PARALLEL WORLDS Matti Tainio PARALLEL WORLDS

Art and Sport in Contemporary Culture

Aalto ARTS Books Acknowledgements

This dissertation could not have been completed without the great support that I have received from so many people over the years. First I want to thank my supervisors Ossi Naukkarinen and Marja Kanervo, who had guided me through various academic and artistic problems during my work. Ossi’s reassuring manner in advising me and his encouraging comments of my work pushed me to finish my dissertation. Coffees and discussions with Marja helped me to organize my artistic work and execute the projects on the appropriate level for doctoral studies. I am grateful to Taina Kinnunen and Outi Turpeinen for their work as pre-examiners of my dissertation. Their comments were valuable and helped me to do the final improvements of my text. Furthermore, I want to thank Arto Haapala, Markus Kåhre and Soile Veijola for examining my artistic projects. The members of research project Artification and Its Impact on Art provided me a rich view to the academic world both in Finland and abroad. Aalto University publication series Pauline von Bonsdorff, Seppo Knuuttila, Yrjänä Levanto and Yrjö Sepän- DOCTORAL DISSERTATIONS 16/2015 maa, I am grateful to you for your insights and comments about my work on various occasions. Kari Korolainen and Kaisa Mäki-Petäjä, thank you School of Arts, Design and Architecture for collegial support and company during the project. I want to express my Aalto ARTS Books special gratitude to the international partners of the project, who attended Helsinki our meetings and seminars and kindly commented on my work in its vari- books.aalto.fi ous phases. Thank you Aleš Erjavec, Yuriko Saito and Wolfgang Welsch. My work would not have been possible without the financial support from various organizations: I am grateful to The Academy of Finland, Jenny © Matti Tainio and Antti Wihuri Foundation as well as Aalto University for funding my work. Furthermore, I want to thank Arts Council of Finland, University of Graphic design: Camilla Sirén Art and Design Helsinki, Regional Arts Council of South-West Finland, State Materials: Munken Lynx 120g, Multiart Silk Art Council, Visek and The Swedish Cultural Foundation in Finland for Fonts: Adobe Garamond Pro, Adelle Sans supporting my artistic work in the context of my research. In addition, Photographs by Matti Tainio unless stated otherwise I thank Pirkko-Liisa Topelius, Stiftelsen Pro Artibus and Sport Museum of Finland for providing the exhibition spaces for my artistic projects. ISBN 978-952-60-6067-5 (printed) I would like to address very warm thanks to my fellow doctoral candi- ISBN 978-952-60-6068-2 (pdf) dates, who worked with me along the gallery corridor at the Arabia cam- ISSN-L 1799-4934 pus and became my friends during the years. Marko Karo, Iina Kohonen, ISSN 1799-4934 (printed) Harri Pälviranta and Hanna Weselius - thank you for your company. ISSN 1799-4942 (pdf) I am especially thankful to my mother Riitta Tainio for all kind of help and support she has provided me. Printed in Unigrafia, Finland Finally, I wish to thank my family: Larissa, Verna and Reko thank you 2015 for enduring me during my research. Table of contents

Warming Up 11 1 • On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art 23 The Preparatory Process 33 The Art Project 35 The First Exhibition 36 Artworks 37 A Transient Assessment 40 2 • Practices, History and the Changing Meanings 47 Practices as Carriers of Meanings 54 The Role of Paradigms 57 Art and Sport as Systems 59 3 • The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport 63 Before Art and Sport 68 Towards the Modern Conception of Art and Sport 74 The Transition to the Category of Art 77 The Genesis of Sport 84 The Further Refinement of Art and Sport 93 4 • The Diverse Field In-Between 101 Art – Play – Sport 114 Other Works 121 Some Halfway Conclusions 122 5 • Participating and Perceiving 125 The Double Role of the Participant 128 Conducting Research from the Author’s Point of View 129 The Protagonists 137 Artworld and Sportworld 139 The Audience, the Spectator, the Perceiver 140 6 • The Aesthetic Links 157 The Impact of Postmodern 161 The Significance of Aesthetics 163 Aesthetic Experience 169 Aesthetics in the Expanded Field 170 Contemporary Art and Aesthetics 175 The Aesthetic and Artistic in Sport 177 Recent Comparisons of Art and Sport 192 A Closer Look: The Aesthetics of Distance Running 197 7 • Artification 203 The Artification of Sport 207 Artifying Sport 211 8 • What I Think When I Think About Running 219 The Artworks 245 Artistic Transitions 248 9 • Sport in Art – Art as Sport 251 Sport in Contemporary Art 254 The Broad Field of Artistic Opportunities 262 10 • The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport 265 The Expanding Fields 268 Experiences and Processes 276 The Final Stretch 287 Bibliography 290 Abstract 306 Abstrakti 310 Warming Up Warming Up

Art and sport are inseparable parts of contemporary culture. There is no way to escape their presence. Even if one is not interested in them they are present, not necessarily directly but implicitly, as tendencies in visual culture or sport-related idioms in everyday parlance. If one is an art enthusiast or a sport fan, they can form the substance of life. A real addict can even adapt other components of her life according to the important events in art or sport. Even though the same person can be enthusiastic about art and sport, an affinity between the practices themselves is seldom expected. Much more often, they are seen as adversaries. In everyday situations , art is identified as something distant and strange, elitist, even difficult, and sport as vulgar, pedestrian and popular. The similar character of the practices as producers of first-rate experiences is hidden by the apparent differences in their status and content. Common perspectives on art and sport are generally simplified, which conceal their various connotations. My interest in art and sport arises from both the artist’s and athlete’s point of view. I am an artist and I have a life-long interest in visual arts. I have never been a sports fan, but sport has been part of my life through the various sports I have been engaged in. My practical everyday activities with art and sport were the first catalysts for the idea of combining art and sport in the same context. Both artist and athlete are at the center of these practices; they are the prime movers. While their objectives are different, the personal reasons for engaging in these practices can be a similar quest for experiences. In addition, the structures of the frame- works around the artist and athlete are alike. Both practices form an independent realm within more practical activities in society. There are inherent rules that deviate from everyday understanding; the mechanism of valuing achievements is based on a different rationale than the normal, utilitarian functions of society. And so, the combination of art and sport became tempting. The idea of connecting art and sport first emerged in my artistic work, but later the idea of employing the concept for a research project began to seem viable. If a superficial inspection revealed some similarities between the practices of art and sport, proceeding with a more detailed inquiry should reveal more.

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Consequently, my research links art and sport together in tendencies come into view. Indeed, the variety of connections an unorthodox manner, viewing them as parallel practices, thus between art and sport come into view only if they are observed providing the possibility for novel perspectives into them and through different disciplines. subsequently attempting to clarify their current meanings and The organized structure of art and sport as cultural practices composition. The research deals with the similarities, parallels, and is emphasized through the research: the tendencies within art connections between art and sport. and sport practices are studied as the systems, universal patterns, While I have focused on making an inquiry about the connec- structures, and habits of action. The study of systems reveals those tions between art and sport in contemporary culture, the following patterns that usually are shadowed by individual instances and questions have acted as the guidelines for my research: events. From the chosen perspective, art can be seen as a practice What kind of meanings do art and sport carry, and how producing certain types of artifacts or events using a certain set of have these meanings changed over time? techniques, to be enjoyed according to certain standards, and sport How are art and sport understood today? can be seen as a physical activity in a formalized and symbolic What kind of connections can be found between art and setting, producing experiences and measurable achievements that sport and how have they developed over time? are enjoyed according to different standards from art. How can the connections between art and sport be explored The written research forms a narrative of my search for various and presented through artistic work? ways to connect art and sport and analyzes the character of the What kinds of new perspectives on art and sport can be connections and their changes over the course of time. In addi- obtained, firstly by clashing the practices together, tion, in order to demonstrate my specific perspectives on art and and secondly by employing artistic methods in sport? sport, I have used my text to openly reveal the reasoning behind How do the disappearing borders between cultural the arguments made and viewpoints taken. practices, in my case art and sport, affect their future? In addition to the academic study, my artistic work forms a The process of investigating art and sport is carried out on a part of the research, and provides an insider’s point of view on fairly conceptual level; however, practical examples are used to contemporary art practices. My choice was to undertake three illuminate the various viewpoints on art and sport as well as the artistic projects as part of the research. The results of the projects development of their practices throughout time. The conceptual were presented in exhibitions in 2008 (Galleria Pirkko-Liisa Tope- approach helps to identify overall tendencies in the development lius), 2010 (Galleri Sinne) and 2012 (Sports Museum of Finland). of art and sport. In addition, its perspective balances two points of The artistic work has emphasized personal experience as a part of view: both art and sport are looked at as systems and through the the research. It does not make the study fully subjective, but does personal experiences of the participants. illuminate my personal path of thoughts. The research combines a humanistic approach in using various Furthermore, I use my personal sport practice – hobbyist dis- written sources as well as artistic methods and a free-form partici- tance running – to provide a participant’s view of sport. My run- patory study of hobbyist sport. My approach has been multidisci- ning practice has produced insights about contemporary physical plinary: I have used philosophical aesthetics, cultural history, and cultures for the study, in addition to being employed in my artistic art history, as well as art and sport sociology, to provide perspec- projects. Even though my running practice has not been an official tive on the subject. The assumption has been that this marginal part of the research, I have considered it as its third element. question exploring both art and sport is not a central interest for Unlike in the academic work, where the result is a written any single academic discipline, and thus requires approaches from research report, I do not have a fixed set of tools for my art. I multiple angles in order to be examined properly. Using one high- chose the working methods that interested me at the time, and ly specific approach can provide an extremely detailed view, but which provided the best possibility to produce a work of art that the use of a variety of perspectives produces a mosaic image. While created an experience allowing the perceiver to follow the path all the details are not revealed, and there are gaps, the general formed by my thoughts. The resulting works are often somewhat

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autobiographical – not in a narrative sense, but the work frequent- including books and articles, autobiographical texts and fiction, ly relies on my personal experiences and remarks. Much of my blogs and newspapers, as well as various visual sources and artwork is performative in nature; I like to set myself a task and use works. The compilation of this material provided new perspectives the documentation of it to create the final artwork. The combi- on the various aspects of art and sport, and brought their current nation of the task and the documentation generates the artistic inclinations into focus. Using this extensive body of material, element of the work. I attempted to extract a very specific view of the contemporary The art projects conducted as a part of the research illustrate situation in art and sport: to see them as practices on the move, my approach to artistic research quite well – I have been making practices that are distancing themselves from many of the ideas art for the sake of research. The themes of the projects have a clear they have been connected with since the emergence of their mod- relationship to the key aspects of my study. In this way, the results ern forms and discovering novel connections between them. of the projects were not totally independent art, but somewhat The changes taking place in art and sport are usually slight subordinate to the object of the research. I now see that the most shifts in general tendencies, that barely move the point of bal- important aspect of the artistic research was how the different ance within the whole practice; but they can also emerge as small way of thinking required by the art projects modified my total radical movements that steer the whole practice in a new direction. understanding of the research subject. Academic thinking has to The first type of change is visible in the long-term transformation be meticulous about the interpretation of the material; one has to of large institutions, for instance the Olympic Games and the art be sure that the research is based on verified sources and facts. In presented in world-class museums. The latter type of change can artistic work, it is much more acceptable to follow the instinctive be seen in the emergence of snowboarding and the transformation paths of thought, to make lighthearted tests with new but tenuous of the concept of art during the 1960s. As a result of this journey ideas. Those processes do not always produce a finished artwork, through different views on art and sport, I ended up with a rea- and the artwork may even turn out to be unusable in the con- soned proposition that shows why art and sport can today be seen text of the research. However, in most cases the finished process as similar practices, and why this perspective is beneficial. produces artwork that clearly addresses at least some aspects of the Even though studying the vague relationships between art and research. sport may seem irrelevant, there are good, if not obvious, reasons I see these artistic and academic processes as parallel but not to take a look at these two disparate practices and treat them as totally separate. They never intertwined into one entity, but were similar: art and sport have a vital role in today’s everyday culture. constantly pushing and pulling at each other. When the work on They both stimulate feelings and create content in people’s lives. either the artistic or academic part altered its direction, it had an However, the imprecise conception of them, especially in their influence on the other part. The newly altered direction of one contemporary condition, causes prejudices and resistance against practice then steered the course of the other, and as a consequence both art and sport. Finding fresh perspectives on them can help changed my conception of it. Both practices generated insights in understanding their importance and seeing their influence on about the direction of my research; both academic and artistic and benefits for society. A better understanding of the affinities practices produced knowledge about the relations of art and sport. between art and sport could advance the conscious search for The finished artworks themselves have a minor importance to novel applications, where combinations of art and sport could my study. More important has been the path I have been travel- benefit well-being. New perspectives on art and sport will make ling when trying to achieve a certain goal, in which I have usually visible the advantages of art and artistic work outside their tradi- failed somewhat. The artworks can only partially convey those tional frames, as well as expanding the understanding about the aspects that making them has provided for the research. various meanings of sport and other physical cultures today. The research method was typical for humanistic study: I did While the study of art and sport and their relationship is not collect a set of particular material for my research. Instead, the the core subject of the research, the general development of the research was conducted using a wide range of existing material, modern western culture and its contemporary condition forms an

