ministries, and those under the jurisdiction of provincial governments report to provincial departments of education. Since the adoption of decentralization policies in 1985, provincial governments have been given more autonomy to run the HEIs under their jurisdictions, while the MOE at the central level mainly provides overall planning, macro policy guidance, national legal frameworks, coordination, information and other services (Mok, 2001). Therefore, provincial governments can, and have begun to, exercise more discretion in deciding matters related to academic programs (short-cycle), curricula, appointment of faculty members, as well as administration and management (Mok, 2001). At the central level, the MOE has centralized the overall planning and administration of higher education by taking over the HEIs controlled by other

44 3 Higher Education Management commissions and ministries or handing them over to provincial governments. After the centralization, the MOE’s authority in the overall planning and administration of higher education has improved significantly over other line ministries. However, the improvement has not changed the fact that the MOE has to share planning and financial authority for higher education with the NDRC and the Ministry of Finance (MOF), which limits the MOE’s capacity to do the overall planning and administration of higher education effectively.

3.2.3 Higher education coordination Coordination is particularly important for the development of higher education in China because of the involvement of multiple agencies in the planning, funding, and administration and the “sharing of authority” for planning and funding among the MOE, the MOF, the NDRC, and the provincial departments of education. Since 1980s, changes in higher education coordination have mainly occurred in the coordinating authority of state agencies such as the MOE and provincial departments of education and the emergence of market coordination.

3.2.3.1 Coordinating authority of the MOE The education system is a sub-system of the whole national economic and social system. It functions in competition and collaboration with other sub-systems such as agricultural, industrial, labor, and medical systems. The administrative departments of education at all levels not only exercise the administrative authority within the higher education system, but also look after the coordination of the department of education with the other central commissions and ministries and consumers. The coordinating authority of the MOE was quite limited from the time of its restoration in 1975 to 1985. The MOE found it difficult to lead and coordinate higher education development and reforms (Du, 1992), because it was in competition with other ministries to obtain the scarce financial resources and official attention from the State Council (Paine, 1992: 184). Since other central ministries held the same administrative status and authority as the MOE, neither they nor their education departments were compelled to carry out the education policies promulgated by the MOE or to address the MOE’s calls for policy coordination (Su, 1991). Although the MOE held the overall administrative and coordinating authority over higher education affairs across the country, it only controlled the government allocations for the HEIs under its jurisdiction, which was a very small percentage of the total; in fact, it only directly administered about 40 HEIs before 1985. Government allocations for the HEIs under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries and

45 Higher Education in China

provincial governments were distributed by the MOF directly, while having little control over them. In order to strengthen the coordinating authority of the central administrative department of education, the Sixth NPC Standing Committee decided to replace the MOE with the State Education Commission (SEDC) in June 1985 (NAEA, 1999). The SEDC had several advantages over its predecessor. First, the SEDC had equal administrative status to that of the NDRC in the State Council, placing it above central line ministries. It could require line ministries to comply with its recommendations and calls for policy coordination. Second, it “had a much broader scope of power than its predecessor and thus a greater ability to oversee and facilitate the nation’s educational development” (Du, 1992: 28). The leadership positions of the SEDC consisted of a chairman, a vice-chairmen, and full- and part-time committee members. In order to strengthen the coordinating authority and functions of the SEDC, leaders from other central commissions and ministries were included in the leadership positions of the SEDC. The first Chairman of the SEDC was the vice- primer of the State Council and the leaders of the NDRC, MOF, the Science and Technology Commission and the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) served as part-time committee members. The establishment of the SEDC did increase the coordinating authority of the central administrative department of education over central line ministries because of its higher administrative status, especially when the vice primer of the State Council headed the SEDC from June 1985 to April 1988 (S. H. Tang. Interview, August 23, 2002; D. H. Wang. Personal Communication, October 18, 2001). It also improved the efficacy of the education policies and regulations issued by the SEDC. However, the SEDC’s coordinating authority was never fully realized. The leaders of other central commissions and ministries such as the NDRC and the MOF, all held full- time positions already and did not devote much attention and energy to their duties in the SEDC. After the vice primer of the State Council stepped down as the chairman, the SEDC’s coordinating authority over the comprehensive commissions and ministries such as the NDRC and the MOF was gone, though it still held better coordinating authority over central line ministries. Moreover, the coordinating authority which SEDC had over central line ministries gradually lost its meaning as the reform of the central government organizations proceeded. In order to transform government functions from direct and detailed management to overall guidance and macro administration, the central line ministries gradually turned some of their enterprises, industries, and social organizations into independent entities.

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Most of the HEIs administered by central line ministries were gradually handed over to either the SEDC or provincial governments. After the reorganization of central commissions and ministries in 1998, the number of regular HEIs still under the jurisdiction of other central commissions and ministries was reduced from 318 in 1990 to 38 in 2006, making up only 2 percent of the total number of regular HEIs (see Table 3.7). Therefore, the SEDC’s advantage in coordinating central line ministries was seriously diminished. In 1998, the State Council changed the SEDC back to the MOE in order to facilitate the separation of the government and school administration as well as the decentralization of higher education administration (D. H. Wang. Personal Communication, October 18, 2001).

Table 3.7 Changes in the Central Administrative Department of Education

19751985 19851998 1998present MOE SEDC MOE

No matter how the government restructures the MOE or the SEDC, it does not touch the fundamental problem of the administrative departments of education not having exclusive control over higher education administration and coordination. The MOE must share authority horizontally and vertically (Paine, 1992). The MOE has to share authority with other commissions and ministries, particularly the NDRC, the MOF, and the Ministry of Labor (MOL), in the planning and coordination of government allocations, admissions, and employment assistance of graduates of regular higher education. The MOE has gained greater authority in coordinating such national special program as the “211 Project” funding, in addition to the funds allocated to the HEIs by the MOF under its jurisdiction. But it cannot coordinate all government allocations for education, which are still determined by the NDRC and the MOF. Moreover, provincial governments have gained increasing power and resources in coordinating higher education development in the provinces, which is a result of the MOE’s strategy of decentralizing higher education administration to make the government more responsive to HEIs and make HEIs more responsive to the local economy. The downside of decentralization is the increasing difficulty of the MOE to coordinate higher education development in terms of national goals. Reforms have strengthened the MOE’s administrative and coordinating authority within the higher education system, but it still has little power to coordinate other central commissions and ministries, which hampers its ability “to map out an overall plan for education as a whole” as stated in the 1985 Decision on the Reform of the Education System.

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3.2.3.2 Expansion of coordinating authority for provincial governments The separation of higher education administration between the central and provincial governments made it difficult for provincial governments to have any input in the coordination of the centrally controlled HEIs. To counter this, the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, issued in 1993, encouraged provincial governments to take on a greater role and responsibility for higher education development in their provinces, including the coordination of centrally administered HEIs. It is inevitable for the centrally administered HEIs to become an integral part of and contribute a great deal to the local economy. The fact that all centrally administered HEIs are located in major cities and often in the capital cities of the provinces determines that a good portion of their graduates will find employment in the province where they study. The centrally administered HEIs control most of the government research funds, research contracts with industries and enterprises, and enrolled most graduate level students, which are crucial to local economic development. The Shanghai municipal government provided 1.3 billion yuan for the development of science and technology in 1993, of which 1 billion yuan went to the centrally administered HEIs (Yu, 1993). The centrally administered HEIs played a key role in the construction of such important infrastructures as the Yangpu Bridge and subway in Shanghai. Research centers such as the Shanghai Applied Mathematic Consultation Center, the Shanghai Mathematic Economy and Operational Research Center, and the Shanghai Center for Disaster Prevention and Relief were all located in the centrally administered HEIs as well (Yu, 1993). In Jiangsu Province, an average of 30 to 40 percent of the graduates of the centrally administered HEIs found jobs within the province after graduation in the early 1990s (Ge, 1993). In 1992, the total enrollment of the centrally administered HEIs in Jiangsu Province reached 87,000, while the total enrollment of the provincial HEIs in Jiangsu Province was only 71,000 (Ge, 1993). In the same year, the centrally administered HEIs enrolled 91 percent of Master’s degree students and 94 percent of Doctoral degree students in Jiangsu Province (Ge, 1993). Provincial governments not only have the incentive to integrate the centrally controlled HEIs in their provinces more closely with the local economy, but also have the financial capacity to do so with the growing share of government revenue retained by them since 1980. Since the promulgation of the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development in 1993, provincial governments have gradually acquired greater authority to coordinate the overall enrollment, career services for students, and research for all HEIs located in their provinces. The “joint-development” of the centrally administered HEIs by the central and

48 3 Higher Education Management provincial governments has assisted the expansion of the coordinating authority and functions of provincial governments since 1995. Joint-development refers to a situation in which, without fundamental change in the channels of funding and lines of administration in the centrally administered HEIs, there is a “dual leadership”, with the central government as one partner and the provincial government as the other; these two authorities join hands to build and manage the HEIs in question (Ji, 1998). Most of the provinces that have centrally administered HEIs have signed an agreement to jointly develop selected centrally administered HEIs for tapping their resources for the development of the local economy. Provincial governments have jointly constructed 32 centrally administered HEIs (29 percent of the total) with either the MOE or other central commissions and ministries by 2002 (Liu, 2002). The total investment in the joint-development program has reached 219.7 billion yuan, of which the central government invested 104.05 billion yuan and provincial governments invested 115.65 billion yuan including infrastructure (Liu, 2002). The centrally administered HEIs tend to consult provincial governments more frequently before making their institutional enrollment plans and submitting them to their respective administrative department for review. However, provincial governments’ capability in coordinating the development of centrally administered HEIs is limited and largely supplementary to that of the MOE and other central commissions and ministries that actually administer these institutions (A.B. Xie. Interview, August 31, 2001). The coordinating authority and functions of the MOE at the national level are crucial to the achievement of national goals and priorities for higher education development and reforms in China. There has been improvement in the MOE’s coordinating authority, but more is needed for it to truly lead and coordinate the higher education development and reforms in the country. The main barrier has been the fact that the MOE does not fully control the government allocations to higher education. On the one hand, the growing role and responsibility of provincial governments in higher education coordination facilitates the decentralization of higher education administration and coordination; on the other hand, it aggravates the MOE’s already weak position in the coordination of national higher education.

3.2.3.3 Coordination of the market There are no concrete indicators of the market’s influence on higher education. The market is simply the freedom to choose among many existing or still-to-be-created possibilities in which decision-making processes are not deliberately structured (Neave & van Vught, 1994: 6). The influence of the market on the Chinese higher

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education system can be discerned through the growth of non-government funds in regular public HEIs and the influence of market on the admission and academic programs of regular public HEIs. Market coordination of Chinese higher education grew significantly and quickly as public HEIs actively engaged in income-generating activities. Regular public HEIs generated a total income of 31.6 billion yuan through commercial activities in 2006, which was 13.5 percent of the total regular higher education funds in that year (see Table 3.8).

Table 3.8 Sources of the Total Expenditures for Regular HEIs

Percent of Percent of HEI-Generated Revenues2 Total Donations government Income from Tuition Year (billion 1 Subtotal & others expenditures HEI-funded & fees yuan) (%) (%) (%) activities (%) (%) 1995 26.2 70.90 23.20 9.60 13.60 5.90 1996 31.0 70.00 23.10 8.70 14.40 6.90 1997 37.6 67.60 24.50 8.80 15.70 7.90 1998 54.5 62.90 28.60 15.20 13.40 8.50 1999 70.4 61.00 31.70 14.50 17.20 7.30 2000 90.4 56.70 36.50 15.20 21.30 6.80 2001 114.5 53.60 39.40 14.70 24.70 7.00 2002 144.7 50.70 42.60 15.60 27.00 6.70 2003 168.3 48.60 44.00 14.00 30.00 7.40 2004 200.0 47.10 45.60 13.20 32.40 7.30 2005 234.2 45.20 47.30 13.50 33.80 7.50

Notes: (1) Government expenditures includes government expenditures for the recurrent, capital, research, and other expenditures for education as well as urban & rural education surcharges before 1998 and local education surcharge after 1998. (2) Income from HEI-funded activities includes mainly income from HEI-run enterprises, research and consultancy, and educational and other services to industries and communities. Source: China Educational Finance Statistical Yearbook 19962006.

Market regulation has become increasingly important in determining the admission and academic programs in HEIs. The adjustment of admission quotas among departments and programs and the establishment and adaptation of academic programs have become increasingly contingent upon the ability of departments and programs in generating funds in addition to government allocations and the employment prospects of their graduates. Many provinces and municipalities such as Guangdong, Chongqing,

50 3 Higher Education Management and Liaoning decided to link the employment rate of graduates with the expansion of HEIs and government allocations to HEIs, with changes in academic programs, and with institutional evaluation in 2003 (Lin, 2003a; Lin, 2003b; Liu, 2003; Tian, 2003). In the Opinions on Improving Employment Works for College Graduates, issued in April 2003, the MOE affirmed the relation between employment of graduates and higher education development, including linking the employment rate of HEIs and academic programs with annual admission plans, with the adjustment of academic programs, and with evaluation (MOE, 2003b). The demand of students and the employment prospects of their graduates have been the principal factors affecting the success or failure of private HEIs from the beginning. Enjoying greater autonomy, private HEIs adapt their academic programs and courses more quickly in accordance with the needs of students and the market. Through interviews with university professors and school administrators from some private schools in , Mok and Wat (1998) learned that these schools and colleges would consciously identify newly emerging market needs and design courses to fill the gap (p.259). Although market coordination of higher education development is gaining importance and attention, it is still secondary to state coordination. The overall attitude of Chinese intellectuals towards the engagement of HEIs in commercial activities has been positive. They view it as a source of additional funding and thus a means of financial independence (Kwong, 1996; Wei, 1996; & Mok & Wat, 1998). However, the growth of commercial activities on campus has inevitably raised issues about the proper management of these activities and their relations to public HEIs; they have also affected the distribution of rewards in HEIs. The growing importance of commercial activities on campus has also affected traditional academic values and culture. The ethos and management of traditional public HEIs differ significantly from the entrepreneurial ethos required for income- generating commercial activities. For instance, the entrepreneurial ethos stresses profit, competition, and nondisclosure, while traditional academic culture stresses open communication and sharing of knowledge (particularly in published form) and collegiality (Wood, 1992). Conflicts between the market and academic values will raise more administrative and ethical issues on campus as the market regulation of higher education increases. It is imperative for the government and HEIs to develop an appropriate framework and mechanisms for market coordination to function constructively in the higher education sector.

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3.3 The Funding System

3.3.1 Diversification of higher education funding Before the 1980s, the funds for Chinese higher education sector was provided entirely by the state, be it central or local governments. Since the 1978 reform, the funding system of higher education has changed from a sole state funding system towards a diversified funding system, in which state funds constitute the major part and revenues from other sources supplement the state funds. The Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, issued by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council in 1993, proposed to establish a system wherein government appropriations constitute the main body of the educational funds, supplemented by funds raised from a variety of other sources such as educational surcharges, tuition and fees, school-generated funds through school-run enterprises and other services, donations, and others. The proposal is confirmed by the Higher Education Law in 1998. The development of a diversified investment system in higher education has been driven by the gradual transformation from a centrally planned state economic system to a socialist market economic system in China. Before 1978, government expenditures accounted for more than 98 percent of the total expenditures on higher education (Zhong, Gong & Lu, 1996: 29). By 2005, government expenditures accounted for only 45.2 percent of the total expenditures for regular HEIs (see Table 3.8). In regular HEIs, non-government funds mainly come from self-generated revenues and from private donations and other sources. As indicated in Table 3.8, it is clear that the self-generated revenues of HEIs constitute the major portion of non-government funds. The self-generated revenues of HEIs include income from HEI-run enterprises, research and consultancy, educational and other services to industries and communities, as well as tuition and fees. As self-generated revenues became the main source of non-governmental funds for HEIs, tuition and fees grew faster than any other type of self-generated revenues. By 2005, tuition and fees accounted for 33.8 percent of the total expenditure of HEIs. In the Provisional Regulation on the Management of Tuition and Fees in HEIs (1996), the MOE considered it appropriate to maintain the proportion of tuition and fees at a maximum of 25 percent of the total expenditure per student for regular public HEIs (MOE, 1996b). The shift of some of the cost of higher education from the government or general taxpayer to parents, students, and other purchasers of university services is a typical feature of the cost-recovery policies in higher education (Johnstone, Arora & Experton, 1998). The adoption of a cost-recovery policy was a remarkable departure from the

52 3 Higher Education Management public and the free higher education policy the Chinese government practiced from 1952 to 1982. The introduction of the cost-recovery policy in China was a gradual process. Before the 1980s, college students enjoyed state-sponsored higher education with free tuition and fees as well as free rooms and board. The state also provided a stipend to students enrolled in disciplines of strategic importance to national development or who faced harsh working conditions upon graduation. In the early 1980s, the state began to experiment with a cost-recovery policy by allowing selected regular public HEIs to admit fee-paying students. The Decision on the Reform of the Education System, issued by the CPC Central Committee in 1985, officially approved the practice of admitting employer-sponsored students and self- financed students in addition to those admitted according to the state plan. Students enrolled under the state plan enjoyed free tuition and fees and were guaranteed a job assignment upon graduation by the state. Employer-sponsored students received education expenditures from their employing units, which could be government or non-government organizations. In return, these students, after their graduation, would work for these employing units. The self-financed students paid full tuition and fees and would find jobs by themselves after graduation. The differentiated treatment of students under the state plan and those outside the state plan was called the “dual- track” system. It was an effort to reform the unified state planning of admission and graduate assignment, to expand the institutional autonomy of HEIs, and to ease the financial shortfalls of most HEIs. In 1989, the SEDC issued the Regulation on HEIs Charging Tuition and Fees, which allowed HEIs to charge tuition and fees to students under the state plan as well, (Li, 2001). However, the tuition and fees charged to students under the state plan at that time was less than 200 yuan per year and was largely symbolic (Tang, 2001). In 1992 the MOE, the MOF, and the NDRC allowed provincial governments and other central ministries to raise the level of tuition and fees in HEIs under their jurisdictions in accordance with local circumstances. The Shanghai Municipality raised the tuition to 400 yuan per year and the dormitory fees to 40160 yuan per year for students under the state plan (Zhang, 1998). By this time, the distinction between state plan students and the employer-sponsored and self-financed students became blurred. Debates on the fairness of the dual-track system became heated. The experiment of “merging the dual-track” began in 37 HEIs in 1994 (MOE, 2002a), with all students paying the same 1,000 to 1,200 yuan annual tuition and fees (Zhang, 1998). Approximately 200 HEIs joined the experiment in 1995; and the dual-track system was abolished in 1997, when all HEIs began to charge the same level of tuition and fees to all students (MOE, 2002a).

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At present, the state only allows public HEIs to collect tuition and dormitory fees. Dormitory fees are fixed at 800 to 1,200 yuan per student per year, while the level of tuition and fees has increased rapidly from an average of 1,620 yuan in 1997 (Li & Min, 2001) to an average of 3,921 yuan in 2002 (Fan, 2002). Tuition and fees in China are sensitive to the institution, academic program, future occupation, program cost, and location (ICHEFAP, 2002). Based on the rationale that higher quality deserves higher price, key HEIs at the central and provincial levels charge higher tuition than do other HEIs. Popular academic programs such as computer science, foreign language, and business management charge higher tuition than others such as agriculture, history, and math. “The tuition for medicine, fine art, performing art, and music is higher than that of other majors due to the higher costs of instruction” (ICHEFAP, 2002). Tuition and fees in large cities with higher living expenses such as Beijing, Shanghai and Guangzhou are higher than those in medium cities and less developed regions. After the adoption of the cost-recovery system, the state abolished the unitary scholarship and gradually replaced it with six types of financial assistance: scholarships, tuition waiver and reduction, special subsidies to exceptionally disadvantaged students, work-study programs, and student loans (Li & Wei, 2001: 6). Beginning in 2000, the state established a national student loans system. The national student loans system provides state subsidized loans for college students, covering tuition and fees as well as living expenses. Since the 1985 Decision on the Reform of the Education System, all education policies and laws stressed the necessity and importance of providing financial assistance to economically disadvantaged students. The increase of non-government funds in the total regular higher education funds is accompanied by the growing discretionary authority of regular public HEIs in the distribution of internal funds. Regular public HEIs have gained considerable autonomy in generating as well as distributing the funds they raise and those allocated by the government, as stipulated in the Higher Education Law. Rather than directly managing the internal finances of HEIs, the central and provincial governments have decentralized the authority of internal financial management in HEIs and only supervise them through periodic audits.

3.3.2 Growth of private higher education Thirty years after the nationalization of all private schools in China in 1952, the first non-government university, Zhonghua Shehui University (renamed Beijing Professional Business Institute in 2002) opened in Beijing in 1982 (“Introduction to Beijing Professional”). Since then, private higher education has grown rapidly. In

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2006, the total number of private HEIs reached 1590, enrolling a total of 3.7 million students (see Table 3.9).

Table 3.9 Number and Enrollments of Private HEIs in 2006 (MOE, 2007a)

Type Number Total enrollment (million) Accredited private HEIs 278 1.3 Independent colleges 318 1.5 Other private HEIs 994 0.9 Total 1,590 3.7

There are three types of private HEIs, differentiated by the type of programs they offer. The first type of private HEI is accredited by the MOE to offer academic degrees or diploma programs after they meet the rigorous standards of facilities, funds, faculty input, and quality instruction set by the MOE. The second type, termed as independent college (duli xueyuan), is a private HEI established and sponsored by regular HEI, alone or in collaboration with other organizations. These private HEIs are called independent colleges for they are established independently of the sponsoring HEIs, with separate administration, admission, funding and campus. Some independent colleges are accredited, while others are not. The third type includes a variety of non-accredited private HEIs, which mainly offer non-degree and non- diploma short-term courses for specialized training that may lead to a certificate. Some offer courses for Self-study Examinations for regular higher education and organize Self-study Examinations on campus. Of the total revenue of individual private HEIs, tuition and fees accounted for anywhere from 30 to 100 percent in 2000, with the majority exceeding 70 percent (Wu, 2001). The amount of tuition private HEIs charged ranged from 2,000 yuan to over 15,000 yuan per year, and the amount for dormitory fees ranged from 150 yuan to 1, 500 yuan per year in 2000 (Wu, 2001). Government policies, regulations, and laws for private higher education lagged behind the development of private higher education in China. It was not until 1997 that the State Council issued the Regulation for Social Force-run Schools and the Ninth NPC passed the Private Education Promotion Law in December 28, 2002. The governmental support for private higher education consists of policy support, loan and credit support, facility and even land investment, and preferential tax policies for investment in private higher education. Most governmental support for private higher education came from provincial governments, because private HEIs are under the

55 Higher Education in China

jurisdiction of provincial departments of education. The national student loans became available to students enrolled in private HEIs in 2002. Private HEIs have become a major force in the higher education market in China. Enrollment in private HEIs reached nearly 15.9 percent of the total enrollment in regular HEIs in 2006 (MOE, 2006b). Because of the variety in quality and the much higher tuition they charge, private HEIs have not yet been able to challenge regular public HEIs for students and prestige. However, their existence and flexible ways of operation have motivated regular public HEIs to become more innovative in programs and curricula as well as in institutional management.

3.3.3 Government expenditures on education Although the central government accomplished a great deal by diversifying higher education revenue, the overall level of government expenditure on education was still far below the world average and even below the goals the government set forth in the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, the Education Law and the Higher Education Law. The Outlines of Educational Reform and Development recommended gradually increasing government expenditure for education as a percentage of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) to 4 percent by the end of the 20th century. The recommendation was recognized by both the Education Law and the Higher Education Law. However, this goal has never been realized. As indicated in Table 3.10, the state budgetary expenditure on education as a percentage of the GDP has not even reached 3 percent in the 12-year period, 1993 to 2005.

Table 3.10 State Budgetary Expenditure as a Percentage of the GDP

1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2.46 2.44 2.32 2.35 2.36 2.41 2.55 2.58 2.79 2.90 2.84 2.79 2.82

Sources: NBSC (National Bureau of Statistics of China). (2007) China Statistical Yearbook 2007. China Statistics Press, Beijing, pp. 57 & 812.

In 2000, public expenditure on education in China (2.6 percent) was significantly lower than the average public expenditure on education in lower- middle-income countries (4.7 percent), and even lower than that of low-income countries (excluding India) (3.5 percent). Public expenditure on education in China was also lower than most Asian countries with similar income level and population except Indonesia (see Table 3.11).

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Table 3.11 International Comparison of Public Expenditure on Education

Public expenditure on education Region/Country as a % of the GDP (2000) Lower-middle income 4.7 Low income (excl. China & India) 3.5 China 2.6 India (1999) 4.1 Public expenditure on education Region/Country as a % of the GDP (2000) Indonesia* 1.5 Malaysia 5.9 Philippines (1999) 3.9 Thailand 4.9

Note: *Public subsidy to households not included in public expenditure. Source: World Bank. World Development Indicators. Available from http://devdata.worldbank. org/edstats/.

3.4 Planning and Evaluation

3.4.1 State education plans Short-term annual state plans and mid- to long-term plans such as the Five-Year Plan have been a dominant feature of the state planning of economic and social development in China since the 1950s. In formulating such plans, each central ministry and province assembles a development plan for its own area and submits it to the NDRC. The NDRC is responsible for the formulation of the macro socio- economic development plan for the whole country and for monitoring the implementation of the overall development plan (Min, 1994). Before the 1980s, annual state plans for national economic and social development used to be mandatory for each central ministry and provincial government. The sections of annual state plans relating to education specified the admission quotas and graduates’ assignment plan for every field of study, HEI, and region of the country, as well as levels of funding and other resources for HEIs. The mandatory plans for assigning graduates to specific job positions became more flexible when the government introduced a “two-way selection” mechanism in the late 1980s, which allowed employers and some college graduates to meet and choose each other. The assignment of jobs by the government was a prerogative of college students; but it was also a duty for college students to obey government assignment unconditionally as an exchange for the free higher education they received. The graduate assignment

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system was abolished when all students began to pay tuition and fees in 1997. Instead, college students now have the right to choose their own employment opportunities after graduation. Admission quotas also became more flexible for individual HEIs and fields of study. Provincial governments and HEIs have the freedom to decide the distribution of admission quotas within their provinces or their institutions. State plans continue to influence higher education development, but they have become more flexible by giving lower levels of government and HEIs more discretion in implementation, in the light of their particular situation. The Five-Year Plan is the rolling plan that sets goals and directions of development rather than offer detailed and concrete planning (Lieberthal & Oksenberg, 1998). They have become increasingly important in higher education planning as the MOE began to transform its functions to overall planning, policy guidance, and macro administration from direct management. Since the 1990s, the MOE and the State Council paid more and more attention to the formation of long-term plans for education. For instance, they made the Ten-Year National Education Development Plan in 1992, the Ninth Five-Year Plan for Educational Development and the Long Range Development Program toward the Year 2010 in 1996, and the Action Plan for Vitalizing Education for the 21st century in 1999.

3.4.2 Evaluation of higher education Alongside the decentralization movement in higher education around the world, there has been another trend―the emergence of an “evaluative state” in countries where the government has undertaken systematic decentralization measures such as the UK, Australia, most European nations, and several states in the US (van Vught & Westerheijden, 1992; Berdahl & McConnel, 1994; Luchaire & Massit-Follea, 1994; Maassen, 1997; Marginson, 1997; Harman, 1998; Meed & Wood, 1998; Rhoades & Sporn, 2002; Vidovich, 2002). The increasing institutional autonomy of the Chinese HEIs has also been accompanied by the development of a national system for the evaluation of higher education. Apart from the increase of institutional autonomy for HEIs, the Decision on the Reform of the Education System also suggested that: The educational administrative department should organize educational circles, intellectual circles, and employer organizations to make periodic appraisal of the performance of universities and colleges. Those with good achievements should be encouraged with honors and material awards, and those with poor management should be consolidated, or even closed down (CPC Central Committee, 1985). The MOE conducted extensive research on the evaluation of higher education in the 1980s. In June 1985, the MOE convened a symposium on the evaluation of

58 3 Higher Education Management engineering programs in higher education and launched a pilot evaluation project in more than 80 HEIs of engineering. The pilot project included an examination of the overall performance, fields of study, and curricula of these HEIs from June 1987 to December 1989 (NAEA, 1999; Xu & Zhang, 1997). Other types of pilot evaluation projects were also carried out nationwide from 1985 to 1990 (NAEA, 1999). Based on these researches, the SEDC issued the Provisional Regulation for the Evaluation of Regular HEIs in October 1990 (Wang, 2001). Driven by persistently stringent public funding and sharp competition for scarce public resources, quality assessment systems for higher education have been established in the West to satisfy the taxpayers’ and consumers’ demand for greater transparency, efficiency, and accountability in public higher education. According to the provisional regulation, the principal goals of higher education evaluation in China are to encourage the society’s supervision of HEIs, to strengthen the HEIs’ ability to adapt to the society’s needs, to ensure the socialist direction of the HEIs, and to improve the overall performance of the HEIs for better serving the socialist construction (SEDC, 1990). Since the enactment of the Provisional Regulation for the Evaluation of Regular HEIs, a multi-layered national evaluation system for higher education has appeared in China in the early 21st century, though in a nascent stage. The evaluation of the postgraduate level of higher education is separate from that of the undergraduate level. According to the provisional regulation, the MOE, education departments of other central ministries, and provincial departments of education are in charge of evaluating the undergraduate institutions of higher education under their respective jurisdiction. The Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council is responsible for evaluating the postgraduate level of higher education. The evaluation of short- cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education is carried out by the provincial departments of education, coordinated by the MOE. The evaluation of higher education in China has two major functions: accreditation and quality assessment for various purposes. The evaluation of undergraduate education has three main types: evaluation of HEI as a whole, evaluation of undergraduate teaching, and evaluation of individual activities such as specialties, curricula, or research centers. Fig. 3.2 shows the major types of evaluation for undergraduate education in China.

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MOE Provincial DOE

Undergraduate HEI Undergraduate Individual (Whole Institution) Teaching Activities

Accreditation Accreditation

Overall Performance Excellence

Excellence Random

Fig. 3.2 the National Evaluation System for Undergraduate Education (DOE stands for Department of Education)

3.4.2.1 Evaluation of undergraduate HEIs as a whole At the institutional level, the provisional regulation stipulates four types of evaluation: accreditation, evaluation of the overall performance of an HEI, excellence evaluation, and self-evaluation. Accreditation is an evaluation for newly established HEIs on their basic operating conditions (financial conditions, facilities, and academic staff) and their quality of teaching, conducted when the first batch of students graduate. The operating conditions of newly established HEIs are to be assessed against the Provisional Regulation for the Establishment of Regular HEIs, while the quality of teaching is to be assessed in accordance with the Academic Degrees Decree, relevant government regulations, and the standards of various academic programs. The results of accreditation include pass, pass with condition, or fail. From 1993 to 2000, 161 newly established HEIs went through accreditation; and the first time pass rate was 78 percent (You, 2000). The evaluation of the HEIs’ overall performance is to be conducted every four or five years for the already established HEIs. It consists of the evaluation of three aspects: political and moral education, academic programs and curricula, and other aspects such as research centers and libraries. The outcome of an individual evaluation report is a grade showing Excellent, Good, Qualified, or Fail. However, the evaluation grade is not compared among different types of HEIs. For example, comprehensive universities, polytechnics, and institutions of single disciplines such

60 3 Higher Education Management as teacher training and finance and economics are not compared against each other. The MOE, education departments of other commissions and ministries, and provincial departments of education are responsible for the evaluation of the overall performance of the HEIs under their jurisdiction. Since over 90 percent of HEIs are under the jurisdiction of the provincial departments of education, they carry most of the responsibility (see Table 3.5). In addition, the burden of the provincial departments of education varies enormously because of the uneven spread of HEIs among the provinces. For instance, in July 2003, there were 74 regular public HEIs in Jiangsu Province, 67 in Shangdong Province, and only 8 in Hainan Province and 4 in Tibet. The “excellence evaluation” is a competitive evaluation of the overall performance of HEIs, based on voluntary participation. In 2000, out of approximately 100 key HEIs, 80 participated in the excellence evaluation and 13 were rated as excellent (You, 2000). All three types of evaluation for the HEI as a whole have their own separate systems of performance indicators. Methods used in these evaluations include focus group interviews, round table discussion with faculty members, staff members, and students, survey questionnaires, observations, self- review reports, as well as reviews of school plans and rules, minutes of meetings, students’ work, and research output.

3.4.2.2 Evaluation of undergraduate teaching The evaluation of undergraduate teaching consists of three types: accreditation, excellence evaluation, and random evaluation. Each type has its own assessment plan and set of performance indicators. The accreditation is conducted for newly established academic programs. The excellence evaluation is a voluntary and competitive evaluation of undergraduate teaching. The random evaluation is conducted at regular HEIs selected randomly from a pool of all regular HEIs each year. For the evaluation of undergraduate teaching, a review team of 11 to 13 experts, whose chair is appointed by the expert evaluation committee, visits the HEI for a week, between April and May or between October and November. The review team produces a formal written report based on their field review and they submit it directly to the MOE. An aggregated report of all individual evaluation reports will be distributed by the MOE. From 1995 to 2001, 222 public regular HEIs have undergone this type of evaluation (Lin, 2002). Of the 25 HEIs evaluated during the 20002001 school year, 8 were rated excellent, 16 good, and 1 qualified (Lin, 2002). The latest round of evaluation of undergraduate teaching was completed in 2007. A

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total of 198 HEIs participated in the 2007 evaluation, out of which 160 were rated excellent and 38 were rated good (MOE, 2008e). An important feature of the evaluation of higher education done by government administrative departments of education is the dominance of part-time experts of evaluation and education in the planning and implementation of the actual evaluation work. The government administrative departments of education chiefly perform the functions of organizing and coordinating the evaluation. An expert evaluation committee was established by the MOE in 1998 to coordinate the evaluation of undergraduate teaching at the national level. The expert evaluation committee consists of experts in education and evaluation from HEIs, government administrative departments of education, and other social organizations. Most members of the expert evaluation committee work part-time and serve a term of four years. The first expert evaluation committee was selected to serve from 1998 to 2002. It had one chairman, five vice-chairmen, and 27 members, making a total of 33 of which 29 were from HEIs and the remaining four were from the government administrative departments of Municipality, Jiangsu Province, Zhejiang Province, and Hunan Province. In May 2004, the MOE set up a secretariat for the expert evaluation committee to assist its work. A database of education and evaluation experts has been created with members from all over the country. By 2000, the database had contained over 800 members (You, 2000).

3.4.2.3 Evaluation of short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges The evaluation of short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges are conducted by provincial departments of education. The MOE only provides national guidelines of reference and coordination (for instance, evaluation experts). In September 2003, the MOE set up an evaluation committee in charge of the evaluation of short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education. The evaluation committee is to set national policies, regulations and measures, and provide consultation and recommendations to the MOE. In January 2005, the MOE established an evaluation expert group for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education, from which provincial departments of education could draw external evaluation experts. Each evaluation team is required to have at least 30 percent of its members from outside the province. In February 2005, the MOE issued a national evaluation plan for short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges, stating the guiding principles, goals, basic requirements, performance indicators, and process and procedures of implementation. The evaluation

62 3 Higher Education Management is expected to take place every five years and the results will include only “Pass” and “Fail”.

3.4.2.4 Evaluation of postgraduate and graduate education The evaluation of the postgraduate level of higher education is conducted separately by the Academic Degrees Committee, which is responsible for the regulation of the postgraduate level of higher education in general. The Academic Degrees Committee established a quality assessment and information department in 1994 which carried out the accreditation of the institutions granting graduate degrees and graduate programs. In addition, it carried out the evaluation of graduate programs and, from the beginning of 1999, the annual selection of excellent doctoral dissertations. A significant aspect of the postgraduate level evaluation is that most of the actual work has been carried out by an intermediary organization on behalf of the Academic Degrees Committee. The Academic Degrees Committee sets the evaluation policies and plans, the criteria of evaluation, and supervises the work of the intermediary organization (Y. Wu. Interview, September 9, 2002). Established in 1994, the National Evaluation Institute of Degrees and Graduate Education, a non- government organization, implemented most of the postgraduate level evaluation work on behalf of the Academic Degrees Committee (“National Evaluation”). With regard to the evaluation of the HEIs, the Provisional Regulation for the Evaluation of Regular HEIs encouraged active self-evaluation and evaluation by non- government organizations to complement the efforts of the government. Most of the self-evaluation of HEIs has been conducted as part of the evaluation of the overall performance of HEIs by the government. Some HEIs have initiated self-evaluation as a strategy to improve the performance of their institutions as well as to prove and publicize the performance of their institutions. However, the self-evaluation initiated by HEIs themselves has not been widespread in China.

3.4.2.5 Ranking by non-governmental organizations Evaluation of regular HEIs by non-governmental organizations has appeared in China since the late 1990s. For example, there are the annual ranking of the Chinese HEIs by categories, published by the Guangdong Management and Science Institute, the annual ranking of the Chinese HEIs published by the netbig.com, and, since 2003, the world renowned Academic Ranking of World Universities conducted by Shanghai Jiaotong University. Although the objectivity, accuracy, and validity of these rankings are disputed, they are popular in the society. The government’s attitude towards these rankings is ambiguous. While government officials have not

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endorsed any of these rankings of the HEIs and have voiced concerns over their accuracy and validity; however, they have not opposed them (M. S. Zhou. Personal Interview, August 5, 2002; Y. Wu. Personal Interview, September 9, 2002). Criticisms from the HEIs are plentiful, ranging from complaints about the validity and accuracy, to concerns about the fairness of these ranking. The participation of non-governmental organizations in the evaluation of the undergraduate level of higher education and the self-evaluation of HEIs has been minimal. Despite the government’s support for active participation of non- governmental organizations in the evaluation of higher education, government administrative departments of education continue to be the main evaluators. But the capacity, time, and resources of the government to carry out extensive and intensive evaluation of over 2,000 regular public and private HEIs are limited. China is still at the initial stage of developing a national evaluation system for higher education. The evaluation of regular HIEs done by government administrative departments of education is neither systematic nor adequate. The government at all levels should assume a role of policy-making, criteria-setting, and macro-regulation, and let non-government intermediary organizations carry out the actual evaluation work for them, as the Academic Degrees Committee has done.

