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TRANSITION from ELITE to MASS HIGHER EDUCATION in CHINA By TRANSITION FROM ELITE TO MASS HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA by YANQINGXUE submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of MASTER OF EDUCATION in the subject COMPARATIVE EDUCATION at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: PROF S G PRETORIUS ~ t I JUNE2001 f II I Student number: 3247-339-7 I declare that TRANSITION FROM ELITE TO MASS HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA is my own work and that all the sources that I have used or quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references. -LL _j .~ti ... ~ .... ~(./.~/.~/ .. SIGNATURE DATE (MR YQXUE) Acknowledgements I wish to convey my sincere thanks to Professor S. G. Pretorius, my supervisor, for his capable, patient and friendly guidance; Appreciation is also extended to Mrs. Mattie Verwey for her kind helpfulness in many ways; To Professor E.M. Lemmer for language editing and checking the qualitative research; To Professor Y. J. Wang and Professor G.D. Kamper for their warm assistance; To all the informants for their time and energy;. To UNISA library staff for their high quality services; At last, my dedication to Jin and Y angyang, my dear wife and son, for their love and encouragement. SUMMARY The research focuses on the strategies for the transition from elite to mass higher education in China. The expansion of Chinese higher education has accelerated since 1998. The Chinese government plans to increase its gross enrolment rate in higher education to 15% by 2010. According to Trow's (1974:63) phase development theories, this increase of enrolment would lead to fundamental changes in higher education. These changes interact with its contextual factors, such as, economy, politics, society et cetera. The research aimed at analyzing this by using both literature study and qualitative inquiry. The Chinese strategies for the transition were preliminarily evaluated. Findings were that people's elite values, shortage of funds and social inequality are major obstacles for the transition. The study revealed that developing non-traditional higher education, among others, is an effective way to overcome these difficulties and to accelerate the transition from elite to mass higher education. Keywords: CHINA - TRANSITION STRATEGY - EDUCATIONAL REFORM - ELITE HIGHER EDUCATION - MASS HIGHER EDUCATION TRANSITION FROM ELITE TO MASS HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA Contents CHAPTER 1 page 1 INTRODUCTION 1 1.1 The perspective of China 1 1.1.1 The administration of education and the higher education system of China 1 1.1.1.1 Administration of education 1 1.1.1.2 Higher education 1 1.1.2 Chinese economy 3 1.1.3 Chinese society 4 1.2 Problem formulation 5 1.3 Aims 7 1.4 Motivation for the research 8 1.5 Methods 9 1.6 Definitions of terms 10 1.6.1 Educational reform 10 1.6.2 Family planning 11 1.6.3 Gross enrolment rate 12 1.7 Limitations of the research and explanation of language translation 13 1.7.1 Limitations of the research 13 1.7.2 Explanation of language translation 13 1.8 Chapter division 14 1.9 Conclusion 14 CHAPTER2 2 STRATEGIES FOR THE TRANSITION FROM ELITE TO MASS HIGHER EDUCATION AND ITS CONTEXTUAL FACTORS 16 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 The transition from elite to mass higher education 18 2.2. l The concept of elite higher education 18 2.2.2 The concept of mass higher education 19 2.2.3 Usage of the elite-mass-universal access model 22 2.2.4 Other models of higher education development 24 2.2.5 Reasons for the expansion of higher education 26 2.2.6 Diversification 27 2.2. 7 Enrollment 30 2.2.8 Curriculum 33 2.2.9 Quantity and quality 35 2.2.10 Dilemmas 37 2.2.11 Conclusion 39 2.3 Economy 40 2.3.1 Employment 43 2.3.2 Funding and fees 45 2.3.2.1 Funding 45 2.3.2.2 Fees 48 2.3.3 Conclusion 50 2.4 Political factors 50 2.4.1 Government policies 51 2.4.2 Equality 53 2.4.3 Conclusion 56 2.5 Society 56 2.5.1 Conclusion 59 2.6 Science and technology 59 2.6.1 Conclusion 61 ii 2.7 Some aspects of the transition from elite to mass higher education in Britain 61 2. 7.1 Introduction 61 2. 7.2 Process of the transition from elite to mass higher education in Britain 62 2. 7 .2.1 Conclusion 66 2.7.3 Funding and fee policies in Britain 67 2. 7.4 The rise and the fall of British binary system 69 2.7.5 Conclusion 72 2.8 Some aspects of development of higher education in Australia 73 2.8.1 Introduction 73 2.8.2 Process of the transition from elite to mass higher education in Australia 73 2.8.2.1 Conclusion 76 2.8.3 Funding and fees 77 2.8.4 The structural changes in Australia's higher education: the binary system and the Unified National System 79 2.8.5 Conclusion 81 2.9 Strategies for the transition from elite to mass higher education 82 2.9.1 Introduction 82 2.9.2 Strategies in general 83 2.9.3 Equality 86 2.9.4 Diversification 87 2.9.5 Studies 90 2.9.6 Research 92 2.10 Conclusion 93 CHAPTER3 3 STRATEGIES FOR THE TRANSITION FROM ELITE TO MASS IDGHER EDUCATION AND ITS CONTEXTUAL FACTORS IN CHINA 96 3.1 Introduction 96 iii 3 .1. 