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important undercurrent. Art and sport are fundamentally modern opportunity to articulate the still ambiguous framework of the practices and their formation is deeply linked with the general research. The project focuses on contemporary Finnish running differentiation of cultural practices that took place during the culture, and especially hobbyist distance runners, through my own development of modern European culture. The close study about experiences. The idea was to make a deep exploration in one sport the development and contents of art and sport shows how substan- in order to advance understanding about contemporary sport in tial is the difference between the preceding conception of culture general. and the modern one and how the modern culture has transformed Art and sport have not always existed in a similar manner while approaching present moment. as today. There have been past activities that remind one of the My view of art and sport is tinted by the Finnish perspective, modern conceptions of art and sport, but there have also been which is especially visible when nationalism in sport is discussed. considerable differences. The second chapter deals with different However, I have attempted to maintain views that emphasize a ways of understanding historical practices and their results from universal conception of art and sport. Also, despite the seem- a contemporary point of view. Starting with different possible ingly neutral tone, male practices in sport are highlighted in the perspectives on art and sport and the significance of the historical research. Even though the specific view of female sports as well context, I then proceed to questions about cultural practices and as gender issues in sport in general are important subjects, I had possible theoretical viewpoints on their historical and conceptual to omit a closer study of them from this research for the various formation. reasons. The central reason for this is the relatively late inclusion The third chapter lays the foundation for investigating the of women in sport: many of the physical activities popular among parallel existences of art and sport, by exploring the historical women in the early twentieth century (gymnastics, dance) were development of art and sport from antiquity to the beginning of not considered to be “real sports.” In consequence, male sport the twentieth century, thus revealing the similarity of the circum- manifests more clearly the practice of modern sport in the context stances and time frame of the emergence of their modern forms. of my research. Guided by the ideas of Larry Shiner and Allen Guttmann, I Moreover, a certain difference exists in the manner in which divide the development of the cultural practices of art and sport art and sport are dealt within the study. Art practice is discussed into the stages preceding their modern systems and those follow- (almost) solely from the viewpoint of professional art, while the ing that change. Before the emergence of the modern systems of discussion of sport is polarized into competitive, both professional art and sport in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, many of and amateur variety, as well as purely hobbyist perspectives on the the individual actions that are today conceived of as art and sport practice. There are two reasons for this unbalanced setting. Firstly, existed, but the categories of art and sport did not. Before the because I have used my own experiences to obtain understand- modern ideas of art and sport existed, most of the auxiliary activ- ing, the only perspectives available were those of a professional ities, practices, and institutions that today are part of the wider artist and a hobbyist and non-competitive athlete. Secondly, both fields of art and sport did not exist either: the artist and athlete, competitive and hobbyist sport have contributed to the devel- art museums and exhibitions, sporting fields and regular events, opment of sport, while amateur art has been important for the and public criticism and press have mostly emerged during the last development of art only when presented in a professional context. two hundred and fifty years. After the emergence of art and sport I However, the influence of non-professional activity in art and its then follow their further development into the early twentieth cen- boundaries has increased in recent times as a result of changes in tury. This historical perspective on art and sport brings forth the the concept of art. temporal dimension of their progress: the development of art and The opening chapter deals with the first art project, and sport did not terminate at the formation of the practices. How- through its progress and results the inception of the research. The ever, their early forms still shape our conception of them, even artistic work was employed to find starting points for the aca- though both practices have changed considerably. The conception demic study on art and sport. The project provided me with the of art and sport as historically developed cultural practices forms

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the starting point for the further study of their relationship. in understanding the aesthetic links between art and sport. In chapter four we return to the artistic projects: the second The seventh chapter deals with the concept of artification. This project, Kaksi – Två, reflects issues dealt with in the previous recently introduced term indicates situations where something chapter. The historical account of the rather recent emergence traditionally not regarded as art becomes art or art-like: the con- of art and sport, which had a clear connection with the general cept of artification implies the use of artistic and creative methods modernization and segmentation of European culture, lead me in alternative ways to the benefit of practices outside the category to think about the imaginary field connecting the practices of art of art. Artification can be unconscious, part of current cultural and sport. I investigated this hypothetical field and attempted to tendencies, or the concept can be applied purposefully. In this build a continuum between the practices by documenting differ- research, an analysis of the possibilities for artification is employed ent artistic and athletic acts on videos, that were then combined in order to expose new kinds of activities in sport. The general fea- into an interactive installation. Through this work, I also pursued tures and conditions of artification are explored, and the possibil- an understanding of the current changes in the two practices. ities for the artification of sport are investigated on a general level Although the modern conceptions of art and sport are still the as well as through two specific case studies. dominant ones, a closer look reveals that the conceptualization of Chapter eight presents the third and last art project, Mitä ajat- art and sport has grown more wide-ranging. The old ideals do not telen, kun ajattelen juoksemista / What I think about when I think confine contemporary activities, which may seek novel experiences about running. The project deals for the second time with contem- despite the previous boundaries. porary running. The objective of the art project was to pursue the The fifth chapter takes a slight sidestep, and examines the social development which had taken place during the earlier research. structures within the contemporary systems of art and sport. Both While the two first projects were exhibited in well-established practices form a web of relations where the artist and athlete play galleries, this time the results of the project were presented in the the leading role, but are still dependent on the assistance of and Sport Museum of Finland. The exhibition obtained new conno- co-operation with other actors within their practices. Many aspects tations from the venue. My views about hobbyist contemporary of the relationships are similar, but there are also major differences. running became inadvertently compared with the Sport Museum’s The roles of the active participants, supporting professionals, as permanent collection in the next room, and appeared to be a com- well as the audiences are dealt with. Special consideration is given mentary on the competitive side of the sport. to research that attempts to study art and sport from the artist’s The ninth chapter explores the different manifestations of sport and athlete’s perspectives. in contemporary art. Sport has been the subject of art since the Chapter six explores the aesthetic links between art and sport. beginning of that practice, but over the last decades the use of The recent transition from modern to postmodern has altered the sport in art has become more multifaceted: its use in art extends prevailing balance within culture. The previous ideals employed in beyond images – sport is used in art in various ways and for var- art and sport are losing their grip, and new models are replacing ious reasons. Sport is no longer just a visually interesting subject them. Today, aesthetics does not only deal with the qualities of of art: it is used to criticize the sportworld; sport is transformed – art, but a wider range of issues from environment to the every- even ridiculed – for art; artists’ have invented new sports; sport has day experience, and even the foundations of our contact with the been incorporated into art for reasons that address topics outside world. Various studies suggest that aesthetics play a significant role art and sport; and finally sport has been turned into a medium in forming new ways of operating in the world. A study of recent for the making of art. Contemporary art can use various fields of developments in aesthetics and its contemporary state forms the culture, including sport, for promoting its own ends. Artworks can groundwork for a detailed exploration of the special questions of provide views contrasting to the customary perception of sport. aesthetics in sport, as well as the distinctive aesthetic experience of Chapter ten compiles the explorations made in the previous the active participants in art and sport. The recent development of chapters, and presents a view of the current relations between art the field of aesthetics of sport is dealt with, as well as developments and sport. The contemporary fragmentation of the fields of art and

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sport becomes obvious, and today the coherent and well-defined practices of art and sport that prevailed for most of the twentieth century no longer exist; instead, there are multiple variations of the practices that are connected through a complex network. Today’s situation suggests developing a new, less restricted view on these practices. The old ideals of art and sport have disintegrated into a postmodern plurality, where all kinds of combinations between previously separate practices are possible. Not all the presented practices are obviously related to art or sport. However, they combine the artistic and aesthetic aspects of art and the physicality of sport in a novel way that often values making things together rather than competing. The previous concentration on achievement in sport and physical objects in art has been transformed by modern practices into an emphasis on experiences and processes. Instead of being merely a member of the audience, today’s culture emphasizes participation as the expressive order: the voluntary engagement with processes that produce aesthetic experiences connects today’s artistic and physical practices in the production of cultural distinction. The landscapes of art and sport are still changing. In the current culture, the most interesting developments in art and sport take place outside their traditional frames. Both practices are attempting to adapt to this new situation, but it is doubtful whether art and sport can hold their former positions when their borders are fraying.

20 21 1 • On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art

22 23 1/10000 of Marathon

24 25 Memories

Memorial Flagging Running Analysis 1-4 (detail)

26 27 Runners (stills from the video)

28 29 Memorial Flagging On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art •1

Attempt to run Helsinki

30 31 On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art •1 The Preparatory Process

At the outset of the first art project, my understanding about the direction of my research as a whole was elementary. I did have ideas about the relationship between art and sport, but no clear indication about the point of view I should take in my exploration, or how I should delim- it the subject of the research. Art and sport both seemed like vast and tangled web of concepts, that felt almost impossible to sort out. I had not yet found a starting point that would take me further from these general thoughts. Treating art and sport as general concepts was difficult; any argument I tried to make seemed easy to refute by using a simple detailed example found in art or sport trivia. Clearly, I needed some concrete examples that would connect my arguments to the fabric of real life. In addition, I needed to narrow the scope of my research from sport and art generally to some limited elements within them in order to be able to construct solid argumentation. Since the academic work alone did not seem to bring a feasible solution to my unclear ideas about art and sport, I thought that advancing the first art project could provide a key for identifying the core questions I was looking for. If the first art project was about to serve as the inception of my research, the foremost question I had to find an answer to was: How should art and sport be combined advantageously in the context of art? I needed to find a working method that would be fruitful for the subsequent academic research. Fortunately, I did not have to start from scratch: in a previous project, I had sought the means to convert an athlete’s experiences into artworks.1 At that time I used a few different sports to probe the question about experience in sport, an approach that produced some general understanding about those sports, but from a limited perspective. I decided to continue developing this approach, but this time concentrating on one sport and trying to find several angles from which to explore it. In the earlier project, I employed sports that I had personal experience with, and I wished to continue that approach. I had taken up distance running a few years before, and I decided to employ my training regime to take a closer look at the contemporary running culture in Finland. The central reason for choosing running as a subject for the art project was my previous running experience, combined with my interest in trying a more serious approach to distance running. Further reasons for selecting distance running were the fundamental