3.5 The Organizational Management of HEIs

3.5.1 Organization and structure of HEIs HEIs in China are composed of academic units and functional organizations at different levels which are interconnected. The functional organizations, each with definite functions, include three levels: the university, the college, and the department. At the university level, the organizations are further divided into such divisions as the Office of the Party Committee, Office of the President, Development and Planning Division, Personnel Division, Graduate School, Academic Affairs Division, and Research Division, etc. At the college level, the organizations include the Office of Party Affairs, Personnel Division, Postgraduate Education Division, Undergraduate Education Division, and Research Division, etc. At the department level, the organizations include only part-time positions such as a secretary for teaching and a secretary for research, etc. The academic units are classified according to different disciplines (such as college of humanities, college of science, college of engineering, college of medical science, college of management, and college of education, etc.). There are also academic units established for various research needs, for example, various laboratories,

64 3 Higher Education Management research centers, research institutes, and project teams. The internal structure of HEIs differs as a result of their different tasks, scales, levels, and disciplines. Generally speaking, HEIs of the higher level, larger scale, and those with more disciplines, have more complicated structures and are more typical of their kind. The following is an introduction to the internal structure of HEIs in China, taking as an example a large top-rank research university with a full range of disciplines. First, there are 13 leaders at the university level, including 1 Party secretary, 4 vice-Party secretaries, 1 president, 7 vice-presidents who are, respectively, in charge of postgraduate education, undergraduate education, scientific research, personnel, finance, foreign affairs, and logistics. Second, the functional organizations at the university level are divided into two systems: the system of the Party and the masses, and the administrative system. The system of the Party and the masses includes Party Committee sections such as the Office of Party Committee, Organization Division, Publicity Division, Division of United Front, Security and Safeguard Division, Division of Students Affairs, and Division of Postgraduate Affairs, etc. It also includes the organizations such as the labor union and the League committee, etc. The administrative system includes the Office of the President, Development and Planning Division, Personnel Division, Foreign Affairs Division, Academic Affairs Division, Graduate School, Laboratory and Facility Management Division, Finance Division, Capital Construction Division, and Supporting Facility Division, etc. In addition, there are several affiliated hospitals and special units directly under the administration of the university such as the library, network and information center, publishing house, archives, and the administrative committee of Science Parks. Third, the functional organizations at the college level are also divided, in a much simpler form, into two systems: the system of the Party and the masses and the administrative system. Generally speaking, at the college level, there are the Office of Party and Administration, Organization and Personnel Office, Scientific Research Office, Postgraduate Education Office, Undergraduate Education Office, and the League Committee, etc. The administrative work of departments and research institutes, the basic academic units in a college, are usually carried out by teachers as their administrative duty. Fourth, this HEI, which is a top-ranking research university, has 24 colleges and 81 departments. Due to its large scale and a full range of disciplines, it has rather finely divided colleges and departments. Taking the discipline of engineering as an example, it has 8 engineering-related colleges: the College of Civil Engineering and Architecture, the College of Mechanical and Energy Engineering, the College of

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Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, the College of Electrical Engineering, the College of Information Science and Engineering, the College of Computer Science, the College of Biomedical Engineering and Instrument Science, and the College of Aeronautics and Astronautics. The relationships among the Party Committees at all levels, the administrative divisions, and the academic units can be simplified as shown in the illustration in Fig. 3.3.

Fig. 3.3 The Typical Internal Structure of a University

3.5.2 Leadership system of HEIs The leadership system of a HEI defines the relationships among various leading forces within the HEI. After the founding of the PRC in 1949, HEIs in China were turned into public institutions run by the State. Under the political and economic influences, the leadership system of HEIs has, since then, been changed frequently, undergoing the following seven stages: • The president taking overall responsibility (19501956);

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• The college affairs committee taking overall responsibility under the leadership of the CPC primary committees (19561961); • The college affairs committee headed by the president taking overall responsibility under the leadership of the CPC primary committees (1961 1966); • The CPC primary committees taking overall responsibility (19711976); • The president under the leadership of the CPC primary committees sharing the responsibility (19781985); • The president taking overall responsibility (19851989); • The president taking overall responsibility under the leadership of the CPC primary committees (1989 present).

The Higher Education Law, adopted in 1998, has made a definite statement of the leadership system in HEIs: “In higher education institutions run by the State, the system shall be applied under which the presidents take over-all responsibility under the leadership of the primary committees of the Communist Party of China in higher education institutions” (NPC, 1998). The leading role of the CPC primary committees is a key feature of the decision-making system of HEIs in China, which is different from either the decision-making system dominated by administrative forces or the decision-making system dominated by academic forces. This Chinese style leadership system has three important features (NPC, 1998). First, the collective leadership of CPC committees: In exercising leadership, the CPC committees shall chiefly perform the following duties4to adhere to the lines, principles and policies of the CPC; to keep to the socialist goal in running the institutions; to provide guidance to ideological and political work and moral education in the institutions; to discuss and decide on the internal structure and the appointment of internal organizational directors of the institutions, as well as on important matters such as the reform, development and basic management systems of the institutions; and to ensure the fulfillment of all the tasks centering on the education of students. Second, the responsibilities of the president: The president of a HEI is the legal representative of the institution. He or she undertakes overall responsibilities for the institution’s teaching, research and administrative affairs, and exercises the following duties: • To draw up development plans, formulate specific rules and regulations and annual work plans, and arrange for their implementation; • To arrange for teaching, research and ideological and moral education;

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• To draw up plans for internal structure, nominate candidates for vice-presidents, and appoint or remove directors of the departments of the institution; • To appoint and dismiss teachers and other staff members of the institution, administer the academic affairs of students, and give reward or punishment to students; • To draw up and implement the annual fiscal budget, protect and manage the property of the institution, and protect the lawful rights and interests of the institution; • Other duties provided for in the regulations of the institution.

Moreover, the president of a HEI chairs the council meetings of presidents or presides over the college affairs meetings of the institution. Third, the democratic management and supervision: In a HEI an academic committee shall be set up as a consultative organization to be responsible for academic affairs such as deciding on the disciplines and specialties to be offered, educational and research plans, and evaluating teaching and research outcomes. HEIs shall, in accordance with law and through the conference of representatives of teachers and administrative staff members (with teachers as its main body) or through other forms, guarantee that teachers and staff members are involved in the democratic management and supervision of the institutions and safeguard their lawful rights and interests. Concerning the leadership system in HEIs, the regulations of the Higher Education Law make three points clear. First, it clearly defines the relationship between the leadership of the Party and the administrative leadership by stipulating the duties performed by the Communist Party Committees in HEIs. Second, it reflects the combination of collective leadership and individual responsibility by making clear the duties of the president. Third, it emphasizes the role of academic power in the management of academic affairs by stipulating the establishment of academic committees.

3.5.3 Rules and regulations of HEIs The rules and regulations of HEIs are drawn up and promulgated by the HEI or by the functional organizations authorized by the HEI. Because of the complexity and diversity of its work, each HEI establishes a variety of comprehensive or specific rules and procedures for regulating the actions of both individual members and organizations within the HEI. According to the sphere of application, they can be classified into two types: the general rules that should be followed by all units within

68 3 Higher Education Management the HEI (The Implementation Measures for the Openness of the Administrative Affairs of ×× University), and the specific rules that only apply to some organizations of a HEI (The Rules for Defining and Handling Teaching Accidents in Undergraduate Education of ×× University). According to levels, there are university-level general rules and regulations, specific rules for particular matters (Provisions for the Management and Expenditure of Business Trip of ×× University), and the implementation measures as conducting procedures (The Implementation Rules of Student Status Management for Foreign Undergraduate Students of ×× University). The rights and duties of the members within a HEI, and the punishment for the violation of regulation are defined by the rules and regulations of HEIs to maintain the order of HEIs. At present, it is normally the responsibility of concerned functional organizations of HEIs to draw up the draft of rules and regulations. Then, the draft must be examined and approved by the Office of the President or Office of the Party Committee. Finally, the approved draft will be promulgated and implemented. Thus, the procedures of formulating a rule in a HEI include proposing a motion, drawing up a draft, reviewing the draft, approving the draft, and promulgating the rule.

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44 Admission and Graduate Employment

4.1 College Admission

In 1977, owing to the resumption of the National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) in China, 5,700,000 examinees took the national unified examination; 270,000 of them were admitted. Since the reform and opening-up policy of 1978, the total number of examinees of the NCEE has reached around 128 million, 53,860,000 of whom have been admitted in the past thirty years from 1978 to 2008. Over the period of rapid growth of Chinese higher education between 1999 and 2008, there have been a total of about 40,100,000 newly admitted students. In terms of the total number of examinees of the NCEE, the total number between 1999 and 2008 accounted for 50 percent of the total number between 1978 and 2008. Moreover, in terms of the total number of newly admitted students of regular HEIs, the total number between 1999 and 2008 accounted for three quarters of the total number between 1978 and 2008. In 1978, 400,000 examinees were admitted and the rate of admission was nearly 7 percent. In contrast, in 2008, about 6,000,000 examinees were admitted and the rate of admission was 57 percent. Therefore, the number of newly admitted students in 2008 was fifteen times the number admitted in 1978 and the rate of admission has increased by 50 percent over the thirty years (MOE, 2008d). There were a total of 1,022 regular HEIs in 1998 and ten years later the total was 1,908 (see Table 4.1). Over the past ten years, the number of Chinese HEIs had been growing gradually, thus more and more college students had been admitted to both undergraduate and specialized levels of program. With the transition from elite to a mass higher education system in China, newly admitted students at both undergraduate and specialized levels of program have grown very fast in the past few years. The number of newly admitted college students in regular HEIs in 2006 was more than five times the number admitted in 1998 (see Table 4.2).

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Table 4.1 Number of HEIs in China (19982007)

Regular HEIs Adult Total HEIs Undergraduate Specialized Subtotal 1998 590 432 1,022 962 1,984 1999 N* N 1,071 871 1,942 2000 N N 1,041 772 1,813 2001 N N 1,225 686 1,911 2002 N N 1,396 607 2,003 2003 N N 1,552 558 2,110 2004 684 1,047 1,731 505 2,236 2005 701 1,091 1,792 481 2,273 2006 720 1,147 1,867 444 2,311 2007 740 1,168 1,908 413 2,321

Note: * N stands for no figure. Source: MOE. 19982007 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise,from http://www.moe.edu.cn.

Table 4.2 Number of Entrants in Chinese HE*(19982007)

Year Regular HE Adult HE Total 1998 1,083,600 1,001,400 2,085,000 1999 1,596,800 1,157,700 2,754,500 2000 2,206,100 1,561,500 3,767,600 2001 2,682,800 1,959,300 4,642,100 2002 3,205,000 2,223,200 5,428,200 2003 3,821,700 N** N 2004 4,473,400 2,211,600 6,685,000 2005 5,044,600 1,930,300 6,974,900 2006 5,460,500 1,844,400 7,304,900 2007 5,659,200 1,911,100 7,570,300

Notes: * Entrants at both undergraduate and specialized levels, but excluding those at postgraduate level. ** N stands for no figure. Source: MOE. 19982007 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise, from http://www.moe.edu.cn.

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4.1.1 Reforms of admission Briefly speaking, the system of China’s National College Entrance Examination (NCEE) has changed three times over the past three decades. The resumption of the NCEE in 1977, the reforms of examination subjects and the unification of admissions in the 1990s, and some major reforms in the last ten years were of great significance. Looking back at the changing process of the NCEE between 1998 and 2008, two main reforms stand out in significance. The first reform from 1998 to 2002 involved changes in the content of the NCEE, the subjects selected, the methods of selection and the frequency of examination each year. After the first reform, the content of the NCEE put greater emphasis on testing the competence and comprehensive quality of examinees. In terms of the subjects included, the NCEE adopted a “3 + X” structure, in which “3” refers to the 3 basic subjects―Chinese, Math and one foreign language―and “X” stands for an integrated competence test such as Integrated Arts, or Integrated Sciences, etc. The second reform, between 2003 and 2008, has been aimed at integrating the unified college entrance examination and comprehensive assessment of senior high school students, linking the examination subjects with the senior high school curriculum, covering the establishment and improvement of the comprehensive students assessment system, the likelihood of adding certain new areas to the subjects structure of the NCEE besides the “3 + X” in individual administrative divisions (namely, provinces, autonomous regions, and Municipalities that directly report to the State Council) across China, and the reforms of selection modes and methods mainly in major universities and short-cycle colleges. In the course of the second reform, the following significant achievements were made: • In 2008, a couple of new programs of college entrance examination became pilot schemes in Shandong, Guangdong, Hainan, Ningxia, Jiangsu and other provinces, which were expected to build a diverse assessment system of college admission. • The content of college entrance examination was changed to not only keep up with the changes in the society and to link it with the examinees’ real lives but also emphasize the examinees’ abilities to analyze and solve problems. • Since 2003, more and more major universities have adopted the mode of independent admission, seeking to create different assessment systems of college admission. In 2008, 68 HEIs chose independent admission. • In 2007 and 2008, twenty national model tertiary vocational and technical colleges in eight provinces and some other vocational colleges tried out the

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mode of Separate Admission for improving the standards of admission and the quality of education. • From 2004 to 2006, the reform of independent examination in 16 administrative divisions across China was completed marking the formation of an integration of national and local examinations (namely the NCEE and independent examination). In addition, great efforts have been made to ensure an open, transparent and fair college admission system and operating mechanism in China in the past few years: • Since 2005, centered upon building a fair college admission system, the MOE has implemented the “Sunshine Project” of college admission, issued policies or measures promoting the transparency of information, stronger supervision and better services for fair admission process. • From 2005 onwards, the state has regulated the college tuition and fees, tackled fraud admission practices by intermediate agencies, controlled admissions at independent colleges, put up a unified electronic system for freshmen registration (in 2007), and carried out some other administrative measures, thus eliminating a good deal of illegal or dubious admission activities. • In 2003, for the first time, the number of freshmen from rural areas equaled those from towns and cities, and in 2006, the former accounted for 52 percent of the total number of freshmen. • The admission rate of female examinees has grown year by year; in 2007, for example, though female examinees accounted for less than 48 percent of the total, nearly 50 percent of the entrants were from among them. • In the last five years the admission rate of examinees from minority groups has been higher than the average admission rate across China, ranging from 1 to 4 percent higher (MOE, 2008d).

4.1.2 Forms of admission There are three forms of college admission: the NCEE, the institution’s independent admission and the “recommended freshmen” without taking the NCEE. Firstly, the vast majority of examinees take the NCEE. Those who sit for the NCEE should meet the entry requirements: compliance with the constitution and laws of the PRC; senior high school graduates or equivalent qualification holders. Foreign immigrants who meet the requirements can also take the NCEE. The MOE and the individual Provincial / Municipal / Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees jointly take the responsibility for determining the content and scope of the NCEE test papers as well as for the methods of grading them.

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Secondly, the institution’s independent admission is adopted by a number of Chinese HEIs, which have been given authorization by the MOE to hold independent entrance examinations and conduct their own selections. However, the examinees must take both the NCEE and the institution’s independent examination. In general, examinees performing very well in the latter have more chances to be admitted to colleges and universities even if their test score in the former is lower than the required. In 2008 there were 68 HEIs authorized by the MOE to adopt independent admissions; in 2007 there were only 53. These institutions usually enjoy the autonomy to select less than five percent of the total number of annual entrants. In October 2008, the MOE announced that those major institutions who have enrolled high quality students can independently select more than five percent of the total number of annual entrants in the years to come. A month later, many of these HEIs released their new plan for the year 2009. For example, Peking University is to select 12 percent of its total number of freshmen by independent admission. Xi’an Jiaotong University is to select around 300 freshmen through independent admission (“Information on Five Famous Universities’ Independent Admissions”, 2008). Lastly, the “recommended freshmen” are those recommended by certain high schools as eligible for college and university admission without having to take the NCEE. The standards for selecting the recommended candidates are very rigorous and they are determined by the MOE and not by individual institutions. In 2007, 17 foreign language high schools across China were eligible for recommending freshmen to colleges and universities (MOE, 2007c). In practice, one finds many different forms of NCEE across the various administrative divisions of China. This happens because the Provincial / Municipal / Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees are authorized by the MOE to independently organize the examination and admission work in their respective administrative divisions. Tables 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 show the basic groupings of college admission’s forms and the required minimum test scores for each grouping in three administrative divisions of Beijing, Shanghai, and Zhejiang Province in 2008.

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Table 4.3 The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for College Admissions in Regular HEIs in Beijing

Social Sciences, Sciences the Humanities & Arts Undergraduate Group One 515 502 Undergraduate Group Two 472 455 Undergraduate Group Three 439 430 Advance Group for Specialized Education 330 330 Art at Undergraduate Level 283 273 Art at Specialized Level 231 231 Physical Education and Social Physical Training (the test scores in Physical Education 320 320 must be 60 or above)

Source: Beijing. The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for College Admissions in Regular HEIs, Retrieved September 25, 2008, from http://www.neea.edu.cn/rxks/ptgk.

Table 4.4 The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for College Admissions in Regular HEIs in Shanghai

3+Integrated 3+Integrated

Test +1 Test Undergraduate Group One 471 Social Undergraduate Group Two 428 Sciences, the Humanities & Specialized Education Group for

Arts Public Security as a Specialty 276

(Physical Test & Interview) Undergraduate Group One 467 Undergraduate Group Two 399 Sciences Specialized Education Group for Public Security as a Specialty 240 (Physical Test & Interview)

Source: Shanghai. The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for Undergraduate Admissions in Regular HEIs, Retrieved September 25, 2008, from http://www.neea.edu.cn/rxks/ptgk.

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Table 4.5 The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for College Admissions in Regular HEIs in Zhejiang Province

Group Group Group The Lowest Entry Group One Two Three Four Requirement Social Sciences, the 550 16 68 70 5 Humanities & Arts Sciences 550 504 442 319 304

Source: Zhejiang Province. The 2008 Minimum Test Scores for College Admissions in Regular HEIs, Retrieved September 25, 2008, from http://www.neea.edu.cn/rxks/ptgk.

The MOE, the individual Provincial / Municipal / Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees, and individual HEIs take differing responsibilities in organizing the college examination and admission affairs. The MOE plays a leading role in the college admission work throughout the country. The MOE is mainly responsible for: • Making national policies for the college admission and issuing regulations or requirements for the admission. • Determining the types of college entrance examination, approving the proposals of examination subjects submitted by individual provincial / municipal / autonomous region, and some possible reforming proposals of admissions. • Giving authorization to the MOE Examination Center, individual Provincial / Municipal / Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees, and individual HEIs to organize the examination affairs. • Guiding individual HEIs, individual provincial / municipal / autonomous region’s educational sectors and other sectors involved to make annual admission plans. • Directing and scrutinizing the admission work across administrative divisions of China. • Providing research and training concerning the college entrance examination. • Investigating cheating, malpractices and other illegal acts in the admission work. The individual Provincial / Municipal / Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees, through their Office of Admissions, are mainly responsible for: • Stipulating and issuing supplementary regulations or implementation specifications upon admission work in association with the region’s genuine needs. • Organizing the college entrance examination commissioned by the MOE. • Releasing admission regulations and the provincial / municipal / autonomous

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region’s admission scheme by category of specialties. • Guiding and scrutinizing the admission work of individual HEIs. • Organizing examinees’ sitting for the examination, physical checkup, moral character review, data collection, and electronic record making, etc. The individual HEIs, through their Office of Admissions, are mainly responsible for: • Implementing the policies and regulations of admission work determined by the MOE and individual Provincial / Municipal / Autonomous Region’s Admission Committees. • Reporting and releasing their own annual admission plans both by administrative division of China and by category of specialties. • Stipulating and releasing their own annual admission rules. • Advertising and marketing for admission. • Selecting freshmen. • Reviewing the selected freshmen (MOE, 2008b). As mentioned above, the individual HEIs must release the anticipated number of entrants annually. For instance, the following 2008 admission plan listed by both examinees’ administrative divisions and category of specialties was published by Peking University (see Table 4.6).

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4.2 Postgraduate Admission

4.2.1 Master’s admission With the expansion of Chinese higher education, the size of postgraduate education in China has been growing rapidly since 1999. A total of 156,000 were admitted to postgraduate programs in 2001; 268,900 in 2003; 330,000 in 2004 and 400,000 in 2007. Compared to the total number of newly admitted postgraduates in 2001, there was an increase of 240,000 in 2007. In terms of the number of examinees, the total number has increased from 450,000 in 2001 to 1,270,000 in 2006 (Sun & Zhao, 2007). In 2009, there will be a total of 796 HEIs and research institutes authorized to admit master’s students (hereafter referred to as master’s admission institutions) in China’s 31 administrative regions (see Table 4.7).

Table 4.7 Number of Master’s Admission Institutions in 31 Administrative Divisions across Mainland China in 2009

Province / Province / Autonomous Number of Autonomous Number of Ranking Ranking region / institutions region / institutions Municipality* Municipality Beijing 152 1 Hunan 17 17 Shanghai 53 2 Yunnan 17 17 Jiangsu 53 2 Gansu 17 17 Shaanxi 57 4 Chongqing 16 20 Hubei 51 5 Shanxi 13 21 Liaoning 47 6 Jiangxi 13 21 Sichuang 38 7 Guangxi 12 23 Shandong 33 8 Xinjiang 12 23 Guangdong 33 8 Fujian 11 25 Henan 26 10 Neimenggu 9 26 Tianjin 25 11 Guizhou 9 26 Hebei 25 11 Qinghai 5 28 Heilongjiang 25 11 Ningxia 3 29 Jilin 21 14 Tibet 3 29 Anhui 21 14 Hainan 2 31 Zhejiang 20 16

Note: *Among the 31 administrative regions across Mainland China, the five autonomous regions are Guangxi, Neimenggu, Tibet, Ningxia and Xinjiang; the four municipalities are Beijing, Tianjin, Shanghai and Chongqing; and the rest are provinces. Source: (MOE, 2008j).

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According to the Circular on Making the 2009 National Postgraduate Admission Plan (No. 92 of 2008), the total number of new doctoral students in China will be controlled and is expected to increase by 1.7 percent in 2009. The number of new master’s students will grow moderately and is expected to increase by 5 percent. China will put more effort into supporting the postgraduate admission in such specialties as energy, information, biology, oceanics, new material and advanced manufacturing. The number of new postgraduates in the specialties facing the problem of unemployment in the years ahead will be cut in 2009. More new postgraduates will be trained to meet the needs of special workforce in the army. The plans of offering M. Ed. programs for rural school teachers and supporting Tibet will be implemented (MOE & NDRC, 2008).

4.2.1.1 Master’s program admission-preliminary examination The educative objective of the 2009 master’s programs, as stated by MOE, is to produce high quality master’s degree holders who have good moral character, good command of discipline-related basic theory and systematic specialized knowledge, innovative spirit, and the abilities to engage in research, teaching and administration or to take on special technical work independently. In recent years, there have been several forms of preliminary examinations for admission to master’s programs. Likewise, in 2009, there will be five forms of preliminary examinations (MOE, 2008c): (1) The unified master’s programs admission examination organized by the state; (2) The separate master’s programs admission examination organized by the master’s admission institutions, which are authorized by the MOE; (3) The unified or separate master’s programs admission examination for MED, namely, the professional master’s degree in education (the courses for examination are set up within the category of education); (4) The unified admission examination for JM, namely, the professional master’s degree in jurisprudence; (5) The unified admission examination for MBA, namely, the professional master’s degree in business administration. The first form will be adopted for selecting the vast majority of master’s students, the second form merely for a small special group of examinees, while the last three forms for selecting professional master’s students (MEd, JM and MBA). In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified master’s admission examination by the state, one of the following requirements stipulated by MOE must be satisfied:

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(1) The 2009 graduates who expect to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state; and those who have any undergraduate qualification recognized by the state; (2) Those who not only have qualifications of two- to three-year short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical college recognized by the state but also have obtained undergraduate qualifications of equivalence before September 1, 2007, as well as have met the specific requirements upon core courses set down by particular admission institutions; (3) The 2009 graduates who expect to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state in adult HEIs, or those who have obtained certificates of undergraduate courses recognized by the state; (4) Those who have master’s or doctoral degrees (they as employees can sit for the master’s admission examination again only on the track of commissioned training or self-supporting master’s students). In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 separate master’s admission examination by the institutions; one of the following requirements must be satisfied: (1) The 2009 graduates who expect to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state; (2) Those who have any undergraduate qualification recognized by the state; (3) The 2009 graduates who expect to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state in adult HEIs, or those who have obtained certificates of undergraduate courses recognized by the state; (4) Those who not only have obtained master’s or doctoral degrees for at least two years but also have recommended by two experts with senior academic titles (they as employees can sit for the master’s examination again only on the track of commissioned training master’s students); (5) Those who not only have obtained undergraduate qualification recognized by the state for at least four years, as well as have published research papers (professional reports) or have regarded as key practicing professionals, but also have been recommended by two experts with senior academic titles (they as employees can sit for the master’s examination only on the track of oriented or commissioned training). In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified or separate admission examination for MEd, those who meet the examinees’ requirements for either the 2009 unified master’s admission examination organized by the state or the 2009 separate master’s admission examination organized by the institutions are eligible. In 2009, there will be 57 HEIs authorized to admit MEd students in China.

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In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified admission examination for JM, those who meet the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified master’s admission examination organized by the state are eligible. However, those who studied or are studying a particular specialty in the category of law listed in the catalog of undergraduate fields of study are ineligible. Thus, those who are eligible for sitting for the admission examination for JM must be non-law specialties’ graduates or learners. In 2009, there will be 78 HEIs authorized to admit JM students in China. In 2009, there will be 127 HEIs authorized to admit MBA students in China. As regards the examinees’ requirements for the 2009 unified admission examination for MBA, one of the following requirements must be satisfied: (1) The 2009 graduates who expect to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state; (2) Those who have any undergraduate qualification recognized by the state; (3) The 2009 graduates who expect to obtain undergraduate qualifications recognized by the state in adult HEIs, or those who have obtained certificates of undergraduate courses recognized by the state; (4) Master’s or doctoral degree holders with at least two years’ work experience; (5) Those who have obtained not only qualifications of two- to three-year short- cycle or tertiary vocational and technical college recognized by the state for five years, but also undergraduate qualifications of equivalence; (6) Those who have both undergraduate qualifications and at least three years’ work experience. In addition, in 2009, as in the previous years, a small proportion of excellent or extremely good undergraduate students will move on to the master’s level directly without taking any type of admission examination, who can be recommended by some authorized HEIs. Such HEIs and the number of selected excellent undergraduates are approved by the MOE annually. In recent years, the selection of excellent undergraduates has been stressed. In 2009, selecting master’s students in this way for well developed disciplines and distinctive sub-disciplines will be prioritized; and more undergraduates with creative power, innovative spirit, innovative ability or scholarly talent will be selected (MOE, 2008f). To a degree, this special form of selection, which is not based on test scores, is considered to be a better approach to discover excellent master’s students in contrast to the preceding admission examinations. According to the requirements for the 2009 master’s admission by the MOE, the preliminary examination in education, history, medicine and agriculture for admission to the unified Master’s Program will be held again; the preliminary examination in computer science and technology will be adjusted; the master’s

84 4 Admission and Graduate Employment admission institutions should continue to not only improve their own admission examinations of the core courses (the specialized courses) and reduce the number of the core courses, but also set up the core courses within the first level disciplines (MOE, 2008f). Table 4.8 shows the types of subjects included in the preliminary examination in January, 2009.

Table 4.8 Subjects of the Unified Master’s Program Admission Preliminary Examination in January 2009

Date Morning hours Afternoon hours Theory of Politics; Comprehensive 10/01/2009 Foreign Language Competence Test for MBA

Math or Core Course I; Integrated Core Course II; Integrated Foundation Course in Education/ Foundation Course in Agriculture; 11/01/2009 History/Medicine; Common Integrated Foundation Course in Foundation in Agriculture Computer Science 12/01/2009 Others (for a certain subject examination which takes more than three hours)

Source: (MOE, 2008c).

4.2.1.2 Master’s program admission re-examination According to the requirements for the 2009 master’s admission by the MOE, in the process of the master’s program admission reexamination, the master’s admission institutions should pay closer attention to the assessment of the examinees’ discipline-related abilities, innovative spirits and comprehensive merits; they should seek better ways to decide upon the content and the methods of the reexamination as well as the percentage of the examinees on the basis of both the characteristics of individual disciplines and the total number of examinees; and the institutions having more qualified examinees can get a moderate percentage rise of the examinees in the margin-based reexamination (MOE, 2008f). Both the MOE and a small number of HEIs determine the minimum preliminary examination scores for the master’s program admission re-examination every year. First, the unified minimum preliminary scores for the master’s program admission re-examination determined by the MOE are adopted by most master’s admission institutions in China every year. Examinees sitting for re-examinations of master’s admission institutions in Division One, Division Two or Division Three must reach the minimum preliminary examination scores in individual divisions. Table 4.9 demonstrates the minimum preliminary examination scores of 2008 by category of disciplines and division of examinees.

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Second, a group of HEIs have the right to determine their own minimum preliminary examination scores for master’s program admission reexamination, which are authorized by the MOE every year. From 2003 onwards, a total of 34 major HEIs like Peking University and Tsinghua University have been authorized by the MOE to start the pilot scheme called the minimum preliminary examination scores determined by individual institutions. Among these 34 HEIs of 2009, 33 HEIs, all except the University of Agriculture of China, belong to the first group of “985 Project” jointly sponsored key universities (see Tables 4.10 and 2. 7).

Table 4.10 34 HEIs with the Right to Determine the Minimum Preliminary Examination Scores for Master’s Program Admission Re-examination in 2009

Peking University Renmin University of China Tsinghua University Beijing University of Aeronautics & Astronautics Beijing University of Technology University of Agriculture of China Beijing Normal University Nankai University Tianjin University Dalian University of Technology Northeast University Jilin University of Science & Technology Harbin Institute of Technology Fudan University Tongji University Shanghai Jiaotong University Nanjing University Southeast University Zhejiang University University of Science and Technology of China Xiamen University Shandong University Wuhan University Huazhong University of Science & Technology Hunan University Zhongshan University South China University of Technology Sichuan University Chongqing University University of Electronic Science & Xi’an Jiaotong University Technology of China Northwest Polytechnical University Lanzhou University

Source: (MOE, 2008i).

4.2.2 Doctoral admission In 2009, there will be four modes to be used to select doctoral students in China. The first mode is called open admission. The doctoral admission institutions, on their own, organize individual entrance examination for doctoral students. The entrance examination includes a preliminary examination and a re-examination. The great

88 4 Admission and Graduate Employment majority of doctoral students are annually selected through this mode. In terms of the examinees’ requirements for the preliminary examination, one of the following basic requirements must be met for sitting for the 2009 entrance examination for doctoral students: must be a master’s degree holder; must be a 2009 master’s degree candidate who expects to obtain the master’s degree before the entry into the doctorate program; or must be a bachelor’s degree holder who not only has been awarded the degree six or more years earlier (from the conferment date of the degree to the beginning date of the doctoral study) but also has a master’s degree qualification of equivalence. The second one is advance selection. The doctoral admission institutions select some potential doctoral students from the excellent master’s degree students who have completed their master’s programs in advance within the same institutions demonstrating their abilities to conduct research work. A potential doctoral student must not only pass the defense of the thesis but also obtain the master’s degree before enrolling for the doctoral degree. The institution’s entrance examination for doctoral degrees is not essential prerequisite for the doctoral study. The third one is a combination of master’s and doctoral studies. The doctoral admission institutions select some potential doctoral students from the excellent master’s degree students who have completed their master’s programs within the same institutions during the required time demonstrating their abilities to conduct research work. A potential doctoral student must not only win the support of a PhD supervisor and gain the approval of the institution but also pass the institution’s entrance examination for doctoral degrees before enrolling for the doctoral study. In doing so, both a master’s thesis and a master’s degree are not prerequisite for the doctoral study. The final one is called direct track. The doctoral admission institutions select some potential doctoral students directly from the excellent undergraduate students who will graduate in 2009 and have been recommended for the doctoral programs without taking the institution’s entrance examination for doctoral degrees. This selection can be adopted merely by those doctoral admission institutions with graduate schools as well as in such categories of disciplines as engineering, science, agriculture and medicine. In principle, the number of selected students should account for not more than 10 percent of the total number of the enrollments for the doctoral study (MOE, 2008g).

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4.3 Graduate Employment: Policy Changes and Current Situation

4.3.1 Policy changes After China’s reform and opening-up policy at the end of 1970s, the employment system for higher education graduates has undergone two major reforms: the transformation of employment system in the early 1990s and the changes in the early 21st century. In the early 1990s, the transformation of employment system started in order to adapt to the transition of the whole state from the planned economy to the market economy. From then on, “the planned distribution of graduates based on the government’s orders” was gradually replaced by the “market-oriented mutual choices between graduates and employers”. In the process of the transformation, the basic function of the market in resources allocation was heavily stressed, which brought about diverse positive impacts on graduates’ employment policies, students’ career guidance and counseling, and graduates’ personal employment decisions as well. This transformation is viewed as a successful and profound change. In the early 21st century, the function of governments at all levels in the process of facilitating graduates’ employment was highlighted, whilst the market was still functioning as a basic force. In order to make the graduates’ employment model further adapt to the needs of both mass higher education and the reform of the market economy system, a new system for higher education graduates was built in which “market-oriented, government-regulated,” HEIs’ recommendations-based mutual choices between graduates and employers were forged. This new system had some characteristics of great importance. First, it was a system administrated by both central and local governments, in which the local governments were required to take more managerial responsibilities. Secondly, within the system, a national policy framework for the employment of higher education graduates took shape. The policy framework covered nearly one hundred specific measures like career guidance, employment at grass roots, unemployment registration, temporary subsidies to unemployed graduates, and so on. Thirdly, within the system, a service subsystem for graduates’ employment was built, in which not only HEIs played the main role but also educational administrative departments and other relevant departments provided the graduates with career guidance, counseling, recommendations and services. Fourthly, some special strategies and approaches to guide and encourage graduates to serve the western region of China had been adopted by the central government to further perfect the new system. For instance, one of the well-known programs was the Voluntary Program of Graduates Serving

90 4 Admission and Graduate Employment the West that was initiated in 2003. Fifthly, the new system greatly contributed to the reform of teaching in HEIs, bringing it closer to the real needs of economic development (Zhou, 2008). With the rapid expansion of Chinese higher education and the further development of mass higher education in the past few years, the increasingly growing number of higher education graduates has been a great challenge to the MOE and other central ministries, provincial educational and non-educational administrative departments, individual HEIs, and the wider society. At the central level, there have been a number of special policies concerning the employment of higher education graduates for years: the Voluntary Program of Graduates Serving the West (since 2003), the program of graduates’ service at the grass roots (since 2005) and the internship system for higher education graduates (since 2006), to name but a few. The Voluntary Program of Graduates Serving the West was proposed by the MOE and other central departments in 2003 and thereafter it has been implemented for a couple of years. The aim of the program is to encourage higher education graduates to go to the western region of China, to work at the grass roots level, in the regions where highly educated and skilled workforces are badly needed. Through this special program, a great number of graduates not only have helped improve the disadvantaged conditions of education, health, and agricultural technology in the underdeveloped areas, but also have sought ways to get employed and create their own businesses in the western areas, right after their graduation. A total of 43,763, 49,615, 51,994, 55,347 graduates joined this voluntary program in 2003, 2004, 2005, and 2006 respectively. In 2007, over 53 percent of the graduates who joined the program had academic qualifications at the undergraduate level or above; and 53 percent of those were from the Western areas (Li, 2007). A program of graduates’ service at the grass roots has been implemented since 2005. Every year, 20,000 graduates are recruited to go to work in counties and towns across China to support the educational, agricultural and health services, and to assist the poor. They usually work at the grass roots for two or three years during which time they can get some subsidies from the governmental departments. Finishing this special service, they can seek other jobs freely or obtain certain jobs at the grass roots where they worked. According to relevant regulations, participants in this special program may enjoy some advantages when they sit for the State Examination for Public Servants or the National Entrance Examination for Postgraduate Students in the years to come (MOE, 2005). In 2008, there were a total of 118 programs being implemented by the central and local governments and a total of 140,000 higher

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education graduates working at the grass roots (Zhou, 2008). In February 2006, the probational system for higher education graduates was jointly initiated by the Ministry of Education, (MOE), the Ministry of Personnel (MOP), the Ministry of Finance (MOF), the Ministry of Labor & Social Security and the like. In general, in the beginning, a group of businesses and public sectors are expected to be selected as probational units participating in the pilot scheme of the probational system. Later, some eligible employers may become formal probational bases for higher education graduates. Probational bases will be assessed every three years. The probational period of every probationer will be six to twelve months and the probationers can obtain some living assistance from both the probational bases and the local departments of finance. At the end of the probational period, every probationer will be assessed and those who successfully complete the probation will be awarded certificates of probation (Ministry of Personnel, 2006).

4.3.2 Current situation Between 1998 and 2007, the number of graduates in Chinese regular higher education had grown dramatically. The total number of graduates at both undergraduate and specialized levels in 2007 was five times more than the number in 1998 (see Table 4.11).

Table 4.11 Number of Higher Education Graduates between 1998 and 2007

Regular HE Undergraduate & Adult HE Total Postgraduate Subtotal Specialized 1998 829,800 47,077 876,877 N* N 1999 847,600 54,700 902,300 888,200 1,790,500 2000 949,800 58,800 1,008,600 880,400 1,889,000 2001 1,036,300 67,800 1,104,100 930,600 2,034,700 2002 1,337,300 80,800 1,418,100 1,175,000 2,593100 2003 1,877,500 11,110 1,888,610 1,593,400 3,482,010 2004 2,391,200 150,800 2,542,000 1,896,200 4,438,200 2005 3,068,000 189.700 3,257,700 1,667,900 4,925,600 2006 3,774,700 255,900 4,030,600 N N 2007 4,477,900 311,800 4,789,700 1,764,400 6,554,100

Note: * N stands for no figure. Source: MOE. 19982007 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise, from http://www.moe.edu.cn.