1 History of Chinese higher education 97 3 .2 Economy 99 3 .2.1 The economic influence on the expansion of Chinese higher education 99 3 .2.2 Employment difficulties when higher education expands 101 3 .2.3 Funding 104 3.2.4 Fees 107 3.2.5 Conclusion 110 3.3 Political aspects of the expansion of Chinese higher education 110 3. 3 .1 Conclusion 115 3. 4 Social reasons for the expansion of the Chinese higher education system 115 3.4.1 Conclusion 117 3.5 Influence due to the scale and structures of Chinese population 118 3 .6 The strategies for transition from elite to mass higher education in China 120 3.6.1 Massification of the Chinese higher education system 120 3.6.1.1 Challenges China faces in massification of its higher education and the debate on the issues 122 3.6.1.2 Conclusion 126 3.6.2 Non-traditional institutions in China 127 3 .6.2.1 Higher vocational education 130 3.6.2.2 Adult higher education 132 3.6.2.3 Self-study examination system 136 3.6.2.4 Private higher education 139 3.6.2.5 Conclusion 142 3.6.3 Enrolment 143 3. 7 Prospects for the development of higher education in China for the next decade 145 3.8 Conclusion 147 iv CHAPTER4 4 THE STRATEGIES FOR THE TRANSITION FROM ELITE TO MASS HIGHER EDUCATION IN CHINA: A QUALITATIVE INQUIRY 149 4.1 Introduction 149 4.2 Qualitative methodology - a theoretical basis 150 4.2.1 General orientation 150 4.2.2 Grounded theory 151 4.2.3 The role of a qualitative researcher 153 4.2.4 Data collection techniques 154 4.2.5 Interviews 155 4.2.6 Analysis of data 157 4.2.7 Presentation of findings 158 4.2.8 Reliability and validity 159 4.3 Choice of the methodology for the present research 160 4.3.1 Qualitative research is suitable for policy research and evaluation 161 4.3.2 Complementary role of the present qualitative study 162 4.3.3 Qualitative research is descriptive 162 4.4 Design of the present study 163 4.4.1 Statement of subjectivity 163 4.4.2 Language 165 4.4.3 Selection of informants 165 4.4.4 Data collection 166 4.4.5 Data analysis 167 4.5 Summary 168 4.6 Presentation and discussion of key themes 168 4.6.1 Introduction 168 4.6.2 Characteristics of informants and background data 169 4.6.2.1 Students 169 4.6.2.2 Teachers 170 v 4.6.2.3 Parents 171 4.6.2.4 Government official and an academic 172 4.6.2.5 Employers 173 4.6.3 Presentation and discussion of key themes 174 4.6.3.1 Chinese government policies for expanding its higher education and their effects 174 a. Discussion 177 4.6.3.2 Reasons for the expansion of Chinese higher education 177 a. Discussion 178 4.6.3.3 Positive influences brought about by the expansion of Chinese higher education 179 a. Discussion 180 4.6.3.4 Difficulties faced by China to expand its higher education 181 a, Discussion 183 4.6.3.5 Conflicts caused by the expansion of Chinese higher education and methods to resolve them 183 a. Discussion 184 4.6.3.6 Enrollment policies for easing the fierce competition and effects of these policies 184 a. Discussion 187 4.6.3.7 Diversification 187 4.6.3. 7.a Different types of non-traditional higher education systems in China 189 4.6.3. 7.b Reasons that non-traditional institutions are the second choice of students and their parents 190 a. Discussion 192 4.6.3.8 Employment 192 4.6.3.8.a Over-qualification 192 4.6.3.8.b Government policies on employment 195 a. Discussion 196 4.6.3.9 Funding 197 a. Discussion 198 vi 4.6.3.10 Fees 198 a. Discussion 202 4.6.3.11 Equality 202 a. Discussion 204 4.7 Conclusion 205 CHAPTERS 5 SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 207 5.1 Introduction 207 5.2 Strategies for the massification of Chinese higher education 208 5.2.1 Summary 208 5.2.2 Conclusion 209 5.2.3 Recommendation 210 5.3 Enrolment policies 210 5.3.1 Summary 210 5.3.2 Conclusion 210 5.3.3 Recommendation 211 5.4 Diversification 211 5.4.1 Summary 211 5.4.2 Conclusion 212 5.4.3 Recommendation 212 5.5 Private higher education 213 5.5.1 Summary 213 5.5.2 Conclusion 213 5.5.3 Recommendation 214 5.6 Higher vocational education 214 5.6.1 Summary 214 5.6.2 Conclusion 215 5.6.3 Recommendation 216 5.7 Funding 216 vii 5.7.1 Summary 216 5.7.2 Conclusion 217 5.7.3 Recommendation 217 5.8 Fees 218 5.8.1 Summary 218 5.8.2 Conclusion 218 5.8.3 Recommendation 219 5.9 Employment 219 5.9.1 Summary 219 5.9.2 Conclusion 220 5.9.3 Recommendation 220 5 .10 Equality 221 5.10.1 Summary 221 5.10.2 Conclusion 221 5.10.3 Recommendation 222 5 .11 Social factors affecting transition of Chinese higher education 222 5.11.
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