1 See: http://www.mattitainio.net/harjoituksiagalleria.htm.

33 On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art •1 role of running in the successes of early in today’s hobbyist running in the 1980s, I did not have a proper understanding for the project was clarified further; the twentieth century Finnish sport, as well as when city marathons proliferated at a about the right pace I should follow. The works should deal with contemporary the contemporary significance of distance rapid pace.2 Today, the marathon dom- first half of the race was quite easy. It felt Finnish running culture, but they should running in recreational sport culture. At inates recreational running parlance; similar to the preceding 20 kilometer be constructed in an appropriate way to the time, running was an important form discussions about running routinely turn training runs, except for the amount of present the practice of running, not the of everyday exercise, and interest in run- to questions about marathons: Have you runners and the crowd lining the streets. image of running. Somehow, the artworks ning as exercise was definitely rising. run a marathon? How many marathons Drawing closer to the end, my feet let should bring the real runners into the At the beginning of the art project, I have you done? What is your personal me down. I could run, but my feet hurt gallery; in addition, the action of running was by no means a serious runner. Before best? And so on. Even though the mara- so much that I was constantly slowing should be present in the exhibition. the project began, I had run in a leisurely thon is used to differentiate runners, it is down. After the race, I noticed that I manner for a couple of years but did not also a communal experience. There is no had lost two of my toenails because my follow any training program: my running other standardized running event where running shoes were too tight. My time, was occasional and the distances mod- one can belong to such a mass of enthu- slightly over four hours, deserves no erate. When I began to plan the first art siasts. The most popular marathons have special mention, but I arrived at the finish The Art project and decided to use my running multiplied their number of the partici- line with some style – I finished the race habit as background material for the artis- pants during the last decades, and today side by side with the winner of the men’s Project tic work, I also realized that my running many races even have to limit the amount 70-years old class. needed to be developed into a regular of runners. While a runner’s training is a Training through the winter and and target oriented practice. Carrying mostly solitary activity, the contemporary participation in the marathon formed Because I did not have an established on running in my previous style would marathon is a celebration of the joy of the groundwork for the exhibition. At medium for constructing my artworks not get me anywhere. Firstly, I set goals running. the same time as I intensified my run- at the time, I chose the most promising to motivate my exercises and achieve a After all, was there any other possibil- ning training, I had started to develop methods and materials for creating the deeper knowledge about distance run- ity except running a marathon when my the means for connecting running and experience I wanted. In this project, I ning. At the outset of the art project, in goal was to embark on an artistic project artistic work in an organized manner that wanted the perceiver to be able to reflect early autumn 2006, I decided that the providing an understanding about today’s would help me to produce the works for on my thoughts about various aspects main goal would be accomplishing my running culture? In addition to broad- the exhibition. I avoided thinking about of distance running, the chosen theme first marathon sometime in 2007. Even ening my understanding of the cultural the actual artworks, but attempted to of the exhibition. Moreover, my current though the marathon would be a race, it dimensions of running, participating in form concepts that could be used as the interests in certain working methods and is also an organized run, where I would a marathon would further the project by foundations for the artworks. My cen- materials had an effect on the artistic compete against myself, not against other giving me a solid foundation of personal tral objective was to take a closer look at work. At the time, I was interested in participants. experiences in distance running. contemporary running through a col- the combination of sculptural work and Why was marathon the most suit- In the Spring of 2007, I signed up for lection of artworks, but just presenting interactive installations. I had an idea able goal for the project at hand? The a local Paavo Nurmi Marathon that took images about running never felt like it about designing my exhibition so it contemporary marathon appeared to place in late June. There is not much to was enough. I explored ways to fuse both would seem to be composed of individual me as the apex of today’s recreational say about the race; the main point was running as the subject of the project and works, but they would also form a united running culture. The heritage of modern that I completed my first marathon. I the artistic working methods more closely whole. The objective was to make the marathon begins with the emergence of think my race was a quite typical first together, to make running an integral individual works in the exhibition form the modern Olympic Games in the late marathon: I was able to run the whole part of my artistic work. Running should an installation. This is a slightly paradox- nineteenth century, but the marathon as route, but without previous experience become both the subject of art and also ical approach, but I still see it as the ideal an everyman endurance test has a much be used as a means of making art. As a behind my exhibitions so far. shorter history. It became the benchmark 2 Berking and Neckel 1993, 68-69. result of these considerations, the outline Another aspect of my artistic work Vettenniemi 1999, 43,45.

34 35 On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art •1 affected the artworks I presented in the Memorial Flagging exhibition. I prefer to plan my works The First Artworks thoroughly before executing the final Because of an unfortunate choice of run- version. I write and draw drafts about Exhibition ning shoes, I lost two of my toenails soon the idea; I draw detailed blueprints and after my first marathon race. It is not a sometimes make models of my works. 1/10000 of Marathon rare incident, but by choosing the right Planning an artwork can take several The actual work with the art project size shoes and tying the laces properly you months, sometimes even more, and the began in the early Autumn of 2007, and This artwork adopted its idea from the do not have to suffer from it. I needed a final version is accomplished in a much its results were presented as an exhibition historical standard of a meter, which lesson to learn this, but to be on the safe shorter period of time. In addition, many in the gallery Pirkko-Liisa Topelius in consisted of a metal bar made of an alloy side decided to make a memorial for the of my works are impossible to finish out- Helsinki in the Spring of 2008. of platinum and iridium.3 The current lost nails. When the injured nails turned side the exhibition space – I can merely The gallery was a bare white room definition of a meter is defined in terms black and fell off some weeks after my test a working model or individual parts with a tiled floor and wall-sized windows of the speed of light, which is not easy to race, I photographed them and trans- of the work and the final installation opening onto the street. I had chosen the visualize. Marathon routes are measured ferred the images of the detached nails is realized for the exhibition only. The gallery before I had a clear idea about the with extreme accuracy, similar to the to a piece of fabric. The fabric was used central reason for employing this working coming exhibition, but the minimalistic standard of the meter, and the mara- to make a miniature flag for an eternal method can be derived from my under- space was suitable for many kinds of thon forms a standard in contemporary memorial to the lost toenails. The flag standing of art – for me, art is not about projects. running. Thinking about the relation of was kept fluttering with the help of a con- making objects, but about providing The artworks realized for the exhibi- these two standards and the process of cealed blower. possibilities for special experiences. For tion orbit the contemporary obsession measuring a marathon produced an idea me, the best way to generate these special with marathons by Finnish recreational of visualizing the ultimate standard for experiences is to assemble my work(s) as a runners, presenting the subject from the marathon. The exhibited artwork Memories site-specific installation, which is usually different perspectives. The exhibition presenting a standard for the marathon is compiled of several semi-independent consisted of six works: three of them one ten-thousandth part of the marathon. The third work about the marathon works, which could be exhibited sepa- were directly connected to my marathon Although 1/10 000 of a marathon is a experience utilized the photos taken rately, but convey their ideas best when experiences, two works opened a view to slightly awkward figure, the 421.7 cm with a disposable camera that I carried displayed as an installation. This working Finnish runners and their running com- long model was the longest exact fraction throughout the marathon. The Paavo method affects my understanding about munity, and the last one connected con- of a marathon that could fit inside the Nurmi Marathon is known for its special the physical artworks: outside the exhi- temporary art with the history of Finnish gallery. To give the work a more concrete route through the distinctive scenery on bition space, most of my works are no distance running. All three categories and everyday appearance, I borrowed its the island of Ruissalo, where the route works of art at all. In my mind, they are were somewhat overlapping; I am a Finn- form from a mundane Stanley tape mea- runs under the ancient oak trees. There just regular materials that can be assem- ish runner, and my ideas about running sure. This wooden fraction of a marathon are hardly any oaks in my photographs; bled into a work of art. At the time of have been affected by the lost Finnish was set lying on three trestles, mimicking instead, there are images of the industrial the first exhibition, I was concentrating running glory as well the relationship the original setup for the standard meter. warehouses by transitional routes through on the themes of Finnish art and sport. between other Finnish runners and the harbor and the crowd by the streets of During the later stages of the research, I their running. central Turku. Most of the images are less decided that an international perspective than perfect, as they were literally taken would provide better results. The idea on the run, but this was all right for me about the Finnish context is visible in the as I was trying to capture the atmosphere results of the first art project, but not in of running with thousands of other run- the process. 3 Bureau International des Poids et ners. A selection of the photographs was Mesures 1889.

36 37 On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art •1 assembled in a long and narrow montage runners and converted the video clips imaging the runners in three-dimensional Attempt to run Helsinki as a timeline of the race. to black and white line drawings on a video. In 2007, the 3D-film technology While the first artworks dealt in a white background. As a result, I had was just developing, so my solution was The last work, ”Attempt to run Helsin- quite straightforward manner with the short clips where the cartoonified run- to combine antique 3D-technologies ki”, turned out to be the most import- marathon, the second category of works ner performs one cycle of running steps. with the more modern video. I achieved ant work for me, as it later evolved consisted of two pieces that combined The resulting animations were presented the 3D-effect by using the anaglyphic into an extended series of works.4 The the antique techniques used for moving in wall-mounted phenakistoscopes: the method, whereby the specially prepared idea behind the work developed from a images with the habitus of contemporary perceiver looks into a mirror through the image is encoded as three dimensional by legend about Finnish distance runners. runners. Although the presentation of slits in the phenakistoscope’s disk. When using differently colored lenses for each In the early twentieth century, from the running in these two works mimics an the disk is rotated, the image sequence on eye. The images merge into a 3D-image Stockholm 1912 Olympic Games to the analytical experiment, my approach is the back of the disk is seen as a moving when they are viewed through the colored Paris 1924 Olympics, Finnish runners more playful than seriously scientific. animation in the mirror. When a disk is anaglyph glasses, equipped with red and dominated all important distance run- The play element in the works is complet- rotated at a slow pace, the cycle of the cyan lenses. ning events.5 The belief was that their ed by the interaction the works required runner’s step are seen as separate imag- The runners portrayed were chosen fame brought Finland into general global in order to function. I like to provide a es, and when more speed is given to the quite arbitrarily: I set up my equip- awareness, first as a distinct part of the hands-on physical activity in my works, disk the images merge into a continuous ment along popular running routes and Russian empire and later as an indepen- because the necessity to cross the border movement. asked the runners passing by to stop for dent nation. It is said that the runners between the viewer and the art object moment and to participate in making the made Finland appear on the map of the requires the gallery visitor to explore artwork. The method was successful – world. the exhibition more openly. Remaining Runners about half of the passing runners agreed My idea was to perform a verbatim a detached viewer is purposefully made to pose for a portrait. In addition, I asked run on a map, making a literal interpre- difficult in the hope of converting the Quite early during the project I devel- some local runners I had previously met tation of the Finnish legend. Running viewer into an active participant. oped the idea of making a set of life-sized to join the project. Finland on a map would have been too video portraits of Finnish runners. My The finished work consisted of ambitious to attempt, so I decided that initial idea was to shoot some short clips fourteen video-portraits, edited as a running the city of Helsinki on the map Running Analysis 1-4 of runners who would represent an “aver- continuously looping sequence where the would be enough. To achieve the literal age” runner: there are men and women runners one by one materialize into view, result, I placed the word “HELSINKI” The objective of Running Analysis to of all ages practicing distance running as take one turn around, and then disappear on the city map and looked for a layout show in detail how every runner has a their hobby, and I wanted to capture this again. The video was rear-projected on a that enabled running all the letters. When unique appearance, even though running diversity. transparent screen in order to make the I was satisfied with the design of the is seen as a universal and impersonal When depicting people in my previous runners appear to be present in the same route, I made an attempt to run it. I used practice where distinctive style has no projects and artworks, I had distanced the space as the viewer. In addition, placing a GPS-device for recording the attempt. place. I had been watching other runners subject by presenting the human figure the projector behind the screen helped to The recorded route was transferred onto since I started my running practice, and only partially, or as a simplified figure. disguise the technological elements of the a digitized map, which formed a starting had been amazed by how different styles The people never looked towards the work. The natural size of the projection point for the final artwork. and postures can produce efficient, or perceiver, but were concentrating on their made the people watching the work look- In the exhibition, the work was pre- at least fast, running. I captured some own affairs. Bringing a person, albeit as a ing at the runners from eye to eye. When sented as a triptych where the first panel runners on video tape. They were filmed somewhat generalized figure, to the cen- looked at through the anaglyphic glasses, presented the ideal route planned in in profile, so the differences in their run- ter of the work was a new vantage point the runners appeared like standing in a ning styles would be visible in a uniform for me, and I felt it demanded a new doorway just outside the room. 4 See also the last art project,”What I style. From these videos, I selected four approach. As a solution, I decided to try Think When I Think About Running”. 5 Laine 1992 b, 216.