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In 2008, the total number of graduates in regular HEIs reached 5,590,000, a 13 percent increase over the 2007 figure. It is estimated that there will be a total of 6,110,000 graduates in 2009. In 2008, the employment rate of graduates at short- cycle or tertiary vocational and technical colleges increased significantly; in fact, it was higher than the employment rate of graduates at undergraduate institutions in more than half of the provinces all over the country. Between 2007 and 2008 there was nearly 5 percent increase in the initial employment rate of graduates at short- cycle or tertiary vocational and technical colleges. This was a result of several educational reforms carried out at these institutions. It is generally thought that the cooperation between institutions and industries, the target-oriented training, the more effective internship, the practice-based teaching, the extended labor market and the reinforced career guidance at these institutions are most likely to have improved the students’ abilities to get employed (Zhou, 2008). According to a report made by MyCOS in 2008, the top ten specialties with high employment rate at undergraduate level included mechanical and electronic engineering, medical test, certified accountant, logistic engineering, architecture, and information security, etc. Among them, even the lowest employment rate reached 96.8 percent. On the other hand, the ten specialties with the lowest employment rate only belonged to two categories: arts and life sciences. The former covered fine arts, music, and musical performance, and the latter covered medicine, biology, and agriculture. In the same report, the top ten specialties with high employment rate at short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical colleges included energy resources, civil engineering, mechanics, chemical engineering, transportation, etc. Among the ten specialties with the lowest employment rate, many specialties belonged to the categories of education or policing (MyCOS Professional Survey, 2008). In order to improve the employment rate of higher education graduates, the MOE has set up several platforms for creating more potential employment opportunities for graduates. The following are two typical examples. On November 20th, 2006, the National Employment Network Alliance for Higher Education Graduates was jointly founded by the MOE, the MOP, the NDRC, and the like. The network alliance operates on the basis of a group of portal websites like the National Employment Service Information Network for Higher Education Graduates (http://www.myjob.edu.cn), the MOP Public Information Network for Manpower (http://www.chrm.gov.cn), the National Labor Market Network (http://www.lm.gov.cn), and the National Information Network for Medium-Sized and Small Businesses (http://www.sme.gov.cn) (MOE, 2006a). The network alliance’s main functions include offering employment information and hosting

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recruitment events for graduates. On April 25th, 2008, the National Public Service Platform for Higher Education Graduates was formally initiated at the MOE of the PRC. It is aimed at addressing the problem of asymmetric information on the supply and demand of graduates, utilizing the network technology, information technology and the resources of national system for students’ employment. It will center upon the real needs of both graduates and employers, taking full advantage of the educational sectors and other relevant sectors to carry out a wide range of services to improve the quality of career counseling for individual provinces, cities, businesses, and HEIs (MOE, 2008h). Considering the possible negative impacts of recent international financial crisis upon the employment of China’s higher education graduates, several major measures will be introduced by the MOE to promote employment prospects of the graduates of 2009. The following three measures reflect a continuity of the MOE’s employment policies for higher education graduates in recent years. First, all educational administrative departments currently are required to take active and effective measures to help every graduate to find a job. At the central level, the MOE has established a Steering Group for the Employment of higher education graduates, whose four group leaders are from several relevant departments of the MOE in charge of coordinating and facilitating the employment of higher education graduates. At the local level, both local educational administrative departments and individual HEIs are called upon to pay closer attention to track the current changing employment information so as to quickly respond to the employment need of each graduate. Second, all educational sectors are required to do everything possible to collect information about graduate employment needs of all sorts, in particular for the graduates in subjects that are negatively impacted by the economic situation. Employment information from medium-sized and small businesses will still be considered as the main source of employment for higher education graduates. Third, the level of employment information services will be elevated through opening more employment channels. In order to enhance the quality of employment services, reduce the cost of job-seekers, and strengthen the interaction of graduates’ supply and demand, the MOE’s National Public Service Platform for Higher Education Graduates will hold fifteen large-scale national online campaigns for the graduates of 2009 with the aid of the Ministry of Commerce, Ministry of Industry and Information, Ministry of Health and the like. At the same time, both the national platform and individual provincial employment information networks will launch monthly joint recruitment activities for graduates (MOE, 2008l).

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55 Specialized Higher Education

5.1 Overview

Specialized higher education in China is equivalent to the Level 4 post-secondary non-tertiary education in accordance with the revised 1997 International Standard Classification of Education (hereafter referred as the ISCED 1997). It includes two types of programs: short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs. The mission of specialized higher education has been to prepare students with basic knowledge and skills and initial capabilities for practical work in a specific field or occupation. Over the past thirty years, specialized higher education has seen tremendous changes and development in their missions and programs, curricula and particularly the modes of education. Before the introduction of specialized higher education, the following section gives a brief description about the levels and programs of tertiary education, which are the two basic axes underpinning the classification of higher education structure in Chapters 5, 6 and 7.

5.1.1 Levels of tertiary education In general, post-secondary education in China can be classified into three hierarchical levels: post-secondary non-tertiary education, first stage of tertiary education, and second stage of tertiary education, in accordance with the ISCED 1997. In November 1997, the General Conference of United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) adopted a revised version of the 1978 International Standard Classification of Education. The ISCED 1997 classified the hierarchy of a nation’s regular educational system into 7 levels, among which the postsecondary stages include Level 4: post-secondary non-tertiary education, Level 5: first stage of tertiary education, and Level 6: second stage of tertiary education (UNESCO, 1997). “The notion of ‘levels’ of education is taken to be broadly related to gradations of learning experiences and the competences which the contents of an educational program require of participants if they are to have a reasonable expectation of

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acquiring the knowledge, skills and capabilities that the program is designed to impart” (UNESCO, 1997: 15). Levels of education represent broad steps of educational progression from very elementary to more complex experiences, so that the more complex the program, the higher will be the level of education. The notion is based on the assumption that educational programs can be grouped into an ordered series of categories broadly corresponding to the overall knowledge, skills and capabilities required of participants if they are to have a reasonable expectation of successfully completing the programs in these categories. In China, the equivalent of the ISCED 1997 Level 4 is specialized higher education, which consists of two main types of program: short-cycle program and tertiary vocational and technical program. Both types of programs require two to three years of full-time study. Specialized higher education is provided in a variety of HEIs. Most short-cycle programs are delivered at short-cycle colleges (gaodeng zhuanke xuexiao), but some can also be found in universities and be provided through non-regular or non-formal education venues such as adult or continuing education. Tertiary vocational and technical programs are mostly offered through tertiary vocational and technical colleges (gaodeng zhiye jishu xueyuan), though some are also available in short-cycle colleges and universities. For data reporting purpose, enrollments in short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs are combined into one category: short-cycle enrollments. A balanced proportion of short-cycle and undergraduate enrollments would be advantageous for a nation’s socioeconomic development, even though it is contingent upon the particular stages of socioeconomic and higher education development. In reality, it varies widely across nations and economic development levels (Xie, 2007). In China, short-cycle enrollments had consistently been smaller than undergraduate (first-stage of tertiary education in China) enrollments. The slow growth of short-cycle enrollments could be attributed to many reasons. Ruth Hayhoe observed that the graduation qualifications offered by short-cycle programs were lower than those of undergraduate programs, and lower qualification held far less promise for political influence and prestige (Hayhoe, 1989: 36). Therefore, short- cycle programs were less attractive to students, higher education leaders, and ministries, all of whom wanted to see their particular knowledge area gain greater prominence. Others have attributed the lack of attractiveness of short-cycle programs to students and higher education leaders to the lower first-time employment rate (usually reported by HEIs in September) and lower starting salaries of graduates in comparison to those of undergraduate programs.

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Since 1985, central policies have indicated a consistent desire of the central government to alter the enrollment structure between undergraduate and short-cycle programs by considerably increasing the enrollment scale of short-cycle programs. The Decision on the Reform of the Education System, issued by the CPC Central Committee in 1985, required HEIs to “change the irrational ratio of enrollments between regular and short-cycle programs, and accelerating the expansion of short- cycle programs” (CPC Central Committee, 1985). The Outlines of Educational Reform and Development, issued by the CPC Central Committee and State Council in 1993, stated that “the enrollment of short-cycle programs should considerably increase; the focus of regular program should be on improving quality” (CPC Central Committee & State Council, 1993). Issued by the State Council in 1994, the Opinions on the Implementation of the Outlines gave a specific instruction to balance the total enrollment ratio of regular and short-cycle programs to 1: 2.5 (State Council, 1994). The purpose was to greatly increase the number of middle-level professional personnel with vocational and technical skills, which was in high demand driven by the growth and restructuring of the Chinese economy. Since the late 1990s, China has gradually achieved a relatively balanced proportion of regular and short-cycle programs of graduates, though still far from the desired ratio indicated in the above mentioned policies (see Fig. 5.1). The impetus for the rapid growth of short-cycle enrollment came from the expansion of higher education after 1999 and the creation of tertiary vocational and technical programs in the late 1990s.

Fig. 5.1 Enrollments in Regular HEIs by Levels of Program Sources: Educational Statistics Yearbook of China 19952005.

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5.1.2 Programs of tertiary education According to ISCED 1997, “educational programs are defined on the basis of their educational content as an array or sequence of educational activities which are organized to accomplish a pre-determined objective or a specified set of educational tasks” (UNESCO, 1997: 11). Objectives can, for example, be preparation for more advanced study, qualification for an occupation or range of occupations, or simply an increase of knowledge and understanding. Educational programs are not only distinguished by levels, but also organized around specialties, namely, the subfield of disciplines or broad fields of study. For data reporting purpose, there were eleven fields of study for higher education before 1994. They were engineering, teacher training, medicine/pharmacy, natural sciences, social sciences, agriculture, finance & economics, politics & law, forestry, physical education, and fine arts. In 1994, the fields of study in higher education were re-structured into the following ten categories: philosophy, economics, law, education, literature (including foreign Language and arts), history, science, engineering, agriculture, and medicine. In 2001, a new field of study, administration, was added. Therefore, there are currently eleven broad fields of study in higher education. Each field of study is further differentiated into a number of specialties, and each specialty includes a number of particular educational programs, which are also called majors or concentrations. For example, the field of engineering breaks down into 21 subfields of study or specialties: applied geology, materials science, mechanical engineering, instrument & meter, thermal & nuclear energy, electronics & information, civil engineering & architecture, hydraulics, survey & measure, environment and safety, chemical engineering & pharmaceutics, transportation, oceanic engineering, light industry, textile & food, aeronautics & astronautics, weaponry, engineering mechanics, biotechnology, agriculture engineering, forestry engineering, and public security technology (MOE, 2006b). Each specialty breaks down into a number of majors.

5.2 Missions and Programs

The Higher Education Law, enacted in 1998, defines the task of higher education thus: to train advanced specialized personnel with innovative spirit and practical capability, to develop science, technology and culture, and to promote socialist modernization (NPC, 1998: Article 5). The Higher Education Law divides higher education into three categories: specialized higher education, undergraduate education and postgraduate education. It defines the mission of specialized higher

98 5 Specialized Higher Education education as enabling “students to master the basic theory and basic knowledge essential for the respective specialty and acquire the basic skills and initial capability for the practical work of the respective specialty” (NPC, 1998: Article 16). It is obvious that the primary function of specialized higher education is to train middle-level technical manpower with minimum requisite theoretical foundation, basic technical skills and initial practical capability required for employment in a specific specialization. The mission and functions for specialized higher education has been consistent since the state restructured the higher education system based on that of the Soviet Union. The Provisional Regulation on Short-cycle Colleges, approved by the State Council in 1950, stated that short-cycle colleges should adopt the educational methods of unifying theory and practice, train specialized technicians (technical manpower) with a grasp of modern scientific and technological achievements. The duration of study should be two to three years (CESRI, 1983: 26). Comparing to the four-year undergraduate education, specialized higher education is shorter in terms of the duration of study, and hence, quicker in terms of producing graduates for taking up bottom-to-mid level positions in their line of specialization. Specialized higher education exhibits a greater emphasis on technical knowledge and skills and practical capability, and less emphasis on theoretical foundation. Currently, specialized higher education in China includes two main types of programs, namely, the two- to three-year short cycle program and the two- to three- year tertiary vocational and technical program. The two types of programs are quite similar in terms of their mission and function. However they exhibited rather different experiences of growth. Since the founding of the PRC, short-cycle programs had been established together with undergraduate programs to form the two-level structure of higher education at that time. Short-cycle programs are offered through short-cycle colleges designed for these type of programs and often at universities as well. In contrast, short-term vocational colleges only appeared in the 1980s, and their development gained momentum after 1999, which was the year higher education in China entered a super rapid period of expansion. In January 2000, the MOE issued an “Opinion on Strengthening Higher Vocational and Specialized Education” (MOE, 2000b), in which the tertiary vocational and technical program gained its formal title and recognition. Since then, tertiary vocational and technical programs rapidly expanded in terms of the number of HEIs offering these programs and enrollments. A special type of vocational and technical schools appeared in recent years. They admit graduates of junior high school and offer students a five-year program. Upon graduation, students are awarded a diploma or certificate of tertiary vocational and

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technical program. However, vocational and technical schools of this type are still small in number and scale. In 2000, there were a total of 1,041 public regular HEIs; among them, 599 universities offered undergraduate programs, 258 short-cycle colleges primarily offered short-cycle programs, and 184 tertiary vocational and technical colleges (MOE, 2000a). By 2006, the total number of HEIs reached 1,867 (including 276 private ones), among which 720 universities (including 29 private) mainly offered undergraduate programs, 166 short-cycle colleges (including 6 private) primarily offered short-cycle programs, and 981 (including 241 private) tertiary vocational and technical colleges (see Table 5.1). These figures showed a sharp growth in of the number of tertiary vocational and technical colleges and a steep decline of short- cycle colleges.

Table 5.1 Number of Regular HEIs by Level and Fields of Study in 2006

Universities & Short-cycle Tertiary vocational & Total colleges colleges technical colleges Total 1,867 720 166 981 Comprehensive 417 150 6 261 Natural Sciences & 666 193 29 444 Technology Agriculture 75 33 2 40 Forestry 18 6 1 11 Medicine/Pharmacy 128 77 40 11 Teacher Training 178 122 51 5 Language & Literature 36 14 1 21 Finance & Economics 172 50 19 103 Political Science & Law 67 20 16 31 Physical Culture 27 14 1 12 Art 68 29 0 39 Ethnic Nationality 15 12 0 3 Of total: private 276 29 6 241

Source: (MOE, 2006b).

The sharp decrease in the number of short-cycle colleges could be attributed to two main reasons. The first is poor articulation of their mission and goals and their implementation. In spite of its long history, the articulation of the mission and goals of the short-cycle programs has been less clear than those of the recently developed tertiary vocational and technical programs. Even though their mission and goals are defined as clearly as that of the specialized higher education in the Higher Education

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Law, their implementation has been less clear and straightforward. The mission and goals of many short-cycle programs broadened to include that of preparation of graduates for further study and research. The short-cycle programs offered at many HEIs and in a number of fields have been criticized for adopting a shortened version of undergraduate programs, putting too much emphasis on theoretical foundation, and neglecting their core function of transmitting practical application knowledge and skills. On the other hand, the recently developed tertiary vocational and technical program articulates that it is employment-oriented with service as its principle and the unity of production and teaching as its development strategy, and it will actively adapt to the demands of local economic and social development (MOE, 2004b). Tertiary vocational and technical colleges adopt employment-orientation as their objective, identify their position in the development of local economy and profession, and focus on producing advanced technical manpower (gaojineng rencai) with strong practical capabilities, technology application capabilities, and excellent professional moral values, in view of manufacturing, construction, management and service industries. In practice, tertiary vocational and technical programs seemed to fulfill their mission and goals. The articulation and fulfillment of the emphasis on employment-orientation is highly attractive to students and parents and higher education leaders in an increasingly competitive labor market. Second, since the late 1990s, the central government policies have demonstrated strong preferences for the development of tertiary vocational and technical colleges over that of short-cycle colleges. Such preferences are indicative through the sharp increase of tertiary vocational and technical colleges in Table 5.1. Moreover, the MOE, in conjunction with other central ministries, has issued several influential policies supporting the development of tertiary vocational and technical education. Most importantly, the MOE has earmarked funding for the development of approximately 100 model tertiary vocational and technical colleges by 2010. Strong government policy preferences and earmarked funding have significantly stimulated the growth of tertiary vocational and technical programs. Structural elements of an educational program mainly include, but are not limited to, entrance requirements, required education, formal stages within a course program, possibilities of transfer, sequences of assessment, graduation requirements, types of diplomas or degrees conferred, and subsequent education or destination. Entrance Requirements. For both types of programs of specialized higher education, the minimum academic entrance requirements are the same, including qualifications and benchmark scores of the National College Entrance Examination. Typical entrance qualifications include the Senior High School Graduation Diploma,

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the Senior Secondary Vocational School Graduation Diploma, or their equivalents. All types of qualifications require the completion of 12 years of full-time basic education. Since children normally start formal schooling at the age of six, the minimum age requirement for entrance is normally 18 years of age. Before the 1980s, the state also placed a limit on the maximum age for entry into regular HEIs, which was 29 years of age. Those who were older than 29 years of age could only enter adult HEIs. After the 1980s, the maximum age limit was lifted in an effort to break down the rigid wall separating regular and adult higher education, as well as to promote life long learning. Required Education. Both types of programs require a specified number of courses on theoretical, technical, practical knowledge and skills (see curricula), and a substantive and structured period of practical training or internship. In general, both types of programs require full-time matriculation of students and discourage part- time study. Part-time programs are often offered through continuing education departments and non-formal educational venues such as distance education or self- study examination. Formal Stages within a Course Program. Partly due to their shorter time frame, the sequence and progression of courses, internship and other activities are quite structured in the short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs. Depending on the design of the program, theoretical and technical courses may either proceed to or intertwine with practical training oriented courses and activities such as observation, laboratory class, and internship. However, it is entirely up to the institution to decide whether there should be formal arrangement and requirements among different stages of a program, which varies tremendously among different programs and HEIs. Sequences of Assessment. It is arranged in concurrence with the stages of progression of the program. Courses are arranged in terms of two or three semesters per school year, and each semester includes a specified number of courses. The promotion from first year to second year depends on successful completion of a specified number or percentage of the first year’s courses by assessment. If a student failed in the final examination of a course, he or she is usually offered a second chance of taking a supplementary final exam. If the failed courses reached a designated cumulated number or percentage, the student will be denied a diploma or certificate of graduation, receiving only a proof of study (yiye zhengshu). Possibilities of Transfer. There is little possibility of transfer between short- cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs, mainly due to the similarity in the mission and features of the two types of programs. There is a rare possibility of

102 5 Specialized Higher Education transfer between tertiary vocational and technical programs and undergraduate programs. The mission and goals of tertiary vocational and technical programs are crystal clear, namely, the preparation of graduates for employment in a given occupation, often with an entry qualification certificate into that occupation in hand. The primary function of both short-cycle programs and tertiary vocational and technical programs are to train mid-level manpower for immediate employment in a specific specialization or occupation. In other words, they are not designed to prepare graduates for further study or education. The next higher level of educational program, undergraduate program, does not require a completion of short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical program for entry. In fact the three types of programs have the same entrance requirements, except that the entrants admitted into undergraduate programs requiring a much higher score in the National College Entrance Examination. The mission and goals of short-cycle programs have been less clearly defined. In the past, a transfer between short-cycle programs and undergraduate programs was prohibited. However, in recent years, many short-cycle programs incorporated a mechanism of providing an opportunity for a small percentage of their graduates to progress into the higher level of education, namely, undergraduate education, in order to broaden its mission or to attract the academically more ambitious students. Such mechanism is negotiated by the two concerned short-cycle and undergraduate programs depending on the percentage (numbers) of graduates allowed for transfer and the credits recognized, etc. Such a transfer is usually between two similar, if not the same programs. The negotiated mechanism of transfer is subject to change for many reasons on the part of both parties. Moreover, the number of short-cycle program students who could transfer to undergraduate programs is very small. For example, the percentage of short-cycle program graduates transferred to undergraduate programs was less than 2 percent in Zhejiang Province in 2004 (Zhang, 2007: 36). Graduation Requirements and Certification. For both types of program, graduation requires only satisfactory completion of all course works and practical training; a few require a thesis. Some program may require a graduation project or design. After the completion of the program and satisfaction of all graduation requirements, students receive a diploma or certificate of graduation. Graduates of tertiary vocational and technical colleges may also leave with one or more qualification certificates for a certain occupation. Subsequent Education or Destination. The program orientation of specialized higher education in China is technical or vocational. Graduates of specialized higher

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education are prepared for specific types of labor market positions rather than further education at the next higher level. The program orientation refers to the degree to which the program is specifically oriented, towards a specific class of occupations or trades. By orientation, the ISCED 1997 subdivides educational programs into the following three categories (UNESCO, 1997: 25-26): • General education is mainly designed to lead participants to a deeper understanding of a subject or group of subjects, especially, but not necessarily, with a view to preparing participants for further (additional) education at the same or a higher level. Successful completion of these programs may or may not provide the participants with a labor-market relevant qualification at this level. These programs are typically school-based. • Pre-vocational or pre-technical education is mainly designed to introduce participants to the world of work and to prepare them for entry into vocational or technical education programs. Successful completion of such programs does not yet lead to a labor-market relevant vocational or technical qualification. For a program to be considered as pre-vocational or pre-technical education, at least 25 percent of its content has to be vocational or technical. • Vocational or technical education is mainly designed to lead participants to acquire the practical skills, know-how and understanding necessary for employment in a particular occupation or trade or class of occupations or trades. Successful completion of such programs leads to a labor-market relevant vocational qualification recognized by the competent authorities in the country in which it is obtained (e.g., MOE, employers’ associations, etc.).

5.3 Curriculum

5.3.1 Structure of the curriculum The curricular structure and content of specialized higher education is characterized by its emphasis on the acquisition of specialized knowledge and skills and the development of technology application capabilities and practical capabilities. The teaching of theoretical foundation knowledge is auxiliary, primarily for the purpose of facilitating the acquisition of specialized knowledge and skills. The opinion on strengthening higher vocational and specialized education, enacted in January 2000, states that the curricular structure and content of specialized higher education should follow the fundamental principle of practice-orientation (MOE, 2000b). The primary purpose of practical instruction is to develop the students’ technology application capability, and practical instruction should constitute

104 5 Specialized Higher Education a significant proportion in the total amount of instruction. It further points out that for specialized higher education, curricula and instruction should emphasize applicability and practicality, as well as the unity of humanities and social sciences with technical education. Instruction should highlight the application of theoretical foundation knowledge and the training of practical capability. The teaching of theoretical foundation knowledge is targeted towards application, and the amount of theoretical foundation knowledge should follow the principle of necessity and sufficiency. The instruction of specialized knowledge should heighten practicality and focus. In specialized higher education, practical instruction is expected to constitute a significant proportion of the total instruction. The Opinion on the Principle for Formulating Educational Plan of Short-cycle and Tertiary Vocational and Technical Programs specifically sets out that (MOE, 2000c): For three-year programs, the total hours of course instruction should be between 1,600 and 1,800 hours; for two-year programs, the total hours of course instruction should be between 1,100 and 1,200 hours. For three-year programs, the hours of practical instruction should not be less than 40 percent of the total course instruction hours; while the hours of practical instruction in two-year programs should not be less than 30 percent of the total. Table 5.2 presents a breakdown of the curricula of two three-year short-cycle programs in two HEIs, which provides an illustration of the structure of the curricula of short-cycle programs. Drawing from the same specialization of business management, one program focuses on accounting computerization (A) in Jiangsu Teachers University of Technology (2005), while the other is about financial management (F) in of International Business and Economics (2008).

Table 5.2 Sample Curricula of Two Three-Year Short-cycle Programs

Type of Category of No. of Credits Instructional hours School courses courses courses No. % Total Theory Practical Common 13 59 38 952 808 144 Specialization Compul- 17 61 40 976 768 208 sory foundation Practical training / A 5 23 15 368 368* internship Specialization 4 10 6 160 160 330 Electives Common 1 1 1 16 16 Total 154 2,472 1,752 1,050

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(continued) Type of Category of No. of Credits Instructional hours School courses courses courses No. % Total Theory Practical Common 9 40 30 714 330 384 Specialization Compul- 15 50 37 812 756 56 sory foundation & core Practical training/ 7 29 21 464 464* F internship Electives Electives (specialization & 8 16 12 256 256 common) Total 135 2,246 1,342 904

Note: *Originally, practical training/internship was only counted in terms of week. The hours are calculated by multiplying the number of credits with the average number of hour per credit in that college.

Table 5.2 indicates that the curriculum of a short-cycle program generally consists of four categories of courses: common, specialization foundation/core, specialization elective and practical training / internship. It is clear from Table 5.2 that common courses make up about one third of the total credits required for graduation. Common courses generally include political theories, morality and ethics, employment guidance, physical education and basic skills such as language, math and computer application. The central part of both programs is made up of compulsory specialization foundation / core course and electives. In program A, these courses make up 46 percent of the total credits, while in program F, they make up from 39 percent to 49 percent of the total credit. In program F, students are free to choose 8 out of 16 elective courses, which include both specialization and common courses. Practical training or internship makes up 15 to 21 percent of the total credits. However, many common and specialization courses incorporate practical training and laboratory components. The total instructional hours of practical nature make up 40 percent to 42 percent in the total instructional hours, which is consistent with the requirement of the “Opinion on the Principle for Formulating Educational Plan of Short-cycle and Tertiary vocational and technical programs”. The structure of the curriculum in these two programs reveal an emphasis on technical knowledge and skills, application of technology and practical capability in a specialization. It strongly reflects the objective of short-cycle programs, which is to train mid-level specialized technical manpower for a particular specialty. In both curricula, the percentage of elective courses is quite small, taking up only 11 percent or 12 percent of the total credits. It is indicative of the highly structured nature of the short-cycle program. Students have little control over course selection.

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Curricula of specialized higher education revealed narrow specialization, and little integration or cross-fertilization between specialties. From the courses listed in Table 5.3, it is apparent that both programs are narrowly focused. There are strong boundaries among different specialties. Almost all courses offered in program A are confined within the specialty, with little interaction with other specialties and fields of study. In program F, students are allowed to take courses outside the specialty through common elective courses such as Social Psychology, Communication & Presentation, Literature Appreciation, and Public Speaking, etc. However, these elective courses made up a very small proportion of the total courses.

Table 5.3 Sample Courses of Specialized Higher Education

School Type Course titles Morality & Basics of Law, Marxist Principles, Marxist Theories in China, Employment & Entrepreneurial Guidance, Military Theory, Common Calculus, Linear Algebra, College English, College Chinese, courses Computer Application Basics, Probability & Statistics, Physical Education, Calligraphy Macro Economics, Micro Economics, Database, Computer Networking, Economics Law, Statistical Principles, Finance and Tax, Specialization Accounting Basics, Business Accounting, Advanced Accounting, foundation Accounting for Management Control, Auditing, Cost Accounting, A Financial Management, Accounting Computerization, Application of Accounting Software, Accounting Statement Analysis Specialization Budget Accounting, Business Management Introduction, Financial electives Writing, E-Commerce Common Open electives Practical Social Investigation, Military Training and Orientation, Accounting training/ Simulation Internship, Internship, Graduation Project (Thesis) internship Morality & Basics of Law, Political Theories, Political Trends & Common Policies, Vocational Ethics & Employment Guidance, College courses English, College English: Oral & Listening, Computer Basics, Advanced Math, Physical Education Accounting Basics, Marketing, Management, Currency & Banking, Specialization Cost Accounting, Tax Laws, Economics Laws, Statistics, Financial foundation & Accounting (I), Financial Accounting (II), Financial Management, core Accounting Computerization, International Finance, Stock Investment, F Financial Analysis Health Education, Social Psychology, Communication & Presentation, Electives Literature Appreciation, Public Speech, Expository Composition, (specialization Budget Accounting, Auditing, Advanced Accounting, Bank & common) Accounting, Foreign Trade Accounting, Financial Market, Project Management, International Business Practical Military Training, Volunteer Activities, Internship, Graduation training/ Project (Thesis), Basic Accounting Simulation Training, Industrial internship Accounting Simulation Training

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The content of practical instruction is expected to incorporate the most recent outcomes and accomplishments of scientific, technological and societal development. The opinion on strengthening higher vocational and specialized education states: “The content of practical instruction should reduce the amount of exhibitory or confirmatory laboratory classes, increase the amount of operative, designing, and comprehensive laboratory classes, and gradually achieve the unity of basic practical capability and operative techniques, application capability of specialized technology and specialized techniques, and comprehensive practical capability and comprehensive techniques.” (MOE, 2000b) The emphasis on specialized knowledge and skills, application and practical capabilities is congruent with the objective and function of specialized higher education, which is to produce practice-oriented specialized manpower good at applying advanced technology. Graduates are expected to master adequate amount of theoretical foundation knowledge, develop strong technology application capability, and acquire a broad knowledge base. In recent years, to increase the competitiveness of their graduates, several short- cycle colleges began to broaden the scope of specialty and incorporate features of tertiary vocational and technical programs in their curricula. For example, the preparation courses for occupational qualification certificates. For example, the three- year program of Tourism Management at Ningbo City College of Vocational Technology (2007), (see Table 5.4), has broadened the scope of specialty by providing two modules of specialization courses for students. The combined credits of specialization-free and other free electives accounted for 47.9 percent of the total credits. Second, the curriculum includes a module of occupational qualification certificate, from which students can choose to prepare for at least one of six occupational qualification certificates. The college organizes training and preparation courses for taking the certifying examination of these occupational qualification certificates. Therefore, graduates will have both a diploma of graduation and at least one occupational qualification certificate in hand upon graduation, which will enhance their competitiveness in the job market.

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Table 5.4 Short-cycle Program Curriculum Structure in Tourism Management

Type of courses Credit % Hours % Common courses 17 14.3 272 10.2 Compul- Industry foundation 16 13.4 256 9.6 sory Specialization foundation 15 12.6 240 9.0 Subtotal 48 40.3 768 28.7 Specialization module 10 8.4 160 6.0 Theo- Occupational qualification retical 2 1.7 32 1.2 certificate module Elective Specialization free elective 3 2.5 48 1.8 Other free elective 8 6.7 128 4.8 Subtotal 23 19.3 368 13.8 Total 71 59.7 1,136 42.5 Common courses 11.5 9.7 368 13.8 Compul- Industry foundation 0 0.0 0 0.0 sory Specialization foundation 2.5 2.1 80 3.0 Subtotal 14 11.8 448 16.8 Elective Specialization module 31.5 26.5 1,008 37.7 Prac- Occupational qualification tical 1.5 1.3 48 1.8 certificate module Specialization free elective 1 0.8 32 1.2 Other free elective 0 0.0 0 0.0 Subtotal 34 28.6 1,088 40.7 Total 48 40.3 1,536 57.5 Grand Total 119 100.0 2,672 100.0

The curricula of specialized higher education exhibited high-level instrumentality. From the beginning, short-cycle programs were established to produce mid-level technical manpower for specifically anticipated positions in the economy and society, as set out in the Five-Year Plan. Ever since the implementation of reform and opening-up policies in 1978, great emphasis has been laid upon short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges to proactively and flexibly adapt to the society’s needs, particularly the needs of local economic and social development. Their specialties and programs are expected to fulfill the actual needs of technical and vocational positions.

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5.3.2 Sequence of courses in the curriculum In general, the sequence of courses in the curricula of short-cycle programs is arranged in such a way that common courses precede specialization courses, and practical training is spread across the entire period of study.

5.3.3 Degree of control over curricular content Students. The curricula of the short-cycle programs show they are highly structured. There are limited numbers of elective courses available for students to select from, particularly free elective courses. Most of the elective courses were restricted ones. Therefore, students had little control over their curricular content. Colleges and Programs. Before 1985, the establishment and adjustment of specialties and programs required the approval of the MOE. Since 1985, the decision-making power of establishing and adjusting specialties for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs has been gradually delegated to provincial departments of education or its appropriate central administrative departments. Short- cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges apply to the provincial departments of education for the review and approval of any new field of study or specialty. Short-cycle colleges and tertiary vocational and technical colleges have autonomy to establish programs under approved specialties and fields of study. Once a program, specialty or field of study gains approval, it is considered to be officially recognized and accredited. Within colleges, program directors hold control over curricula.

5.4 Establishment and Adjustment of Specialties

In order to standardize the set up of specialties and programs, the MOE drew up a general catalog of fields of study in 1963 for every HEI and level of program. Since then, the MOE carried out several major revisions of the catalog. A specific catalog for undergraduate programs was issued in the 1980s. However, specific catalogs for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs were only issued in particular fields of study, for example engineering. It was not until October 2004 that the MOE published a catalog of fields of study for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs. The catalog listed a total of 19 fields of study under which were a total of 78 specialties and 531 programs (see Table 5.5) (MOE, 2004a).

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Table 5.5 Catalog of Fields of Study for Short-cycle and Tertiary Vocational and Technical Education

Fields of study Specialties Programs Agriculture, Forestry, Husbandry, Fishery 5 38 Communication & Transportation 7 51 Biochemistry & Drugs 4 23 Resource Development, Surveying & Mapping 6 45 Materials & Energy 3 21 Civil Engineering 7 27 Hydraulic 4 19 Manufacturing 4 32 Electronic Information 3 29 Environment Protection, Meteorology & Safety 3 15 Light Industry & Foods 4 25 Finance & Economics 5 36 Medicine & Health 5 27 Tourism 2 8 Public Affairs 3 24 Culture & Education 3 39 Art Design & Media 3 30 Public Safety 4 29 Law 3 13 Total number 78 531

Each program in the catalog is defined by a brief introduction (jianjie), which sets out the main objectives, required core capabilities, required core courses and practical training component, sub programs / concentrations allowed, targeted areas / positions of employment, and others (such as the type of occupational qualification certificates available in the area). The catalog functions as a guideline, within which a HEI has the freedom to create its own curriculum, course outlines and to select the textbooks and teaching materials as it sees fit. The catalog of fields of study for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education in Table 5.5 reveals that they all belong to the fields of applied science, technological application, and services. Theoretical and research-oriented specialties in the fields of science, social science and humanities are absent in the catalog. For example, specialties of philosophy, history, pure chemistry or physics are

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not available in the catalog of fields of study for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education. The brief introduction of each program definition also shows that the objectives, core capabilities, core courses and practical training component are all geared towards applied and technical occupations and occupations in the service industry. The set up of these fields of study closely reflects the objectives of short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical education, namely to train mid-level technical manpower for immediate employment. Short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs are offered in all the 11 fields of study used for statistical reporting purposes. However, the distribution of enrollments among fields of study has seen dramatic changes between the early 1980s and the present. In terms of statistical reporting, enrollments in short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs are combined into one category, short- cycle enrollments. Even though the data reporting categories have changed since the 1994 as indicated in Table 5.6, the change in the enrollment patterns among broad fields of study still illustrate the changing focus and emphasis of specialized higher education. As noted earlier, specialized higher education has always been closely related to the needs of economic and social development. In 1982, the majority of students (62.2 percent) enrolled in teacher training, because they were the sole source for all primary school teachers and most secondary school teachers. However, the percentage of short-cycle enrollments in teacher training dropped significantly to a mere 8.3 percent in 2006, because of the growth of undergraduate programs in the field and a growing number of secondary and primary schools were staffed by undergraduates. Nowadays graduation from an undergraduate program has become one of the entry requirements for the majority of secondary and primary schools in urban areas. In 1982, enrollments in the fields of engineering, medicine, economics, and agriculture made up 33.5 percent of the total, which reflected the objective of short-cycle programs in training mid-level specialized technical personnel. In 2006, the fields of engineering, administration and literature saw a great increase in the number and percentage of short-cycle program enrollments. The percentage of their enrollments all exceeded 10 percent, the highest percentage reached was 40 (for engineering). Such a dramatic increase of enrollments is driven by the needs of economic and social development. With the growth of market economy and the expansion of secondary and tertiary industries, the demand for mid- level technical and managerial personnel trained in the fields of engineering, administration and literature increased tremendously. Changes in enrollments in the other fields are rather small.

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Table 5.6 Short-cycle Enrollments by Fields of Study

1982 2006 Fields Number % Fields Number % Teacher Training 139,916 62.2 Engineering 3,185,116 40.0 Engineering 35,451 15.8 Administration 1,768,942 22.2 Medicine & Pharmacy 19,771 8.8 Literature 964,902 12.1 Finance & Economics 10,639 4.7 Education 690,192 8.7 Agriculture 9,563 4.2 Medicine 579,810 7.3 Humanities 4,014 1.8 Economics 346,913 4.4 Natural Sciences 1,992 0.9 Law 269,083 3.4 Political Science & 2,073 0.9 Agriculture 143,539 1.8 Law Physical Culture 630 0.3 Science 6,549 0.1 Art 552 0.2 Philosophy 0 0.0 Forestry 452 0.2 History 0 0.0 Total 225,053 100.0 Total 7,955,046 100.0 Of total: Teacher   663,926 8.3 Training

Sources: 1982 data were from Department of Planning, MOE, 1984: 60-61; 2006 data were from MOE, 2006b.

5.5 Modes of Education

Specialized higher education is at the level of tertiary education, where the most innovative and creative approaches or modes of education have emerged in the past three decades. The traditional mode of education for short-cycle programs follows that of the undergraduate program, in which common and foundation courses precede specialty courses and practical training or internship is arranged at the end of the program. It is the typical mode of “Learning before Doing”. The instruction of theory, knowledge, and technique comes before the application of theory and knowledge and the training of practical capability. The logic in the traditional mode of education follows the internal rule of education and logical progress of knowledge and skills within a specific specialty or discipline. Since the 1990s, with the rapid growth of specialized higher education, short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs demonstrated tremendous impetus in initiating new and innovative modes of education. Some of the innovative modes of education introduced in specialized

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higher education include the Alternative Work and Study Mode, College-industry Collaborative Mode, Employment / Position-oriented or Made-to-order Mode, Platform plus Module Mode, and Learning by Doing Mode.

5.5.1 Alternative Work and Study Mode Modeled after the Cooperative Education in the US and the Sandwich mode of education in the UK, the Alternative Work and Study mode of education (also called the Unity of Work and Study) has been one of the first innovations introduced in the mode of education for specialized higher education. Advocating the use of systematic field-based learning, the heart of the Alternative Work and Study Mode is the alternation of periods of full-time study and full-time work. Instead of arranging one period of full-time internship at the end of a program, the Alternative Work and Study Mode interweaves one or two periods of full-time work experience with the entire period of full-time course study. Due to the additional full-time work arrangement, a typical Alternative Work and Study program is usually longer than traditional program. For example, a tertiary vocational and technical program normally lasts two years. If it adopts the Alternative Work and Study mode, it becomes at least three years long. In such a program, the alternate arrangement of study and work usually follows the example in Table 5.7. In addition to the end of program internship, one or two periods of full-time work is interwoven with full-time study. For a three-year short-cycle program to adopt the Alternate Work and Study Mode, the program usually extends its duration for one or two semesters to accommodate the increase in the amount of time on internship. The alternation between work and study is intended as a positive cyclical feedback mechanism for identifying inadequate or missing knowledge and abilities through work, enabling subsequent study to be more focused from such feedbacks, and enhancing the quality and productivity of future work experiences.

Table 5.7 Two Typical Three-year Alternate Work and Study Arrangements

1st semester 2nd semester 3rd semester 4th semester 5th semester 6th semester Study Work Study Work Study Work Study Study Work Study Study Work

A characteristic of work in the Alternate Work and Study Mode is the requirement of substantive full-time work experience. By substantive, it usually requires a full semester4four months or longer, six months. The rationale is that the true understanding of real work environment can only be acquired through

114 5 Specialized Higher Education substantial involvement over a period of time. During the kind of short-period, sporadic or part-time works, students seldom have an opportunity to engage in the core activities or functions of the work place. Moreover, a lot of the Alternate Work and Study programs require the work place to provide a designated advisor for students, providing supervision, guidance and evaluation.

5.5.2 College-industry Collaborative Mode In this mode, a short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical program involves the industry as a partner in the design of the program (such as the formulation of curricula) as well as in the execution of the program, including provision of practical training sites and facilities, internship opportunities, and even instructors on specialty or practical skills courses. For example, founded by the Geely automobile group in 2000, the Beijing Geely University was a private comprehensive university mainly providing full-time tertiary vocational and technical education. Taking advantage of its automobile industry background, the Beijing Geely University has created several unique specialty groupings such as automobile technology, business and trade and cultural business, offering more than 100 specialties. “Since its founding, the university has been advocating a conceptual transformation, shifting the emphasis in education from fields of study to fields of technological and practical application. The project ‘311’ has been such a product” (Beijing Geeley University, 2007). It is the university’s brand-name project and the name of the project, “311”, means 3 compulsory foundation courses (practical Chinese, practical English, and practical computer application), 1 module of vocational ethics, and 1 module of specialty courses designed on the basis of positions or occupations (Shao, 2008). The university not only involves the Geely automobile group and other industries in its program design, either through consultation or participation, but also depends on these industries for providing practical training sites, facilities, and supervision.

5.5.3 Employment / Position-oriented or Made-to-order Mode These two are highly specific or narrowly focused mode of education for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs. In the Employment / Position- oriented Mode, the HEI first analyzes the employment requirements of a particular position or occupation, and then designs its program curriculum and practical training or internship in accordance with such particular requirements. In the Made-to-order Mode, the HEI designs its program and curricula in accordance with the type of graduates the employer ordered from the HEI. The Made-to-order Mode is even more specific in its objective and narrowly focused in the curriculum design. The two

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modes often incorporate the training and preparation for acquiring job-specific occupational qualification certificates as an integral component of the program. The strength of these programs has been the performance of their students in national or local occupational qualification exams. The passing rates of students in these programs are much higher than individual exam takers. For example, by integrating the course instruction with occupational qualification exam, 87 out of 98 students (88 percent) of the class 2004 from the Zhejiang Financial Professional College passed the national exam for International Commercial Documents in June 2006 (Zhang, 2007:139). The program’s 88 percent passing rate was significantly higher than the national average of 62.8 percent in that year.

5.5.4 Platform plus Module Mode The Platform plus Module Mode divides an educational program into two parts. The platform part includes common and foundation courses, aimed at providing a broad and general foundation for all students in a specialty or program, while the module refers to the specialty module selected by each student, aimed at providing advanced specialty courses and practical training. There are often several modules available for students to choose from. This mode allows each student a certain degree of individuality and flexibility in the curriculum formation, while ensuring consistency of the program. In contrast to the emphasis on specificity of the Employment- oriented Mode, the Platform plus Module Mode emphasizes the unity of general theory and knowledge and specialty knowledge and capabilities. They are at the two opposite ends of the continuum from specificity to generality. It represents an emphasis on individuality and flexibility as well as breadth. The Platform plus Module Mode has several mutated versions. For examples, the business management program in Zhejiang Financial Professional College adopted a “1+1+1” mode of education since 2004. The “1+1+1” mode stands for 1 year of broad disciplinary foundation course, 1 year of specialty course instruction, and 1 year of practical training projects.

5.5.5 Learning by Doing Mode In contrast to the Learning before Doing, the Learning by Doing Mode of education emphasizes learning knowledge and skills while actually doing the job. It is also referred to as on-the-job learning mode. The Learning by Doing Mode often applies to specialties whose graduates tend to work in the tertiary industry areas such as financial management, marketing, and other service areas. The knowledge bases in these areas are situation-specific and volatile, unlike the rather stable knowledge

116 5 Specialized Higher Education bases in the first and second industry. One of the core specialty and professional capabilities essential for employment in the tertiary industry is interpersonal competence, including communication, interaction, presentation and organization. These professional capabilities are more of an art rather than a technique that can be taught in class or through simulation. Therefore, these specialties often adopt the Learning by Doing Mode of education. The mode emphasizes the training of social and interpersonal competence of students in real working environment. The social and interpersonal skills include skills of communication, interaction, coordination, and adaptation, which are essential skills for the organization, coordination, advertising and marketing activities in business management, for instance. The practical training emphasizes the authenticity of the task and working environment as well as the openness of the training system. The mode often adopts task-driven, fault- finding, and error-trial methods of instruction. It is important to note that the majority of short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical programs adopt more than one mode of education. For example, the above mentioned Ningbo City College of Vocational Technology combined the Platform plus Module Mode and the Employment-Oriented Mode. The Alternate Work and Study Mode often co-exits with the College-industry Collaborative Mode. Each of these innovative modes of education has its unique features and is appropriate for use in specific specialties. However, these modes have one feature in common. It is the emphasis on practical training or internship by a variety of ways, which include in- school training facilities, simulation laboratories, or real working environment. The state encourages HEIs to establish model practical training or internship facilities or sites on their own, or in collaboration with other HEIs, industries and other entities.

5.6 The Management System of Teaching

In January 2000, the management system of teaching for short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical colleges received an official guideline as the MOE published the Keynote for the Management of Teaching in Short-cycle College, Tertiary Vocational and Technical College, and Adult HEIs as an appendix to the opinion on strengthening tertiary vocational and specialized education (MOE, 2000b). The document included regulations about the organizational structure of the management of teaching, the management of educational plans, operation of teaching, quality management and evaluation, instructor management, and others. The management of teaching at short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical colleges include the management of educational plans, operation process of teaching,

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assessment of instructional quality, instructor management, and the management of laboratories, practical training base/site and teaching materials. The organization structure of the management of teaching includes a leadership structure and an administrative structure. The leadership system for teaching is headed by the president of a college and assisted by a vice-president in charge of teaching. The guiding principles, long-term plans, major reform initiatives and important policies about teaching and its management are decided at the college working meetings (attended by the president, vice-presidents, and department chairs) under the unified leadership of the CPC committee in the college. Some colleges set up a teaching committee, made up of experienced teachers and administrators, for carrying out research on teaching and resolving major issues in the administration of teaching. Short-cycle and tertiary vocational and technical colleges have a three-level administrative structure for teaching: teaching and research office (jiaoyanshi), department, and college. The teaching and research office is the basic unit for organizing teaching affairs. It is usually set up in accordance with educational programs, some even with curricula or courses. Since departments are commonly organized by specialties or disciplines, each department has several teaching and research offices. The main responsibilities and tasks of the teaching and research office are to implement teaching activities, carry out instructional research in accordance with educational plans, and enhance the quality of teaching and level of scholarship. It is up to the college to decide whether to establish a teaching and research office as the basic unit for organizing teaching or not. Individual colleges can authorize departments or other bodies to organize teaching as they see fit. The department chair is fully responsible for the administration of teaching in his or her department. Depending on the circumstances, a department often appoints teaching sectaries or officers to be in charge of the daily administration of teaching affairs. At the college level, teaching affairs are administered by the department of teaching administration (jiaowuchu). As the main functional department for teaching administration, the department of teaching administration is responsible for a variety of teaching activities, including, but not limited to, educational plans, instructional outlines, operation of teaching, and students’ academic status. Educational plans are overall designs for each program, essential documents for guaranteeing teaching quality, and the basis for organizing teaching process and arranging teaching tasks. A typical educational plan covers the program’s objectives, the educational requirements and structure of knowledge, capability, and quality, the duration of study, course arrangement, progress of teaching, assessment, and

118 5 Specialized Higher Education necessary explanations. Educational plans are autonomously created by individual departments or academic programs in accordance with guidelines and requirements issued by the college’s department of teaching administration. The draft educational plans are reviewed by the teaching committee or academic committee and then submitted to the president or the vice-president in charge of teaching for approval. Once an educational plan is approved, it is expected to be faithfully implemented. The department of teaching administration centrally regulates the implementation of educational plans including mapping out the course progress semester-wise, arranging classrooms and other facilities for course instruction or other teaching activities for each semester, and assessments at the end of each semester. In accordance with each program’s educational plan, at the end of a semester, the department of teaching administration draws up and publishes the academic schedule, class schedule, and examination schedule for the next semester, ensuring the smooth operation of teaching. Each department is responsible for carrying out the educational plans and assigning course instructors. The operational management of teaching refers to the management of course instruction and administration of regulations and requirements about course and laboratory instruction, practical instruction, course design, graduation design (thesis). Each course has a teaching outline, which is compiled by the course instructor and approved by administrative departments of teaching at the department or college level. A typical teaching outline includes course objectives, content, basic requirements, practical teaching component and its requirements, requirements for students, assessment, and other necessary explanations. In terms of the daily operation of teaching, each teaching and research office draws up a working plan at the beginning of a semester, organizing collective lesson preparation, open instruction, political study, teaching, and research activities, as well as inspecting and evaluating the instructional progress and conditions on a regular basis. Each department holds meetings with heads of teaching and research offices and course instructors on a regular basis to discuss the progress of teaching and issues that emerge. The department of teaching administration assists the vice- president in charge of teaching in organizing college-level meetings about teaching with department chairs, in order to learn, coordinate and resolve various issues that emerged during the implementation of educational plans. The evaluation of instruction includes college-level, department-level, program- level, and course-level evaluations. It also includes evaluation of the instructional quality of instructors and the assessment of students. The evaluation of instructional quality of instructors is linked to their promotion and compensation. The president,

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vice-presidents, the director of the department of teaching administration, department chairs, heads of teaching and research office are expected to sit in a number of classes (include laboratory and practical training classes) on a regular basis. The teaching and research offices are responsible for arranging instructors to sit in each other’s classes. The department of teaching administration maintains a record of the academic status for each student. The administration of academic status involves students’ admission qualification, academic standing, changes in their academic status, graduation qualification, and assessment results. Instructional files are administered accordingly by different levels of administrative units. Each level of organization is responsible for establishing a system for the reference and inspection of instructional files. Instructional files include: policies, guidelines and regulations issued by the college or the relevant state administrative department of education; educational and instructional plans; self- compiled teaching and reference materials, lab experiment instructions, collections of student exercises, test item bank, test analysis and various audio and video materials; each semester’s instructional working plan, academic schedule, class schedule, examination schedule, and instructional and practical training summaries; curricula, graduation project (thesis) designs, and excellent graduation projects (thesis); students academic scores, change in academic status, follow-up investigation of graduates’ quality, review materials of graduation qualification; records of instructional reform, instructional research plans and summaries, and instructional research periodicals; instructors’ files, awards and accomplishments; review materials of instructors and minutes of instructional meetings; other necessary instructional documents and materials.

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66 Undergraduate Education

6.1 Overview

Undergraduate education in China is equivalent to the ISCED 1997’s definition of Level 54first stage of tertiary education, which has been a cornerstone of the higher education system in terms of its scale and importance. Undergraduate enrollments have consistently made up the bulk of higher education enrollments, and only very recently, they decreased to approximately half of the total higher education enrollments. Undergraduate programs have shouldered the immense responsibilities of producing advanced manpower for leadership and managerial positions in the government and business sectors, as well as technological experts, professional personnel, and researchers. In recent years, the rapid expansion of undergraduate education also provided advanced manpower for the growing sector of tertiary industry, particularly the high-tech service sector. Over nearly 60 years of development, undergraduate education in China has seen a great transformation in its missions and programs, curricula, modes of education, and management system of teaching.

6.2 Missions and Programs

In China, regular (in contrast to adult) programs of undergraduate education are equivalent to Level 54first stage of tertiary education in the ISCED 1997. The Higher Education Law defines the mission of undergraduate education as enabling “students to systematically master the basic theory and basic knowledge necessary for the respective discipline and specialty, master the basic skills, techniques and related know-how necessary for the respective specialty, and acquire initial capability for the practical work and research work of the respective specialty” (NPC, 1998: Article 16). The functions of undergraduate education are to produce advanced

Higher Education in China

manpower with a grasp of sufficient basic theory and knowledge of a discipline and specialty, as well as a mastery of appropriate skills, techniques, know-how and initial practical capability for carrying out practical and research work. Undergraduate programs are primarily offered in universities or four-year colleges. Before the 1990s, the orientation of undergraduate programs was primarily general education in accordance with the ISCED 1997 definition of program orientation. A general undergraduate education is mainly designed to lead participants to a deeper understanding of a subject or group of subjects. Successful completion of undergraduate programs may or may not provide the participants with a labor-market-relevant qualification. However, in recent years, there have emerged a growing number of undergraduate programs that are practice-oriented, stressing the practical capability and employability of graduates of undergraduate programs. The following section breaks down the structural elements of undergraduate programs in terms of entrance requirements, required education, formal stages within a course program, possibilities of transfer, sequences of assessment, graduation requirements, types of diplomas or degrees conferred, and subsequent education or destination. Entrance Requirements. The entrance requirements for undergraduate education are the same as those for specialized higher education, including mandatory qualifications, for instance, a high school graduation diploma or equivalent, and the benchmark scores of the National College Entrance Examination. It has the same minimum age (18 years of age) requirement and no maximum age limit. The only difference is that students admitted into undergraduate programs in a HEI must meet the minimum benchmark scores of college entrance examination required by that HEI, which are higher than the minimum bench mark scores set for short-cycle or tertiary vocational and technical programs. Each year, every HEI will autonomously set the minimum benchmark scores of the National College Entrance Examination required for admission, in accordance with the minimum admission scores the MOE or provincial department of education sets for undergraduate HEIs and short-cycle colleges under their respective authority. Required Education. An undergraduate program normally requires four to five years of full time study. Most regular HEIs discourage part-time study for undergraduate education, and steer part-time students taking undergraduate programs through non-formal educational channels such as continuous education department or distance education. In 1952, the MOE approved “the Regulation of Educational Plans for Undergraduate and Specialized Engineering Programs in HEIs (draft)”, in which it stated that the standard duration of study for an undergraduate program should be

122 6 Undergraduate Education four years, particular specialties or HEIs could extend it to five years maximum or shorten it to three years minimum upon approval by the MOE. It also required that courses of political education should make up at least 10 percent of the undergraduate curriculum (CESRI, 1983: 67). The regulation also stated that every week, lectures, laboratory courses, classroom discussions or activities with teachers’ participation such as internship and curricular design should add up to a minimum of 36 hours. Furthermore, the total amount of time spent on internship in a four-year undergraduate program should be between 16 to 28 weeks. After the passage of the Higher Education Law in 1998, HEIs have gained substantial autonomy in internal management, including the decision-making authority over program requirements and curriculum design. Formal Stages within a Course Program. Depending on the design of a program, theoretical and foundation courses may either proceed to or intertwine with specialty courses and practice-oriented courses and activities such as observation, laboratory class, and internship. However, it is entirely up to the institution to decide whether there should be formal arrangements and requirements among different stages of a program, which varies greatly among different programs and HEIs. Sequences of Assessment. It is arranged in concurrence with the stages of progression of a program. Courses are arranged in terms of two semesters or four quarters per school year, and each semester or quarter includes a specified number of courses. The promotion depends on successful completion of a specified number or percentage of the previous school year’s courses by assessment. If a student failed in the final examination of a course, he or she is usually offered a second chance of taking a supplementary final exam. If the failed courses reached a pre-determined cumulated number or percentage, the student will be denied a diploma or certificate of graduation, receiving only a proof of study instead (yiye zhengshu). Possibilities of Transfer. There is a rare possibility of transfer between undergraduate programs at two different HEIs. If a student wishes to change to another HEI, he or she has to drop out of the current HEI and then take the National College Entrance Examination again just as any senior high school graduate and receive a score higher than the minimum admission score required by the new HEI. Before the 1980s, undergraduate students decided programs before admission, and were prohibited from changing programs within the same HEI as well. After the 1980s, it is possible for a student to switch to a different undergraduate program in another department or school in the same HEI. The regulations and requirements for such transfers vary from HEI to HEI. In most HEIs, such a transfer is offered to a limited percentage (mostly less than 10 percent) of first or second year students with

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outstanding academic performance and the approval of the two departments or schools involved. In recent years, several HEIs experimented with open admission of undergraduate students, which meant students were admitted into a school or even a broad discipline such as humanities, sciences or social sciences rather than into a specific program. In an open admission system, undergraduate students are allowed to decide a specific program within a school or a discipline at the end of the first year or the beginning of the second year. It is adapted from the open admission system in the US, which allows undergraduate students some freedom and time to decide their desired program. Graduation Requirements and Certification. The graduation of undergraduate programs requires satisfactory completion of a specified number or percentage of course works and practical training, and a thesis. Some program may require a graduation project or design. After the completion of the program and satisfaction of all graduation requirements, students receive a diploma of graduation and a Bachelor’s degree of Arts or Sciences. Subsequent Education or Destination. Graduates of undergraduate programs have two options. First, they can enter the labor market and find a job within or outside the specialty they are prepared for. Second, they can continue studies for the next higher level, namely, postgraduate education.

6.3 Curriculum

The curriculum for undergraduate education has seen a significant transformation after 1985 in terms of the structure of knowledge and sequence of the curriculum, and the degree of control over the curriculum.

6.3.1 Curriculum for undergraduate education before 1985 6.3.1.1 Structure of the curriculum In April 1980, the MOE issued the Guiding Educational Plans for the Undergraduate Programs of nine specialties in the field of science at comprehensive universities. At the end of 1981, the MOE collected and published information on the implementation of the guiding education plans from 12 comprehensive universities across the nation. In order to illustrate the structure of the curriculum of undergraduate programs in the early 1980s, Table 6.1 presents the undergraduate curricula of Computational Mathematics at four comprehensive universities in the light of the MOE’s guiding curriculum (LBHE & SNC, 1982: 183-185).

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Table 6.1 Undergraduate Curricula of Computational Mathematics at Four Universities in 1981 (Unit: Hour) MOE PKU* Nankai Jilin Fudan Total hours 2,516 2,5502,652 2,501 2,269 2,826 Political Thought

Common courses 68 68 Education Report Political Theories 200 204 216 210 216 Foreign Language 328 272 284 312 288 Physical Education 146 136 142 138 144 Subtotal (% of 742 612 710 660 648 total) (29.5%) (23.1%24%) (28.4%) (29.1%) (22.9%) Analytical 108 102 153 72 54 Geometry High Algebra 144 225 136 180 Mathematical 364 391 388 344 288 Analysis General Physics 148 185 149 180 Theoretical 72 76 72 90 Mechanics Ordinary

Compulsory courses Differential 72 51 76 72 72 Equation Partial Differential 76 76 72 Equation Complex Function 72 51 72 72 72 Specialty courses courses Specialty Real Function & Functional 76 72 90 Analysis Numerical 76 72 72 90 Approximation Numerical Algebra 90 68 95 90 90 Numerical Solution of Differential 108 114 108 180 Equation Algorithmic 72 68 54 Language 102 61 Computation 53 54 Practice Linear Algebra 153 Physics 170 Physical 102 Experiment Real Function 68 Theory Numerical Analysis 68

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(continued) MOE PKU* Nankai Jilin Fudan Optimization 57 Analysis Theory of Specialty courses courses Specialty 72 Probability Mathematic 72 Equation

Continuum 90 Mechanics Functional 90 Analysis Subtotal (% of 1,423 1,224 1,569 1,399 1,620 total) (56.6%) (48.0%) (62.7%) (61.7%) (57.3%) Elective & discussion 243 612714 138 504 69 (2.8%) courses (% of total) (9.7%) (24%26.9%) (6.1%) (17.8%) Instructional Hours 1,204 952 1,308 1,086 1,278 Experiment Hours 136 5

Note: *PKU stands for Peking University.

The curricula of Computational Mathematics at the four universities were divided into three categories: compulsory common courses, compulsory specialty courses and elective and discussion courses. The compulsory common courses covered political theories, morality and ethics, foreign languages and physical education. They accounted for 22.9 percent to 29.1 percent of the total instruction hours, slightly below the 29.5 percent stipulated in the MOE’s guideline. These common courses aimed at teaching appropriate political and moral values, training physical fitness, and general skills (foreign languages), which were deemed essential foundations for educating advanced professional specialists and technological experts in a wholesome way. The bulk of the instructional hours comprised compulsory specialty courses, ranging from a low 48 percent to a high 62.7 percent around the 56.6 percent in the MOE’s guideline. Few elective courses were offered in Chinese universities before 1978. Elective courses were introduced in many universities after 1978, when the MOE encouraged universities to adopt the credit system in an attempt to increase the flexibility of curriculum. The details of elective and discussion courses were unavailable. When the MOE encouraged universities to devote 9.7 percent of total instructional hours to elective courses in 1980, only a few universities were capable of reforming its curriculum by adding a significant number of elective courses in the following year.

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Among the compulsory specialty courses, the bulk of instructional hours were spent on theoretical foundation courses; a few hours were given to experiments, practical and other courses. The MOE pointed out the problem of imbalance in the majority of curricula across the nine science specialties. It noted that in the majority of curricula, “there were more theoretical courses, less experiment courses; more traditional courses, less new and frontier courses; more courses within the specialty, less courses outside the specialty” (LBHE & SNC, 1982: 181). An analysis of the curricular structure of undergraduate education in the early 1980s revealed that problems of overspecialization, a narrow focus on specialty education with little attention on general education, strong boundaries between specialties, little cross-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary efforts, over-emphasis on theory and foundation knowledge, and little attention on the application of theories and knowledge and practical capabilities and skills. Such problems resulted partially from the narrow objectives of undergraduate education and the restraint of a centrally planned economic system at that time.

6.3.1.2 Degree of control over curricular content Before 1978, there were few elective courses available in the curricula of undergraduate programs; almost all courses were compulsory. In an attempt to increase the flexibility of the higher education curriculum, in 1978, the MOE issued the Provisional Regulation on the Work of National Key HEIs, in which it encouraged HEIs to gradually introduce a credit system and elective courses (LBHE & SNC, 1982: 10-23). The curricula for undergraduate programs in the early 1980s were mainly divided into two types of courses: compulsory and elective. In the early 1980s, the majority of HEIs in China still practiced a semester system and instructional hours rather than a credit system. From the division of instructional hours indicated in Table 6.1, compulsory courses accounted for 90.3 percent of the total courses in the MOE curriculum. Among the four universities, compulsory courses accounted for 73.1 percent to 97.2 percent. Elective courses including discussion classes consisted of only 9.7 percent in the MOE curriculum and the lowest percentage was a mere 2.8 percent in one university. The percentage of compulsory and elective courses in the other eight science specialties was similar to that of Computational Mathematics. Therefore, the curriculum in the early 1980s was highly structured. Students had little freedom in the choice of courses and hence minimum control over the curriculum. Even though students had little control over the curriculum, universities had some freedom over the content of the curriculum for undergraduate education. As

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shown in Table 6.1, two universities followed the MOE’s guideline closely, while the other two opened several compulsory courses outside the MOE’s guideline. In Peking University, 28.9 percent of the compulsory courses were outside the MOE’s guideline. Several universities began to seriously exercise their rights in formulating curricula and educational plans. Between 1950 and 1957, the MOE held the decision-making power of establishing specialties and programs for all HEIs. With the help of expert panels, the MOE created uniform curricula, educational plans, teaching outlines and compiled textbooks and teaching materials for each specialty and program. These uniform curricula, educational plans, teaching outlines and textbooks were binding for every HEI. The “Decision on the Reform of HEI leadership Relations”, passed by the State Council in 1953, stated that all HEIs should implement the higher education development plan (including the establishment or closing down of HEIs, departments and specialties, admission and capital construction), the financial plan and system, the personnel system, educational plans, teaching outlines, productive internship regulation, and other regulations, guidelines and orders issued by the MOHE (SBHE & ENU, 1982: 56). As early as the Decision on Implementing Curricular Reform of HEIs, passed by the State Council in 1950, the compilation and review of textbooks and teaching materials were entrusted to the Textbook Review Committee of HEIs in the MOE (SBHE & ENU, 1982: 4-6). In the 1950s, a large number of educational plans, teaching outlines, and textbooks were translated from the Soviet Union, while at the same time the MOE swiftly organized teachers and researchers to compile textbooks and teaching materials as well. Between 1952 and 1955, the MOE formulated and issued a total of 193 national uniform educational plans and 348 uniform teaching outlines for most fields of study (CESRI, 1983: 129). During the same period, HEIs had a total of 620 courses using textbooks from the Soviet Union (CESRI, 1983: 129). In January 1956, the MOHE issued the Provisional Measure on the Creation and Compilation of Textbooks in HEIs, and affirmed that the MOE, MOHE, Ministry of Health, Ministry of Culture and other relevant central ministries were responsible for the creation and compilation of textbooks as well as their review for the HEIs under their respective authority (CESRI, 1983: 154). In June 1957, the MOHE informed HEIs that from the next semester onwards, the then existing uniform educational plans and teaching outlines in various fields of study should be changed from mandatory to documents for reference only (CESRI, 1983: 199). In the light of the principles outlined in these documents, HEIs were given the power to create their own educational plans and teaching outlines and

128 6 Undergraduate Education submit them to the MOHE for record only. However, due to the limited decision- making authority in internal management, most HEIs still closely followed the national educational plans and teaching outlines issued by the MOHE before 1985.

6.3.1.3 Sequence of courses in the curriculum Sequence of courses in the curriculum reflects the progression of knowledge. Before 1985, the sequence of courses in the undergraduate curriculum showed a high degree of conformity in following the internal logic of knowledge development of the particular specialty or discipline. In general, common courses and disciplinary or specialty foundation courses were mostly offered in the first and second years, while specialty core courses and practice-oriented courses often took place in the third and fourth years.

6.3.2 Curriculum of undergraduate education after 1985 A plural, multi-dimensional curricular structure consisting of compulsory and elective courses has emerged to replace the former one-dimensional compulsory curricula of the 1980s (Du, 1992: 50). Many HEIs set up interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary departments in order to pool the expertise of different disciplines. Interdisciplinary and multidisciplinary departments have greater advantage in offering a broader spectrum of courses and resources to students and an opportunity to undertake joint research projects.

6.3.2.1 Structure of the curriculum Since 1985, HEIs have started to reform the curriculum for undergraduate education along the axes of increasing the breadth of curriculum, weakening disciplinary boundaries and increasing cross-disciplinary fertilization, enhancing application and practical capabilities, and increasing the flexibility of curriculum and students’ degree of control over curriculum. Two curricula for the undergraduate program of Computational Science (similar to Computational Mathematics) from Peking University (see Table 6.2) and Zhejiang University (see Table 6.3 and F.g. 6.1), two leading research and comprehensive universities in China, were analyzed to illustrate the changes in the curriculum for undergraduate education after 1985.

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Table 6.2 The Curriculum for the Undergraduate Computational Science Program at Peking University after 2000

Category Title Credits Ethics & Political Sciences 10 Military & Physical Education 6 University common English 12 Computer 6 Subtotal 34 Social Science 2 Philosophy and Psychology 2 General education electives History 2 (restricted) Language, Literature and Arts 10 Subtotal 16 Compulsory 48 Specialty Elective Restricted 30

Graduation Thesis 6 Free electives Subtotal 14 Total 148

Source: School of Mathematical Sciences, Peking University. (1999) Curriculum for the Undergraduate Computational Science Program. Retrieved August 26, 2008, from http://www. math.pku.edu.cn:8000/html/education/bks/jh_info.html.

Table 6.3 The 2008 Curriculum for the Undergraduate Computational Science Program at Zhejiang University

Category Title Credits Ethics & Political Sciences 13.5 Military & Physical Education 8.5 Foreign Language 9 Computer Basics 5 Freshman Seminar/Discipline Intro. 2 General education History & Culture 3 Literature & Arts 3 Economics & Society 3 Technology & Design 3 Communication & Leadership 1.5 Science & Research 1.5 Subtotal 53 Natural Science Compulsory 28.5 Broad disciplinary Natural Science Elective 4 foundation Engineering Technology 6 Subtotal 38.5

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(continued) Category Title Credits Compulsory 42.5 Elective Restricted 3 Specialty Practice 6 Graduation Thesis 8 Subtotal 59.5 Individual Free Electives University-wide 14 Total 165

Source: College of Science, Zhejiang University. (2008) Curriculum for the Undergraduate computational/computing science Program. Retrieved August 26, 2006, from http://10.10.10. 151/Able.Acc2.Web/Page_SpecialtyTrainPlan.aspx?ID=934&orgid=73.

Fig. 6.1 The Curriculum Structure of Zhejiang University (Total Credits: 165) Source: Zhejiang University. (2006) Undergraduate Program’s Curriculum Structure. Retrieved August, 26, 2008, from http://zdzsc.zju.edu.cn/view.php?id=813.

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Peking University’s curriculum includes four categories of courses: university common, general education, specialty, and free elective courses. Zhejiang University’s curriculum also includes four categories of courses: general education, broad disciplinary foundation, specialty, and individual courses. Comparing these two curricula with those of the early 1980s, the most conspicuous difference one notices in the new curricula is the incorporation of general education courses in the curriculum for undergraduate education. Increasing the breadth of the curriculum in order to produce broadly educated specialist has been one of the major themes of curriculum reform in comprehensive universities for undergraduate education since 1985. It borrows from the philosophy of general education in US universities. In the increasingly complex and fast-paced knowledge economy of the 21st century, a graduate of an undergraduate program needs not only specific academic knowledge and skills of a particular specialty, but also general knowledge and understanding of nature, society, world and themselves, a grasp of analytical and communicating tools and skills, and the ability and skills for solving problems and critical thinking. The growing importance of tertiary industries and high-tech industries in the structure of the Chinese economy requires a growing number of highly skilled managerial and professional experts with a broad general education background. A background in general education has become essential for university students, particularly those enrolled in undergraduate programs, to cope with the rapidly changing economy and labor market. The specialized training for a particular profession can prepare students for specialized knowledge and skills, but it falls short in preparing them to quickly acquire new knowledge and skills on their own after graduation. The Decision on the Reform of the Education System says, “While reforming the system of higher education, it is an extremely important and pressing task to reform the curricula, methods, and plans, and raise the quality of teaching…” It is necessary to actively try out various reforms, such as improving the situation of over-specialization in certain faculties, refining and updating the curricula, intensifying practical training, reducing the number of required subjects (courses), while adding more elective subjects (courses), instituting a credit and double-degree systems, increasing the hours for self- and after-school study, and unfolding of work-study programs in a guided manner (CPC Central Committee, 1985). Every student entering Peking University after September 2000 is required to take at least 16 credits from general education elective courses. General education elective courses are divided into five areas as shown below (Peking University, 2008):

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A. Mathematics and natural science; B. Social science; C. Philosophy and psychology; D. History; E. Language, literature and arts. All students are required to take at least two credits from each area. In area E, all students must take at least 4 credits and one course has to be in the arts. For students in the field of humanities and social sciences, they are required to take a minimum of 4 credits in area A. In the Computational Science program, the department decided to waive the required courses from area A for students who choose to increase the number of required electives in area E to a total of 10 credits. The program requires students to take 4 credits in college Chinese, 4 credits in humanities and 2 credits in the arts. In Peking University, general education elective courses for undergraduate education are created in order to (Peking University, 2008): • Enable students to understand basic knowledge areas and mankind’s method of thinking; • Strengthen students’ knowledge of humanities, creative ability and foundation knowledge; • Promote exchange and permeation among different disciplines; • Promote students’ critical thinking and reasoning ability; • Guide students in learning cutting edge outcomes, trends and information in various disciplines; • Facilitate students in grasping the basic essence and inspiring ideas of classical works from a comprehensive perspective; • Help students in choosing specialty courses by renowned scholars; • Help students gain a basic understanding of the existing disciplines. When creating the general education elective courses, Peking University consulted extensively the Core Curriculum for undergraduate education at Harvard University, which included seven areas of Foreign Cultures, Historical Study, Literature and Arts, Moral Reasoning, Quantitative Reasoning, Science, and Social Analysis. The Core Curriculum makes up almost a quarter of an undergraduate student’s study. It is formed on the philosophy that “every Harvard graduate should be broadly educated, as well as trained in a particular academic specialty” (Harvard College). The Core Curriculum differs from other general education program in that “it does not define intellectual breadth as the mastery of a set of Great Books, or the digestion of a specific quantum of information, or the surveying of current

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knowledge in certain fields. Rather, the program seeks to introduce students to the major approaches to knowledge in areas that the faculty considers indispensable to undergraduate education. It aims to show what kinds of knowledge and what forms of inquiry exist in these areas, how different means of analysis are acquired, how they are used, and what their value is.” In Zhejiang University’s curriculum, the general education courses include six areas: History & Culture, Literature & Arts, Economics & Society, Technology & Design, Communication & Leadership, and Science & Research. The objectives in the creation of general education courses are to broaden the knowledge base of students, and to encourage and provide a platform for cross-fertilization and integration among various disciplines. General education courses make up approximately 10 percent of the undergraduate curriculum in both universities. In Peking University, the general education electives consist of at least 16 credits, which is 10.8 percent of the total credits. In Zhejiang University, the general education courses are approximately 17 credits, 10.3 percent of the total credits. In comparison to the Core Curriculum at Harvard, the amount of general education courses in the two universities is rather small, and hence the spread of such courses is a little too thin. In Zhejiang University’s curriculum, the general education courses have a subtotal of 53 credits, of which more than two thirds are courses on political science, foreign languages, physical education, and computer application. They made up 21.8 percent of the total credits. It is equivalent to the common courses in Peking University’s curriculum, which takes up 23.0 percent of the total credits. The ubiquity of these courses is a unique feature of the curricular structure in the Chinese higher education system. In the 1980s, they made up approximately a quarter of the total instructional hours. After twenty years of reform, they still account for over 20 percent of the total credits in the curriculum. In 1959, the MOE designated four courses4Socialism, Political Economy, Philosophy, and the History of the CPC4as the common compulsory courses on Marxism and Political Science for all HEIs (CESRI, 1983: 244). The MOE further specified the total number of instructional hours for these courses would be 500 hours for undergraduate philosophy and social sciences programs, 400 hours for the other undergraduate programs, and 200 hours for short-cycle programs. Physical education and foreign languages have been two of the common compulsory courses for all HEIs since the beginning. In the 1950s and 1960s, the predominant foreign language taught to undergraduate students was Russian. However, English has become the most common foreign language course required of undergraduate

134 6 Undergraduate Education students since the late 1970s. Since the development of computer science, computer basics and application courses have become the two new additions to common compulsory courses for all HEIs. Zhejiang University describes its curriculum for undergraduate education as “broad, specialized and interdisciplinary”. Zhejiang University is quite creative in the innovation of its curricular structure by including a broad disciplinary foundation module. The disciplinary foundation courses are organized into four modules: Humanities & Social Sciences, Natural Sciences, Engineering & Technology, and Arts & Design. Each program requires students taking foundation or introductory courses in one or two disciplinary foundation modules close to its specialty. Disciplinary foundation course requirement ranges from 38 to 47 credits, which is 23 percent to 28.5 percent of the total credits. The scope of disciplinary foundation courses is wider than specialty foundation courses common in a lot of undergraduate programs, which only include foundation courses in one particular specialty. Taking the curriculum of a Natural Science program, Computation Science, as an example, it requires students taking disciplinary foundation courses in two areas: Natural Sciences and Engineering & Technology. The majority of courses are compulsory, with several restricted electives. They typically include specialty foundation courses such as Calculus, Linear Algebra, High Algebra or Mathematical Analysis, and non-specialty courses such as Physics, Chemistry, Earth Information, Science Basics, Introduction to Psychology, and any Engineering Technology courses.

6.3.2.2 Degree of control over curricular content Students. The degree of control students possess over curricular content, namely the availability of elective courses, has increased since 1985. The availability of elective courses allows students some flexibility in creating their own unique curriculum. The amount of free elective courses allowed determines the degree of control students possess over the undergraduate curriculum. The curricula at Peking University and Zhejiang University demonstrate a tremendous increase of elective courses in terms of the number of courses and their percentage in the total credits. The curriculum at Peking University consists of a total of 148 credits, of which 88 credits (59.5 percent) are for compulsory courses, and 60 credits (40.5 percent) are for elective courses. The compulsory courses include 34 university-wide common courses and 48 specialty compulsory courses plus 6 credits of graduation thesis. The curriculum at Zhejiang University consists of a total of 165 credits, among which 113 credits(68.5 percent) are for compulsory courses, and 52

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credits (31.5 percent) are for elective courses. Elective courses at both universities are divided into restricted and free elective courses. At both universities, the number of restricted electives outnumbered that of free electives. Free elective courses at Peking University make up 23.3 percent of the total elective courses, and 9.5 percent of the total credits. Free elective courses at Zhejiang University make up 26.9 percent of the total elective courses, and 8.5 percent of the total credits. The percentage of free elective courses available at Peking University and Zhejiang University is quite low in comparison with similar programs in US universities, which is usually more than 20 percent. Therefore, even though undergraduate students’ degree of control over the curricular content has significantly increased over the years, it is still rather limited in comparison to their counterparts in the US. HEIs. In terms of HEIs, they have gained autonomous rights in the creation and adjustment of disciplines and specialties, in accordance with the Higher Education Law (1998). The Law also granted HEIs autonomy in formulating educational plans (curricula), selecting and compiling textbooks and organizing educational activities in accordance with the teaching requirements. Since the 1980s, original textbooks and teaching materials in foreign languages were allowed on campus, particularly in leading research universities. Programs. Within the institution, the majority of HEIs delegated various degree of control over the curriculum to schools and departments, some even to particular programs. In both Peking University and Zhejiang University, program specific courses made up the majority of the curriculum. Besides the university-wide common courses and general education requirements, each program is allowed to determine specialty compulsory and elective courses, graduation thesis or project format, and free electives.

6.3.2.3 Sequence of courses in the curriculum The sequence of courses in undergraduate curricula has not changed much. Common courses and disciplinary and specialty foundation courses are mostly offered in the first and second years, while specialty core courses and practice-oriented courses often take place in the third and fourth years. Zhejiang University adopted a modular structure for the undergraduate curriculum and a quarter system, which is conducive to a more flexible and individualized arrangement of course progression. However, even with a modular structure, students are encouraged to complete general education and disciplinary

136 6 Undergraduate Education foundation courses in the first two years and concentrate on specialty courses in the third and fourth years.

6.4 Establishment and Adjustment of Undergraduate Specialties

Together with the reform of the curriculum, the MOE has struggled to adjust and broaden the scope of undergraduate specialties and programs since the 1950s. Before the 1950s, modern HEIs in China only established schools and departments, but did not set up specialties or programs. Beginning in 1952, the MOE restructured the internal organization of HEI after the model of what existed in the Soviet Union by abolishing the management structure of school and organizing teaching around department and specialty. In the early 1953, HEIs established a total of 215 specialties and by 1962, the number increased to a total of 627 specialties and 3,748 programs among 11 fields of study (see Table 6.4).

Table 6.4 Number of Undergraduate Specialties & Programs by Field of Study in Regular HEIs, 1962

Total E AE F M T H N F&E P&L PE A Specialty 627 295 48 16 11 40 60 79 25 3 9 41 Program 3748 1426 367 85 176 696 294 373 106 9 28 188

Note: E=Engineering; AE=Agriculture; F=Forestry; M= Medicine/Pharmacy; T= Teacher Training; H=Humanities; N= Natural Sciences; F&E= Finance & Economics; P&L= Political Science & Law; PE= Physical Culture; A=Arts. Source: Educational Yearbook of China Editorial, 1984: 239.