38 39 On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art •1 advance; the second panel the names of by using an example of single sport that At the time, my conceptualization of the streets along the route; and the third A Transient stems from a different historical and combining artistic work or projects with one the route as it came true – with all cultural understanding of sport. The art academic research was very rudimentary: the mistakes. In addition to the physical Assessment project convinced me that it would be I would write about art and sport and I artwork, I provided the instructions for fruitful to treat all the necessary aspects of would work with projects dealing with running the route independently as well sport mainly through one sport, distance the same subject. Basically, there were as offering the possibility to run the route Working with this art project began running. Distance running has been a two parallel operations, the academic with me. to disentangle the difficult concepts of focal part of sports since the beginning and the artistic, without an articulated For me, The Attempt to Run Helsin- art and sport. At the beginning of the of modern sports, and as a practice it connection. The written research aimed ki was the most satisfying of the works research, my understanding about the has also a preceding history without a to provide some comprehension of the in the exhibition, as it contained the direction it should take was vague. My reference to sport as we understand it. questions I would be exploring, and the physical act of running, but avoided the blurred understanding formed the most Moreover, the popularity of recreational artistic work aimed to produce other traditional representations of sport. I was important reason to carry out the first art running has grown steadily since the early kinds of knowledge: nonverbal, experien- also pleased with the various connotations project in the early stages of the research. 1970s. Parallel to this growing popularity, tial and holistic insight into the subject. for Finnish sport history, and contempo- When I could not see the path I should running has undergone all the significant Once I had started to work with the first rary recreational running in general, that follow in the academic research, I hoped transformations that have affected our art project, I gradually began to realize were touched upon in the work. that the artistic work would point the understanding about sports in general. In the complexity of combining art and direction. Or, at least, that I would get my research, distance running represents, academic research. Firstly, I found (the some results to then continue with the at least on a metaphoric level, all sports. self-evident truth) that the artistic work academic research. Before the art project, Another aspect of my work that could not be free, and that the academic I had explored the areas of my research became clearer through the art project work was also not without constrains; without really understanding how to was the idea of utilizing the participant’s when connected by the same questions limit the ever expanding domain of the point of view, which would give me a and executed by the same person, the research, and how to identify the aspects unique perspective on both art and sport. two practices were dependent on each of art and sport relevant to my work. Much of the research about art and sport other. All the academic work done would Even though the starting point of the takes the spectator’s point of view. During have an effect on artistic work and vice artistic work was not completely ana- the project, I found that my interest is versa. The relationship is not straight- lyzed, working with the project and the inclined to the individual artist’s and forward, either; it is not easy to isolate exhibition broke through some frustrat- athlete’s experience – what art and sport the single features that have affected the ing barriers that had hindered me from look like when they are viewed and felt other practice and discern how they did advancing the research. Firstly, I found from the active participant’s or maker’s so. When analyzing the first art project, a solution to my problem with defining side. Obtaining an understanding of the I ended up with a general conception of sport. Sport generally is just too wide insider’s view is possible only if one has the relationship between the dissenting and multifaceted a concept, so defining personal experiences of the practice in practices; the process between academ- what sport means in the context of my question. As an artist, I had experienc- ic and artistic work is like pushing and study had been impossible. I was drifting es of making art, and by utilizing my pulling in different directions, or steering in the midst of all possible sports with running habit for the research I would the other practice slightly away from its their different rules and cultures, and obtain at least a reasonable understanding previous course. This constant wrestling that caused a clear intellectual problem; of today’s recreational distance running between the two parts of the research was when talking about sport in general, it practice. revealed to me during the first art project, is always possible to refute an argument and each successive art project continued

40 41 On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art •1 to clarify my comprehension of their 2000s were quite doubtful about the pos- them.11 in general, and employ the results of the relationship. sibilities of combining art and traditional All of these textual and artistic con- artistic work in the written part of the Despite the fact that artistic research is academic research. However, combining tributions to the theoretical and practical dissertation. The relationship between already an established practice, everyone art and some other approach to research sides of artistic research have assisted me the written research and the artistic ele- engaging in a research project incorpo- was seen as a possibility for artistic in establishing my conception of combin- ment varies according to the institution rating artistic elements has to define her practice. These texts include books and ing art and research, even though I have where the work is conducted; however, own relationship to the existing forms articles by Jyrki Siukonen7, Mika Han- not always agreed with the views present- the combination of artistic work and a and methods used in it. My perspective nula, Tere Wadén, and Juha Suoranta8, ed. Additional instructions for combining written report is universal. The method of on the combination of art, artistic work, as well as articles by various authors9. In artistic projects with my research came combining the artistic work and written and research has been shaped essentially addition, I have to mention various texts from the regulations of Aalto University’s research varies. The written report can by the Finnish discussion about artistic and works by Lauri Anttila10 that have School of Art, Design and Architecture emphasize the questions of the artistic research and its practical applications affected my conception of artistic practice concerning dissertations incorporating working process, or employ the artistic in different contexts. In addition, the as inquiry. The texts dealing with artistic artistic elements. The regulations state process or the finished works in address- international discussion about the posi- research outside Finland have concentrat- that “a written thesis forming a part of ing issues outside art, or even in analyzing tion of artistic research in the academic ed both on theorizing the already estab- the dissertation has to be in a dialogic and the reception of the artworks.13 world and its methodology has been lished practice, and describing various analytic relation to the art productions Some of the texts about artistic important in constructing my views. practical approaches. In addition, several or product development project, and the research were familiar to me when I start- Outside the Finnish context, I have been articles published in the Journal of Artistic doctoral candidate has to present in it the ed my research, and I read others during especially influenced by the discussion Research have contributed to my views on targets, methods and findings of the pro- the course of my research. At the time of about English, American, and Australian artistic research. duction, series of productions or product the first artistic project, I had a rudimen- schooling systems and artistic work as a The other strand the discussion has development project.”12 In practice, the tary conception of how to integrate artis- part of the doctoral dissertations in their generated is a part of the practical artistic regulating effect is mild: the author has to tic projects into the research as a whole. universities. Furthermore, my view is research done in the Finnish art univer- be able to show that the art projects deal The foundations of these conceptions that there has been in two parallel strands sities. Those doctoral dissertations that with the same questions as the research were later proven to have been adequate, of discourse in artistic research. Firstly, have incorporated artistic projects have 11 Dissertations: but a more detailed conceptualization of there have been the theoretical texts that shown me the practical possibilities of Kantonen 2005, Karhu 2013, Mäkelä 2003, Mäki artistic research has, in my case, naturally attempt to outline the ideas, methods, intertwining art and various research 2005, Pälviranta 2012, Suonpää 2002, Turpeinen developed over the life of the project. The and practices of combining art and traditions. These include finished disser- 2005, Weckman 2005, Ziegler 2010. idea of incorporating three artistic proj- research into artistic research, both within tations from Aalto University’s School Conferences: ects, presented as exhibitions and dealing The Art of Research: Processes, Results and Contri- an academic setting and outside it, in the of Art, Design and Architecture (and its with different aspects of sport, remained butions,in University of Art and Design Helsinki, practices of individual artists. Secondly, predecessor, the University of Art and 24.-25.11.2009. Arts in Society, in Berlin-Braden- constant, but the balance between the there are the results of artistic research Design Helsinki), the Academy of Fine burg Academy of Sciences and Humanities, Ber- importance of the finished works and the carried out at various universities, usually Arts, and various studies I was familiar- lin 9.-11.5.2011.Symposion: Artistic Research and artistic work changed during the course in the form of doctoral dissertations. ized with in seminars, conferences, and Contemporary Art, in Aalto University Scool of Art of the research. The artworks grew less Most of the texts in the first catego- especially in exhibitions connected to and Design 14.-16.3.2011. Cumulus Helsinki 2012 important to me, even though they could Conference, in Aalto University 24.-26.5.2012. ry of discourse originate from the early convey my artistic ideas to the audience, 7 Siukonen 2002. 2000s; the earliest I have been acquainted 12 Aalto University school of Arts, Design and the process of creating the concepts with is “Research in Art and Design” by 8 Hannula, Suoranta and Vadén 2003. and Architecture. Doctoral Dissertation Instruc- for the artworks became more important. tions 19.9.2012, https://into.aalto.fi/download/ Christopher Frayling6. The texts deal- 9 For instance in: Kiljunen and Hannula The actual construction of the artworks attachments/1021782/Aalto_ARTS_Dissertation_ 2001 and Mäkelä and Routarinne 2007. ing with the Finnish context from early Instructions_19092012.pdf?version=1&modifi- 10 For instance: Anttila1994 and Anttila cationDate=1359464578000&api=v2, accessed 13 For instance: Mäkelä 2003, Turpeinen 6 Frayling 1993. 2003. 26.4.2014. 2005, Pälviranta 2012.

42 43 On the Run – Running as the Subject of Art & the Means of Making Art •1 was not important for the study, but the route, the thinking process that began from the academic part of the research and lead to the artworks, contributed most to the research as a whole. However, discovering how the relationship between artistic and academic work is shaped in my research did not make the finished artworks and their exhibitions irrelevant. On the contrary, the artworks were presented in order to convey the visual results of my thinking processes to the viewers. Naturally, they do not contain everything that has passed in my mind, but the remains of a significant part of it. I hope that the artworks would communicate my ideas about the potential of combining art and sport to the exhibition visitors. Additionally, it is important that the works can be enjoyed outside the research context. This is despite the fact that, in the research context, the finished artworks are subservient to the preceding artistic work; the artworks should be strong enough to be appreciated as contemporary art without a previous knowledge about their research context.

44 45 2 • Practices, History and the Changing Meanings

46 47 Practices, History and the Changing Meanings • 2

My artworks, and the manner in which they were exhibited in an art gallery, belong to the conventional artistic practice of our contemporary culture. In our current society, artworks are made by professional artists and are exhibited in specialized spaces usually open to everyone. People visit these spaces to pay special attention to the artworks, and they discuss them using vocabulary that varies from mundane expressions to specialized jargon. Artists are appreciated for their vision, creativity, and skills. Professional critics evaluate the exhibitions and write reviews for newspapers and magazines. Scholarly books are written about, and academic research carried out on, various aspects of art. In addition to these other specialists, artist themselves take part in the discussion about art. Museums buy artworks for their collections in order to preserve them for later generations, and to exhibit them on various occasions. Private collectors also buy art for their own enjoyment. Correspondingly, the habit of running long distances, which formed the subject of the first art project, is a normal part of everyday life in early twenty-first century Finland and other affluent countries. People of all ages engage in the running habit and other exercises in their leisure time. Many of them practice several times a week and participate in organized races. Various training guides are sold in bookstores and found on the internet. Ever more efficient training programs are generated based on the latest scientific knowledge. The best distance runners represent their countries in international championships, and the results are reported in newspapers. Sport pages are an essential part of a proper newspaper, and sport results are also reported in conjunction with the television news reports. The approximate length of the marathon is part of general knowledge. A successful athlete can earn her living through sport, and easily becomes at least a national celebrity. The most successful ones are household names around the world. Both art and sport are an inseparable part of our culture and even everyday life, but has it always been like that? The objective of this chapter is to explore the historical formation of art and sport as cultural practices. From today’s perspective, both art and sport look like things that have always existed. There are museums full of artworks hundreds of years old; there are cave paintings that show us prehistoric art. Depictions of different sports and games are found in almost every organized culture in the world. Today’s Olympic Games are a continuum of the sport contests of the classical Greek culture.

48 49 Practices, History and the Changing Meanings • 2

Is it really so, or is this seemingly eternal there have not been fundamental changes its ur-art. According to Levinson, today’s the preceding tradition. Carroll propos- nature of art and sport only mirroring our in the foundations of art, even though concept of an artwork cannot be anything es three main strategies for estimating contemporary views of the past? the surrounding world and society have but historical; its qualities and the habits whether the new object is art or not. They These ambivalent views on the con- undergone radical changes. According to of its appreciation are built upon all the are repetition, amplification, and repudi- nection between the past and present of this view, the evolutionary basis of art is preceding works of art. However, the ation of the tradition: a new object can art and sport result from contradictory visible in our aesthetic preferences. At the historical nature of art does not constrain be classified as an artwork if it continues notions about the various human prac- beginning of his book The Art Instinct, the advance of future art: an artwork the tradition, intensifies it or rejects it. tices that comprise culture. One view- Dutton describes the art project can be consciously made in revolution- The first two options are quite straight- point is to see these human practices as People’s Choice by Russian-born artists ary form, seemingly breaking the ties forward in their relation to the preceding eternal concepts that have existed since Vitaly Komar and Alexander Melamid. to preceding art, but still with a covert art, but when repudiating the tradition the beginning of humanity and have The artists organized nationwide polls intention to regard the object in a similar the artwork needs to oppose it in such a been formed as a part of the evolutionary in various countries in order to find the manner as artworks have been regarded manner that is in a logical relation to the process. Another approach is to see these most and the least preferred painting in in the past. Or, the revolutionary art- past forms of the tradition.19 activities and their meaning in current the countries included in the project. The work can be intended to be regarded in Both Levison’s and Carroll’s historical society as at least partially connected. result of the People’s Choice project was ways that are in contrast with or arrayed views on art deviate from the evolution- Even if the concrete activity itself stays a series of remarkably similar paintings against past ways of regarding art, howev- ary viewpoint by establishing a continu- similar, its meaning will change depen- representing a landscape with trees and er still in relation to them.16 ity from the perspective of today’s art, dent on the surrounding society. In this open areas, water, human figures, and Noël Carroll promotes a similar his- instead of explaining our art through case, any interpretation of the cultural animals. Dutton connects this similarity torical vantage point in defining art, but preferences developed during evolution. practices as permanent conditions is of the paintings to the innate aesthetic instead of examining artworks he exam- However, there is a major difference futile. A simple example can be found in preferences of human nature, and to the ines art as a cultural practice: “a complex between the two historical views: Carroll’s running; it carries different meanings if it universal roots of the human race in the body of interrelated human activities gov- concept about art’s formation includes a is observed as a mundane means for trav- landscapes of East Africa, where the first erned by reasons internal to those forms social practice, an artworld, while Levin- eling over distances when other transpor- hominids appeared.15 This is the starting of activity and to their coordination.”17 son’s approach denies its relevance. In tation is not available, or as a fashionable point for a more complex elaboration of According to Carroll, the practice of fact, Levinson openly opposes the idea of exercise for those who do their mundane the theme, but it makes the idea clear: the making, presenting and perceiving special the artworld, and states that regarding an traveling by car. deepest aesthetic preferences are inherited objects (and performances) emphasizes object as an artwork depends more on the The evolutionary concept of art has from the distant past, and the surround- continuity: behind every artwork there is intention to regard it as an artwork by a been advocated, for instance, by Ellen ing culture cannot change them. a foundation, a narrative, formed by the person who has the proprietary rights to Dissanayake and Dennis Dutton.14 This Another alternative is to look at the tradition: the customs of art practice. In make such an evaluation. Carroll in turn conception emphasizes the invariable historical formation of art from the addition to the support of tradition, the does not especially advocate the idea of features in art, and denies the effect of perspective of the current understanding practice provides the means for dealing the artworld, but implicitly acknowledges the habits and values of the surrounding of art. Jerrold Levinson has taken this with the inevitable self-transformations its relevance in admitting a new object as society on the deep core of art and artistic path, and looked at artworks from today’s and expansions. Instead of acting as a work of art.20 preferences, emphasizing instead the per- perspective. Levinson sees art forming confining rules, these means are “ratio- The common problem with both manent and stable features of art. Accord- a definite narrative: all artworks are nal strategies”18 that are used to estimate approaches in projecting the idea of art ing to the evolutionary view, the desire dependent on a previous understanding the relation of a new kind of artwork to backwards in time from the contempo- for making art, and an appetite for it, has of similar objects and events, and ways rary situation is that they overlook the 16 Levinson 2004 (1979), 36 section III, existed since the dawn of humanity, and of appreciating them. This line of inheri- 40-41 section VI. tance goes back to the prehistoric age and 19 Carroll 1988, 144-147. 17 Carroll 1988, 143. 14 For instance, Dissanayakae 1992 and 20 Levinson 2004 (1979), 35,38. Carroll Dutton 2009. 15 Dutton 2009, 13-14, 18-19. 18 Carroll 1988, 145. 1988, 149-150.

50 51 Practices, History and the Changing Meanings • 2 prevailing conception of art during each to see the objects or events proposed as surrounding culture. The latter is present My view, employed in this chapter, historical period by only concentrating artworks as a part of the artworld – and in the compromise that is made for the is that the basic skills related to aesthetic on the current reception of the artworks. eventually as art. Danto’s view is that the development of art: historical develop- activities and the production of objects The approaches are helpful in defining artworld is a parallel reality within the ment makes it possible to see new kind of that generate aesthetic interest, as well as today’s art, and are even accepting of the regular world, and its existence makes it objects as art. the human interest in aesthetic matters, idea of art as a changing practice. Howev- possible for art to emerge and for art- Another way to view the development originate in the distant past, but they er, in emphasizing continuity they do not works to be different from real objects.23 of art is to emphasize the effect of the have developed and transformed through observe the historicity of the conception Danto’s conception of the develop- surrounding society. This view does not other mechanisms than evolutionary pro- of art. When the focus is placed on the ment of art is significantly affected by the see any cultural practices as permanent, cess. Contemporary aesthetic preferences specific historical conceptions of those rupture in art practice during the early but rather as results of the surrounding have developed from preceding aesthetic practices that are today classified as art, it 1960s, represented especially by the Brillo society. In the case of art, the activities practices and their ideals. A correspond- is obvious that there exists no universally Boxes by Andy Warhol. The plywood connected to artistic work today, such as ing transformation of the system and its valid idea about art that forms a narrative, boxes in Warhol’s work bear a remarkable painting and sculpture, have remained meanings have taken place in physical but rather a succession of various prac similarity to the real life cardboard boxes relatively unaltered as physical acts of cre- practice too – the basic urge to move and tices that include similar practical activi- used to pack Brillo pads. The similarity ation, and even the results of the practical enjoy physical activity has an evolution- ties that are present in the art of our time. of real life objects and artworks confused work (the paintings and sculptures) form ary background, but the meaning of these One has to separate two different lines of Danto, and induced him to generate a continuum from a distant past. Howev- physical activities has evolved throughout thought here: the relationship between his philosophy of art in the book The er, their meaning and position in society history, hand in hand with the surround- artworks executed in different historical Transfiguration of Commonplace. Because have undergone many changes. Certainly ing society and its culture, producing the (and prehistoric) periods, and the con- artworks and real things cannot be the historical products of painters and current concept of sport. For instance, ception of the category of art at different recognized through sight alone, artworks sculptors have an effect on current art, the sociologist of sport Henning Eichberg times.21 have to have a quality that makes them but change in the conception of art is suggests that the development of modern Arthur C. Danto’s approach to the different. The historical development of inevitable. There have been radical sport, the currently dominant physical development of art combines the essential art alone cannot answer the question; an changes in categorizing art within other culture, has arisen from a continuum and historical viewpoints: he sees that artistic theory is required to make the cultural practices, as well as the status of of various physical cultures, rather than there have to be common discernible difference. Danto proposes that the cen- artworks and artists. Preben Mortensen through the uninterrupted existence of features in all artworks, and at same time tral aspect of art is posing the question: and Larry Shiner, for instance, advocate one particular sport.26 there are historical reasons why some art- what is art - thus always providing new this view, at least in connection with the How are the changing conceptions works could not have been art in previous solutions to the problem. The other part emergence of the current conception of art and sport manifested during the times. His conception of history admits of Danto’s proposal, the knowledge of the of art.25 historical narrative of practices? Although that the conception of art has changed historical development of art, is used to Differences in the understanding of it is impossible to completely understand over time, and that artworks have make the question possible.24 the nature of art can also result from how these practices appeared at any spe- developed as well, however art itself has The problem with Danto’s approach different vantage points: one convention cific historical time, formulating targeted remained unchangeable.22 The essence is its indifference to specific historical is to look at the results of art practice: questions about their historical compre- of art is not visible to the eye; in order contexts, and his obsession in incorpo- traditionally paintings and sculptures, hension may illuminate the transforma- to distinguish a work of art one needs rating contemporary art into the entire and look for the similarities between tion that has taken place: how did the an understanding of artistic theory and narrative of art. The first is visible in his them over time, and the other way is to Greeks understand the ancient sculptures knowledge of the history of art. When a striving for the preservation of the essence look at the organization of the practices and images in their own time? What was person fulfills these conditions, she is able of art, despite the transformation of the that produce these artifacts and to look the comprehension of a medieval Parisian for variation in the practices over time. about the decorations in the Notre-Dame 21 Mortensen 1997, 28. 23 Danto 1964, 580-582. 22 Danto 1997, 95. 24 Danto 1981, 45, 62, 63, 65. 25 Mortensen 1997, 7. Shiner 2001, 19. 26 Eichberg 2009, 86.

52 53 Practices, History and the Changing Meanings • 2

Cathedral? Or, how did the locals talk past habits of appreciating paintings and or creating a crude image? and its interaction with the environment. about Michelangelo’s new frescoes in sculptures or physical excellence deviated John Dewey attempted to form a The human body and the environment the Sistine Chapel in Rome? What did from our comprehension – if any special- plausible explanation for the transforma- are intertwined in various ways: the body the artists think about their professions ized routine existed at all. Corresponding- tion from concrete practice to the abstract has adapted to the environment through in those days? What kinds of critiques ly, the forms for presenting the activities level. His example shows how the tran- evolution, and because of its adapta- were written about Vermeer’s Girl with a or their results were not detached from sition from primitive counting to more tion to certain environments it can act Pearl Earring? What was important for an other cultural activities, as they are in abstract mathematics takes place. Mathe- competently in them. Lakoff and John- athlete, who was just about to compete in our times. Generally, the neatly defined matical ideas stay concrete when they are son use the development of vision as an running the dolikhos – about 4800 meters taxonomy of separate cultural practices utilized for counting livestock or measur- example of the complicated relationship – at the stadium of Olympia? What was did not exist before modern times; the ing land or selling goods. The means and between a human and her environment: the audience expecting? What kinds of further we travel back into history, the ends are simultaneously visible. Mathe- for instance, there are no actual “colors” running competitions were arranged in more cultural activities form inseparable matics turns abstract when the operations in our environment that we could per- the Roman Empire? Who was the most parts of the general, nebulous concept of are freed from practical applications, ceive. The retinal cones in human eyes are successful distance runner in the eigh- culture. when the operations are used to calcu- sensitive to a certain range of wavelengths teenth century? late relations between symbols instead of light. Our eyes perceive the high-, Some of these questions can be of everyday affairs.27 In addition to the medium- and low-frequency light that answered, but the answers would be quite mathematical analogy, Dewey uses a is reflected from objects within the field different from the answers from our own mountain metaphor to describe the devel- of vision. The different colors resulting time. Some of the questions cannot be Practices as opment of a refined, abstract practice that from the varying wavelengths of light answered, because they reflect contempo- is seemingly cut loose from its connection do not turn into colors in our eyes, but rary notions of art and sport that did not Carriers of to its original uses. Mountain peaks do rather the sensation of colors are formed exist until quite recently. The activities not float unsupported even though clouds through complex neural mechanisms in themselves, for example painting and Meanings may conceal their lower slopes: despite our brains. Our ability to perceive colors sculpture, running and playing games, the confusing view, the mountains rest on is embodied. The observed color red is that form the core of today’s art and the earth and are made of the same lowly formed as a combination of our physio- sport have been around since the dawn Today’s art and sport are loaded with material.28 logical properties - the retinal cones and of humanity, but the variation in their various meanings: they are more than Closer to today, Lakoff and John- neural circuitry - and our conceptual abil- meaning before present times has been just practices of making images represent- son have approached the connection of ity, that gives meaning to the color red. great. The contemporary conception of ing the seen world, or discharging excess human activities and meanings from The color system of our vision is limited, art and sport has been developed over a physical energy. Even though the con- the perspective of the cognitive sciences. but it is adapted to our living environ- relatively short period – during the last temporary practices of art and sport form Like Dewey, their starting point is the ment, allowing us to be competent actors 250 years. These practices, as we know autonomous branches within today’s bodily existence of human beings. Lakoff in it; we can discern the green of plants in them, are fundamentally modern, and culture, they are reciprocally connected and Johnson believe that meanings are order to find food and shelter, as well as even though similarities with historical with other cultural practices, and the based on the composition of the human the red of blood, the blue in the sky, and practices can be found, the surrounding meanings connected to them are used body, formed through the processes the yellow in the sun.29 circumstances have been radically differ- widely. How is it possible for such basic of evolution, and its contact with the Furthermore, there are other ways our ent, and have affected the context and human activities to bear more abstract environment, and that human thought is bodily composition makes us competent meaning of those practices that are today meanings? How can running to the next completely embodied. All of our thinking actors in the world: our vision is accu- understood as the distinct domains of village or smearing colored earth onto a is the result of human bodily composition rate enough to perceive the differences art and sport. The effect of these differ- surface convey a deeper interpretation between objects, animals, and fellow ences in conception is naturally wider; than just moving from place A to place B, 27 Dewey 1929, 153-155. 28 Dewey 2005 (1934), 2. 29 Lakoff and Johnson 1999, 17, 23-25.