The set up of specialties and programs for undergraduate education has been under the control of central government. The SEDC issued the Provisional Regulation for the Establishment of Undergraduate Programs in Regular HEIs in 1989, which became a Regulation after some revisions in 1993. The Regulation was revised again in 1998 and 1999. According to the Regulation, regular HEIs have autonomy to set up and adjust educational programs of approved academic specialties. For instance, if a HEI is authorized to offer the specialty of mathematics, it has authority to establish and adjust programs within the specialty such as applied mathematics or computational mathematics. National key HEIs have greater autonomy to establish and adjust specialties within approved fields of study. For instance, if a national key HEI is authorized to offer programs in the discipline of

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science, it can establish and adjust academic specialties within that discipline, such as mathematics, physics and chemistry. Nevertheless, HEIs will need the approval of the MOE, if they want to add specialties and programs for the first time. Whenever an HEI autonomously establishes a program or specialty, it needs to report to the MOE for record. For establishing and adjusting the MOE-restricted programs, HEIs need to obtain a review by an appropriate administrative department and submit it to the MOE for approval. “Once a new academic program is approved by the MOE, it is officially recognized and accredited” (Min, 1994: 122). The purpose of such strict government regulation of undergraduate programs is to control the overall balance of the supply and demand for each discipline and specialty, as well as to ensure standard and quality. The Regulation also put forward the general principles, requirements and procedures, for the establishment and adjustment of undergraduate specialties and programs. The Regulation set out three general principles. First, the establishment and adjustment of undergraduate specialties must match the demands of economic construction, scientific and technological progress and social development; it must follow the convention of education, and properly handle the relations between demands and possibilities, quantity and quality, long term and short-term demands, part and whole, specialization and generalization. Second, the establishment and adjustment of undergraduate specialties should be conducive to enhancing the quality and efficiency of education at the HEI, to forming a reasonable structure and layout of specialties, avoid redundant repetition. Third, the establishment and adjustment of undergraduate specialties should be in accordance with the catalog of undergraduate fields of study and other relevant requirements. To establish and adjust undergraduate programs, the HEI should satisfy the following basic requirements. • Be consistent with the HEI’s development plan approved by its administrative department, complete with manpower demand analysis report, and should have a minimum of 60 persons for annual admission (except for special programs such as arts); • Have a complete program development plan and educational plan, consistent with the programs’ objectives, and other essential teaching documents; • Have the necessary teaching and supporting staff for carrying out the educational plan; • Have sufficient funding and basic infrastructure, including classroom, laboratory & equipment, library resources, practical training facilities, etc. Furthermore, the Regulation put a limit on the maximum number of specialties

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(three) a HEI can add each year. A HEI cannot add a new program or specialty if its basic educational conditions fail to meet the national standard, or the quality of its undergraduate education is rated unsatisfactory during evaluation. The influence of the market on higher education has become increasingly evident after the rapid expansion of higher education enrollments since 1999. The employment rate of graduates has become an important indicator of the overall performance of HEIs. In order to meet the demand of the rapidly changing market, or more specifically, to maintain and raise the employment rate of their graduates, the Chinese HEIs have been demanding greater autonomy in establishing and adjusting academic programs. In 2002, the MOE approved seven HEIs under its jurisdiction to set up and adjust academic programs autonomously. These were Peking University, Tsinghua University, Shanghai Jiaotong University, Beijing Normal University, Zhejiang University, Wuhan University, and China University of Political Science and Law (How Beijing, 2002). In July 2003, the Guangdong provincial bureau of education authorized the HEIs under its jurisdiction to establish and adjust academic programs starting in fall 2003 (Lin, 2003b). The Guangdong provincial department of education would only step in to control the total number of academic programs in an HEI when the July employment rate of its graduates remained lower than the provincial average three years in a row. The push for greater institutional autonomy in the establishment and adjustment of academic programs came mainly from the rapid expansion of higher education enrollments and the fast changing economic and social demands, which required HEIs to respond as swiftly as possible. While demanding greater autonomy in the establishment and adjustment of academic programs, they also warned against the potential dangers of overemphasizing popular programs such as accounting, business management, computer science, and commercial English, to the detriment and negligence of programs such as history, anthropology, and geology. They argued that these unpopular programs are vital to social and cultural development in the long run, though they have limited economic returns and low employment rate. Two themes persisted in the cycles of reform of undergraduate specialties and programs. First, the adjustment of specialty and programs reflected a persistent struggle over the scope of specialty and program, namely the contradiction between extensiveness and specificity. From the beginning, the set up of specialty and program demonstrated an obvious problem of overspecialization. During a national conference on the adjustment of specialty in national HEIs in March 1961, the MOE put forward several principles, one of which was to “adequately broaden the scope of

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specialties, and adjust or merge overspecialized specialties or those that were too narrow” (Educational Yearbook of China Editorial, 1984: 239). In order to standardize the set up of specialties and programs, the MOE drew up a general catalog of fields of study in 1963 for every HEI and level of program. The catalog has been significantly revised several times, and the most recent version is the 1998 catalog of undergraduate fields of study. The catalog is conceived as a reference document for HEIs. The catalog defines undergraduate specialties and programs and their classification, and regulates their title. The purposes of the catalog are to reflect the professional specification and future employment direction for undergraduate students, to provide a basis for establishing and adjusting programs, admission, awarding degree, guiding graduates’ employment, and carrying out works on educational statistics and manpower planning. The catalog provides a brief introduction for each program, which includes the objectives, required education (knowledge and capabilities), main fields of study it belongs to, core courses, main practical training components, duration of study, and the type of degree awarded. Since the 1980s, the MOE has tackled the problem of narrow specialization by merging over-specialized programs into more general ones, by defining traditional specializations in broader terms, and by introducing new cross-disciplinary fields (Hayhoe, 1991:115). Since the 1978, the MOE has initiated three rounds of adjustment to the catalog of undergraduate fields of study to broaden the scope of undergraduate programs and to increase the flexibility and adaptability of graduates for the dynamic market economy. Comparing the latest 1998 catalog with the 1993 one, it is obvious that the number of programs have been reduced by half, even though the number of specialties stayed the same (see Table 6.5). It showed the determination of the MOE to broaden the scope of programs by reducing their numbers.

Table 6.5 Catalog of Undergraduate Fields of Study in 1993 and 1998

1993 1998 Number of Number of Number of Number of Field of study specialties programs specialties programs Philosophy 2 9 1 3 Economics 2 31 1 4 Law 4 19 5 12 Education 3 13 2 9 Literature 4 106 4 66 History 2 13 1 5 Science 16 55 16 30

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(continued) 1993 1998 Engineering 22 181 21 70 Agriculture 7 40 7 16 Medicine 9 37 8 16 Administration - - 5 18 Total 71 5041 71 2492

Notes: (1) Among the 504 programs, 56 were interdisciplinary and 42 were restricted programs. (2) Among the 249 programs, 62 are restricted programs. The 35 generally restricted programs need the approval of MOE for set up, while 27 highly restricted programs will not increase in principle. Source: (SEDC, 1993); (MOE, 1998b).

Second, the primary principle for the establishment and adjustment of specialty and programs has always been centered on the needs of economic and social development. In the Notice about the Adjustment of HEIs and Departments, between 1955 and 1957, the MOHE stated that “the development of higher education must fulfill the needs of socialist construction and national defense, must correspond to the national economic development plan” (Educational Yearbook of China Editorial, 1984: 239). This primary principle has prevailed throughout the various cycles of specialty adjustment till today, and has been the primary driving force behind the dramatic changes in enrollments in certain specialties in different periods. Before the 1980s, Chinese higher education emphasized the training of specialized personnel for narrowly specified fields, as determined by the departmentalized structure of the Chinese economy and government administration. Furthermore, the emphasis of economic development before the 1980s had been on the first and second industries, particularly heavy industry at the expense of tertiary industry. Such emphasis was obvious through the unbalanced distribution of enrollments among fields of study. The development of a market-oriented economy and growth of the tertiary industry in post-1978 China has greatly influenced the value of various disciplines of knowledge in the country. According to Table 6.6, the first industry as a percentage of the GDP decreased more than half from 29.9 percent in 1980 to 12.6 percent in 2005, the secondary industry as a percentage of the GDP decreased a little bit from 48.2 percent in 1980 to 47.5 percent in 200f, and the tertiary industry as a percentage of the GDP greatly increased from 21.9 percent in 1980 to 39.9 percent in 2005. The secondary and tertiary industries have made up over 80 percent of the GDP in China since 1995. Consequently, the Chinese economy’s demand for middle- and high-

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level professional personnel grew, especially in the fields of humanities and social sciences.

Table 6.6 Changes in the Structure of Chinese Economy

Percent of First Industry of Percent of Secondary Percent of Tertiary Year GDP Industry of GDP Industry of GDP 1980 29.9 48.2 21.9 1985 28.2 42.9 28.9 1990 26.9 41.3 31.8 1995 19.8 47.2 33.0 2000 14.8 45.9 39.3 2005 12.6 47.5 39.9

Source: NSBC. China Statistical Yearbook 2006, China Statistics Press, Beijing, p. 58.

Responding to the economic demands as well as policy initiatives such as the Outlines of Educational Reform and Development for faster development of social sciences in China, undergraduate enrollments in the fields of social sciences and humanities have surged since the late 1980s. According to Table 6.7, the percentage of undergraduate students enrolled in the fields of social sciences such as Finance & Economics and Political science & Law consisted of only 6.3 percent of the total enrollment in 1982. By 1994, undergraduate enrollments in the fields of economics, law, and education made up 18.1 percent of the total. In 2001, a new field4 administration4was added to the reporting category. All administration related enrollments, including those of engineering management and chemistry management, are reported under this field. Therefore, undergraduate enrollments in the fields of economics, law, education and administration consisted of 29.9 percent in 2006. In 1982, 6.5 percent of undergraduate students enrolled in the fields of humanities and art. In 1994, undergraduate enrollments in the fields of literature, philosophy, and history reached 10.8 percent and in 2006, the percentage increased to 18.5.

Table 6.7 Undergraduate Enrollments by Fields of Study

Fields of 1982 Fields of 1994 2006 study Number % of total Study Number % of total Number % of total Engineering 362,763 39.1 Engineering 689,427 45.5 2,958,802 31.4 Teacher 149,532 16.1 Literature 134,267 8.9 1,677,537 17.8 Training Medicine & 144,267 15.5 Science 161,887 10.7 1,041,387 11.0 Pharmacy

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(continued) Fields of 1982 Fields of 1994 2006 study Number % of total Study Number % of total Number % of total Natural 79,140 8.5 Medicine 158,668 10.5 688,777 7.3 Sciences Humanities 55,649 6.0 Economics 173,402 11.4 574,452 6.1 Agriculture 54,764 5.9 Law 45,688 3.0 441,090 4.7 Finance & 45,341 4.9 Education 55,445 3.7 339,420 3.6 Economics Political Science & 12,562 1.4 Agriculture 68,797 4.5 188,067 2.0 Law Forestry 11,020 1.2 History 24,538 1.6 52,514 0.6 Physical 8,875 1.0 Philosophy 4,752 0.3 6,846 0.1 Culture Administrati Art 4,988 0.5 - - 1,464,503 15.5 on of total: teacher - - 1,105,277 11.7 training Total 928,901 100.0 Total 151,6871 100.0 9,433,395 100.0

Source: 1982 data from Department of Planning, MOE, 1984: 60-61; 1994 and 2006 data from Educational Statistics Yearbook of China 1994 & 2006.

The percentage of undergraduate students enrolled in the field of science remained stable in the past two decades, but those in the field of engineering saw a small but gradual decrease from 40.4 percent in 1982 to 31.4 percent in 2006. The percentage of undergraduate students enrolled in the fields of medicine, agriculture, and teacher training saw moderate decrease as well. In general, the structure of the Chinese higher education has been moving towards a more balanced development with regard to various fields of study: science and engineering, humanities and social sciences, medicine and agriculture, which corresponds to the structural change of the Chinese economy in the past two decades.

6.5 Modes of Education

Before the 1980s, almost every undergraduate education program adopted a unified systematic mode of academic education, which follows the inner logic of the progress of a discipline or specialty and the natural structure or organization of disciplinary knowledge. The systematic mode of education adopted the semester system, measuring

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progress of study by school semester or year rather than credit. In 1950, the MOE decided to abolish the credit system inherited from universities and colleges of the Republic era (19121948), and replace it with an hour system beginning in 1952 (CESRI, 1983: 27). In terms of curriculum, the systematic mode of education emphasized the disciplinary knowledge and skills as well as academic theories. Practice was emphasized in rhetoric, but neglected in all except a few specialties such as teacher training and medicine that incorporated substantive internship. After the 1980s, a number of HEIs experimented with the modular mode of education based on the experiences of Western universities. The main objective was to increase the creativity and flexibility of undergraduate education program. It is congruent with the increasing autonomy of HEIs and the growing freedom and control students have over their own educational experiences. The modular mode of education adopted by Zhejiang University’s undergraduate education sets an example in this direction. In order to realize its educational principles of student-centered education and in pursuit of excellence, Zhejiang University has adopted a mode of education that emphasizes broad and deep foundation, free choice of specialty, interdisciplinary exchange and exploration, in order to provide a more open environment for students’ individualized development. First, students are admitted into schools or even disciplines rather than specific programs. Instead of requiring students to determine a specialty or program before entering the university, they were admitted into the school of science rather than a specific program such as Applied Mathematics. Since fall 2007, students have been admitted into four broad disciplines: natural sciences, social sciences, engineering and technology, and arts and design. Students are allowed to decide a specific specialty at the end of the first year or the beginning of second year. The rationale is that students are better informed of the options and resources available in the university and know more about their academic interests after one year of exploration. Therefore, students are better prepared for choosing a program that suits their personality, interests, and career goals. Zhejiang University is not alone in this reform initiative. Since the fall of 2002, Shangdong University and Lanzhou University have begun to enroll students in broad specialties during their freshman and sophomore years and allow students to decide specific programs in their junior year (“Undergraduate Students”, 2002). Fudan University went a step further. Since fall 2003, it has begun to offer all freshmen a general education in one of three categories: humanity and social sciences, sciences, or comprehensive medical science (“Fudan Freshmen”, 2002). Second, the curriculum structure for Zhejiang University’s undergraduate

144 6 Undergraduate Education program includes four modules: general education, disciplinary foundation, specialty and individual. The general education module provides a broad knowledge base for students and a chance for them to survey all the major areas of learning. The disciplinary foundation module has four areas, among which students are required to concentrate in one or two areas, in order to gain a broad disciplinary foundation for their specialty. Specialty module consists of compulsory and elective (restricted) specialty courses. Individual modules include free elective courses, which enable students to build up on their individual interests. Such a curriculum structure intends to provide a broad, interdisciplinary, and individualized educational experience for each undergraduate student. After 1985, most HEIs brought back the credit system, replacing the hour and semester system. More than 200 HEIs adopted the credit system in 1986; and approximately one third of the HEIs adopted the credit system by 1996 (Li, 2001). At present, the majority of HEIs have adopted the credit system. The development of the credit system differs a great deal among the Chinese HEIs due in part to the tremendous differences among the types of institutions and the levels of program they offer. Some HEIs, for example, Yanshan University in Shangdong Province, adopts a semester system for freshmen and sophomores and a credit system for juniors and seniors (Li, 2001). Jiangsu University adopted a complete credit system in fall 2003. It allows students the freedom to choose courses within a specified range and to arrange their own pace of study, while also charging tuition fees by credits rather than semesters (Gao & Zhang, 2003). It was estimated that over one-third of the Chinese HEIs would move toward charging tuition fees by credits rather than semesters by 2004 (CCTV, 2004). By adopting the credit system, Chinese HEIs expected to increase the flexibility of teaching and learning and to facilitate the cross selection of courses among different disciplines. It was also seen as a way to fundamentally broaden the knowledge base of higher education students and enhance their comprehensive problem-solving skills and their ability to adapt to the rapidly changing economy and society. However, both the semester and credit systems have their advantages and disadvantages. Each system is compatible with a different style of teaching and learning as well as with a particular policy environment. The adoption of the credit system itself will not guarantee the achievement of a flexible and effective system of teaching and learning. Many world- renowned universities including Columbia University, Harvard University, and Princeton University practice the semester system at present (Li, 2001). Zhejiang University implements the credit system fully, enabling students to accelerate their study and graduate earlier by taking more credits each term. It also

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enables students to extend their undergraduate study for a maximum of two more years, allowing them plenty of time to explore interdisciplinary and creative learning experiences before graduation. Furthermore, Zhejiang University adopts a “quarter system”, where a school year is divided into four quarters. In each quarter, a course normally has two or three credits and runs for nine weeks. In the quarter system, students have opportunity to choose more courses, explore a variety of different subjects, and expand the horizon of their learning experiences. Another reform in the mode of education has been the introduction of double- major and minor in undergraduate education. In addition to one major, a lot of undergraduate programs allow students to take up a second major or a minor within or outside their departments, given that they meet all the requirements and conditions. Students are encouraged to decide on a second major or a minor early in the program, for instance, the first or second year. For every second major and minor, each program set specific requirements and conditions such as pre-requisites, designated courses and credits, minimum performance (GPA), and others. Graduates of undergraduate programs are facing increasing challenges and difficulties in finding satisfactory positions in the job market after the rapid expansion of higher education enrollments since 1999. In response to the employment challenge, many HEIs began to experiment with the practice-oriented mode of education, typical in the specialized higher education sector. Universities, particularly those focused on teaching, began to adopt the Alternative Work and Study Mode, the HEI-industry Collaborative Mode and the Learning by Doing Mode of education. In general, the modes of education for undergraduate program have becoming increasingly more flexible and diversified.

6.6 The Management System of Teaching

The management system of teaching in undergraduate HEI is regulated through three major documents. In September 1961, the MOE issued the Provisional Regulation on the Work of National Key HEIs (draft), which provided regulations on teaching, postgraduate education, teachers and students, thought and political work, leadership system and administrative organization, the Party’s organization and work, as well as materials, equipment and logistics. This important policy was later referred to as the Sixty Articles of higher education. After the disruption of the “Cultural Revolution”, the Sixty Articles were revived with minor revisions in 1978. In 1998, the MOE issued the Key Points on the Management of Teaching in HEIs, which provided specific regulations on the work of teaching in terms of the general principle,

146 6 Undergraduate Education educational plans, operation of teaching, teaching quality management and evaluation, basic construction of teaching, and the leadership and administrative system (MOE, 1998c). Overall, the management system of teaching has seen a tremendous trend of diversification since HEIs gained increasing degree of autonomy in internal management, especially after the passage of the Higher Education Law in 1998. However, there is still a high degree of similarity in the structure and function of management system for teaching in most HEIs. The leadership system for teaching in a university is headed by the president and assisted by a vice-president in charge of the daily operation of teaching. The guidelines, policies, regulations, and major reform strategies about teaching and its management are decided at the meetings of university affairs (xiaowu huiyi), which is attended by the president, vice-presidents, deans or department chairs, and other leaders of the HEIs. The administrative structure of the teaching management includes three levels: the university-level, school and department level, and basic level. At the university- level, the department of teaching management (jiaowu chu) takes charge of teaching management for the entire institution, overseeing the formulation and implementation of educational plans, arrangement of courses, progress and operation of teaching, records of student status, teaching evaluation, and others. The department of teaching management is assisted by the department of student affairs, which is either a subdivision of the department of teaching management or an independent department. Under the department of teaching management, there are often consulting committees on particular areas of teaching, for example, teaching materials committee, foreign language teaching committee, and computer basics teaching committee, etc. Members of these committees are often experts in the particular areas within the HEI, while some are invited from outside the HEI. The members are either elected by teachers or appointed by the department of teaching management on teachers’ recommendation. In general, colleges or schools are the mid-level administrative organization in a HEI and they include one or more departments. However, in some HEIs, there are standalone departments that co-exist with schools and report directly to the president. In schools or standalone departments, deans or department chairs are fully responsible for the management of teaching, assisted by associate deans or duty chairs in charge of daily operation of teaching. School or department business meetings are where major decisions on teaching and its management are taken. At the school or department level, teaching work committees (jiaoxue gongzuo weiyuanhui) are established as a consulting or research organization for providing advices on teaching.

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The basic organization for teaching and its management is the teaching and research office (jiaoyanshi), which is organized in accordance with a program or curriculum. Recently, curriculum groups (kechengzu) or disciplinary groups (xuekezu) emerged in some HEIs, replacing the teaching and research office. The functions of these groups are the same; their difference is the scale and scope. A teaching and research office is usually established at the department level and is responsible for the teaching and its management in one program or several programs, some even for a specialty. Depending on its scale, a department may include one or several teaching and research offices. A curriculum group is often specifically organized around one program, and hence may be smaller in scale and narrower in scope. A disciplinary group is typically organized around a discipline that includes several specialties, and hence larger in scale and broad in scope. The functions of these basic organizations are to draw up educational plans for programs and teaching outlines for each course, carry out course instruction and other teaching tasks in accordance with the educational plans, conduct research on teaching, organize scholarly activities and professional development programs for teachers. As in specialized higher education, the management of teaching in undergraduate HEIs includes the management of educational plans, operation of teaching, teaching quality management and evaluation, and basic construction of teaching. Educational plans are comprehensive curriculum guidelines for each academic program, covering objectives, length of studies, course arrangements (including course types, credits and hours, methods of instruction, time of offering, and practical training component), teaching and studying requirements, teaching schedule, and examinations, and necessary explanations (such as the proportion of various types of courses, compulsory and elective courses, and credit system or semester system (Min, 1994; Wang, 2003). The decision- making authority for the formulation of educational plans is delegated to each HEI in accordance with the Higher Education Law (1998). The department of teaching management in each HEI is responsible for making guidelines and basic requirements for formulating educational plans in the HEI. The teaching and research offices are responsible for formulating educational plans, which are reviewed by the department or school, and then submitted to the university for approval. Once an educational plan is approved, it is up to the department of teaching management to arrange the schedule of implementation by semester, to decide the courses for each semester, its classroom and assessment. Once an educational plan is approved, it is expected to be implemented faithfully. Any alteration requires approval from the department of teaching management. Besides the formulation and implementation of educational plans, the operation of teaching also includes daily operation, maintaining records of student status,

148 6 Undergraduate Education managing teachers’ workload, teaching resources and teaching files. The daily operation of teaching is required to faithfully follow the academic calendar, course schedule and assessment schedule, which are centrally prepared and administered by the department of teaching management. Management of student status refers to the verification of a student’s admission qualification, academic standing and progress, and graduation qualification. The department of teaching management makes rules governing the management of student status and establishes a record of academic status for each student. The department of teaching management determines the minimum and maximum workload for teachers teaching different types of courses. Therefore the workload for teachers varies between compulsory and elective courses, between foundation and specialty courses, and between theoretical and practical courses. Each school year or term, teachers are evaluated for their teaching workload, attitudes and quality. The management of teaching resources refers to the rational development, deployment and utilization of classrooms, laboratories and other teaching facilities and equipments. The management of teaching resources is often decentralized to departments or schools, while the department of teaching management coordinates it centrally. Each HEI is required to establish the necessary organization and rules for the management of teaching files, determine the type and content of teaching files, and the length of time they are to be kept in storage. In general, teaching files include teaching documents, business files, files about instructors, and learning records of student, etc. The quality management and evaluation of teaching include the overall evaluation of teaching at the school, department or university level, of program and curriculum development, and of instructors’ teaching quality and students’ learning. Corresponding to the national evaluation of undergraduate teaching, most HEIs established their own performance indicators for teaching and learning. The evaluation is often conducted by the department of teaching management at the university level, and by the departments or the schools. The evaluation results of teaching quality are a crucial component of teachers’ performance, usually linked with the meritorious promotion and compensation systems adopted by most HEIs. Students and teaching are at the center of every HEI, where there are a variety of supporting systems ensuring the smooth operation of teaching; for example, library information system, logistic service system, and in-school healthcare system. Every HEI must ensure that expenditure on teaching makes up a reasonable proportion of the total expenditure.

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77 Postgraduate Education

7.1 Overview

The earliest graduate education in modern China appeared in the late Qing Dynasty, but no specific measures were taken to develop graduate education. An academic degree system was established in the RC in 1935. However, there were only over 200 master’s degrees (no doctorate degree) awarded by some academic institutions throughout China until 1949. In April 1935, the central government of the RC issued an Academic Degrees Conferment Act and the MOE of the RC announced Specific Rules on Academic Degrees Classification. The former stipulated that the bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees constituted a three-tier academic degrees system and in some special disciplines only the bachelor’s or master’s degrees could be granted. Two months later, Specific Rules on Master’s Degrees Examination were released. In 1940, both Doctoral Degrees Organizing Act and Specific Rules on Doctoral Degrees were published. Since the beginning of the 1950s, graduate education in the PRC has been provided by HEIs and separately established research institutes. At present, from the perspective of the administration of Chinese higher education, the MOE of the PRC and other central ministries and agencies at the central level control a number of institutions offering graduate programs; meanwhile, educational and non-educational departments at the local level administrate their own institutions providing graduate programs. Table 7.1 shows the number of institutions offering graduate programs at two levels in 2006. It also shows that no non-state / private institutions offered graduate education and granted advanced degrees even in 2006. Over the past decades, the newly-established, non-state HEIs in China have been focusing on vocational education primarily at specialized education level in various market- driven, “hot” subjects, and none of them has been given authorization for any form of graduate education by the State Council Committee on Academic Degrees (SCCAD) up to now.

Higher Education in China

Table 7.1 Number of Institutions Offering Postgraduate Programs across China in 2006

State / public institutions Non-state Central ministries & / private Local authorities agencies institutions Other Subtotal central Non- Educational Subtotal MOE ministri Subtotal educational departments es & departments agencies HEIs 450 97 73 24 353 331 22 N* Research 317 274 N 274 43 N 43 N institutes Total 767 371 73 298 396 331 65 N

Note: * N stands for no postgraduate programs. Source: (MOE, 2006b).

Table 7.2 shows that there were a total of 736 institutions offering graduate programs in 1998 and the total number reached 795 in 2007. The number of HEIs and separately established research institutes offering graduate programs had not increased greatly in the past ten years between 1998 and 2007, although the Chinese higher education system had undergone the fastest growth over the same period. Evidently, there had been some ups and downs in certain years.

Table 7.2 Number of Institutions Offering Postgraduate Programs across China between 1998 and 2007

HEIs Research institutes Total 1998 408 328 736 1999 446 329 775 2000 415 323 738 2001 411 317 728 2002 408 320 728 2003 407 313 720 2004 454 315 769 2005 450 316 766 2006 450 317 767 2007 479 316 795

Source: MOE. 19982007 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise, from http://www.moe.edu.cn.

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Nevertheless, as far as the size of Chinese graduate education is concerned, it is noteworthy that more than 2 million advanced degrees have been awarded in China between 1978 and 2008. Since the restart of recruiting graduate students in 1978, over 240,000 doctorates and over 1,800,000 master’s degrees have been granted across the country (MOE, 2008k). Moreover, the current size of Chinese graduate education is huge. This can be proven by the number of entrants, enrollments and graduates earning advanced degrees in recent years. In 2007, there were a total of 795 institutions offering graduate programs, of which 479 were HEIs and 316 were research institutes. The entrants of all graduate programs were 418,600 in total, of whom 58,000 were doctoral students and 360,600 were master’s degree students. The total enrollments were 1,195,000, of whom 222,500 were doctoral students and 972,500 were master’s degree students. A total of 311,800 graduate students completed their graduate studies and earned their advanced degrees, among whom 41,400 earned doctoral degrees and 270,400 obtained master’s degrees (MOE, 2008a).

7.2 Academic Degrees System

7.2.1 Establishment of Academic Degrees Ordinance of the PRC After the founding of the PRC in 1949, the central government managed to establish a brand new academic degrees system. In 1956, an Academic Degrees Ordinance was drafted and it provided that academic degrees should be awarded in 23 categories of disciplines. Seven years later, an Academic Degrees Conferment Ordinance was drafted and it suggested that both the doctoral degree and the associate doctoral degree (a special doctoral degree adopted from the Soviet Union at that time) should be granted. In 1965, a pilot scheme for conferring academic degrees to foreign students was issued, too. Unfortunately, all these early efforts of the PRC failed to make an academic degrees’ conferment act officially pass and come into effect across the country. Between February 1979 and February 1980, the reestablishment of an academic degrees system started in the context of the reform and opening-up of China. In February 1979, a task force on academic degrees led by Nanxiang Jiang, the Minister of Education at that time, carried the responsibility for drafting an Academic Degrees Ordinance. A new Academic Degrees Ordinance was then drafted. In December 1979, the draft was amended by the NPC’s Standing Committee. The amended draft was later discussed and finally approved by the State Council in February 1980. The Academic Degrees Ordinance formally came into effect on January 1, 1981. The ordinance contains 20 articles covering a three-tier academic degrees system: the

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bachelor’s, master’s and doctoral degrees. It specifies not only the standards for awarding academic degrees but also the methods of awarding them. The ordinance stipulates the different responsibilities of the SCCAD, the academic degrees awarding institutions as well as the academic degrees review committees. The ordinance provides that the SCCAD should direct the academic degrees review and conferment; the master’s and doctoral degrees should be awarded by the HEIs and research institutes having been formally authorized by the SCCAD. The academic degrees awarding institutions are required by the ordinance to set up the committees on the defense of the thesis or dissertation and the academic degrees review committees. Foreign scholars and international students could obtain academic degrees in China in accordance with the ordinance. The SCCAD was established on December 1, 1980, having 44 committee members including some major leaders from the State Council, MOE and other ministries, the CAS, and some key universities. In December 1980, the SCCAD approved a Provisional Regulation on Implementing Academic Degrees Ordinance as well as Principles and Methods of Examining the Academic Degree Awarding Institutions. It also made a decision on setting up 10 discipline review groups including science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, literature, history, philosophy, economics, law and education (Dong, 2007: 448). On the first meeting of the Discipline Review Group of the SCCAD in 1981, the first group of master’s and doctoral degree awarding institutions and a list of disciplines and specialties for graduate programs were examined. On November 3, 1981, the State Council formally approved the institutions as well as the disciplines and specialties. There were a total of 151 doctoral degree awarding institutions and 812 discipline / specialty-based doctoral programs, and 358 master’s degree awarding institutions and 3,185 discipline / specialty-based master’s degrees programs. Of all the doctoral programs, the HEIs accounted for 75 percent and the research institutes accounted for 25 percent. Of 1,155 supervisors of doctoral programs, the HEIs accounted for 69.9 percent and the research institutes accounted for 30.1 percent. As regards mater’s degree education, of all the master’s programs, the HEIs accounted for 84.2 percent and the research institutes accounted for 15.8 percent. On November 23, 1981, the MOE announced that China had decided to recruit the first group of doctoral students. Those who would like to apply for a doctoral degree program should meet several requirements, for example, a 1980 or 1981 master’s degree holder, and under the age of 40, etc. (CIES, 1983: 633). The academic degrees system as an influential product of educational reform at the beginning of the 1980s virtually set the pace for the development of Chinese graduate education in the next three decades.

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7.2.2 Basic characteristics of the academic degrees system There are at least three basic characteristics in the Chinese academic degrees system. First, the academic degrees at graduate education level in China are classified into two levels, two types and two forms of education. The academic degrees are awarded at the master’s and doctoral levels. Particularly, the master’s degree as a separate one leads to the doctorate unlike many other countries across the globe. The two types involve the traditional academic degree (the research-oriented or theory- focused degree) and the new professional degree (the profession-oriented or practice- focused degree). With the diversification of academic degrees system in China, the professional degree has been introduced and developed in a great number of disciplines and specialties at the master’s level (but just in a few disciplines and specialties at the doctoral level) since the 1990s. In addition, like many other countries, the forms of education at graduate education level include the full-time and the part-time modes of learning. More and more graduate students are choosing the part-time mode to pursue their degrees. Second, the catalog of disciplines and specialties for conferring academic degrees at graduate education level is formulated and promulgated by the state in China. Academic degrees are awarded in twelve categories of disciplines: philosophy, economics, law, education, literature, history, science, engineering, agriculture, medicine, military science and administration. The SCCAD and MOE have the right to produce the universally adopted Catalog of Disciplines and Specialties for Conferring Master’s and Doctoral Degrees and Educating Postgraduates. In the current Catalog, there are a total of 12 categories of disciplines, 81 first level disciplines and hundreds of second level disciplines. Each category of discipline covers certain first level disciplines and then each first level discipline includes certain secondary level disciplines. For instance, science, as one of the 12 categories of disciplines, involves 12 first level disciplines: mathematics, physics, chemistry, astronomy, geography, atmospheric science, marine science, geophysics, geology, biology, systems science, as well as history of science and technology. Chemistry, one of the 12 first level disciplines in science, includes another 5 secondary level disciplines: inorganic chemistry, analytical chemistry, organic chemistry, physical chemistry, as well as macromolecule chemistry and physics. On the basis of each secondary level discipline, the academic standards for master’s and doctoral degrees’ qualifications are set by the SCCAD. The following sample is taken from the Catalog (MOE, 1998a): 0101 philosophy 010101 Marxist philosophy 010102 Chinese philosophy

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010103 foreign philosophy 010104 logic 010105 ethics 010106 aesthetics 010107 religion 010108 philosophy of science and technology 02 economics… 03 law… 04 education… 05 literature… 06 history… 07 science… 08 engineering… 09 agriculture… 10 medicine… 11 military… science 12 administration 1201 management science and engineering 1202 business administration 120201 accounting 120202 enterprise management (including financial management, marketing and human resources management) 120203 tourism administration 120204 technical economics and administration 1203 economics and administration of agriculture and forestry 120301 agricultural economics and administration 120302 forestry economics and administration 1204 public administration 120401 administration 120402 social medicine and health service administration 120403 educational economics and administration 120404 social security 120405 land resources administration 1205 libraries, information and archives administration 120501 library science 120502 information science 120503 archives

Third, there are rigorous systems of administrating academic degrees and approving academic degrees conferment. China has a three-level system of administrating academic degrees: the SCCAD, the provincial committee on academic degrees and the degree awarding institution’s committee on academic degrees. The SCCAD at the top level is responsible for making the state policy and guidelines of academic degree conferment, approving not only the academic degree awarding institutions but also the disciplines and specialties for master’s and doctoral programs, steering the academic degree conferment at all levels, as well as assessing and scrutinizing the quality of academic degrees. It has a permanent body called the

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Office of the SCCAD and has set up a wide range of discipline review groups consisting of experts in various disciplines. At the middle level, the provincial committee on academic degrees takes charge of approving new master’s programs in some disciplines and specialties, planning and administrating the academic degree conferment at the provincial level, as well as assessing, scrutinizing and monitoring the quality of academic degrees at the provincial level. At the bottom level, the degree awarding institution’s committee on academic degrees takes the responsibility of recruiting and educating graduate students as well as awarding academic degrees.

7.3 Master’s Degree Education

7.3.1 Recent developments A master’s degree is a separate academic degree at graduate education level in China. It commonly takes a student 23 years to complete a master’s degree program. In general, in a master’s program a wide range of courses with a total of 3236 credits are offered, and a master’s thesis, as well as the defense of the master’s thesis are also required. According to the 1981 Academic Degrees Ordinance, a master’s degree student in a certain HEI or research institute or a person who holds the equivalent qualification can be awarded a master’s degree after he or she successfully passes the coursework for the master’s degree and passes the defense of the master’s thesis. The academic standard for the master’s degree is judged by the acquirement of knowledge and capacity such as the complete mastery of basic theory and systematic specialized knowledge in a particular discipline; and the capacity to conduct research or undertake special technical work independently (MOE, 1981). With the transition to mass higher education from elite higher education in China in the past few years, the master’s degree education has grown very fast. The number of master’s degrees granted in 2007 was nearly five times its number in 2001, which was faster than the increase rate of the total of master’s and doctoral degrees over the same period. As to the total enrollments, the number of students enrolling for master’s degree in 2007 was six times more than the number in 1998. Overall, the number of master’s degrees over the years constituted the vast majority of the total of master’s and doctoral degrees together (see Table 7.3).

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Table 7.3 Number of Master’s Degrees across China 19982007

Graduates Entrants Enrollments Master’s & Master’s Year Master’s & Master’s Master’s Master’s doctoral & doctoral doctoral degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees 1998 47,077 N* 72,508 57,546 198,885 153,639 1999 54,700 N 92,200 72,300 233,500 179,500 2000 58,800 N 128,500 103,400 301,200 233,900 2001 67,800 54900 165,200 133,100 393,300 307,400 2002 80,800 66200 202,600 164,300 501,000 392,300 2003 111,100 92300 268,900 220,200 651,300 514,600 2004 150,800 127300 326,300 273,000 819,900 654,300 2005 189,700 162000 364,800 310,000 978,600 787,300 2006 255,900 219,700 397,900 342,000 1,104,700 896,600 2007 311,800 270,400 418,600 360,600 1,195,000 972,500

Note: * N stands for no figure. Source: MOE. 19982007 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise, from http://www.moe.edu.cn.

From the perspective of category of discipline, among the twelve categories of disciplines, master’s degree students in four categories of disciplines accounted for a great proportion of the total in 2006 (see Table 7.4). These four categories of disciplines were engineering, administration, science and medicine. Out of a total of 219,655 graduates earning master’s degrees, the numbers of graduates in engineering, administration, science and medicine were 82,386, 25,517, 21,896 and 20,934 respectively, of which graduates in engineering accounted for the highest proportion. The numbers of entrants for master’s degrees in engineering, administration, science and medicine were 123,309, 41,095, 37,245 and 35,425 respectively, of which entrants in engineering accounted for over one third of the total and the latter three each accounted for over one tenth of the total. Out of a total of 896,615 students enrolling for master’s degrees, the numbers of total enrollments in engineering, administration, science and medicine were 325,440, 105,517, 98,845 and 94,353 respectively, of which engineering students also accounted for the highest proportion.

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Table 7.4 Number of Master’s Degree Students by Disciplines in HEIs and Research Institutes in 2006

Graduates Entrants Enrollments Master’s & Master’s & Master’s &  Master’s Master’s Master’s doctoral doctoral doctoral degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees Total 255,902 219,655 397,925 341,970 1,104,653 896,615 Of total: females 110,719 98,829 177,839 157,858 486,136 415,668 Philosophy 3,117 2,593 4,742 3,943 13,221 10,469 Economics 14,784 12,746 19,635 16,995 54,162 43,720 Law 19,413 17,713 26,868 24,448 71,724 63,464 Education 7,767 7,138 14,340 13,270 36,702 33,260 Literature 20,107 18,447 31,351 28,980 83,738 75,469 History 3,497 2,894 5,481 4,523 15,630 12,112 Science 29,137 21,896 47,749 37,245 134,729 98,845 Engineering 94,516 82,386 144,841 123,309 412,273 325,440 Agriculture 8,853 7,309 14,841 12,552 41,442 3,346 Medicine 26,415 20,934 42,200 35,425 115,901 94,353 Military Science 117 82 215 185 629 505 Administration 28,179 25,517 45,662 41,095 124,502 105,517

Source: (MOE, 2006b).

In terms of the age of supervisors of master’s programs in 2006 (see Table 7.5), 77,787 belonged to the 3645 years age group; this was more than 50 percent of the total whose age ranged from under 30 to over 66 years. As regards the age of supervisors of doctoral and master’s programs (those who supervised both master’s and doctoral students at the same time), 15,679 were aged from 41 to 50, which was nearly half of the total whose age ranged from under 30 to over 66 years.