54 55 Practices, History and the Changing Meanings • 2 humans. We compare the locations and metaphorically rich parts of our culture. activity is connected, they take an utterly similar system, and thus the notion of movement of objects and organisms with Prehistoric art did not form a distinct different form from their modern coun- art or sport that developed during the our own, and use these comparisons to cultural practice, but served concrete terparts. For instance, in art pioneering nineteenth century. explain the situation to others. We can purposes, while contemporary art forms a ideas existed33, but a widespread concep- manipulate objects in the world in order separate practice and its connections with tion about art as it is understood today to obtain knowledge about them. Most of the practical everyday activities are still was absent: a generally accepted idea of our bodily activities produce foundational somewhat intermittent. Equally, sport an independent realm of art was missing, knowledge about the world, and provide was firstly an extension of daily tasks, if and as a consequence of its absence, there The Role of tools for building more developed and there were energies left for unproductive existed no separate concept of the artist. abstract meanings.30 play. Later, the practical task and free The works of art were not autonomous Paradigms In addition to the complex relation- play developed into a system that orga- objects, but dependent on their context ship between human beings and the nized excess energies in a meaningful, and restrictions specified in the commis- shaping of meanings in contact with but abstract way. Today, sport is a highly sion. In addition, the special vocabulary In his book The Structure of Scientific the environment, Lakoff and Johnson organized practice with a deep-seated for aesthetics or critique had not matured Revolutions Thomas S. Kuhn traces the suggest that our actions in physical and structure of meanings. The sport you yet either, not to mention the organized development of scientific thinking and social environments form the foundation are interested in defines who you are. institutions for supporting art.34 practice through the history of physics for all important meanings, which are Engaging in a sport practice can make The circumstances of past physical and chemistry and the great scientific par- conceived of as metaphors. Our physical you a better person or at least a better cultures are similar to those of art in past adigm shifts: the Copernican, Newtonian, composition and sensorimotor system, employee. Sport success is important for cultures; the activities preceding mod- chemical, and Einsteinian revolutions.36 combined with subjective experiences in the national spirit, even today. There is ern sport lack many of the features that All these paradigm shifts have emerged as early childhood, form embodied paths only a little left of the original basis as an make today’s sport a unique practice. sudden revolutions, and made profound of thinking that can be verbalized as extension of daily work. Even though the physical practice and changes to the way we understand the metaphors. “More Is Up”, “Knowing Is Art as we know it is built on the pre- the competitive events in modern sport world. It is hard for us to imagine the Seeing” and other similar metaphors have vious “arts”, even though the visibility of resemble many historical physical prac- comprehension of the world when it was taken a physiological form in our neural this connection is limited. There are no tices, as well as those in physical cultures believed that the earth was the center of system, because of common everyday real breaks between current and preceding outside European culture, it is utterly a circumscribed universe, or when the childhood experiences. These metaphors practices, but the understanding about art different from those because of its unique understanding of physics was more a are imprinted in our bodies; they form and its meaning has changed many times. features and organization. The main matter of trial and error than calculation, the basis for building more complex com- When historical art is looked at from disparity between modern sport and its or when air was thought to consist of a binations of metaphors that are required today’s perspective, it can be recognized predecessors is in the organization and single simple gas. Today, even though it is for thinking and acting in the world.31 as art, but the original meaning is difficult system.35 Considering both art and sport, extremely difficult to understand Ein- The emergence of complex mean- if not impossible to capture.32 Sport does it is significant that the existence of a sin- stein’s theories about relativity, they still ings growing from bodily existence and not form a similar continuum as art, but gle manifestation that bears resemblance affect our view of the world. abilities, and taking the form of practical its formation as a combination of previ- to today’s art or sport does not lead to a Drawing a parallel from the devel- tasks and culturally defined practices, ous physical activities can be traced. opment of science to the emergence can be seen as similar to the formation At a general level of activity and oper- 33 For instance, Leon Battista Alberti: of modern conceptions about art and of meanings within art and sport. Simple ations, many historical examples of art, De Pictura (On Painting, 1435) and Giorgio sport, it is nearly impossible to really actions grow to become complex and and sometimes also sport, seem similar Vasari: Le Vite de’ più eccellenti pittori, scultori, ed understand how art was before its current architettori (Lives of the Most Eminent Painters, to their modern counterparts, but when organization, or comprehend a world Sculptors, and Architects,1550). 30 Lakoff and Johnson 1999, 27-28, focusing on the system to which the without a contemporary concept for 30-31, 36. 34 Shiner 2001 5-7. Kristeller 1951. 31 Lakoff and Johnson 1999, 45-48. 32 Mortensen 1997, 7. 35 Guttmann 1978, 54-55. 36 Kuhn 1996, 66.

56 57 Practices, History and the Changing Meanings • 2 sport. Applying Kuhn’s paradigms to the prevalent tacit knowledge.40 The specific them has promoted a different under- of the discourse and unspoken knowl- development of art and sport can pro- examples, artworks of new kind, then standing about the meaning and the edge about them. These systems are not vide some more understanding about the induce a shift in the understanding about purpose for the physical activity. In the equal to paradigms, but the changes in changes that were needed for the emer- art within the art-community. These European culture there have been only a the systems can be seen as the results of a gence of today’s notion of art and sport. changes in the understanding of art make few comprehensive physical cultures that paradigm shift. When the understanding Simo Säätelä applies Kuhn’s idea about it possible to see the new types of works have affected more than just unconnected of a practice transforms, the framework in paradigms to art, in order to shed light as art, and thus transform the paradigm groups. The sport world of ancient Greece which it is located also changes, and vice on the emergence of modern art.37 In a of art.41 Unlike in science, a new para- was the first one, followed by a long break versa. similar tone, Henning Eichberg refers to digm of art does not annul the results of before the emergence of gymnastics in An early attempt to deal with the role modern sport as a dominant paradigm the preceding paradigm, the artworks, the eighteenth century. During the time of systems in the development of art has within today’s physical cultures.38 These but makes the habits of action behind the between these organized physical cultures, been made by Paul Oskar Kristeller in attempts to apply Kuhnian terminolo- artworks futile. The paradigm change in there existed various physical practices his article “The Modern System of the gy outside the realm of science may be physical practices is somewhat different; connected with practical skills: for exam- Arts: A Study in the History of Aesthet- slightly tenuous, but I have found them the practice, for instance of running, stays ple, fencing was important for defending ics”.42 The article outlines the quite recent useful in supporting ideas about the predominantly the same, but its objec- oneself, and running couriers were need- formation of art as a separate institution, development of systems of art, as well as tives, and consequently its meaning, shift. ed for carrying urgent messages, but none which transformed art from one of the providing an explanation for the radical For instance, the objectives of modern of them formed a systematic physical cul- crafts to the practice we know. Kristeller changes that took place in the context of competitive running were different from ture detached from the practical context. describes how the arts did not form a the emergence of modern sport. the previous uses of running as transpor- The gymnastics system that originated definite practice before the eighteenth The difference between science and tation, and today’s recreational running in German speaking continental Europe century.43 Kristeller analyzes various non-science cannot be found in the sub- forms a different paradigm from compet- during the eighteenth century formed aspects in the organization and institu- ject of study, but from differences in com- itive running, even though the changes the first coherent paradigm of physical tionalization of arts, starting from classi- munication and education. The develop- in the physical process of running are culture since antiquity. Gymnastics was fying arts to collecting and presenting art, ment of other communities can follow practically nonexistent. the dominant physical culture until the as well as to interpreting and appreciating a paradigmatic structure that is parallel, My view is that that the development (so far) latest paradigm shift took place as art, and explains how these practices but not similar to, the one discernible in of art, as well as sport, resembles the modern sport replaced gymnastics by the associated with the actual artistic work science.39 Säätelä replaces the concepts paradigmatic development of science end of the nineteenth century. improved the organization of arts, until of communication and education with according to Thomas S. Kuhn’s theory: the emergence of the modern system of those of discourse and unspoken knowl- they seem to have a similar paradigmatic arts.44 edge within the artworld. He approaches structure, which means that there have More recently, Larry Shiner continued the question of paradigm changes in art been abrupt changes in the inner compre- to investigate the development of systems through the reception of artworks – some hension of the practices. Art and Sport of art in his book The Invention of Art: A new types of artworks can be seen as The history of physical practices is Cultural History. Shiner’s account analyzes anomalies that bring the current “nor- more fragmentary; there is no distinct as Systems the emergence of system of art from a mal art” to a crisis point, and further to succession of developing practices as similar starting point as Kristeller’s, but a revolution in art. This happens when there is in science or art. Instead, various instead of stopping with the emergence the current discourse has no tools to deal physical cultures have existed before the A slightly different approach to the of the modern system of art Shiner with works that do not conform to the emergence of modern sport, and each of emergence of the modern concepts of 42 Originally published in two parts: art and sport is to focus on their organi- 37 Säätelä 1988, 6. Kristeller 1951 and Kristeller 1952. 40 Säätelä 1988, 160-162. Also Becker zation, their systems, through their ways 38 Eichberg 1995 b, 31. 2008 (1982), 304-305. of working and support systems instead 43 Kristeller 1951, 498. 39 Säätelä 1988, 16-17. 41 Säätelä 1988, 166. 44 Kristeller 1951 and 1952.

58 59 Practices, History and the Changing Meanings • 2 continues further towards today’s situ- after the fall of the Roman Empire caused Together, these practices formed a solid ation.45 Shiner’s key concept in tracing a long intermission in the development of foundation for the current, all-pervasive, the formation of art is to focus on the organized physical cultures. In addition, physical culture. separation of art and craft; how a nebu- the development of sport took place in In the following chapter, my approach lous group of skill-based human practices a significantly smaller region than the is to look for parallels between the cultur- was separated into art and crafts, which development of art. However, the crucial al histories of art and sport by adapting were later presented as contrasting cate- developments during the seventeenth the ideas about the development of art gories. Shiner emphasizes the connection and eighteenth centuries that lead to the practice to sport. Despite the differences between the state of society in various modern concept of sport are a part of the in their general histories, the emergence historical periods, and is openly critical same transformation of societies that also of modern sport has a comparable towards the tendency to project contem- produced the modern concept of art, and structure to the development the modern porary ideals about the status of art and more generally modern European culture conception of art. The background devel- crafts, artists, and artisans into a totally as a whole.48 opment to both transitions are the same; different situation and world view.46 The traditional, local and unsystemat- the secularization of culture, together Preben Mortensen approaches the ic physical cultures began to be organized with scientific revolutions and the dif- emergence of our conception of art from into a coherent system through the emer- ferentiation of cultural practices. During a somewhat different angle. Instead of gence of gymnastics in the nineteenth their later development, the configuration following the historical development century. In the late nineteenth century, of modern sport and the second system of that led to our understanding of art, the continental practice of gymnastics was art also formed parallel systems. Research he probes various habits of action that surpassed by English competitive sport, about the cultural history of sport, as firstly prevent us from seeing the differ- which was the prevalent physical culture well as the sociology of sport, is used to ence between today’s notion of art and in the twentieth century. Gymnastics and focus attention on special details in the preceding circumstances, and secondly sport had similarities in their details, but development of sport, as it has a different explicates the changes in behavior and their core ideas were profoundly different: structure than art. thought that assisted in the emergence in gymnastics, the primary objective was In this part of the study, I focus on of the modern conception of art. While performing the exercise correctly accord- the typical aspects in the changes of the Shiner emphasizes the practical changes ing to the program, whereas in sport, the practices of art and sport on their way that have taken place in the context of target was striving for better achievement towards contemporary practices, not only making artworks, Mortensen´s study within the limits of the rules. In spite of the extraordinary details and revolution- focuses on the changes in society, as well these differences, both practices played ary turns within the practices. My interest as changes in the conception of individual a central role in the development of lies in that part of the development that is humanity, that made it possible for art to contemporary sport culture. Gymnastics usually left in the shadow of the greatest ascend into a special position in Europe- introduced the idea of a regular training examples of art or the records in sport: an culture.47 program, and promoted the benefits of changes in everyday practices. The development of sport corresponds exercise for general health and well-be- to the evolution of art, although it is ing. The emergence of modern sport more fragmentary and sporadic than that brought the development of written rules, of art, especially as the rise of Christianity and introduced the ideas of comparable records, fair play, and amateur sport. 45 Shiner 2001. 46 For instance Shiner 2001, 31-33, 34. 48 Elias 1986, 27-30. Mortensen 1997, 47 Mortensen 1997. 72-74.