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Table 7.5 Aggregate Data on Supervisors of Master’s Programs in HEIs and Research Institutes in 2006

30 31 36 41 46 51 56 61 66 years years Subtotal 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 old and years years years years years years years old and under old old old old old old old over Total 176,542 1,106 12,118 33,531 57,012 30,515 20,135 11,990 6,213 3,922 Supervisors of master’s degree 144,991 1,078 11,675 30,265 47,522 24,326 15,939 8,831 3,705 1,650 programs Of which: females 38,631 327 3,460 8,923 12,931 6,252 4,150 1,729 620 239 Supervisors of doctoral & master’s 31,551 28 443 3,266 9,490 6,189 4,196 3,159 2,508 2,272 degree programs Of which: females 3,588 4 68 416 981 738 532 364 301 184

Source: (MOE, 2006b).

7.3.2 New directions There is a tendency that graduate education has moved and will continue to move toward diversification. First, there have been diverse forms of learning in master’s degree education over the past years and there will be more and more part-time master’s degree students in the years ahead. The master’s degree is provided in two forms of learning: the full-time and the part-time. In recent years, more and more master’s degree students have chosen the second form to pursue their degrees. The master’s degree for in-service practitioners in China is classified into three categories: the professional master’s degrees for practitioners from such professional fields as law, education, physical education, engineering, business administration, public administration, etc.; the master’s degrees solely for faculty and staff members in HEIs; and the master’s degrees specially designed for teachers in vocational schools at secondary education level. In 2006, there were a total of over 50,000 graduates who finished their part-time graduate studies and were awarded master’s degrees, and there were over 100,000 part-time entrants and nearly 300,000 part-time enrollments in total at the master’s level. From the perspective of category of discipline, among the twelve categories of disciplines, the number of part-time master’s degree students in engineering, administration, education and law accounted for a great proportion of the total in 2006 (see Table 7.6). Compared to the previous analysis based on Table 7.4,

160 7 Postgraduate Education education and law instead of science and medicine were more popular among the part-timers pursuing master’s degrees in the same year.

Table 7.6 Number of Master’s Degree Students without Leaving Their Jobs by Disciplines in 2006

Degrees awarded Entrants Enrollments Master’s & Master’s & Master’s & Master’s Master’s Master’s doctoral doctoral doctoral degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees Total 56,184 55,022 109,245 106,877 299,100 291,051 Of total:females 16,017 15,701 33,043 32,509 88,449 86,627 Philosophy 364 357 831 792 1,859 1,777 Economics 1,397 1,376 3,987 3,970 11,546 11,388 Law 4,825 4,806 8,338 8,230 21,162 20,850 Education 5,705 5,673 12,855 12,836 32,724 32,670 Literature 1,227 1,202 4,665 4,555 9,605 9,314 History 218 208 506 478 1,993 1,857 Science 1,725 1,620 2,981 2,820 8,097 7,616 Engineering 21,080 20,717 43,250 42,419 128,654 125,355 Agriculture 2,456 2,401 5,242 5,125 14,046 13,662 Medicine 3,378 2,960 5,680 4,930 16,399 14,316 Military Science 1 1 30 30 44 44 Administration 13,808 13,701 20,880 20,692 52,971 52,202

Source: (MOE, 2006b).

Second, there have been diverse types of master’s degrees over the past two decades, and more and more professional master’s degrees will be introduced. With the gradual improvement of the Chinese academic degrees system and the rapid change of market needs for the high-level manpower, producing different types of master’s degree graduates to meet the demands for not only the theory-oriented researchers but also the practice-oriented professionals has become more important in the past two decades. As a result, the professional degrees stressing the application of knowledge instead of the mastery of pure theory have developed dramatically since 1990. In 1990, the SCCAD approved the first six professional master’s degrees in six disciplines: law, education, engineering, business administration, etc. Later on, a diverse system of professional master’s degrees appeared. By the end of 2001, there had been a total of 3,026 MBA degrees awarded and 13,890 MBA students enrolling in 56 HEIs, 3,628 J. M. students enrolling in 28 HEIs, 1,700 MEd students enrolling

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in 29 HEIs, 5,690 M.Eng students enrolling in 70 HEIs, 1, 678 students of Master of Clinical Medicine enrolling in 43 HEIs, and 200 degrees of Master of Architecture awarded in 12 HEIs as well (Office of SCCAD, 2006). Until now, the professional degrees approved by the SCCAD include 16 types of professional master’s degrees:  • Master of Business Administration (MBA) • Master of Architecture • Master of Juris (JM) • Master of Education (MEd) • Master of Engineering (MEng) • Master of Clinical Medicine • Master of Stomatological Medicine (SMM) • Master of Veterinary • Master of Public Health (MPH) • Master of Public Administration (MPA) • Master of Agricultural Extension • Master of Translation and Interpreting (MTI) • Master of Teaching Chinese to Speakers of Other Languages (MTCSOL) • Master of Professional Accounting (MPAcc) • Master of Physical Education • Master of Fine Arts (MFA) A number of national steering committees on education of professional degrees jointly established by the SCCAD and MOE are composed of not only experts and scholars from professional degrees awarding institutions but also educational leaders from various related departments. These steering committees like the National Steering Committee on MEng and National Steering Committee on MBA play a greater and more significant role in the process of designing programs of professional master’s degrees, training professional supervisors, and assessing the quality of education of professional degrees, etc. According to the Provisional Measures for Establishing and Approving Professional Degrees, released by the MOE in 1996, the purpose of the establishment of the professional degree is to “educate high-level practice-based professionals at a rapid pace adapting to the needs of economic and societal development”. An official definition in this document is that “the professional degree as a degree with a particular professional background is established for educating the high-level talent in the professions”. The professional degree at that time was thought of as a degree only offered at the master’s level in most cases, although at present there are a few professional

162 7 Postgraduate Education doctorates like Doctor of Clinical Medicine and Doctor of Stomatological Medicine (SMD.) in China. The document provides that the professional degree must be entitled “Master of…” or “Doctor of…” It stresses that within the academic degrees system as a whole a professional degree must have the same academic status as a traditional academic degree in the same category of discipline. This implies that the MEng should be equally treated as the MSc. in engineering (MOE, 1996a). More recently, the MOE tried to reinforce the development of professional degrees education in China. For example, in the Proposals for Strengthening and Improving Professional Degrees Education (2002) issued by MOE, several proposals were put forward: (1) understanding fully the importance of professional degrees education; (2) planning professional degrees education as a whole, with an attempt to actively adapt to the needs of economic and societal development; (3) deepening the reform of the system of professional degrees education to improve the quality of education; (4) strengthening the function of steering committees of professional degrees education; (5) establishing and perfecting the assessment system of professional degrees education; and (6) reinforcing the international cooperation and exchange (MOE, 2002b).

7.4 Doctoral Education

7.4.1 Recent developments A doctoral degree normally takes a student at least three years to complete in China. A doctoral student is supervised by one professor or a supervising team. In the doctoral program, there is a wide range of courses, a doctoral dissertation, a defense of the doctoral dissertation, and the independent research work or the participation in the research project. According to the 1981 Academic Degrees Ordinance, a doctoral student in a HEI or research institute, or a person who holds the equivalent qualification can be awarded a doctoral degree after he or she successfully passes the coursework for the doctoral degree and pass the defense of the doctoral dissertation. The academic standard for the doctoral degree is judged by the acquirement of knowledge, capacity and original achievements such as the complete mastery of not only the broad basic theories but also the systematic, in-depth specialized knowledge in a particular discipline; the capacity to undertake research work independently; and the original contribution made to science or special technology (MOE, 1981). Likewise, among the educating objectives for doctoral students stated by the Provisional Regulations on Educating Doctoral Students (1992), the same requirements concerning

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knowledge, capacity and original achievements were reaffirmed (Office of SCCAD & Office of MOE Graduate Students Affairs, 1999: 251). In the context of higher education expansion, the size of Chinese doctoral education has been on the increase in the past decade (see Table 7.7). The number of doctoral degrees granted in 2007 was more than three times the number in 2001. In terms of entrants and enrollments, the numbers of doctoral students in 2007 were nearly four times and five times the numbers in 1998 respectively. On the whole, in 2007, the number of graduates, entrants and enrollments at the doctoral level merely accounted for over 13 percent, nearly 14 percent and nearly 19 percent respectively of the total numbers at master’s and doctoral levels.

Table 7.7 Number of Doctoral Degrees across China 19982007

Graduates Entrants Enrollments Master’s & Master’s & Master’s & Doctoral Doctoral Doctoral doctoral doctoral doctoral degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees 1998 47,077 N* 72,508 14,962 198,885 45,246 1999 54,700 N 92,200 19,900 233,500 54,000 2000 58,800 N 128,500 25,100 301,200 67,300 2001 67,800 12,900 165,200 32,100 393,300 85,900 2002 80,800 14,600 202,600 38,300 501,000 108,700 2003 111,100 18,800 268,900 48,700 651,300 136,700 2004 150,800 23,500 326,300 53,300 819,900 165,600 2005 189,700 27,700 364,800 54,800 978,600 191,300 2006 255,900 36,200 397,900 56,000 1,104,700 208,000 2007 311,800 41,400 418,600 58,000 1,195,000 222,500

Note: * N stands for no figure. Source: MOE. 19982007 Statistical Bulletin on the Development of the National Education Enterprise, from http://www.moe.edu.cn.

As regards category of discipline, among the twelve categories of disciplines, the numbers of doctoral students in four categories (engineering, science, medicine and administration) accounted for a great proportion of the total in 2006 (see Table 7.8). Comparing this with the analysis of master’s degrees above (see Table 7.4), it is worth noting that the number of students studying administration at the doctoral level ranked only fourth while at master’s level, they ranked second, and the number of students doing engineering both at master’s and doctoral levels ranked first in the same year.

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Table 7.8 Number of Doctoral Students by Disciplines in HEIs and Research Institutes in 2006

Graduates Entrants Enrollments  Master’s & Master’s & Master’s & Doctoral Doctoral Doctoral doctoral doctoral doctoral degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees Total 255,902 36,247 397,925 55,955 1,104,653 208,038 Of total: females 110,719 11,890 177,839 19,981 486,136 70,468 Philosophy 3,117 524 4,742 799 13,221 2,752 Economics 14,784 2,038 19,635 2,640 54,162 10,442 Law 19,413 1,700 26,868 2,420 71,724 8,260 Education 7,767 629 14,340 1,070 36,702 3,442 Literature 20,107 1,660 31,351 2,371 83,738 8,269 History 3,497 603 5,481 958 15,630 3,518 Science 29,137 7,241 47,749 10,504 134,729 35,884 Engineering 94,516 12,130 144,841 21,532 412,273 86,833 Agriculture 8,853 1,544 14,841 2,289 41,442 7,981 Medicine 26,415 5,481 42,200 6,775 115,901 21,548 Military Science 117 35 215 30 629 124 Administration 28,179 2,662 45,662 4,567 124,502 18,985

Source: (MOE, 2006b).

In terms of the age of the supervisors of doctoral programs in 2006 (see Table 7.9), 6,758 belonged to the age groups of 4150 years and 6166 years and over; together, they accounted for more than 50 percent of the total whose age ranged from under 30 years to over 66 years. Compared to the supervisors of master’s programs (see Table 7.5), the supervisors of doctoral programs were a few years older.

Table 7.9 Aggregate Data on Supervisors of Doctoral Programs in Regular HEIs and Research Institutes in 2006

30 31 36 41 46 51 61 5660 66 years years 35 40 45 50 55 65 Subtotal years old and old and years years years years years years old over under old old old old old old Total 43,844 40 609 4,184 12,186 8,254 5,732 4,401 4,069 4,269 Supervisors of 12,293 12 166 918 2,696 2,065 1,636 1,242 1,561 1,997 doctoral programs Of which: females 1,550 2 15 105 326 273 276 191 196 166 Supervisors of doctoral & master’s 31,551 28 443 3,266 9,490 6,189 4,196 3,159 2,508 2,272 degree programs Of which:females 3,588 4 68 416 981 738 532 364 301 184

Source: (MOE, 2006b).

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7.4.2 New directions First, the diversification of forms of learning at the doctoral level will continue in the future. There have been a number of part-time doctoral students. In 2006, there were 1,162 part-time doctoral degrees awarded, 2,368 part-time entrants and 8,049 part- time enrollments at the doctoral level. From the perspective of category of discipline, among the twelve categories, the numbers of part-time doctoral students in both engineering and medicine accounted for more than 50 percent of the total (see Table 7.10). Compared to the part-timers at the master’s level in the same year (see Table 7.6), the number of part-timers at the doctoral level in medicine, instead of administration, ranked second, and the part-timers in both Education and Law at the doctoral level accounted for just a small proportion of the total.

Table 7.10 Number of Doctoral Students without Leaving Their Jobs by Disciplines in 2006

Degrees awarded Entrants Enrollments Master’s & Master’s & Master’s & Doctoral Doctoral Doctoral doctoral doctoral doctoral degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees degrees Total 56,184 1,162 109,245 2,368 299,100 8,049 Of total:females 16,017 316 33,043 534 88,449 1,822 Philosophy 364 7 831 39 1,859 82 Economics 1,397 21 3,987 17 11,546 158 Law 4,825 19 8,338 108 21,162 312 Education 5,705 32 12,855 19 32,724 54 Literature 1,227 25 4,665 110 9,605 291 History 218 10 506 28 1,993 136 Science 1,725 105 2,981 161 8,097 481 Engineering 21,080 363 43,250 831 128,654 3,299 Agriculture 2,456 55 5,242 117 14,046 384 Medicine 3,378 418 5,680 750 16,399 2,083 Military Science 1 N* 30 N 44 N Administration 13,808 107 20,880 188 52,971 769

Note: * N stands for no figure. Source: (MOE, 2006b).

Second, more professional doctorates will be introduced in the near future. Up to now, only a few professional doctorates have been approved by the SCCAD and tried out in certain HEIs, such as: • Doctor of Clinical Medicine • Doctor of Stomatological Medicine (SMD) • Doctor of Veterinary

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However, in the past few years, there has been a lot of advocacy for establishing other types of professional doctorates in academia. Among them, the typical professional doctorates under discussion include the Doctor of Engineering (DEng) and Doctor of Education (EdD), which are most likely to be formally introduced in the near future. Third, several significant aspects of doctoral education will be more emphasized in the future; for example, quality, doctoral dissertation appraisal, and innovation. As far as the quality of doctoral education is concerned, although the improvement of quality has been stressed in the process of educating doctoral students in China in the past few years, there will be more specific measures taken to focus on quality. Greater importance will be attached to the refinement and restructuring of doctoral programs in the doctoral degree awarding institutions as well as in the disciplines and specialties at doctoral level. Both the curriculum for doctoral students and the content of learning will be renewed; and more internationally recognized textbooks from abroad as well as more bilingual teaching will be introduced to strengthen the internationalization of doctoral education. Actually, in order to improve the quality of graduate education particularly doctoral education, the SCCAD and MOE initiated a program of selecting excellent doctoral dissertations nationwide through specialist appraisal in 1998. They issued Methods of Selecting the National Excellent Doctoral Dissertations and announced the first National Awards for Excellent Doctoral Dissertations in 1999. Nearly 100 awards have been given annually since 1999. Statistics show that in the first seven years, between 1999 and 2005, most of the awardees were from the ten top doctoral degree awarding institutions (see Table 7.11). Peking University and Tsinghua University, the top two universities, had won more awards than any other university in China. In addition, more than one-seventh of the total awards have been given to doctors from various research institutes or centers at the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Because the annual awards have been of great value to the doctoral degree awarding institutions, the selection will inevitably play a key role in the quality assessment of Chinese doctoral education in the long run.

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Table 7.11 Statistics on National Awards for Excellent Doctoral Dissertations by Institution over the Years

Ranking Institutions Total 19992004 2005 117 institutions in total across China 687 591 96 1 Chinese Academy of Sciences 107 93 14 Peking University 53 45 8 2 Tsinghua University 53 48 5 4 Fudan University 36 33 3 5 Zhejiang University 23 20 3 6 Nanjing University 22 19 3 7 Renmin University of China 18 16 2 University of Science & Technology of 8 17 14 3 China Shanghai Jiaotong University 14 13 1 9 Xi’an Jiaotong University 14 12 2

Source: (MOE, 2006c) Statistics on National Awards for Excellent Doctoral Dissertations by Institution over the Years, Retrieved September 25, 2008, from http://www.moe.edu.cn.

In terms of the doctoral dissertation appraisal at the doctoral degree awarding institutions, more and more institutions will establish and develop the doctoral dissertation appraisal system. Shanghai Jiaotong University is one of the typical institutions which have a monitoring mechanism for doctoral dissertations. The eight policies it made years ago for controlling the quality of doctoral dissertations have been highly praised and may be welcomed by more and more doctoral degree awarding institutions throughout China in the coming years. These eight policies regulate the review of selecting a research topic, the interim appraisal of the dissertation, the preparatory defense of the dissertation, the rejection of the dissertation for lack of originality, the publication of high quality dissertations, the selection of excellent dissertations, the random check of dissertations, and the rejection of granting a doctoral degree to the doctoral candidate graded last in the scholarly evaluation (Chen & Zheng, 2004). Another significant aspect of doctoral education in China is innovation, which has been and will be pushed by the MOE and the doctoral degree awarding institutions. The Chinese graduate education has already shifted from quantity- focused development to quality-focused development. At the doctoral level, a transformation from coursework-based education to research-led training has been made in recent years, in particular in the major doctoral degree awarding institutions. Hence doctoral students’ research training, research projects and innovative endeavors in their fields of study will be highlighted more than ever before. At the

168 7 Postgraduate Education state level, the MOE initiated a Program of Innovation in Graduate Education in 2003 with the core objectives of establishing an incentive mechanism to encourage innovation in graduate students’ research work, creating a lasting ethos of innovation, as well as intensifying the innovative awareness, the innovative capacity and the innovative spirit in the students. In the past five years, the Program has sponsored not only the National Academic Forum for Doctoral Students 41 times but also the National Academic Conference for Doctoral Students three times. In these activities, over 11,000 doctoral students participated, and nearly 30,000 papers, in various categories of disciplines, were presented. At the institutional level, a great number of doctoral degree awarding institutions have held numerous academic forums for doctoral students within institutions and between institutions. In Tsinghua University, for example, similar academic forums of different sizes at department / college or university level have been held over 100 times, and an academic forum for international doctoral students was organized by doctoral students themselves in 2005. These academic activities help enrich doctoral students’ knowledge, stimulate their innovative thinking and generate their enthusiasm for innovation in the future (MOE, 2008k).

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88 Research in HEIs

Research is one of the major functions of HEIs. In spite of the uneven development of research in the HEIs in China, the HEIs have already become the primary undertakers of basic research, a not-to-be-ignored force in applied research, and a vital new force in the transformation of high-tech achievements. The development of research in HEIs is of vital importance for fulfilling the national strategy of rejuvenating China through science and education and for improving the quality of higher education.

8.1 Present State of Research in HEIs

During the early period after the establishment of the PRC, the science and education systems in China underwent a radical change based on the former Soviet model. During the change, the former comprehensive universities were adjusted into two kinds of institutions: the comprehensive universities, providing only education in liberal arts and science (Peking University is typical of this kind), and the specialized universities, providing education in applied science (Tsinghua University is typical of this kind). Meanwhile, a number of independent research institutes were set up outside the HEIs, among which the Chinese Academy of Sciences is a good case in point. Under such a centralized planning system, research was on the periphery of the HEIs’ work and activities, because research in HEIs was not part of the state plan and did not have funding and personnel. The situation had improved for a while after 1963, but was halted completely during the ten years of the “Cultural Revolution”. With China’s economic reform and opening-up to the outside world, the Chinese government has come to realize that research is one of the major functions of HEIs and those HEIs, especially the key universities, should be education centers as well as research centers. This remarkable change in people’s thoughts has since then brought great vigor into the research work in HEIs. Then, guided by the policy that economic development should be based on science and technology while science and technology serve economic development, HEIs opened up to the society and sought out ways of

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uniting production, teaching, and research, and reforming the research system in HEIs. With the implementation of the strategy of rejuvenating China through education, science and technology, the reform of the research system in HEIs has made great progress. The creative ability of HEIs in science and technology and their capacity for social services have been greatly improved by establishing platforms for scientific and technological innovations within HEIs and by carrying out the training programs for research personnel since the end of 1980s. These reform programs include “the Advanced Technology Development Program” (“”), “the National Key Program of Basic Research Development” (“973 Program”), the “High-level Creative Talent Program” in HEIs, “211 Project”, and “985 Project”, etc.

8.1.1 The research system of HEIs At present, the chief research institutions and bases of scientific and technological achievements and transformation in Chinese HEIs include 11 national laboratories, 173 national key laboratories (including the ones under construction), 42 national engineering research centers, 40 national engineering and technology research centers, 189 key laboratories of the MOE, 171 engineering research centers of the MOE, 151 key research bases of humanities and social sciences of the MOE, 62 national university science and technology parks, and 7 national technology transformation centers. In addition, similar research bases have been set up in local HEIs by the provincial governments. Thus, within the national research system, there has emerged a university research structure of “three pyramids plus one platform”. The three pyramids of university research refer to “the knowledge innovation system” consisting of the national laboratories, the national key laboratories, and the provincial or ministerial key laboratories; “the engineering and technology innovation system” consisting of the national engineering (and technology) research centers and the provincial or ministerial engineering (and technology) centers; “the innovation bases of humanities and social sciences of the MOE”. The platform refers to “the platform of achievements, transformation and social services” consisting of the national university’s science and technology parks and the national technology transformation centers.

8.1.2 Personnel engaging in research at HEIs In the past, the research force in HEIs was rather weak. In 1985, there were only 89,000 full-time R&D personnel in HEIs, nationwide. With the rapid development of higher education, the increased input into science and technology, and the reform of personnel system in HEIs, teachers’ enthusiasm in conducting research has been

172 8 Research in HEIs gradually aroused. Thus, research personnel increased rapidly. Since 2000, the number of R&D personnel in HEIs has shown a consistently increasing trend. In 2006, the number of R&D personnel in HEIs reached 242,000. Meanwhile, the quality and academic level of the research personnel in HEIs continue to improve. In 2005, HEIs had 662 academicians of the Chinese Academy of Sciences and the Chinese Academy of Engineering, accounting for 49.7 percent of the total. According to the statistics, 38.81 percent of the academicians elected between 1955 and 2007 were from HEIs and the number tended to increase every year. In 1998, the MOE and Li Jiacheng Foundation jointly launched the “Cheung Kong Scholars Program”. Up to the year 2006, 799 awarded professors and 308 chair professors had been employed by 97 HEIs. With the support and encouragement of this program, a group of the awarded scholars have registered a series of important achievements and become the leading force in their disciplines. From 1994 to 2003, the State Excellence Youth Science Foundation supported 1,171 young researchers, among whom 726 researchers came from HEIs, accounting for 62 percent of the total.

8.1.3 Research capacities of HEIs First of all, the funds spent by HEIs on R&D have been steadily rising, from nearly 100 million at the beginning of China’s economic reform in 1978 to 590 million in 1985, 1.4 billion in 1990, 4.2 billion in 1995, 7.7 billion in 2000, 27.7 billion in 2006 (in yuan). Meanwhile, the sources of research funding have become diversified. The percentage of governmental funds in the total university research funds has decreased from nearly 100 percent at the beginning to 79.3 percent in 1985, 66.6 percent in 1990, and 54.7 percent in 2006. At the same time, research funds from enterprises and other sources have been increasing continuously, which promoted the cooperation between scientific technology and the economy. As to the research funds from the government, the methods of allocation have changed from unified allocation to allocation based on competition by projects in most cases. What is more, the research programs and institutions which serve national goals tend to be concentrated in a few high level HEIs. In 2000, there were 16 HEIs whose research funds exceeded 200 million yuan and 39 HEIs whose research funds exceeded 100 million yuan. And in 2005, there were 47 HEIs whose research funds exceeded 200 million yuan and 29 HEIs whose research funds exceeded 100 million yuan. Second, as far as the distribution of R&D funds is concerned, the ratio among basic research, applied research, and trial development in HEIs in 2006 was 25.8: 49.6: 24.6, which was in sharp contrast to that of the whole country: 5.2:16.8:78.0. This indicates that the focus of research in HEIs is basic research and applied

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research. While enterprises have gradually appeared to play a key role in technological innovation, HEIs tend to focus on basic research and applied research. From 2003 to 2006, the funds spent on basic research annually in HEIs accounted for 37.7 percent, 40.9 percent, 43.2 percent, and 45.8 percent of the total national basic research funds, which shows a growing tendency every year. Third, during the Ninth Five-Year Plan, HEIs won two-thirds of the total national research projects in philosophy and social sciences, as well as two-thirds of national philosophy and social sciences research funds and the achievements winning awards. In the first four years of the Tenth Five-Year Plan, HEIs carried out 77.9 percent of the projects from the National Foundation of Natural Science, 56.2 percent of the national key projects, and 63.3 percent of State Excellence Youth Science Foundation projects. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, HEIs carried out 85 projects from the “973 Program”, constituting 54.5 percent of the total projects, as the chief conducting unit and serving as the chief scientist at the same time. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, HEIs conducted 40 percent of the total research projects from “863 Program”, and won 40 percent of the total amount of the research funds.

8.1.4 Social contribution of researches conducted by HEIs In the field of science and technology, in 1991, there were only 13,542 articles written by Chinese scholars and published in SCI, EI, and ISTP. In 2006 the number reached 172,000 among which 143,700 were from HEIs, accounting for 83.7 percent of the total in the whole country. In 1991, there were only 94,435 articles published in domestic Chinese journals, while in 2006, 243.500 articles from HEIs were published in domestic Chinese journals, accounting for 60.1 percent of the total in the whole country. During the Tenth Five-Year Plan, 75 national awards for natural science were won by HEIs, accounting for 55.07 percent of the total. HEIs also won 64 awards for technological invention, accounting for 64.4 percent of the total (announced), and won 433 awards for scientific and technological advances, accounting for 53.57 percent of the total (announced). In 2006, among the national awards for science and technology, Nanjing University, Harbin Institute of Technology, and the University of Hong Kong won all the first prizes for natural science and technology invention. In addition, during the Tenth Five-Year Plan, the MOE, as the department in charge of the national program for tackling the key problems of scientific technology in the agricultural and social fields, made a breakthrough, winning 250 projects from National Foundation for Transformation of Agricultural Technology and 170 million yuan in research funds; over 500 achievements were distributed and transferred benefiting several millions mu of agricultural fields, which resulted in social and economic benefits worth of

174 8 Research in HEIs billions. In 2006, HEIs exported to the society a total of 18,401 technological projects with a trade volume of 6.5 billion. The above data indicate that HEIs have played a key role in the public scientific research in China.

8.2 Features of Research in HEIs

Teaching, research, and social services are the three main functions of HEIs. Knowledge is created by research, distributed by teaching, and applied by social services. These three functions make up the whole process of knowledge production in HEIs. Therefore, compared with the research conducted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences or by the research institutions of line ministries or industries, the research conducted by HEIs has its unique features. First of all, HEIs carry out the twin tasks of producing research achievements and training qualified personnel, among which nurturing qualified personnel is of fundamental importance while scientific research is one of the major measures used to cultivate qualified personnel. Thus, a HEI, with the twin tasks of research and teaching, is both a research institution and a teaching institution. HEIs have to keep a balance between the two tasks and at the same time combine them by including students, especially the postgraduates, in the process of research and embodying the research achievements in teaching to update the teaching contents and improve teaching quality. At present, postgraduate students have become a new force in researches carried out by HEIs. In some HEIs, one-third of the research works are now conducted by postgraduates. Second, HEIs mainly conduct basic research and applied research. The goal of basic and applied research is to enrich scientific and technological knowledge while development research aims at developing new applications of knowledge. Development research is research on substantial improvements of knowledge in order to acquire new materials, new products, new technology, new systems, and new services, which are directly related to production. With the advantage of having comprehensive disciplines, qualified personnel in multi-disciplinary fields, and favorable academic environment, HEIs have already become the primary force in conducting basic research and the major force in conducting applied research. It is to be noted that because of the powerful capacity of administrative coordination, it is easier for HEIs to organize research teams to carry out major scientific research projects and establish national research bases. Furthermore, Chinese enterprises have not yet played a key role in technological innovation, unlike in western countries.

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HEIs in China contributed to the transfer and commercialization of scientific and technological innovation not only through technology transfer and teachers’ taking part-time jobs in enterprises, but also by purchasing shares in enterprises and even directly running high-tech enterprises. This indicates that HEIs in China engage more directly in transferring scientific and technological achievements, and contributing to the economic construction of the country and the development of higher education. Third, HEIs have more flexibility in the deployment of resources. Except some full-time research personnel, the majority of teachers in HEIs carry out both teaching and research, which is favorable for improving the efficiency of the employed qualified personnel, the academic level of teachers, and the quality of teaching. With the increase of research work in HEIs, some part-time research personnel outside HEIs are employed. In addition, most research organizations in HEIs are not considered as distinct legal entities apart from HEI. Therefore, they can avoid a lot of administrative tasks, reduce supporting staff, and focus on research work.

8.3 Organizational Structure of Research in HEIs

The traditional structure of HEIs in China is the three-level structure of “university— department—teaching and research office”. A department is an academic unit based on disciplines. Teaching and research office is the subdivision under a department based on specialties to which teachers belong. This traditional structure of HEIs was designed to serve the need of teaching which could fit the system of nurturing qualified personnel according to the unified state planning and specific specialty. It was the result of the centrally planned economy. At the end of the 1980s, in order to strengthen scientific research, a few HEIs established research institutes at the specialty level and divided up the work between departments and research institutes: departments were in charge of teaching while research institutes were in charge of scientific research. The division of work later changed, making departments responsible for undergraduate education and research institutes responsible for postgraduate education and research. However, whether they were set up in a department or directly affiliated to the university, most research institutes were established within a single discipline, usually at the level of specialty, which could not meet the needs of big research projects for interdisciplinary and multi-disciplinary joint efforts. The organization of research in HEIs suffered from problems such as the segmentation of research resources, dispersion of research personnel, narrow disciplinary scope covered by research institutes, difficulty in integrating different research teams, and hence inability to carry out major and large

176 8 Research in HEIs research projects. To deal with these problems, a few HEIs have recently been trying to establish research academies across colleges, departments, or disciplines. By doing so, the research resources of HEIs can be combined and the advantage of HEIs, having a full range of disciplines, can be brought into full play. And it is hoped that by doing so, a platform consisting of education, research, and production may be established, which will enable HEIs to carry out major research projects and become the national key bases of science and technology innovation and the open research institutions full of qualified personnel and vitality. Currently, the research organization of Chinese HEIs mostly adopts a four-level vertically administrative structure: university—college—department—research group. University. At the university level, there is usually one (sometimes two) vice president who is responsible for research and postgraduate education. The president or one vice president presides over academic review organizations such as the Academic Committee and the Academic Degrees Committee, to handle such academic affairs as disciplinary development, scientific research, and postgraduate education, etc. The Research Division (usually divided into the Research Division of Science and Technology and the Research Division of Humanities and Social Sciences in a large comprehensive university), as the administrative department in charge of research, carries out the following duties: planning the development of science and technology, evaluating research policies, managing research projects, applying for research achievements awards, filing patent applications, protecting intellectual property rights, handling academic exchanges, establishing research bases, and cooperating with enterprises, etc. College. At the college level , there is one vice-dean in charge of research work, playing the part of communication and coordination. And there is one full-time research secretary who is responsible for the regular administrative affairs of research. Department / Institute. Two types of relationship exist between the department and the research institute. In one type of relationship, the two are parallel units established within a college. The research institute is only responsible for research and postgraduate education. In the other type of relationship, the research institute is established under the department with the department responsible for undergraduate education and administration and the research institute responsible for research and postgraduate education. In the second type of relationship, the research institute is under the direct leadership of the department, and at the same time it is under the supervision of both the college and the university. In the second type of relationship, there usually exists one vice director in the department who is in charge of the research work. Research Group. The research group is the basic research unit and one of the

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most active units in a research organization. With the focus on attaining and fulfilling research projects, the research group has great flexibility. The group leader is responsible for organizing the research staff to carry out the research work. In addition, there exist many other types of research organizations in HEIs, under the direct management of the university; for instance, the national labs, the national key labs, national engineering research centers, national engineering and technology research centers, etc. There are also research organizations with the aim of strengthening the collaboration among different disciplines; for instance, research academies, and interdisciplinary research centers, etc.

8.4 Operation Mechanism of Research in HEIs

Since the policy of economic reform and opening-up to the outside world was adopted in China, the operation mechanism of research in HEIs has improved continuously to arouse the enthusiasm and creativity of members and promote the rapid development of research in HEIs. Currently, the research tasks in Chinese HEIs are mainly carried out by individuals, unlike in the past when it were done by collectives. The management system of research too has changed4from being a system of “responsibility of every administrative level” to the system of “responsibility of individuals or research groups”. Although it is a collective, a research group, composed of individuals on a voluntary basis, is completely different from the research office of the past. The research funding comes from many sources and not from the government only, as in the past. The ratio of government funding to non-government funding is around 1:1. The focus of funding has changed from disciplinary development to problem-based or need-based researches. Meanwhile, a competitive funding system has been established, based on performance. Management of Research Staff. Personnel management has been reformed to change the traditional system of ownership in which qualified personnel were permanent employees of a unit and individual teachers were directly managed by the personnel department at the university level. A new system of management has been established in which research staff comprises both full-time and part-time employees. Management of Research Organization. The old mode of unit-centered management of research has been replaced by the new mode of project-centered management of research with the research group as the basic research unit. In the new mode, research is managed by the relevant administrative department and supported by the relevant unit. The research project leader in charge of a research project has abundant autonomy within the approved tasks and budget. He or she can

178 8 Research in HEIs choose group members from different departments and units, and at the same time, has to shoulder the legal responsibility for the progress of research and the use of funds. Management of Research Funding. Currently, the funding sources of research in HEIs include operating expenses from the central government and the local government; expenses for the three items of science and technology (that is, the expense for experimental production of new products, the expense for mid-term experiments, and the subsidy for major research projects); special research expenses from the central government, the local government, or the relevant department; self- generated income (including income from research contracts, from technology services, and from other businesses); loans from banks, and funds from various research foundations established by governments, groups, or individuals. Meanwhile, a competitive funding system based on performance and reflecting the needs of the country has been established in which even the national key projects should be evaluated through application and examination. The aim of this system is to guide researches conducted by HEIs in line with the needs of the country, to avoid self- allocation of resources, self-satisfaction type of assessment, and self-recycling of production, and to provide more support to the HEIs and departments with higher efficiency of research input and output. By doing all the above, it is hoped that research in HEIs can improved its guidance, its aims and its effectiveness. Management of Research Achievements. Management of research achievements includes the following activities: publication, evaluation, registration, classification, counting, applying for awards, distribution, and application of the achievements. The emphasis in the management of research achievements is the registration and counting of the achievements, while the difficulty is the transformation of the achievements in which the potential productivity in the form of knowledge is transformed into productivity in reality. On the one hand, governments have encouraged HEIs to extend their research forces and activities into enterprises, and supported applied research groups, in collaboration with enterprises or by themselves, to found scientific and technological companies. At the same time, governments have formulated policies encouraging the application and dissemination of research outcomes. For instance, it is clearly stated in the policies that research achievements of HEIs belong to the university and the researchers, and that the income from transferring the achievements is shared by the university and the researchers. On the other hand, the evaluation of the professional titles in HEIs has taken the dissemination of technology into consideration with corresponding evaluation standards laid down.

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99 Teaching Staff in HEIs

Since the reform, higher education in China has made great progress. Especially during the Tenth Five-Year Plan, the scale of higher education increased rapidly, leading to a quick increase in the teaching staff of HEIs. From 2001 to 2005, the full- time teachers in HEIs increased by 433,900. Meanwhile, advocated and organized by the MOE and the local administrative departments of education, HEIs have introduced many changes in their personnel and allocation systems and have carried out “the Plan of Advanced Creative Talents” in order to improve the distribution of personnel resources, perfect the incentive mechanism of competition, and promote the professional development of the teaching staff.

9.1 Composition of Teaching Staff in HEIs

In 2006, the number of employees in HEIs was 2,058,461, among whom were 1,179,168 full-time teachers, 306,407 administrative personnel, 209,487 supporting staff, 196,247 workers, 33,349 personnel in affiliated research organizations, 52,404 employees in university-run factories and on university-run farms, and 81,399 personnel in other subsidiary units. Three types of HEIs exist in China: regular HEIs, adult HEIs, and other HEIs, whose number of employees in 2006 were 1,872,601, 139,994, and 45,866 respectively; it is to be noted that employees in regular HEIs accounted for 90.97 percent of the total. The following section is an introduction to and analysis on the composition of teaching staff in regular HEIs in 2006. The details can be found in Tables 9.1, 9.2, and 9.3. Type. There were 1,075,989 full-time teachers and 258,520 part-time teachers with a ratio of 80.63:19.37. Among the part-time teachers, 74.22 percent of them taught specialty courses. Among the part-time teachers, 8,951 were foreign teachers, making up 0.34 percent of the total. Gender. Among the full-time teachers, 600,651 were male and 475,338 were

Higher Education in China

female with a ratio of 55.82:44.28. Among the part-time teachers, 164,492 were male and 94,028 were female with a ratio of 63.63:36.37. The above figures show that male teachers were dominant among part-time teachers. Academic Qualification. Four out of ten full-time teachers in HEIs had a doctoral degree or master’s degree, making up respectively 10.09 percent and 29.54 percent of the total. Part-time teachers having a doctoral degree or master’s degree in HEIs made up 10.05 percent and 30.11 percent of the total, respectively, which was a little higher than that of full-time teachers. The above figures indicate that in recent years, with the rapid development of postgraduate education, the full-time teachers with high academic qualifications in HEIs are increasing continuously, but there is still room for further increase. It can also be found that part-time teachers have higher academic qualification than full-time teachers, indicating that HEIs attach much importance to the employment of part-time teachers. Professional Rank. The composition of professional ranks among full-time teachers in HEIs resembles an olive in shape—a big mid-section with two small ends. Among full-time teachers, those with senior rank, those with sub-senior rank, those with middle rank, those with junior rank, and those with no rank constitute respectively 10.12 percent, 28.33 percent, 32.73 percent, 22.26 percent and 6.56 percent of the total. Those with sub-senior rank and those with middle rank make up more than 60 percent of the total. There is an obvious connection between professional ranks and academic qualifications: those with senior rank and doctoral degree accounted for 34.72 percent of the total, which is evidently higher than that of those with sub-senior rank (13.27 percent) and those with middle rank (7.41 percent). In addition, different types of HEIs differ in the composition of their full-time teachers’ professional rank. In 2005, HEIs offering undergraduate education had more teachers with senior or sub-senior rank, making up 42.69 percent of the total teaching staff, among whom those with senior rank made up 12 percent. In HEIs offering specialized higher education, those with senior rank made up only 2.97 percent of the total teaching staff. As far as the administrative relationship is concerned, in HEIs administered by the departments of central government, teachers with senior or sub-senior rank accounted for 53.76 percent of the total teaching staff, while in HEIs administered by local governments, the figure was only 35.97 percent. The above differences are associated with the different missions and tasks shouldered by different HEIs. Age. The composition of full-time teachers’ age in HEIs was as follows: 30 years and under made up 29.76 percent of the total, while 31 to 35 years, 36 to 40 years, 41 to 45 years, 46 to 50 years, 51 to 55 years, 56 to 60 years, 61 to 65 years,

182 9 Teaching Staff in HEIs and over 65 years, made up 18.58 percent, 15.99 percent, 16.72 percent, 8.08 percent, 5.51 percent, 3.40 percent, 1.36 percent, 0.59 percent of the total, respectively. The full-time teachers under the age of 45 made up 81.05 percent of the total, which indicates that the majority of full-time teachers are either young or middle-aged. Discipline. Classified by their disciplines, full-time teachers of HEIs in the fields of engineering, literature, sciences, education, medicine, management, and economics, accounted for 26.68 percent, 21.29 percent, 12.28 percent, 8.35 percent, 6.77 percent, 6.50 percent, 6.44 percent of the total respectively. This composition is in accordance with the composition of disciplines in higher education, reflecting the needs of industrialization, urbanization, and economic and social development in China. Advisors. As in western countries, only a few HEIs provide postgraduate education in China. However, different from western countries, only a part of the full-time teachers are qualified for supervising postgraduate students in those Chinese HEIs that offer postgraduate education. There are special requirements for the qualification of postgraduate advisors in Chinese HEIs. Generally speaking, doctoral students’ advisors should have senior professional rank, while master’s students’ advisors should have sub-senior or higher professional rank, both of whom have to pass special assessments before they are qualified for recruiting postgraduate students. In 2006, there were 172,051 senior teachers who had the qualification of postgraduate advisors in HEIs, among whom 86,957 teachers had senior rank and 85,094 teachers had sub-senior rank, accounting for 41.59 percent of all the full-time teachers with senior or sub-senior rank. Among the 172,051 senior teachers, 37,607 were advisors for doctoral candidates and 134,444 were advisors for students of master’s program. Student-teacher Ratio. When higher education in China was only for nurturing the elites of the society, the student-teacher ratio in Chinese HEIs was very low. It was 6.83:1 in 1992 and 11.62:1 in 1998. Since 1999, the enrollments of HEIs in China have increased considerably, which speeds up the massification of higher education. In 2006, the student-teacher ratio in Chinese HEIs reached 17.93:1 (17.77:1 in four-year institutions and 18.26:1 in three-year institutions), which has exceeded the general international level of 14:1.

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Table 9.1 Genders, Academic Qualifications, and Professional Ranks of the Teaching Staff in Regular HEIs in 2006 (Unit: in person) Doctor’s Master’s Regular Short-cycle Total degrees degrees program program 1. Full-time teachers 1,075,989 108,605 317,823 620,191 29,370 Of which: female 475,338 28,366 147,236 288,526 11,210 Senior 108,856 37,791 26,676 42,601 1,788 Sub-senior 304,830 40,458 73,337 183,137 7,898 Middle 352,210 26,106 117,254 197,853 10,997 Junior 239,482 1,166 75,115 157,476 5,725 No rank 70,611 3,084 25,441 39,124 2,962 2. Part-time teachers 258,520 25,982 77,831 145,490 9,217 Of which: female 94,028 5,589 29,524 54,899 4,016 Senior 51,555 13,666 15,714 21,247 928 Sub-senior 90,876 7,773 25,690 54,600 2,813 Middle 76,100 3,284 23,798 45,575 3,443 Junior 23,992 365 7,624 15,030 973 No rank 15,997 894 5,005 9,038 1,060 Foreign teachers 8,951 1,653 2,616 4,620 62

Source: from http://www.moe.gov.cn/edoas/website18/40/info33640.htm.2008-08-01.

Table 9.2 Ages of Full-time Teachers in Regular HEIs in 2006 (Unit: in person) 30 and 46 51 56 61 66 and Total 3135 36 40 4145 under 50 55 60 65 over Total 1,075,989 320,176 199,954 172,084 179,883 86,960 59,325 36,626 14,624 6,357 Senior 108,856 186 1,036 7,931 31,477 23,509 18,364 13,106 8,779 4,468 Sub-senior 304,830 2,093 23,575 74,818 101,666 45,979 31,057 18,814 5,118 1,710 Middle 352,210 67,401 133,834 78,818 42,539 15,712 8,887 4,290 591 138 Junior 239,482 190,151 34,843 8,566 3,433 1,397 744 275 59 14 No rank 7,0611 60,345 6,666 1,951 768 363 273 141 77 27

Source: from http://www.moe.gov.cn/edoas/website18/45/info33645.htm.2008-08-01.

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Table 9.3 Full-time Teachers of Regular HEIs in Different Disciplines in 2006 (Unit: in person)

Total Senior Sub-Senior Middle Junior No rank

Total 1,179,168 113,943 332,625 392,752 262,156 77,692 Philosophy 38,566 4,070 12,541 13,314 6,460 2,181 Economics 75,893 6,794 21,382 27,279 15,590 4,848 Law 53,884 4,534 14,472 19,039 12,010 3,829 Education (including Physical 99,487 5,609 27,476 34,791 24,646 6,965 Education) Literature (including Foreign 251,033 16,061 59,106 84,087 70,580 21,199 Language and Arts) History 14,501 2,237 4,481 4,815 2,237 731 Science 144,855 17,775 47,726 44,948 26,793 7,613 Engineering (including Computer 314,589 33,159 90,514 104,671 67,428 18,817 Science) Agriculture (including Forestry) 29,907 4,196 9,429 9,582 4,986 1,714 Medicine 79,787 12,703 24948 23,797 14,497 3,842 Administration 76,666 6,805 20,550 26,429 16,929 5,953

Source: from http://www.moe.gov.cn/edoas/website18/35/info33635.htm.2008-08-01.

9.2 Recruitment of Teaching Staff in HEIs

After the founding of the PRC, a highly centralized management system was adopted both in the economy and in education, which gave the personnel system in Chinese HEIs characteristics of a planning economy. As the state cadres, teachers in HEIs, once recruited, were permanently employed. They had to accept jobs assigned by the state and submit to the unified management of the government. Since the implementation of reform and opening-up, especially after the goal of constructing a socialist market economy was defined in 1992, the Chinese HEIs have begun to reform their personnel recruiting policy following a recruitment system based on positions, that is, positions established according to needs and management based on labor contracts. According to this system, the university designs teaching and research positions in line with the needs of disciplinary development and the tasks of teaching and research; it defines clearly the qualifications, duties and rights of the personnel holding the positions; and, following prescribed procedures, employs personnel for the positions on the basis of openness, excellence, and equal competition. Then, on an equal and voluntary basis, the university and the teaching staff set up a relationship protected by the law by signing contracts. The goal of this recruitment system is the reasonable allocation of qualified personnel by establishing

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a personnel system based on the combination of responsibilities, rights, and benefits. The core of the position-based recruitment system is that positions are set up in accordance with needs; recruitment is based on excellence, and management done according to labor contracts. With positions set up in accordance with needs, the management of the teaching staff is changed from the management of identity to the management of positions, which strengthens the awareness of the position. With the recruitment based on excellence, the internal promotion of the teaching staff is changed into open recruitment of both domestic and overseas qualified personnel in order to bring the mechanism of competition and optimization into the recruitment of teaching staff. With management according to labor contracts, the life-long employment is changed into employment for a certain period of time defined by the contract in order to establish a personnel system based on the combination of responsibilities, rights, and benefits. 1. Establishment of Positions Reasonable allocation of personnel and the implementation of the recruitment system based on positions require that the positions are set up systematically and scientifically. The fundamental aim of establishing the positions is to connect teachers with specific tasks defined by the positions. Because of different tasks, the establishment of teaching positions can be carried out in three ways (Yang, 2006: 270-272). First, the task-centered way emphasizes the tasks of teaching and research. That is, the positions are set up according to the general task of a university and various specific tasks of different levels and responsibilities. Second, the discipline-centered way emphasizes disciplinary development. That is, the positions are set up according to the different roles played by different disciplines in the development of a university. Much emphasis is placed on the positions concerning the , the disciplines with doctoral programs and master’s programs, disciplines needed urgently by the country, and the new or intercrossed disciplines. Third, in setting up positions, the comprehensive way tries to keep a balance between the needs of disciplinary development and the tasks of teaching and research. That is, the positions in ordinary (non-prioritized) disciplines are set up based on the quantum of teaching and research while more emphasis is placed on setting up the positions in the key disciplines and the disciplines in need of immediate development. Some HEIs have also set up flexible positions to meet the needs of practical work. The comprehensive way of establishing the teaching positions combines the previous two methods, maximizing the favorable factors and minimizing the unfavorable

186 9 Teaching Staff in HEIs factors of the two methods. The comprehensive method has different practices whose key point is that all the teaching positions are grouped into three types, each type further divided into ten levels. The three types of positions are the teaching dominated, research dominated, and discipline dominated . For each type, the positions are ranked from high to low into ten levels, in the shape of a pyramid: the higher the position, the lesser the number of positions. In the practice of establishing the positions, the comprehensive method is adopted by most HEIs while task-centered method is often adopted by HEIs focusing on teaching. 2. Procedures of Recruitment The recruitment of teaching staff in HEIs usually goes according to the following procedures: (1) Setting up the positions, releasing recruitment advertisement, receiving application materials; (2) Primary selection in basic units such as colleges, departments, etc., according to the predetermined requirements for the positions; (3) Evaluating representative work of the candidates who have passed the primary selection through external anonymous peer-reviews; (4) Face-to-face assessment by interview or trial teaching; (5) Collective assessment by the academic committee of the college or the department with a recommendation made according to the result of voting; (6) Collective assessment by the academic committee of the university or relevant functional department with the final decision made according to the result of voting. The entire process of recruitment and appointment often involves the review of files or application materials, interview, trial teaching, and achievements evaluation. The methods of selection and procedures of recruitment and appointment show that the recruitment system of teaching staff in Chinese HEIs is getting close to international practice. 3. Personnel Management Based on Labor Contracts With the implementation of position-based recruitment system, the university

Some HEIs classify the professional positions into three types: positions of teaching, positions of research, and positions of both teaching and research. Generally speaking, teaching staff in HEIs should combine the work of teaching and the work of research which have different status in different positions: positions of teaching focusing on the work of teaching, positions of research focusing on research work, and positions of both teaching and research with teaching and research kept in balance.

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and the teaching staff, as the employer and the employees, are taken as independent and equal civil subjects whose actions constitute legal actions. The employment based on the contract has a binding force on both the employer and the employee which can make the two sides fulfill their duties and rights conscientiously. And the employment based on the contract is favorable for a rational flow of trained personnel, the abolition of life employment in HEIs, and the optimization of teaching staff in HEIs. The employment contract differs from HEI to HEI and from one teaching position to another in practice, but usually includes the following contents: the rights and duties of teachers, the rights and duties of the university, the tasks of teachers defined by their positions, compensation and welfare conditions of teachers, time limit of the contract, penalties for contract violation, settlement of contract disputes, and commitments made by teachers and the university.

9.3 Assessment of Teaching Staff in HEIs

The term achievement is generally used to indicate the effective actions taken and the goals fulfilled by employees at work within a certain period of time and under certain conditions in order to attain the predetermined goals. Accordingly, the assessment of teachers’ achievements at work mainly refers to the evaluation, through qualitative and quantitative methods, of the teachers’ abilities, working performance, fulfillment of duties, contributions to the university, etc., according to working goals and achievement standards. The aim of the assessment is to let teachers have an idea about their working performance by disclosing to them the results of the assessment, and thus to encourage them to improve their performance. Meanwhile, the results of the assessment form an important basis for teachers’ recruitment, promotion, and position allocation. 1. Principles of Assessment Fairness. Generally speaking, the methods and standards of assessment, and the items to be assessed are decided in advance through the process of centralism and then announced in advance. The assessment should be based on facts to avoid subjective judgment or individual bias. What is more, the results of the assessment should be announced and the subject allowed to argue or appeal. Differences. Uniformity is necessary in various assessments, which means the high quality and high level of scholarship should be the key values guiding all sorts of assessments. However, in practice, the differences in universities, disciplines, types and levels of positions should also be taken into consideration; this would mean

188 9 Teaching Staff in HEIs having different assessment standards for different subjects to be assessed. Effectiveness. It must be realized that although high quality of teaching staff is the ultimate goal of the assessment, the development and improvement of teaching staff take time. Therefore, it is very important to take into consideration the practical conditions while carrying out the assessment and gradually improve the assessment over the years. Reasonableness. The items to be assessed should be based on the duties defined by a position. During the assessment, several relationships have to be examined reasonably: the relationship between quantity and quality, between uniformity and variety, and between quantitative analysis and qualitative analysis. It would be favorable to adopt qualitative analysis as the main approach, with quantitative analysis as a supplement. 2. Content of Assessment The assessment examines whether the duties defined by a position have been fulfilled, whether the annual tasks set out at the beginning of the school year have been achieved, and whether the goals of a position for the term have been attained. Specifically, the main content of the assessment have four aspects: morality, ability, attitude, and achievement. Morality: assessing the political qualities and professional ethics of teachers. Ability: assessing the level of scholarship and working capacity of teachers, which focuses on “doing what” and “how to do it”, including the ability to acquire and apply knowledge, the ability to analyze and solve problems, and the ability to organize and manage. Attitude: assessing teachers’ working ethic, including the sense of responsibility, initiative, enthusiasm about teaching and research, and implementation of rules. Achievementassessing the working effects of teachers with a focus on the contributions made by teachers: the quantity and quality of the job, the effects of education, academic influence, and social benefits. The assessment often takes the form of qualitative analysis which includes three aspects: teaching, research, and service. For teaching, the assessment is focused on teaching materials, teaching methods, and teaching effects. For research, the assessment is focused on research projects, published works, the awards for achievements, and the dissemination of achievements. For service, the assessment is focused on social services outside the university and the public services at the university. 3. Procedures of Assessment The procedures of assessing the working achievements of teaching staff in HEIs normally include the following steps:

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Organization Arrangement. A leading group for the assessment is set up by the university, which decides on ways of assessment. Then an assessment committee is set up on the levels of college and department with the persons in charge and the representatives of teachers as the members. The committee is responsible for drawing up specific standards according to the ways of assessment made by the university and then announcing the standards. Self-assessment of Teachers. According to the goals for the term of a position, the duties defined by a position, the items to be assessed, and the assessment standards, a teacher should summarize his or her work and make a general comment on his or her own work performance. Collective Assessment. First, every teacher gives a report in his or her working unit on his or her own work performance to get some idea about each other’s work performance, and then make a comment on each other’s work. Then the relevant assessment committee draws a conclusion on the assessment after discussion. Generally speaking, the work of teachers in sub-senior positions or below is evaluated by the assessment committee of the department and supervised by the college, while the work of teachers in senior positions is evaluated by the assessment committee of the college and supervised by the university. Handling of Result. The result of the assessment is communicated to the teacher after assessment by the leaders of the college or the department. The working effects, weak points, improvements to be done will be pointed out to the teacher to assist the improvement of his or her performance. Meanwhile, the result of the assessment will be taken as an important basis for the recruitment, punishment, and award of the teacher.

9.4 Compensation of Teaching Staff in HEIs

Rational compensation is of great significance in attracting qualified personnel of high level scholarship and enhancing their enthusiasm for the jobs. In a broad sense, the compensation of teachers includes political status, social status, and economic status. The Chinese have the tradition of respecting teachers and valuing education since ancient times. As the professionals conducting teaching and education, teachers in China enjoy a high level of respect in society. As for the economic status, it is stated in the 25th article of Teachers’ Law of the People’s Republic of China that the average pay of teachers should not be lower than or should be higher than that of civil servants, and should be increased gradually. Although teachers in Chinese HEIs are not very rich financially, their income, in general, is at the upper-middle level and

190 9 Teaching Staff in HEIs they can lead a stable and secure life. 1. Composition of the Compensation Compensation is the reward given by the employer to employees for the labor or service they have provided to the organization. At present, the compensation level and its distribution pattern in Chinese HEIs are generally consistent with the development of the Chinese society and economy, and with the process of personnel system reform in the HEIs. A teacher’s compensation includes salary from the state, subsidy from the university, subsidy from the local government, and welfare income. According to an investigation, in the compensation of teachers in HEIs, salary from the State, subsidy from the university, subsidy from the local government, and welfare income, accounts for 30 percent, 35 percent, 25 percent, 10 percent of the total amount, respectively. The salary from the state makes up less than one third of the total amount, which has lost its dominant status in the composition (Investigation Team of Allocation Condition of Pay in HEIs, 2004). And the composition of compensation differs greatly among different HEIs. In some HEIs, the subsidy from the university accounts for 70 percent of the total amount, while it only accounts for less than 1 percent in others. It is the same case with the salary from the state and the welfare income. The salary from the state in some HEIs can run as high as 70 percent, while in others as low as 20 percent; the welfare income in some HEIs can run as high as 44 percent, while in others as low as 2 percent. 2. Factors Affecting Compensation External factors affecting the compensation of teachers in HEIs mainly include laws and policies, the type and character of a university, and the development strategy of a university. Laws and Policies. This is the most influential factor. The influence of central and local policies on the compensation of teachers in HEIs has been obvious. The reason why the State policies and the local policies have great influence on the pay of Chinese teachers in HEIs can be analyzed from the composition of the pay. First, the salary from the state for each teacher is calculated according to the compensation policy of the state. Therefore, the compensation policy of the state has a direct influence on the income of teachers in HEIs. Second, the subsidy from the local government is influenced by the local government’s policies of the place where the university is located. Third, the welfare income consists of the housing accumulation fund, old-age insurance, medical insurance, unemployment insurance, etc., whose ratios in the composition of the compensation have to strictly follow the policies of the central and local governments. Fourth, although the subsidy from the university comes from the university’s self-generated funds, the percentage of it that is distributed

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as compensation for teachers is under the strict supervision of the administrative departments of education (in the central or local government) and the MOF. Type and Character of a University. This is also an important external factor affecting the compensation of teachers in HEIs. Chinese HEIs are divided into public HEIs and private ones because of their different investors. According to their different administrative systems, some public HEIs are administered by the MOE, some by other central ministries, some by provincial departments of education, and some are affiliated to city-level governments. Generally speaking, a significant proportion of funding of public HEIs comes from the fiscal allocations of the government. Under the different administrative systems, public HEIs receive their government allocations from the different levels of government that administer them. In China, there are huge differences in the fiscal resources and capabilities among different levels of government, and especially among different provincial governments. The huge difference in the fiscal resources and capabilities of different levels of governments result in sharp differences in the government allocations to public HEIs. Therefore, HEIs under different administrative systems differ greatly in the structure of their funding, which leads to the different expenditure structures of HEIs, which, in turn, affect the compensation of the teachers in different HEIs. Development Strategy of a University. The development strategy of a university consists, first of all, in setting the goals of a university and then directing the development in line with the goals. Because of the scarcity of resources, a rational allocation of available resources is of great significance for a university to ensure the fulfillment of its key goals. In other words, the allocation of personnel, material, and money should first meet the needs of the disciplines of strategic importance for the development of a university. What is more, the compensation of the teachers in the disciplines of strategic importance should also be given priority. Internal factors affecting the compensation of teachers in Chinese HEIs mainly include professional ranks, working achievements, and other private factors. Professional Ranks. The value of a professional rank is determined by means of working analysis and working assessment. The value of a professional rank is the important basis for determining the amount of compensation. Working Achievements. This means that the compensation of a teacher is partly decided by the assessment of the teacher’s achievements in order to distinguish excellent working performance from poor working performance and thus encourage the teaching staff to pursue excellence. Private Factors. The skills, education, working experiences, etc., are also the key factors affecting the compensation of the teaching staff in HEIs.

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Appendices

Appendix 1

Higher Education Law of the People’s Republic of China (Adopted at the 4th Meeting of the Standing Committee of the Ninth People’s Congress on August 29, 1998)

Chapter I General Provisions

Article 1 This Law is enacted in accordance with the Constitution and the Education Law with a view to developing higher education, implementing the strategy of developing the country by relying on science and education, and promoting socialist material and ethical progress. Article 2 This Law shall be applicable to higher education conducted within the territory of the People’s Republic of China. For purposes of this Law, higher education means education conducted on the basis of completion of senior middle-school education. Article 3 In developing socialist higher education, the State adheres to Marxism-Leninism, Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory as its guide and follows the basic principles laid down in the Constitution. Article 4 Higher education shall be conducted in adherence with the educational principles of the State, in the service of the socialist modernization drive and in combination with productive labor, in order that the educated become builders and supporters of the socialist cause, and are formed in an all-round way morally, intellectually and physically. Article 5 The task of higher education is to train people to become senior specialists imbued with the spirit of creativity and practical ability to develop science, technology and culture and to promote the socialist modernization drive. Article 6 In view of the need for economic and social development, the State formulates plans for the development of higher education, runs higher education

Appendices

institutions and promotes higher education in various ways. The State encourages all sectors of society, including enterprises, institutions, public organizations or groups as well as individual citizens, to run higher education institutions in accordance with law and to participate in and support the reform and development of higher education. Article 7 In view of the needs of socialist modernization drive and of the development of a socialist market economy, the State, on the basis of the different types and levels of the existing higher education institutions, advances the restructuring of higher education and the reform of teaching in higher education institutions, and optimizes the structure of higher education and the distribution of resources, in order to improve the quality and increase the efficiency of higher education. Article 8 The State, in view of the characteristics and needs of the ethnic groups, assists and supports the development of higher education in regions inhabited by ethnic peoples for the purpose of training senior specialists among them. Article 9 Citizens shall, in accordance with law, enjoy the right to receive higher education. The State takes measures to enable students who come from ethnic groups and students who have financial difficulties to receive higher education. Higher education institutions shall enroll disabled students who have the admission qualifications prescribed by the State; they may not refuse to enroll them on account of their disability. Article 10 The State, in accordance with law, ensures the freedoms of scientific research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural activities conducted in higher education institutions. Research, literary and artistic creation and other cultural activities in higher education institutions shall be conducted in compliance with law. Article 11 Higher education institutions shall be oriented to the needs of society and shall run the schools on their own and in accordance with law and follow democratic management. Article 12 The State encourages collaboration among higher education institutions, research institutes, enterprises and institutions in order that they all can draw on each other’s strengths and increase the efficiency of educational resources. The State encourages and supports international exchange and cooperation in higher education. Article 13 The State Council shall provide unified guidance and administration for higher education throughout the country.

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The people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government shall undertake overall coordination of higher education in their own administrative regions and administer the higher education institutions that mainly train local people and the higher education institutions that are authorized by the State Council. Article 14 The administrative department for education under the State Council shall be in charge of the work of higher education throughout the country and administer the affairs of the higher education institutions designated by the State Council as schools that mainly train people for the country as a whole. Other administrative departments concerned under the State Council shall be responsible for the work related to higher education within the limits of their duties defined by the State Council.

Chapter II Basic Systems of Higher Education

Article 15 Higher Education includes education for academic qualifications and education for non-academic qualifications. Higher Education takes the forms of full-time schooling and part-time schooling. The State supports higher education conducted through radio, television, correspondence and other long-distance means. Article 16 Higher education for academic qualifications includes special course education, regular course education and graduate program. The following academic levels shall be attained through higher education for academic qualifications: (1) Special course education shall enable students to grasp the basic theories and special knowledge which the course shall offer; it shall also enable them to acquire the basic skills and practical abilities to work in the fields of their specialized subjects. (2) Regular course education shall enable students to grasp more systematically the basic theories and knowledge required by the branches of learning or specialized subjects offered, to grasp the basic skills, methods and relevant knowledge of their specialized subjects, and to acquire the practical abilities to work and do research in the fields of their specialized subjects. (3) The graduate program for candidates working for MA shall enable candidates to grasp firmly the basic theories in their branches of learning and acquire a systematic knowledge of their specialized subjects, to grasp the skills and methods of the relevant discipline, and to acquire the practical ability to work and do research in the fields of their specialized subjects. The graduate program for candidates

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working for PhD shall enable them to grasp firmly the breadth of the basic theories and the systematic and profound knowledge of the specialized subjects and grasp the skills and methods required by the discipline, and to acquire the skills for doing creative research on their own and of carrying out practical work in their specific fields. Article 17 The basic length of schooling for special course education is from two to three years; for regular course education it is from four to five years; for graduate program for candidates working for MA it is from two to three years; and for candidates working for PhD it is from three to four years. The length of schooling for non-full-time higher education for academic qualifications shall be prolonged properly. Higher education institutions may, in the light of actual needs and with the approval of the competent administrative department for education, readjust the length of schooling in their institutions. Article 18 Higher education shall be conducted by higher education institutions and other higher education organizations. Universities and independent colleges shall mainly conduct regular course education and education at higher levels. Specialized higher education schools shall conduct special course education. With the approval of the administrative department for education under the State Council, research institutes may undertake graduate programs. Other higher education organizations shall conduct higher education for non- academic qualifications. Article 19 Graduates from senior middle schools and others having the same educational level, who have passed the entrance examinations, shall be enrolled by higher education institutions that offer the necessary education for academic qualifications and shall acquire the status of special course students or undergraduates. Graduates from universities and people having the same educational level, who have passed the entrance examinations, shall be enrolled by higher education institutions that offer the necessary education for academic qualifications or by research institutes that have obtained approval for undertaking the graduate program, and shall acquire the status of candidates working for MA. People who have completed the graduate program and others who have the same educational level, having passed the entrance examinations, shall be enrolled by higher education institutions that offer the necessary education for academic qualifications or research institutes that have obtained approval for undertaking the graduate program, and shall acquire the status of candidates working for PhD. Specific measures for allowing graduates of special branches of learning or

208 Appendices specialized subjects directly to acquire the status of candidates working for PhD shall be formulated by the administrative department for education under the State Council. Article 20 Students receiving higher education for academic qualifications shall be issued appropriate academic qualification certificates or other education certificates by their respective higher education institutions or research institutes that have obtained approval of undertaking the graduate program, on the basis of their length of study, academic records and so on and in accordance with the relevant regulations of the State. Students receiving higher education for non-academic qualifications shall be granted appropriate diplomas by their respective higher education institutions or other higher education organizations. In the diplomas shall be recorded the length of study and the subjects studied. Article 21 The State applies a system of higher education examinations for self-taught people, under which those who have passed the examinations shall be issued appropriate academic qualification certificates or other education certificates. Article 22 The State applies a system of academic degrees. The academic degrees include the bachelor’s, the master’s and the doctoral degrees. Citizens who receive higher education through institutions or through self- education and have met the qualifications for academic degrees in terms of their educational level as prescribed by the State, may apply to degree-conferring bodies for the issue of appropriate degrees. Article 23 Higher education institutions and other higher education organizations shall undertake continuing education in the light of social needs and their own conditions for offering such education.

Chapter III Establishment of Higher Education Institutions

Article 24 Higher education institutions shall be established in accordance with State plans for the development of higher education and in keeping with the interests of the State and the public; they may not be established for purposes of making profits. Article 25 The basic conditions as provided for in the Education Law shall be fulfilled for establishment of a higher education institution. Universities and independent colleges shall, in addition, have a stronger staff for teaching and research, a higher level of teaching and research, as well as a necessary size of the student body, in order that they can offer regular course education and education at a higher level. Moreover, universities shall offer at least three branches

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of learning designated by the State as the main courses. The specific requirements for establishment of higher education institutions shall be formulated by the State Council. The specific requirements for establishing other higher education organizations shall be drawn up by the relevant departments authorized by the State Council or by the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government in accordance with the principles laid down by the State Council. Article 26 The name to be adopted by a higher education institution shall be consistent with its administrative level, the category it belongs to, the subjects it offers, the size of its student body and its level of teaching and research. Article 27 For the establishment of a higher education institution, the following materials shall be submitted to the approving authority: (1) An application; (2) Feasibility study materials; (3) Regulations; and (4) Other materials required by the approving authority in accordance with the provisions of this Law. Article 28 The regulations of a higher education institution shall include the following: (1) Name and address of the institution; (2) Aims of the institution; (3) Size of the student body; (4) Branches of learning and subjects offered; (5) Forms of education; (6) Internal administration system; (7) Sources of funds, property, and fiscal system; (8) The rights and obligations of sponsors and the institution; (9) Procedure for amendment of the regulations; and (10) Other items that must be included in the regulations. Article 29 The establishment of higher education institutions shall be subject to examination and approval by the administrative department for education under the State Council; the ones for special course education shall be subject to examination and approval by the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government that are authorized by the State Council. The establishment of other higher education organizations shall be subject to examination and approval by the relevant departments authorized by the

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State Council or by the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government. The administrative department for education under the State Council shall have the right to abolish the higher education institutions and other higher education organizations, the establishment of which is not examined and approved in accordance with the requirements laid down. For examination and approval of the establishment of higher education institutions, specialists shall be invited to form a panel for appraisal. The division, amalgamation, termination, and alteration of the names, categories or other important matters of higher education institutions and other higher education organizations shall be subject to examination and approval by the original authority that examined and approved their establishment; amendment of regulations shall be subject to verification by the said authority.

Chapter IV Organization and Activities of Higher Education Institutions

Article 30 A higher education institution shall acquire the status of a legal person from the date on which its establishment is approved. The president of the higher education institution shall be the legal representative of the institution. A higher education institution shall, in accordance with law, enjoy civil rights and bear civil liabilities in civil affairs. Article 31 Higher education institutions shall concentrate on training students, carry out teaching and research and provide services for the society, and ensure that the quality of education and teaching meet the requirements laid down by the State. Article 32 Higher education institutions shall draw up enrollment plans in the light of social needs, the conditions of the institutions, and the size of the student body verified by the State, and readjust on their own the proportions of enrollment for different faculties and subjects. Article 33 Higher education institutions shall, in accordance with law, act on their own in offering and readjusting the branches of learning and specialized subjects. Article 34 Higher education institutions shall, on the basis of the needs of teaching, act on their own in drawing up their teaching programs, compiling teaching materials and making arrangements for their teaching activities. Article 35 Higher education institutions shall, on the basis of their own conditions, act on their own in conducting research, developing technology and providing services for the society. The State encourages higher education institutions to collaborate in various ways with enterprises, institutions, public organizations or groups in research and in

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development and extensive use of technologies. The State encourages qualified higher education institutions to become research bases of the State. Article 36 Higher education institutions shall, in accordance with the relevant regulations of the State, act on their own in conducting exchange and cooperation with higher education institutions outside of the territory of China in the fields of science, technology and culture. Article 37 Higher education institutions shall, in the light of actual needs and on the principle of simple and efficient administration, act on their own in deciding on the internal structure of the departments for teaching, research and executive function and on the number of staff for different departments. They shall, in accordance with relevant State regulations, assess the performance of teachers and other professional workers and technicians, make appointment to such posts, and readjust the payment of subsidies and salaries. Article 38 Higher education institutions shall, in accordance with law, act on their own in managing and using the property provided by sponsors, the fiscal funds allocated by the State and the contributions and donations received. Education institutions may no longer misappropriate the funds earmarked for teaching and research. Article 39 In higher education institutions run by the State, the system shall be applied under which the presidents take over-all responsibility under the leadership of the primary committees of the Communist Party of China in higher education institutions. Such committees shall, in accordance with the Constitution of the Chinese Communist Party and relevant regulations, exercise unified leadership over the work of the institutions and support the presidents in exercising their functions and powers independently and responsibly. In exercising leadership, the committees shall chiefly perform the following duties: to adhere to the lines, principles and policies of the Chinese Communist Party, to keep to the socialist orientation in running the schools, to provide guidance to ideological and political work and moral education in the institutions, to discuss and decide on the internal structure and directors of departments of the institutions, reform, development and basic management systems of the institutions and other important matters, and to ensure fulfillment of all the tasks centering on the training of students. The internal management systems of higher education institutions run by different sectors of society shall be established by such sectors in accordance with the regulations of the State governing such institutions. Article 40 The post of the president of a higher education institution shall be

212 Appendices held by a citizen who meets the qualifications for the post as provided for in the Education Law. Presidents and vice-presidents of higher education institutions shall be appointed and removed according to the relevant regulations of the State. Article 41 The president of a higher education institution undertakes overall responsibility for the institution’s teaching, research and administrative affairs, and exercises the following duties: (1) To draw up development plans, formulate specific rules and regulations and annual work plans, and arrange for their implementation; (2) To arrange for teaching, research and ideological and moral education; (3) To draw up plans for internal structure, nominate candidates for vice- presidents, and appoint and remove directors of departments of the institution; (4) To appoint and dismiss teachers and other workers of the institution, keep control of the school roll, and give reward and punishment to students; (5) To draw up and implement annual fiscal budget, protect and manage the property of the institution, and protect the lawful rights and interests of the institution; and (6) Other duties provided for in the regulations of the institution. The president of a higher education institution chairs the council of presidents or presides over the administrative affairs meetings of the institution, and handles the affairs prescribed in the preceding paragraph. Article 42 In a higher education institution an academic committee shall be set up to deliberate on the disciplines and specialties to be offered, the teaching and research plans, and the evaluation of the achievements in teaching and research. Article 43 Higher education institutions shall, in accordance with law and through the conference of representatives of teachers and administrative staff with teachers as its main body, or through other forms, guarantee that teachers and staff workers are involved in the democratic management and supervision of the institutions and safeguard their lawful rights and interests. Article 44 The manner of running the higher education institutions and the quality of teaching in higher education institutions shall be subject to the supervision of administrative departments for education and to evaluation organized by them.

Chapter V Teachers and Other Educational Workers of Higher Education Institutions

Article 45 Teachers and other educational workers of higher education institutions shall enjoy the rights prescribed by law, fulfill the obligations prescribed by law, and devote themselves to the cause of the people’s education.

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Article 46 A qualification system shall be instituted among teachers in higher education institutions. Chinese citizens, who abide by the Constitution and laws, love education as a cause, have sound ideology and moral character, have completed undergraduate or graduate programs, have the necessary competence in education and teaching, and are considered qualified, may serve as teachers in higher education institutions. Citizens, who have not completed undergraduate or graduate programs but have acquired a specialty through study, have passed national examinations for qualifications of teachers, and are considered qualified, may likewise serve as teachers in such institutions. Article 47 A system of professional titles shall be instituted among teachers in higher education institutions. The number of such titles shall be determined on the basis of the need of teaching, research and other tasks which are shouldered by the institutions. The professional titles of teachers include Teaching Assistant, Lecturer, Associate Professor and Professor. To acquire any of the professional titles prescribed in the preceding paragraph, a teacher shall meet the following basic requirements: (1) Be qualified as a teacher in a higher education institution; (2) Have a systematic mastery of the basic theories of his branch of learning; (3) Have the necessary competence in education, teaching and research as required by the title he is to hold; and (4) Should handle the curriculum commensurate with the title and the teaching assignments in required class hours. Professors and associate professors, in addition to the basic requirements as mentioned above, shall possess systematic and sound basic theories of their branches of learning, have comparatively rich experience in teaching and research, have achieved remarkable successes in teaching, and have produced comparatively high level of thesis or works or achieved outstanding results in teaching and research. The specific requirements for professional titles in higher education institutions shall be formulated by the State Council. Article 48 A system of appointment shall be instituted among teachers in higher education institutions. A person, after being evaluated as qualified for holding a teaching post, shall be appointed by a higher education institution according to the duties, requirements and tenure of office for the post. Appointment of teachers in higher education institutions shall be based on the principle of equality and voluntariness on both sides and contracts of appointment shall be signed by presidents of higher education institutions and the teachers appointed. Article 49 A system of educational administrators shall be instituted among

214 Appendices administrative and managerial personnel in higher education institutions. A system of appointment for professional workers and technicians shall be instituted for auxiliary teaching staff and other professional workers and technicians in higher education institutions. Article 50 The State protects the lawful rights and interests of teachers and other educational workers of higher education institutions and takes measures to improve their working and living conditions. Article 51 Higher education institutions shall create conditions and provide convenience for teachers to undergo training, conduct research and take part in academic exchange. Higher education institutions shall assess the ideology, political performance, professional ethics, professional skill and actual achievements of teachers, administrative and managerial personnel, auxiliary teaching staff and other professional workers and technicians, and the results of the assessment shall serve as the basis for appointment, dismissal, promotion, reward and punishment. Article 52 Teachers, administrative and managerial personnel, auxiliary teaching staff and other professional workers and technicians in higher education institutions shall do their own work well, concentrating on teaching and training students.

Chapter VI Students of Higher Education Institutions

Article 53 Students of higher education institutions shall abide by the laws and regulations, observe the norms of conduct for students and the management systems of the schools, respect teachers, work hard in their studies, build up their physiques and the concepts of patriotism, collectivism and socialism, diligently study Marxism- Leninism, Mao Zedong Thought and Deng Xiaoping Theory, have sound ideology and moral character, grasp a comparatively high level of scientific and cultural knowledge and specialized skills. The lawful rights and interests of students of higher education institutions shall be protected by law. Article 54 Students of higher education institutions shall pay the tuition fees according to the regulations of the State. Students from families with financial difficulties may apply for subsidies or reduction of or exemption from such fees. Article 55 The State establishes scholarships and encourages higher education institutions, enterprises, public organizations or groups and individuals to establish

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scholarships in a variety of ways in accordance with the relevant regulations of the State to be awarded to students of good character and academic achievements, students in specialties specified by the State and students going to work in State- assigned areas. The State establishes work-study fund and student loans for students of higher education institutions and encourages higher education institutions, other institutions, enterprises, public organizations or groups and individuals to establish stipends in a variety of ways to provide assistance for students who come from families with financial difficulties. Students receiving student loans or stipends shall fulfill the corresponding obligations. Article 56 Students of higher education institutions may take part in community services and work-study activities during their spare time, provided that this does not prevent them from completing their studies. Higher education institutions shall encourage and support students to take part in community services and work-study activities, and provide guidance and exercise control in this respect. Article 57 Students of a higher education institution may form their own organizations. In school, student organizations shall conduct their activities within the limits defined by laws and regulations and obey leadership and accept the control of the school authorities. Article 58 Students of higher education institutions shall be permitted to graduate, if they are qualified in their ideology and moral character, have completed the study of the courses required during the required length of schooling, and have passed the examinations or got all the credits required. Article 59 Higher education institutions shall provide guidance and services with respect to job opportunities for graduates and students who have completed certain courses. The State encourages graduates of higher education institutions to go and work in outlying areas and places where conditions are hard.

Chapter VII Input to Higher Education and Guarantee of Conditions

Article 60 The State institutes a system wherein government appropriations constitute the bulk of the funds for higher education, to be supplemented by funds raised through various avenues, so as to ensure that the development of higher education is suited to the level of economic and social development.