60 61 3 • The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport

62 63 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3

The English word art is an ambiguous one; it can refer to a vast repertoire of human skills, and products as well. According to Shiner, the ambiguity of language forms the major defect in understanding the development of art, fundamentally in the word art itself. When something is named art, it is difficult to separate if the matter concerns a skill or art as a laudatory category - as we know it. Originally the opposite of art (as a skill) was nature, not art (as a creative category) as opposite to craft, as it is in modernity and even today. Originally the question “Is it art?” was understood “Is it a human product?” as opposed to a natural product. Today the question is understood as a doubt about the product belonging to the category of fine art.49 In addition to the linguistic ambiguity concerning the word art, the cultural category of art has an ambiguous nature: our common conception of it incorporates only the art that has emerged from European tradition, ignoring the conceptions used in other cultures.50 The contemporary notion of the special and elevated category of art is a result from the long development of European culture. Shiner and Kristeller approach the position of arts in various social systems, from ancient Greece to today’s Europe, by a couple of central means. The first is figuring out how arts (today visual/fine arts, music, literature and theatre) are grouped together with other activities in current social systems. The arts’ position within other activities illustrates its connections, and thus its value or rank in a society. When poetry, music, and visual arts have not been grouped together, they have not been understood as similar activities. For instance, when music is connected with geometry and astronomy it is understood as an activity close to the mathematics – different from sculpture, because the latter is connected with carpentry and other crafts. Parallel to the analysis of the separation of art and crafts and the final formation of the concept of art, the formation and clarification of the modern intellectual sphere of sciences and humanities is described. The accounts outline a slow but accelerating shift towards the modern differentiation of cultural practices. The changes in the conception of the artist’s characteristics are the second indicator Shiner uses to trace art’s position in society. He sees an ideal artist in the modern system as an imaginative, original, and autonomous subject, and contrasts these features

49 Shiner 2001, 5. 50 Mortensen 1997, 2.

64 65 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 with others ascribed to painters, sculp- and hunting. Even fishing can be a sport. Olympics to modern sport, rather than as post-sports, unofficial sports, extreme tors, poets, and musicians in earlier Even though modern sport is today critically examining the formation of sports, alternative sports, lifestyle sports, times.51 understood as the core of sport, the vari- the various physical cultures in Europe- new sports, or new games. My choice is The third indicator for the develop- ety of activities included in the concept an history. Even though the trend has to operate with a general notion of physi- ment of art which Shiner uses is the state of sport is vast. There are sports that can been to emphasize the continuity and cal culture that consists of several differ- of the institutional organization of the be judged by quantitative methods, by tradition of sport, there are scholars who ent practices: modern sport is the tradition arts. This also includes the level of aes- measuring and counting, or by qualitative stress the changes in the comprehension of competitive sports beginning in the thetic appreciation of art. The changes in methods, by the human eye - or by the of the meaning and purpose of phys- mid-nineteenth century, gymnastics the this indicator are visible in the evolution combination of these two. A sport can ical activities, as well as their position German tradition from the nineteenth of the institutions of art, and the aesthet- be a team game or a single performance. in their societies.53 In order to explicate century, play and games are prevalent at ic judgments of it, over time. When a Today, even a noncompetitive action can the unique conception of modern sport, various times in history, and post-sports society builds spaces for art, and creates a be seen as a sport; Lev Kreft ends up with Allen Guttmann compiled a list of central denote the contemporary alternatives to supporting system for the arts in the form a definition where voluntarily engaging features that separate modern sport from modern sport. of specific institutions, art certainly has a in a physical activity against unnecessary its predecessor. These include: modern This chapter lays the foundation for different position than in a society where obstacles is enough to demarcate sport sport is secular, there is an equal oppor- the closer study of present-day forms of art exists only as a part of everyday prac- from other, useful physical activities.52 tunity to compete, the conditions of the art and sport by demonstrating how the tices and integrated into common build- According to this description, climbing competition are fair, the roles in sport are modern and contemporary ideas connect- ings, spaces, and events. Analogously, if a the stairs instead of taking an elevator specialized, the system of sport is rational ed to them are historically unique and society has a need for a special interpre- is practicing sport. The ambiguous use and bureaucratic, and finally quantifica- how the emergence of these practices is tation and aesthetic appreciation of art, of the word sport makes understanding tion and the quest for records form the closely tied to the formation of modern there must be a more complex under- the difference between historical and central values of sport.54 All the features European culture. standing of art than in a society where non-western physical practices, as well as listed are present in modern sport, but art is a mere decoration, or an organic modern and postmodern sports, equiv- only few at the same time in any of the part of other social or religious practices. alent to the difficulty of understanding previous physical cultures. Furthermore, the understanding of art the various meanings of art. While the The terminology used in sport history obviously changes if the individuality and core practices of sport are still based on a is even more vague than in the case of originality of the artist or the artwork limited European tradition, sport culture art. Most writers, for example Richard are valued over the mechanical skill of has incorporated and “sportified” physical D. Mandell and Allen Guttmann, use the execution. The development of the traditions that originally have concentrat- the term sport in an unproblematized current institutions of art, as well as the ed on other ideals than those of modern manner throughout history. Henning evaluation of painting, sculpture, music, sport. The convention of extending the Eichberg and John Bale, in contrast, use theatrical performances, and architecture concept of sport to the majority of phys- terms like body culture, physical culture, shows how the understanding about them ical cultures makes it even more difficult and running culture to emphasize the has grown more complex since the emer- to perceive the differences between the special organization of modern sport. gence of the modern conception of art. various uses of sport, and to separate Later, contemporary trends in sport have Sport is, if possible, a more ambig- other physical cultures from the domi- attempted to separate themselves from uous word than art. In English culture nant practice of sport. the original concept of modern sport by the word sport means a wide variety of Generally, sport historians have been naming themselves in various ways, such activities, from track and field events to more interested in emphasizing the football, and further to mountaineering continuity of sport from the ancient 53 For instance, Dunning, Eichberg, Elias and Guttmann. 51 Shiner 2001, 23. 52 Kreft 2012, 223-225. 54 Guttmann 1978, 16.

66 67 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3

cult objects, music and theatrical perfor- Their notion of aesthetics also devi- equality of opportunity to compete, how- Before Art and mances were part of everyday recreation ated from ours. Because the arts were ever there is equality in the conditions without any elevated status.57 The insti- embedded in social functions, there was of the competition; the specialization of Sport tutional organization of arts in Greece no special contemplative attitude towards roles existed, to a degree; rationalization was low. With the exception of theatre, them. The arts in antiquity were closely can be seen in the rules of Greek sports, Greek culture did not have a specialized connected to intellectual, moral, reli- as well as in training for sport events; infrastructure for presenting the arts. Like gious, and practical functions or contents. bureaucratic organization can also be Antiquity the category of art, the category of an In other words, music was not listened found in ancient sport. However, the artist did not exist. Those who designed to in silence with a special concentration, important features of modern sport: Though the ancient Greeks produced and executed the important but function- and theater performance did not require a quantification and the quest for records objects we would call artworks, the con- al objects (buildings, sculpture, pottery) silent audience. Both arts functioned as a were not present in Greek sport culture. ception of these objects was far from ours were skilled artisans, and no conception part of and as a background for religious The Greeks appreciated only the winner – there was always a practical dimension of special creativity was associated with ceremonies and general socializing.60 The of the competition and there was no com- connected to them. The special category their work. The artisan’s work involved elevated and distanced attitude towards parison between the events. The idea of of art did not exist. Neither a precise physical labor and/or payment, and was objects and performances that was seen competition was to figure out the winner, word for art did exist. Word techne in suitable only for the lower classes in the as an integral part of aesthetic contem- only the winner and only for that occa- Greek, and later Roman ars, were the Greek society. plation was not known. In addition, the sion. In spite the fact that Greek sport is closest equivalents to art, but still very The later Hellenistic and Roman conception of beauty had another sort of the closest historical equivalent to mod- unlike it. The five major arts, painting, categorization of arts58 places the physical meaning; it was connected to not only ern sport, the most important aspects of sculpture, architecture, music, and poetry work in the vulgar or servile arts, while external looks, but also to moral good. modern sport were not a part of it. Still, did not exist as conceptually autonomous the highborn and educated pursued Human beauty was a combination of much of the history of sport is character- activities. Techne or ars was used for the liberal arts, which included a varying physical looks and “beautiful habits of the ized by an unproblematic and idolizing ability to make things and to perform. combination of activities depending on soul” and “beautiful cognitions”.61 vision about ancient sport being rather The concept contained various practices: the writer. The activities included in In a similar way to art, sport was seen analogous to the sport of our time.63 for instance, carpentry, poetry, shoe- liberal arts were generally understood from a different perspective in antiquity, The apparent similarity of Greek and making, medicine, sculpture, and horse as grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, as although it is often difficult to under- modern sports is best seen in the Olym- breaking were included. However, the well as arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, stand. Greek sport seems superficially pic Games. The antique Olympic Games, practices included in techne/ars were not and music (for its mathematical nature). similar to modern sport; there was even a which have served as the ideal for the exactly specified.55 The group of arts was Medicine and architecture were also structured organization in ancient sports, modern Olympics, seem especially similar not separated from other human activi- sometimes considered a part of the liberal but analogously to the organization of to their modern counterpart: the games ties, like proto-sciences or crafts.56 While arts, but no combination equivalent to art in Greece, its relation to other, mainly were organized in four year intervals, today’s art holds an elevated position in the later combination of fine arts existed. religious and political practices, makes and many of the sport events (sprints, our culture, Greek art was tightly embed- However, this first categorization into Greek sport unlike ours. If the features long jump, javelin, wrestling, etc.) are ded in the functional context. It had liberal and vulgar/servile arts served as a of modern sport presented by Guttmann clearly the predecessors of their modern social, political, religious, and practical basis for the later classifications of human are applied to Greek sport, the differences versions. However, the similarity is only meanings that were part of mundane life. activities.59 become obvious: instead of being secular, an illusion, because of this simple reason: Architecture had practical purposes that sport is a religious practice62; there is no the modern Olympics were specifically shadowed the distinct artistic aspects, designed to bear a resemblance to the 57 Shiner 2001, 24-25. 60 Shiner 2001, 24-25. sculptures and paintings were functional Olympic festival of classical times. The Also Dewey 2005, 2-3. 61 Kristeller 1951, 499-500. 55 Shiner 2001, 19, 22. 58 Arts as skills. Reid 2012, 293. 63 For example: Koski, Rissanen and 56 Kristeller 1951, 497-498. 59 Shiner 2001, p.22. Kristeller 1951, 505. 62 Golden, Mark 2009, 91. Tahvanainen 2004.