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The State Council and the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government shall, in accordance with the provisions in Article 55 of the Education Law, ensure that funds for State-run higher education institutions gradually increase. The State encourages enterprises, institutions, public organizations or groups and individuals to invest in higher education. Article 61 Sponsors of higher education institutions shall ensure stable sources of funding for education, and they may not draw back the funds they put in education. Article 62 The administrative department for education under the State Council shall, in conjunction with other relevant departments under the State Council, and on the basis of the annual cost of education per enrolled student, formulate the annual norms of expenditure for higher education institutions and the basic principles for raising educational funds. The administrative departments for education of the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the Central Government shall, in conjunction with other relevant departments, work out the annual norms of expenditure for higher education institutions in their respective administrative areas and measures for raising educational funds, which shall serve as the basis for sponsors and higher education institutions in raising funds for education. Article 63 The State adopts preferential policies with regard to the books and other materials and equipment for teaching and research imported by higher education institutions and to the industrial undertakings run by such institutions. Earnings from industrial undertakings run by higher education institutions or from transfer of their intellectual property rights or other scientific and technological achievements shall be used for the running of such institutions. Article 64 The tuition fees collected by higher education institutions shall be controlled and used in accordance with the relevant regulations of the State, no other institutions or individuals may use them for other purposes. Article 65 Higher education institutions shall, according to law, establish and improve the fiscal management system, properly use and strictly control educational funds, and make the best of the investment in education. Fiscal activities of higher education institutions shall be subject to the supervision according to law.

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Chapter VIII Supplementary Provisions

Article 66 Anyone who violates the provisions of the Education Law in conducting higher education shall be punished according to the relevant provisions of the Education Law. Article 67 Individuals from outside the territory of China who meet the conditions prescribed by the State and who have completed the necessary formalities may enter higher education institutions in China to pursue their studies and research, to conduct academic exchange or to teach, and their lawful rights and interest shall be protected by the State. Article 68 For purposes of this Law, higher education institutions are universities, independent colleges, and specialized higher education schools, including higher vocational schools and higher education schools for adults. Other higher education organizations referred to in this Law are organizations engaged in higher education other than the higher education institutions and the research institutes approved to provide graduate program. The provisions of this Law regarding higher education institutions are applicable to other higher education organizations and research institutes approved to provide graduate program, except the provisions that are applicable especially to higher education institutions. Article 69 This Law shall go into effect as of January 1, 1999.

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Appendix 2

Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China (Adopted at the 13th meeting of the Standing Committee of the Fifth National People’s Congress on February 12, 1980, and revised according to the “Decision on the Revision of the Regulations on Academic Degrees of the People’s Republic of China” made at the 11th meeting of the Standing Committee of the 10th National People’s Congress on August 28, 2004.)

Article 1 These Regulations are formulated for the purpose of promoting the growth of specialized personnel, enhancing the academic scholarship of various disciplines, promoting the development of education and science, and meeting the needs of the socialist modernization drive in our country. Article 2 Citizens who support the leadership of the Communist Party of China and the socialist system, and have attained certain academic levels may apply for corresponding academic degrees in accordance with the provisions of these Regulations. Article 3 Academic degrees shall be of three grades: the bachelor’s degree, the master’s degree, and the doctoral degree. Article 4 The bachelor’s degree shall be conferred on graduates from higher education institutions who have good academic records and have attained the following academic levels: (1) Having a relatively good grasp of basic theories, specialized knowledge and basic skills in the discipline concerned; and (2) Having initially acquired the ability to undertake scientific research or to engage in specialized technical work. Article 5 The master’s degree shall be conferred on postgraduates from higher education institutions or scientific research institutes or on persons with quail- fications equivalent to postgraduates on graduation, who have passed examinations in the required courses for the master’s degree, successfully defended their theses, and have attained the following academic levels: (1) Having a firm grasp of basic theories and systematic, specialized knowledge in the discipline concerned; and (2) Having the ability to undertake scientific research or to independently

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engage in specialized technical work. Article 6 The doctoral degree shall be conferred on postgraduates from higher education institutions or scientific research institutes or on persons with qualifications equivalent to postgraduates on graduation, who have passed examinations in the required courses for the doctoral degree, successfully defended their dissertations, and have attained the following academic levels: (1) Having a firm grasp of broad basic theories, and systematic and in-depth specialized knowledge in the discipline concerned; and (2) Having the ability to undertake independent scientific research; and (3) Having made creative achievements in science or specialized technologies. Article 7 The State Council shall establish an Academic Degrees Committee to direct the work of conferring academic degrees throughout the country. The Academic Degrees Committee shall consist of one chairman, and several vice- chairmen and other committee members. The chairman, vice-chairmen and other committee members shall be appointed and removed by the State Council. Article 8 The bachelor’s degree shall be conferred by the higher education institutions authorized by the State Council. The master’s degree and the doctoral degree shall be conferred by the higher education institutions and scientific research institutes authorized by the State Council. A list of the higher education institutions and scientific research institutes that may confer academic degrees (hereinafter referred to as “degree-conferring units”) and the disciplines in which academic degrees may be conferred shall be submitted to the State Council by the Academic Degrees Committee for approval and promulgation. Article 9 Each degree-conferring unit shall establish an academic degree evaluation committee, and form dissertation defense committees for the disciplines concerned. A dissertation defense committee must include relevant specialists from other units, and the committee members shall be selected and determined by the degree- conferring unit concerned. A list of the members of the academic degree evaluation committee shall be submitted to the degree-conferring unit for approval, and then shall be presented by the degree-conferring unit to the relevant department of the State Council and the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council for record. Article 10 The dissertation defense committee shall be responsible for examining the master’s degrees theses or the doctoral degrees dissertations, organizing their oral defense, and adopting resolutions on whether or not to confer the master’s or doctoral degrees. Each resolution shall be adopted by a secret ballot

220 Appendices and with a two-thirds majority of the committee members supporting it, and then submitted to the academic degree evaluation committee. The academic degree evaluation committee shall be responsible for examining and approving the list of conferees of the bachelor’s degree and for making decisions on whether or not to approve each resolution on the conferment of a master’s or doctoral degree submitted by the dissertation defense committee. Each decision shall be adopted by a secret ballot and with a fifty percent majority of the committee members supporting it. The list of persons to be conferred a master’s or doctoral degree shall be submitted to the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council for record. Article 11 After a resolution to confer an academic degree has been adopted by the academic degree evaluation committee, the degree-conferring unit shall issue a corresponding diploma to the conferee of the academic degree. Article 12 Postgraduates who have completed their studies in units that are not authorized to confer academic degrees may, upon the recommendation of their respective units, apply to nearby degree-conferring units for academic degrees. They shall be conferred corresponding degrees after their applications have been examined and approved by the degree-conferring units and have successfully defended their dissertations and attained the academic levels stipulated in these Regulations. Article 13 Upon the recommendation of relevant specialists and with the approval of the degree-conferring units, those who have published important works or made inventions, discoveries or other contributions to the development of science or specialized technologies may be exempt from examinations in the required courses for the doctoral degree and may directly participate in the oral defense of their doctoral dissertations. Those who have successfully defended their dissertations shall be conferred the doctoral degree. Article 14 Distinguished scholars and well-known social activists, both Chinese and foreigners, may be conferred an honorary doctoral degree, upon the nomination of a degree-conferring unit and with the approval of the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council. Article 15 Foreign students studying in China and foreign scholars engaged in research work in China may apply to a degree-conferring unit for academic degrees. Those who have attained the academic levels stipulated in these Regulations shall be conferred corresponding degrees. Article 16 If an academic group or a unit not authorized to confer academic degrees does not concur with a resolution or decision on the conferment of an academic degree, it may address its objection to the degree-conferring unit or the

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Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council, which shall study and deal with the objection thus addressed. Article 17 If irregularities, fraudulent practices or other situations in serious violation of the provisions of these Regulations are discovered, the degree-conferring unit concerned may revoke the degrees already conferred, after reconsideration by its academic degree evaluation committee. Article 18 If it is definitely established that a unit authorized to confer academic degrees has not been able to maintain the academic levels of the academic degrees conferred, the State Council may suspend or revoke its status as a degree- conferring unit. Article 19 Measures for the implementation of these Regulations shall be formulated by the Academic Degrees Committee of the State Council and submitted to the State Council for approval. Article 20 These Regulations shall come into effect as of January 1, 1981.

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Appendix 3

“211 Project” and “985 Project”

“211 Project” On February 13th 1993, the Outlines of Education Reform and Development in China was formulated by the CPC Central Committee and the State Council. It says that in order to meet the challenges of new technology reform in the 21st century, around 100 higher education institutions and a group of key disciplines and majors will be given, in batches, the support both from the central government and the local governments. It is done with the hope that a great improvement will be made in the teaching quality, research work, management and operation effectiveness of these higher education institutions. The ultimate goal of the Outlines is to promote a group of higher education institutions, disciplines and majors to approach or meet world class standards by the beginning of the 21st century. Thus, the name of this project “211 Project” came into being. In other words, in the 21st century, major support will be given to about 100 higher education institutions and a group of key disciplines. Since the establishment of “211 Project” during the Ninth Five-year Plan period, both the central government and the local governments have inputted a great amount of funds to a group of higher education institutions and key disciplines. The teaching and research conditions of these higher education institutions have been greatly improved, and the key disciplines have become the major bases for national technological innovation and high-level personnel training.

“985 Project” On May 4th 1998, the then General Secretary of CPC Central Committee Jiang, Zemin solemnly declared at the celebration of the 100th founding anniversary of Peking University that our country needs world class universities in order to achieve the goal of modernization. To implement the strategy of rejuvenating China through science and education and the spirit of the remarks of Jiang Zemin, the MOE has, since 1999, carried out the Plan of Education Promotion in the 21st Century in which much support has been given in batches to a group of higher education institutions such as Peking University and Tsinghua University to help them become world class universities and first-rate research institutes. This is what is briefly called “985 Project”.

223 Appendices

List of the Universities of “211 Project” and “985 Project”

Location No. Title Website (city) 1 Peking University* http://www.pku.edu.cn/ Beijing 2 Renmin University of China* http://www.ruc.edu.cn/ Beijing 3 Tsinghua University* http://www.tsinghua.edu.cn/ Beijing 4 Beijing Jiaotong University http://www.njtu.edu.cn/ Beijing 5 Beijing University of Technology http://www.bjpu.edu.cn/ Beijing Beijing University of Aeronautics & http://www.buaa.edu.cn/ 6 Beijing Astronautics* 7 Beijing Institute of Technology* http://www.bit.edu.cn/ Beijing University of Science and Technology http://www.ustb.edu.cn/ 8 Beijing Beijing* 9 Beijing University of Chemical Technology http://www.buct.edu.cn/ Beijing Beijing University of Posts and Telecom- http://www.bupt.edu.cn/ 10 Beijing munications 11 China Agricultural University* http://www.cau.edu.cn/ Beijing 12 Beijing Forestry University http://www.bjfu.edu.cn/ Beijing 13 Beijing University of Chinese Medicine http://www.bucm.edu.cn/ Beijing 14 Beijing Normal University* http://www.bnu.edu.cn/ Beijing 15 Beijing Foreign Studies University http://www.bfsu.edu.cn/ Beijing 16 Communication University of China http://www.bbi.edu.cn/ Beijing University of International Business and http://www.uibe.edu.cn/ 17 Beijing Economics 18 Minzu University of China* http://www.cun.edu.cn/ Beijing 19 Central Conservatory of Music http://www.ccom.edu.cn/ Beijing China University of Mining & Technology, http://www.cumtb.edu.cn/ 20 Beijing Beijing 21 Central University of Finance and Economics http://www.cufe.edu.cn/ Beijing 22 China University of Political Science and Law http://www.cupl.edu.cn/ Beijing 23 China University of Petroleum, Beijing* http://www.bjpeu.edu.cn/ Beijing 24 http://www.bsu.edu.cn/ Beijing Electric Power University http://www.ncepu.edu.cn/ 25 Beijing (Beijing) 26 China University of Geosciences (Beijing) http://www.cugb.edu.cn/ Beijing 27 Nankai University* http://www.nankai.edu.cn/ Tianjin 28 Tianjin University* http://www.tju.edu.cn/ Tianjin 29 Tianjin Medical University http://www.tijmu.edu.cn/ Tianjin 30 Hebei University of Technology http://www.hebut.edu.cn/ Tianjin 31 North China Electric Power University http://www.ncepu.edu.cn/ Baoding 32 Taiyuan University of Technology http://www.tyut.edu.cn/ Taiyuan 33 Inner Mongolia University http://www.imu.edu.cn/ Huhhot 34 Liaoning University http://www.lnu.edu.cn/ Shenyang 35 Dalian University of Technology* http://www.dlut.edu.cn/ Dalian 36 Dalian Maritime University http://www.dlmu.edu.cn/ Dalian 37 Northeastern University* http://www.neu.edu.cn/ Shenyang 38 Jilin University* http://www.jlu.edu.cn/  39  http://www.ybu.edu.cn/ Yanji

224 Appendices

(continued) Location No. Title Website (city) 40 Northeast Normal University http://www.nenu.edu.cn/ Changchun 41 Northeast Forestry University http://www.nefu.edu.cn/ Harbin 42 Harbin Institute of Technology* http://www.hit.edu.cn/ Harbin 43 Harbin Engineering University http://www.hrbeu.edu.cn/ Harbin 44 Northeast Agricultural University http://www.neau.edu.cn/ Harbin 45 Fudan University* http://www.fudan.edu.cn/ Shanghai 46 Tongji University* http://www.tongji.edu.cn/ Shanghai 47 Shanghai Jiao Tong University* http://www.sjtu.edu.cn/ Shanghai East China University of Science and Tech- http://www.ecust.edu.cn/ 48 Shanghai nology 49 http://www.dhu.edu.cn/ Shanghai 50 Shanghai Second Medical University http://www.shsmu.edu.cn/ Shanghai 51 East China Normal University* http://www.ecnu.edu.cn/ Shanghai 52 Shanghai International Studies University http://www.shisu.edu.cn/ Shanghai 53 of Finance and Economics http://www.shufe.edu.cn/ Shanghai 54 Shanghai University http://www.shu.edu.cn/ Shanghai 55 Nanjing University* http://www.nju.edu.cn/ Nanjing 56 Suzhou University http://www.suda.edu.cn/ Suzhou 57 Southeast University* http://www.seu.edu.cn/ Nanjing Nanjing University of Aeronautics & Astro- http://www.nuaa.edu.cn/ 58 Nanjing nautics 59 Nanjing University of Science and Technology http://www.njust.edu.cn/ Nanjing 60 China University of Mining and Technology* http://www.cumt.edu.cn/ Xuzhou 61 http://www.hhu.edu.cn/ Nanjing 62 http://www.jiangnan.edu.cn/ Wuxi 63 Nanjing Normal University http://www.njnu.edu.cn/ Nanjing 64 Nanjing Agricultural University http://www.njau.edu.cn/ Nanjing 65 China Pharmaceutical University http://www.cpu.edu.cn/ Nanjing 66 Zhejiang University* http://www.zju.edu.cn/ Hangzhou 67 http://www.ahu.edu.cn/ University of Science and Technology of http://www.ustc.edu.cn/ 68 Hefei China* 69 Hefei University of Technology http://www.hfut.edu.cn/ch/ Hefei 70 Xiamen University* http://www.xmu.edu.cn/ Xiamen 71 http://www.fzu.edu.cn/ Fuzhou 72 http://www.ncu.edu.cn/ Nanchang 73 Shandong University* http://www.sdu.edu.cn/ 74 Ocean University of China* http://www.ouc.edu.cn/ Qingdao 75 China University of Petroleum (East China) http://www.hdpu.edu.cn/ Dongying 76 http://www.zzu.edu.cn/ zhengzhou 77 Wuhan University* http://www.whu.edu.cn/ Wuhan Huazhong University of Science and Tech- http://www.hust.edu.cn/ 78 Wuhan nology* 79 China University of Geosciences http://www.cug.edu.cn/ Wuhan 80 Wuhan University of Technology http://www.whut.edu.cn/ Wuhan 81 Central China Normal University http://www.ccnu.edu.cn/ Wuhan 82 Huazhong Agricultural University http://www.hzau.edu.cn/ Wuhan 

225 Appendices

(continued) Location No. Title Website (city) Zhongnan University of Economics and http://www.znufe.edu.cn/ 83 Wuhan Law 84 Hunan University* http://www.hnu.cn/ Changsha 85 Central South University* http://www.csu.edu.cn/ Changsha 86 http://www.hunnu.edu.cn/ Changsha 87 Sun Yat-sen University* http://www.sysu.edu.cn/ Guangzhou 88 http://www.jnu.edu.cn/ Guangzhou 89 South China University of Technology* http://www.scut.edu.cn/ Guangzhou 90 South China Normal University http://www.scnu.edu.cn/ Guangzhou 91 http://www.gxu.edu.cn/ Nanning 92 Chongqing University* http://www.cqu.edu.cn/ Chongqing 93 Southwest University http://www.swnu.edu.cn/ Chongqing 94 Sichuan University* http://www.scu.edu.cn/ Chengdu 95 Southwest Jiaotong University* http://www.swjtu.edu.cn/ Chengdu 96 Sichuan Agricultural University http://www.sicau.edu.cn/ Ya’an Southwest University of Finance and Eco- http://www.swufe.edu.cn/ 97 Chengdu nomics University of Electronic Science and Tech- http://www.uestc.edu.cn/ 98 Chengdu nology of China* 99 http://www.gzu.edu.cn/ Guiyang 101 http://www.ynu.edu.cn/ Kunming 102 Northwest University http://www.nwu.edu.cn/ Xian 103 Xian Jiaotong University* http://www.xjtu.edu.cn/ Xian 104 Northwestern Polytechnic University* http://www.nwpu.edu.cn/ Xian 105 http://www.xidian.edu.cn/ Xian 106 Chang’an University http://www.xahu.edu.cn/ Xian 107 Shaanxi Normal University http://www.snnu.edu.cn/ Xian 108 Northwest A&F University* http://www.nwsuaf.edu.cn/ Yangling 109 Lanzhou University* http://www.lzu.edu.cn/ Lanzhou 110 http://www.xju.edu.cn/ Urumqi 111 http://www.shzu.edu.cn/ Shihezi 113 The Second Military Medical University http://www.smmu.edu.cn/ Shanghai 114 The Fourth Military Medical University http://www.fmmu.edu.cn/ Xian 115 National University of Defense Technology* http://www.nudt.edu.cn/ Changsha

Note: Those with the asterisk “*”are also the universities of “985 Project”.

226 Appendices

Appendix 4

National Model Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges

The Plan of Setting up National Model Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges According to the requirements of the Decision on Promoting Vocational Education made by the State Council in 2005, the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Finance are responsible for carrying out the Plan of Setting up National Model Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges from 2006 to 2010. A gradual approach to the implementation of the plan is adopted in which approximately 100 tertiary vocational and technical colleges with clear objectives and orientation, close connection between production and teaching and with prominent achievements in reform will be selected from different areas annually and given major support. The goal is to strengthen the comprehensive capacity, establish the key specialties, and enlarge the social service functions of the chosen tertiary vocational and technical colleges, which can set good examples for the rest of the tertiary vocational and technical colleges throughout China and help them develop their own unique features and improve their quality.

List of National Model Tertiary Vocational and Technical Colleges

Location No. Title Website (city) Beijing Vocational College of Agri- 1 http://www.bvca.edu.cn/ Beijing culture Beijing Vocational College of Elec- 2 http://211.103.139.205/ Beijing tronic Science 3 Beijing Polytechnic College http://www.bgy.org.cn/ Beijing Beijing Vocational College of Fi- 4 http://www.bjczy.edu.cn/ Beijing nance and Commerce 5 Tianjin Vocational Institute http://www.tjtc.edu.cn/ Tianjin Sino- German Vocational Training 6 http://www.zdtj.cn/ Tianjin Centre 7 Tianjin Medical College http://www.tjyzh.cn/ Tianjin Tianjin Vocational College of Elec- 8 http://www.tjdz.net/ Tianjin tronic Information Xingtai Vocational and Technical 9 http://www.xpc.edu.cn/ Xingtai College 10 Chengde Petroleum College http://www.cdpc.edu.cn/ Chengde

227 Appendices

(continued) Location No. Title Website (city) Shijiazhuang Institute of Railway 11 http://www.sirt.edu.cn/ Shijiazhuang Technology Hebei College of Industry & Tech- 12 http://www.hbcit.edu.cn Shijiazhuang nology 13 Shanxi Finance & Taxation College http://www.sxftc.edu.cn/ Taiyuan Shanxi Engineering Vocational 14 http://www.sxgy.cn/ Taiyuan College Inner Mongolia Technical College 15 http://www.imaa.edu.cn/ Huhhot of Construction Baotou Vocational & Technical 16 http:// www.btzy.nm.edu.cn/ Baotou College Liaoning Provincial College of Com- 17 http://www.lncc.edu.cn/ Shenyang munications 18 Shenyang Polytechnic College http://www.vtcsy.com/ Shenyang 19 Dalian Vocational Technical College http://www.dlvtc.edu.cn/ Dalian Liaoning Agricultural Vocation- 20 http://www.lnnzy.ln.cn/ Yingkou technical College Changchen Automobile Industry 21 http://www.caii.edu.cn/ Changchen Institute Changchen Vocational Institute of 22 http://www.cvit.com.cn/ Changchen Technology Jilin Vocational College of 23 http://www.jvcit.edu.cn/ Jilin Industry and Technology Heilongjiang Vocational College 24 http://www.hngzy.com/ Harbin of Agricultural Engineering 25 Daqing Vocational College http://www.dqzyxy.net/ Daqing Heilongjiang Agricultural Economy 26 http://www.nyjj.net.cn/ Mudanjiang Vocational College 27 Wuxi Institute of Technology http://www.wxit.edu.cn/ Wuxi 28 Wuhu Institute of Technology http://www.whptu.ah.cn/ Wuhu Suzhou Industrial Park Institute of 29 http://www.sipivt.edu.cn/ Suzhou Vocational Technology Changzhou College of Information 30 http://www.ccit.js.cn/ Changzhou Technology Jiangsu Polytechnic College of Agri- 31 http://www.jsafc.net/ Jurong culture and Forestry Nantong Textile Vocational Tech- 32 http://www.nttec.edu.cn/ Nantong nology college Xuzhou Institute of Architectural 33 http://www.xzcat.edu.cn/ Xuzhou Technology Anhui Vocational and Technical 34 http://www.ahtu.ah.cn/ Hefei College Anhui Technical College of Water 35 http://www.ahsdxy.edu.cn/ Hefei Resources and Hydroelectric Power 36 Weihai Vocational College http://www.weihaicollege.com/ Weihai 37 Qingdao Technical College http://www.qtc.edu.cn/ Qingdao 38 Zibo Vocational Institute http://www.zbvc.cn/ Zibo Shandong Institute of Commerce 39 http://www.sict.edu.cn/ Jinan and Technology

228 Appendices

(continued) Location No. Title Website (city) 40 Polytechnic http://www.rzpt.cn/ Rizhao Shandong Vocational College of 41 http://www.sdzy.com.cn/ Weifang Science &Technology 42 Shanghai Institute of Health Science http://www.sihs.cn/ Shanghai Shanghai Arts & Crafts Vocational 43 http:// www.gymy.shedu.net/ Shanghai College 44 Shanghai Police College http://www.shpc.edu.cn/ Shanghai 45 Shanghai Institute of Tourism http:// www.sit.shnu.edu.cn/ Shanghai 46 Zhejiang Financial College http://www.zjfc.com.cn Hangzhou 47 Ningbo Polytechnic http://www.nbptweb.net/ Ningbo Jinhua College of Profession and 48 http://www.jhc.cn/ Jinhua Technology Wenzhou Vocational & Technical 49 http://www.wzvtc.cn/ Wenzhou College Zhejiang Institute of Mechanical 50 http://www.zime.edu.cn/ Hangzhou & Electrical Engineering 51 Zhejiang Police Vocational Academy http://www.zjjy.com.cn/ Hangzhou Jiujiang Vocational & Technical 52 http://www.jvtc.jx.cn/ Jiujiang College Fujian Communications Technology 53 http://www.fjcpc.edu.cn/ Fuzhou College 54 Zhangzhou Institute of Technology http://www.fjzzy.org/ Zhangzhou 55 Wuhan Institute of Technology http://www.wtc.edu.cn/ Wuhan Wuhan Institute of Shipbuilding 56 http://net.wspc.edu.cn/ Wuhan Technology 57 Hubei Polytechnic Institute http://www.hbvtc.edu.cn/ Xiaogan Wuhan Railway Vocational College 58 http://www.wru.com.cn/ Wuhan of Technology 59 Changsha Social Work College http://www.csmzxy.com/ Changsha Hunan Railway Professional Tech- 60 http://www.hnrpc.com/ Zhuzhou nology College 61 Hunan Communication Polytechnic http://www.hnjtzy.com.cn/ Changsha Yongzhou Vocational-Technical 62 http://www.hnyzzy.com/ Yongzhou College 63 Hunan Engineering Polytechnic http://www.hngcjx.com.cn/ Changsha Yellow River Conservancy Technical 64 http://www.yrcti.edu.cn/ Kaifeng Institute Pingdingshan Engineering Poly- Pingdingsha 65 http://www.pzxy.edu.cn/ technic n 66 Shangqiu Institute of Technology http://www.sqzy.com.cn/ Shangqiu 67 Henan Polytechnic http://www.hnzj.ha.cn/ Zhengzhou 68 Shenzhen Polytechnic http://www.szpt.edu.cn/ Shenzhen 69 Guangzhou Panyu Polytechnic http://www.pyp.edu.cn/ Guangzhou 70 Guangzhou Civil Aviation College http://www.caac.net/ Guangzhou Guangdong Industry Technical 71 http://www.gdqy.edu.cn/ Guangzhou College Nanning College for Vocational 72 http://www.ncvt.net/ Nanning Technology

229 Appendices

(continued) Location No. Title Website (city) Liuzhou Vocational & Technical 73 http://www.lzzy.net/ Liuzhou College Hainan College of Vocation & 74 http://www.hcvt.cn/ Haikou Technique Chongqing Vocational Institute of 75 http://www.cqvie.com/ Chongqing Engineering Chongqing Industry Polytechnic 76 http://www.cqipc.net/ Chongqing College Chongqing College of Electronic 77 http://www.cqcet.com/ Chongqing Engineering Sichuan Engineering Technical 78 http://www.scetc.net/ Deyang College Chengdu Aeronautic Vocational 79 http://www.cavtc.net/ Chengdu and Technical College Sichuan Vocational and Technical 80 http://www.svtcc.net/ Chengdu College of Communications Sichuan College of Architectural 81 http://www.scac.edu.cn/ Deyang Technology Mian Yang Vocational and Tech- 82 http://www.myvtc.edu.cn/ Mianyang nical College Sichuan Electric Vocational and 83 http://www.scdyabc.net/ Chengdu Technical College Guizhou Communications Poly- 84 http://www.gzctc.edu.cn/ Guiyang technic 85 Yunnan Jiaotong College http://www.yncs.edu.cn/ Kunming 86 Kunming Metallurgy College http://www.kmyz.edu.cn/ Kunming 87 Tibet Technical College http://www.xzgzy.cn/ Lasa Yangling Vocational & Technical 88 http://61.185.210.186/ Yangling College Xi’an Aeronautical Polytechnic 89 http://www.xihang.com.cn/ Xian Institute 90 Shaanxi Polytechnic Institute http://www.sxpi.com.cn/ 91 Gansu Forestry Technical College http://www.gsfc.edu.cn/ Tianshui 92 Ningxia Technical College http://www.nxtc.edu.cn/ Yinchuan Ningxia Vocational and Technical 93 http://www.nxcy.edu.cn/ Yinchuan College of Finance Qinghai Vocational and Technical 94 Institute of Animal Husbandry and http://www.qhxmzy.com.cn/ Xining Vet Xinjiang Vocational and Tech- 95 http://www.xjnzy.edu.cn/ Changji nical College of Agriculture Karamay Vocational & Technical 96 http://www.kzjsxy.net/ Karamay College Xinjiang Shihezi Vocational Tech- 97 http://www.xjshzzy.com/ Shihezi nical College

230 Appendices

Appendix 5

Websites for the Related Data on Chinese Higher Education

1. Ministry of Education of the People’s Republic of China http://www.moe.edu.cn/ 2. China Education http://www.chinaedu.edu.cn/ 3. China Education and Research Network http://www.edu.cn/ 4. Chinese Higher Education Reform and Development Network http://www.hie.edu.cn/ 5. Academic Ranking of World Universities http://www.arwu.org/ 6. Ranking of Chinese Universities http://edu.people.com.cn/GB/kejiao/230/6034/ 7. Chinese University Rankings http://www.netbig.com/

231

Index

1911 Xinhai Revolution, 7 advanced knowledge, 2 “211 Project”, 14, 47 advisor, 115, 183 34 major HEIs, 88 Alternative Work and Study Mode of “863 Program”, 172, 174 education, 114 “973 Program”, 172, 174 autonomous institutional operation, 14 “985 Project” jointly sponsored key universities, 31, 88 Beiyang University (beiyang daxuetang), “985 Project”, 15, 172 8 academic committee, 68, 187 catalog of disciplines and specialties, academic degree system, 151 155, 197 academic degrees awarding institutions, catalog of fields of study, 24, 110 154 categories of HEIs, 27 Academic Degrees Committee, 59, 177 central line ministries, 40 Academic Degrees Ordinance, 153, 163 “Cheung Kong Scholars Program”, 173 academic degrees review and conferment, China’s 31 administrative regions, 81 154 China’s Eleventh Five-Year Plan for academic degrees review committee, 154 National Economic and Social academic qualification, 91, 182 Development, 15 academic review, 177 Chinese Academy of Engineering, 173 academic status, 118, 149 Chinese Academy of Sciences, 46, 167 academic unit, 64, 176 classification of disciplines, 24 Action Plan for Vitalizing Education for colleges of higher education (gaodeng the 21st Century, 15, 58 xuetang), 7 adjustment of HEIs and departments, colleges of politics and law (fazheng 12, 141 xuetang), 7 administrative authority of higher combination of master’s and doctoral education, 35 studies, 89 administrative divisions of China, 75 Communist Party of China, 9, 67 adult HEI, 17, 83 compensation, 119, 188 advanced degrees, 21, 151 comprehensive universities, 28, 124

Index

compulsory courses, 127, 134 graduates, 90 Confucian classics, 1, 3 entrance requirement, 101, 103 Confucianism, 2 equivalent qualification, 74, 157 Confucius, 1, 2 examination subjects, 73, 77 coordinating authority of higher examinees, 71, 78 education, 36 examinees’ requirements, 82, 89 cost-recovery, 52, 196 excellent undergraduate students, 89 CPC Central Committee, 9, 132 expansion of Chinese higher education, credit system, 126, 144 81 “Cultural Revolution”, 12, 36-39 field of study, 57, 97 daxue, 1, 7 financial assistance, 42, 54 Decision on School System Reform, 12 first level disciplines, 85, 155 Decision on the Reform of the first-class universities, 15 Education System, 13, 53 Five Classics, 3 degree awarding institution’s committee five schools, 3 on academic degrees, 156-157 Five-Year Plan, 15, 109 department of teaching administration, foreign teacher, 181 118 form of education, 1, 17 development research, 175 form of ownership of higher education, diplomas or degrees, 101, 122 18 direct track, 89 formal and non-formal learning, 17 Discipline Review Group, 154 formal higher education, 17 division of examinees, 85 forms of college admission, 74 doctoral admission institutions, 89 forms of learning, 160, 166 doctoral admission, 88-89 forms of preliminary examinations for doctoral degree awarding institutions, admission to master’s programs, 82 154, 167-169 “Four Great Shuyuan on Earth”, 4 doctorates, 153, 166 four-year system, 7-8 “dual-track” system, 53 Fudan University, 29 educational program, 24, 95 full-time teacher, 181-185 elective courses, 106, 127 functional organization, 64-65, 69 elite higher education, 157 employer-sponsored students, 53 General Catalog of Specialties in HEIs, 23 employment policies, 90, 94 General Catalog of Undergraduate Fields employment rate of graduates, 51, 93 of Study in HEIs, 23 employment system for higher education general education, 104, 122

234 Index general knowledge, 2, 135 (guozixue), 3 government expenditure on education, 56 institutional autonomy, 13-14, 20 government expenditure on higher institutions of higher learning, 1-3 education, 44 International Standard Classification of governmental intervention, 20 Education, 95, 202 governmental monopoly, 18 internship system for higher education Government-owned education, 1 graduates, 91 government-regulated, 90 graduates in regular HEIs, 93 joint-development, 49 graduation requirement, 101, 122 Kuomintang (KMT), 9 gross enrollment rate of higher education, 15 Learning by Doing Mode of education, 116-117, 146 HEIs’ recommendations-based mutual level of education, 96, 103 choices between graduates and level of higher education, 59, 63-64 employers, 90 Li Jiacheng Foundation, 173 higher education enterprise, 12-13, 17 higher education expansion, 164 “modern industries”, 5 Higher Education Institution (HEI), 4 Made-to-order Mode, 114, 115 Higher Education Law, 15, 27 market coordination, 45, 50-51 “High-level Creative Talent Program”, market forces, 14, 36 172 market regulation, 20, 50-51 high-level professional training, 2 market-oriented, 19, 90 Hongdumen Academy (hongdumenxue), mass higher education, 71, 157 3 Master Plan of the “211 Project”, 14 master’s degrees, 22, 151 Imperial College (jingshi tongwenguan), 5 master’s program admission reexami- Imperial University (jingshi daxuetang), nation, 85, 88 5, 8 mentor, 2-3 independent admission, 73-75 Methods of Selecting the National independent college, 19, 55 Excellent Doctoral Dissertations, 167 independent research institute, 171 military colleges, 5-6 individual Provincial / Municipal / minimum preliminary examination scores, Autonomous Region’s Admission 85, 88 Committees, 74, 77 Ministry of Commerce, 94 industrial colleges (gaodeng shiye Ministry of Health, 37, 94 xuetang), 7 Ministry of Higher Education, 37-38 Institution of the Sons of the Emperor

235 Index

Ministry of Industry and Information, 94 National People’s Congress, 15 Ministry of Personnel, 92 National Public Service Platform for missionary colleges, 7 Higher Education Graduates, 94 model of administration, 36 National Self-Study Examination of modern college (yangwu xuetang), 4 Higher Education, 17 modern higher education, 4-9 “new education”, 5 modern military education, 5 newly admitted postgraduates, 81 modern or new type of higher education newly admitted students, 71 institution, 4 newly-established, non-state HEIs, 151 modern subjects, 5 non-formal higher education, 17-18 modern university (daxuetang), 4 non-government forces, 18 Modernization Movement (Yangwu non-government funds, 50-54 Movement), 5 non-government organization, 35, 53 modular mode of education, 144 NPC Standing Committee, 46

MOE Examination Center, 77 Office of Admissions, 77-78 multidisciplinary institutions, 28-31 open admission, 88, 124 MyCOS, 93 operate with more autonomy, 14

Outlines of Educational Reform and Nanyang College (nanyang gongxue), 8 Development, 14, 30 Nanyang Industrial College (nanyang gaodeng shiye xuetang), 8 part-time doctoral students, 166 Nanyang University (nanyang part-time master’s degree students, 160 daxuetang), 8 part-time teacher, 181-184 National Academic Conference for Party Committee, 64-69 Doctoral Students, 169 Party secretary, 65 National Academic Forum for Doctoral Peking University, 5, 29 Students, 169 personnel management, 178, 187 National Awards for Excellent Doctoral PhD supervisor, 89 Dissertations, 167-168 “piyong”, 1 National College Entrance Examination, planned forces, 14 13, 71 Platform plus Module Mode, 114-116 National Development and Reform postgraduate programs, 81, 152 Commission, 41 practical instruction, 104-108, 119 National Employment Network Alliance practical occupational training, 2 for Higher Education Graduates, 93 practice-orientation, 104 National Entrance Examination for private academe, 1 Postgraduate Students, 91 private colleges and universities, 19

236 Index

Private Education Promotion Law, 19, 42 reform and opening-up, 13 private education, 1-2, 18 Renxu School System, 9 private HEIs, 12, 18-20 Renyin School System, 7 private higher education, 18-20, 54 Renzi Guizi School System, 9 procedures of recruitment, 187 Republic of China, 9 professional degree, 22-155 required education, 101, 122 professional doctorates, 1, 166-167 research institutes, 9, 65 professional master’s degree, 82, 160- research universities, 30-31, 136 162 research-oriented or theory-focused professional rank, 182-184, 192 degree, 155 program of graduates’ service at the grass roots, 91 School of the CPC Central Committee, 9 Program of Innovation in Graduate second level disciplines, 155 Education, 169 self-financed students, 53 program orientation, 103-104, 122 self-generated revenues of HEIs, 52 project-centered management, 178 Self-study Examination, 17, 55 provincial committee on academic semester system, 127, 143 degrees, 156-157 Senior High School Graduation provincial shuyuan, 7 Diploma, 101 Provisional Regulations on the Estab- senior normal colleges (youji shifan lishment of Private Colleges and xuetang), 7 Universities, 19 Senior Secondary Vocational School public HEIs, 8, 18 Graduation Diploma, 102 separate master’s admission qualification certificate, 103, 116 examination by the institutions, 83 quality management, 117, 147 separately established research institutes, quality of doctoral dissertations, 168 151 quality of doctoral education, 167 separately-established colleges, 27 quality-focused development, 168 Shanghai Jiaotong University, 8, 63 quantity-focused development, 168 Shanxi University, 8 short-cycle colleges, 19, 27 R&D, 172-173 Shuyuan, 1, 7 rapid expansion, 37, 121 single discipline institutions, 29-31 “recommended freshmen” without taking Sino-Western College (zhongxi xuetang), 8 the NCEE, 74 six schools, 3 recruitment system based on positions, social or non-collective forces, 18 185 specialized academic disciplines, 4

237 Index

specialized colleges, 8, 29 90 specialized education, 21, 76 Tsinghua University, 14, 29 specialized HEI, 7 tuition and fees, 42, 52 specialty, 18, 84 types of master’s degrees, 161 State Council Committee on Academic types of modern HEIs, 4 Degrees, 151 types of specialties within disciplines, 23 State Education Commission, 14, 19 state education plans, 56 unification of admissions, 73 State Examination for Public Servants, unified admission examination for JM, 91 82, 84 State Excellence Youth Science unified admission examination for Foundation, 173-174 MBA, 82, 84 supervise at macro level, 14 unified master’s admission examination Supervision Hall of the Sons of the by the state, 82 Emperor (guozijian), 3 unified or separate admission exami- nation for Med, 83 taixue, 1-3 unit-centered management, 178 teaching and research office, 118, 148 University of Zhejiang (Zhejiang teaching institutions, 28 daxuetang), 7 teaching outline, 119, 128 vocational education, 151 teaching-research institutions, 30 Voluntary Program of Graduates Temple of the Sons of the Emperor Serving the West, 91 (guozishi), 3 tertiary vocational and technical colleges, western languages (xiwen), 5 19, 62 “western learning”, 5 Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central western technical knowledge (xiyi), 5 Committee of the CPC, 13 world class universities, 15, 223 three-level system of administrating academic degrees, 156 youxue, 1 three-tier administrative system, 13 Tianjin University, 8 Zhejiang College of Higher Education traditional higher education, 4 (Zhejiang gaodeng xuetang), 7 training objectives, 10 Zhejiang University, 29, 129 Zouding School System, 7 transformation of employment system,

238