68 69 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 modern games combine the ideals of successful life. 65 the Greek arts, but the physical culture celebrated played a minor role. Greek modern sport with the late nineteenth Running was one of the central was also mostly connected to other cul- athletes performed in time slots between century idealized understanding of Greek sports in Greek competitions; the most tural and social elements. The great sta- gladiators and animal fights. The “orig- culture. The worship of Greek gods that important events were different sprints. diums built only for sporting events were inal” athletes were paralleled to other was an integral part of the antique Olym- Distance running existed in Greece, but rare, but local baths and gymnasiums performers like gladiators.68 pics has been displaced by an elaborate had a lesser importance. Running events served essentially as places for everyday During the time of Greek sports there secular opening ceremony. Other lesser in classical competitions was performed exercise as well as daily social life, educa- had already been signs of the seculariza- known similarities, like the hiring of at stadiums, and the sprints of one or tion and leisure.67 tion of sport, and Roman sports contin- coaches and athletes from other countries two stadii (stadium lengths, stadion and At a later point in classical antiquity, ued the same trend. When sport compe- (in antiquity city-states), or acquiring diaulos) were the most celebrated running the Romans partially adopted the Greek titions were arranged as entertainment, sponsorships to cover costs, can be seen events. The maximum running distance style of sport, however it did not really they lost their connection to religious as common practice when high status is in competitions was a dolikhos (the long win favor among the Romans, and the practices. The athlete’s physical perfor- pursued through sport.64 race), which was 7, 12, 20, or 24 stadium tradition started to fade. One reason for mance before the gods was less important Many sporting events in classical lengths. The most common length of this was the Roman attitude towards than his workmanlike professionalism. Greece were derived from so-called dolikhos was 24 stadii, only about 4800 physical exercise. For the Romans, phys- Equality in sports had no place in glad- natural sports, which are extensions and meters. Running distances longer than ical training was seen as more practical iator fights; the combats were organized refinements of everyday acts. Another the dolikhos was considered work, and than the Greek attitude, which empha- between fighters equipped with different source for sports was military practices, the runners who ran greater distances sized the general good achieved through arms. Men with swords encountered men where events like wrestling, the pancra- were professional messengers, not ath- the balanced training of the mind and with tridents and nets, or animals, not tion (a Greek free fight), or archery were letes. In addition to these races, which body. Roman culture did not encourage against men with similar weapons. The developed. The third category of Greek look fairly normal from the modern personal training for other goals than professionalism in the Roman gladiator sports includes the events for horses. viewpoint, the Greeks had special events physical excellence, so the Greek idea of fights led to the high specialization of Exercising – practicing sport – was part where the runners carried arms, bunches the importance of physical exercise as roles. While the Greeks had sporting of the general culture in Greece, and of grapes, or torches. While the first is the balancing element of life vanished. events that recurred throughout centu- closely connected to compulsory mili- related to military exercises, the latter had In Rome, exercise was purely a means ries, the Romans were more interested in tary training. Greek polises did not have ritual and religious meanings. The run to achieve the endurance and toughness variation, in order to attract and amuse paid armies, and all men needed to be with torches diverged from other types that were needed to fulfill a citizen’s the spectators. The level of bureaucratiza- able to defend the polis effectively. Sport of running competitions, as it was often responsibilities. When Greek sport lost its tion was rather high; the gladiators were was a means to achieve and keep up the a relay that took place in the streets and importance on a personal level, the same organized in xystos, the imperial guild. physical conditioning and skills needed in roads. These races were only local events, happened for Greek style competitions The xystos took care of the rules, regula- battle. This was especially true in Spar- and never occurred as a part of the great too. Greek sports were not exiting enough tions, and entrance requirements of the ta, where training was strictly organized sport events.66 for the Romans. Greek sporting events fights, and even organized the materials and a compulsory part of a man’s life. Unlike Greek arts, Greek sport had never achieved great popularity in Rome, and equipment for gladiators. Quantifi- Elsewhere in Greece exercising was not specially built institutions. There were and were replaced by more spectacu- cation of sports developed to some degree centrally organized, and it had conno- buildings dedicated to sport, and estab- lar entertainment to please the Roman during the Roman Empire. Romans tations outside of its military use. Keep- lished competition practices that were tastes – gladiator and animal fights and were more interested in statistics than ing oneself in good physical condition, more detached elements of culture than chariot races. The Roman period replaced Greeks. Instead of documenting only the together with developing the intellect, Greek sports with a festival type of event, winner, the Romans did more: they also were seen as the means to a balanced and 65 Mandell 1984, 43, 56, 61-62. Koski, where the physical excellence that Greeks recorded the second positions as well as Rissanen and Tahvanainen 2004, 41-43. 64 Mandell 1984, 53-55. Golden 2009, 66 Koski, Rissanen and Tahvanainen 2004, 67 Koski, Rissanen and Tahvanainen 2004, 68 Mandell 1984, 74-75, 79-81. Koski, 107. 44-47. Golden 2009, 109. 84. Rissanen and Tahvanainen 2004.

70 71 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 more specialized records, like winning arts: logic, grammar and rhetoric – the interior decoration, or architecture. The spite the lowly position of physical activ- from the chasing position etc. The idea trivium, and arithmetic, geometry, astron- concept of an autonomous artist or work ities in the Middle Ages, the local com- of the “record” remained similar to that omy, and music theory – the quadri of art did not exist in Medieval culture. petitions and games had regional impor- in Greek sport culture; the competitor vium.71 Hugh of St. Victor suggested that A slight change in the conception of tance as uniting traditions. While there who had won several times was more the categorization should be updated, so aesthetic attitudes took place during the was no common conception of sport distinguished than the one-time winner. that there would be also seven mechanical Middle Ages. New types of consider- during the Middle Ages, many physical In spite of the decline of Greek style arts: wearing, armament, commerce, agri- ations about beauty emerged in medieval activities included in classical sports (run- sports, the Olympic festivals continued culture, hunting, medicine, and theatrics. philosophy, but instead of applying these ning, wrestling, etc.) were pursued, but in until the end of the third century and the These general categories were divided reflections about beauty to human prod- a different context; running was practiced rise of Christianity. The Roman period into various subcategories or -divisions. ucts and performances, they were directed as part of the messenger’s profession, and ended the Greek tradition of sport, which For instance, architecture - with sculp- to the beauty of God and nature. Fur- wrestling as local entertainment, with had formed the first organized physical ture, painting, and other crafts - were thermore, the term beauty had a wider greatly varying rules.76 Physical activi- culture. 69 subcategories of armament, and the main meaning than today, although the notion ties formed a part of local festivals, and Distance running had no importance category of theatrics contained all kinds of beauty departed from the classical idea. they sometimes included festive running within Roman sports. Romans, fascinated of entertainment.72 Beauty was not only seen as a detached events. These running events took place by fights and other spectacles, found it Shiner connects this change to the feature of an object or a human being, in streets and public squares. They were tiresome. However some examples of ascent of the craftsman’s status. Medieval but should be in the right proportion in not serious competitions of physical distance running outside the perfor culture appreciated skilled workman- relation to its purpose; the objects should excellence like those in modern sport, but mances of professional messengers have ship in crafts, and many practices today show beauty in their conformity to their organic parts of the festival, where the been found. For example, the Roman considered to be mere crafts, for instance purpose.74 According to Kristeller, artistic spectacle and sharing fun and laughter stoic philosopher Seneca promoted embroidery and carpentry, reached high production and artistic appreciation exist- was more important than winning the running as healthy exercise, which should quality both technically as well as in their ed in the Middle Ages, and marks of the race. Generally, after the fall of classical accompany the exercising of the mind in contents. Still, no group of skilled artisans latter one can be found in the literature, culture the established organization and order to develop the man as a whole.70 was classified as a different category of but the notions of art and aesthetics differ the idea of sport as a separate practice maker. Artisans worked under a guild from today’s conception of them. vanished for several centuries – there is no system that regulated their trade and During the Middle Ages, physical cul- reason to compare Guttmann’s features of The European Middle Ages oversaw of the quality of their work. A ture loses the remainder of its somewhat modern sport to the Medieval conceptu- master who ran a workshop was respon- advanced organization from the classical alization of sport.77 After the classical period, the classifica- sible for its products, however his work period. The Medieval conception of phys- tion of human activities as vulgar/servile was not seen as special creativity, but as ical culture was scattered, and resembled and liberal arts changed to some degree. “intelligent planning, imaginative con- neither Greek nor our system of sport. Firstly, the disparaging terms vulgar and ception and sound judgment”73. Painting The demise of systematic physical cultures servile were replaced in the twelfth centu- and sculpture were still merged with was finalized by the spread of Christian- ry, by Hugh of St. Victor, with the term other mechanical crafts, both as intellec- ity, which gave priority to the spiritual mechanical arts. The mechanical arts were tual categories and as products. They were element of life and suppressed the phys- also denoted in other ways: in the clas- executed in connection with furniture, ical. The only physical practices that had sical period there had been seven liberal a somewhat organized nature were the 71 Kristeller 1951, 505, 507. military “sports”, which included tour- Shiner 2001, 30. 69 Gotaas 2009, 41-43. Koski, Rissanen naments and archery competitions.75 In and Tahvanainen 2004, 135. Guttmann 1978, 72 Shiner 2001, 28-29. 15-55 passim. Kristeller 1951, p.508. 74 Shiner 2001, 33-34. 76 Mandell 1984, 121. Bale 2004, 40. 70 Gotaas 2009, 40-41. 73 Shiner 2001, 31. 75 Mandell 1984, 113-115. 77 Mandell 1984, 113. Gotaas 2009, 68.

72 73 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3

guild regulations, and emphasized the from him, and advanced his own ideas in even more strict. Because most successful Towards connection of their work with the liberal a similar fashion to modern artists.82 painters and sculptors ran a workshop, arts. The famous phrase “Ut pictura In addition to the slight change in the contract could specify which parts of the Modern poiesis”78 by Horace was used in order to the institutional status of art, the artist’s a portrait should be painted by the master claim painting’s place as one of the liberal status developed too. The concept of the himself and which could be executed Conception of arts.79 However, Shiner emphasizes that autonomous artist or work of art did not by an apprentice. This convention did the members of the academy were still arise yet, but Shiner finds at least three not deviate too much from the commis- Art and Sport referred to as artificers, in the same way as significant manifestations of the changed sion practices of other craftsmen at the other skilled craftsmen.80 Kristeller’s view status of artists. Firstly, the genre of the time. However, the idea of an artist as is that in the Renaissance the Florentine artist’s biography was born, and the life an individual was emerging. The artist Even though art histories frequently artists formed a separate group, situated of at least some artists was seen as wor- biographies treated the painter, sculptor, view the Renaissance as the time when between liberal and mechanical arts. This thy of special attention. Secondly, the or architect as figures whose individual the modern idea of art first emerged, resulted not only from the quality of their first self-portraits were painted; at least abilities were valued more highly than the in the form of autonomous artists and work, but also the new links that were some artist saw themselves as worthy of traditional skills of a workshop.84 artworks, there was in fact no radical created between the visual arts (painting), special attention. Also, the way in which During the Renaissance, artist’s departure from the previous conception liberal arts, and poetry.81 artists presented themselves was unique; qualities began to differ from those of of art. The Medieval categorization of However, the situation was not clear: Shiner uses the gentlemanly habitus of artisans. The most appreciated quality cultural practices into the liberal and Benevento Cellini, who can be seen as a Albrect Dürer in his self-portrait as an was facility, the extraordinary skill in mechanical arts evolved only slight- stereotype of the Renaissance genius in example. Thirdly, the class of court artist creating technically demanding works, ly during the next few centuries. The his actions and attitude towards art, made was established. These artists did not have for instance a difficult shortening in previous class of liberal arts stayed exactly no difference between the decorative arts to acquire commissions from all sides, painting. Invention was not connected the same, as did its internal division into and the emerging category of art. Many but instead sold their ideas and works with the modern idea of creation, but the the trivium and quadrivium. In addition of the Renaissance artists started their to one sympathetic master. Naturally, ability to find, choose, and arrange the to the old categories, a new grouping of careers in a decorative art craft, but even- these changes in the status of some artists content of the work. Later, innovation studia humanitatis was established. This tually moved away from those professions did not affect all painters, sculptors, was also associated with poetical qualities pedagogical grouping was developed by and towards art. This development took musicians, or writers; only a few artists like imagination, inspiration, and natural humanist teachers who expanded the place, for example, with Brunelleschi and benefited from these changes, but they talent. All of these qualities were connect- Medieval trivium to include history and Botticelli, who started off as goldsmiths, represented the first fracture between ed with the ability to create unique works moral philosophy, and replaced the study but Cellini was not concerned about artists and artisans.83 with natural ease and without hard labor. of logic with poetry. These adjustments painting or “real sculpture”, and contin- Those artists who enjoyed this higher The Renaissance artist was not valued to the Medieval categorization were ued his work with precious materials. status were not absolutely autonomous in for his self-expression as an autonomous minor refinements, however, and no Cellini is also an example of the vague their work. The difference from the cur- creator, but his ability to accomplish fundamental change took place. Nev- relationship between a patron and the rent state can be seen in the Renaissance demanding tasks with facility and grace. ertheless, there were some steps taken growing individuality of an artist: he had contracts, where not only the size, price, An excellent work represented a technical towards the modern conception of art. a regular patron (King Francis I), but he and the date of delivery of a painting difficulty that was executed with ease and In 1563 the Accademia delle Arti del did not settle for waiting for commissions or a statue were specified, but also the natural ability. The technical elements Disegno - the Florentine Academy - was 78 “As is painting so is poetry.” subject matter and materials. The con- of craftsmanship were inseparable from established in Florence by a group of local ditions defined in the contract could be 79 Shiner 2001, 37. Also Kristeller 1951, 84 Shiner 2001, 6, 40, 43, 61. Wolff 1994 painters and sculptors led by Giorgio 513-514. (1981), 44. Many of the conditions listed are not 82 Barker, Webb, and Woods 1999, 30-31. Vasari. The members of the academy unfamiliar in contemporary contracts either. Espe- 80 Shiner 2001, 40. had achieved freedom from the medieval 83 Shiner 2001, 39. Barker, Webb, and cially in public art projects, there can be several 81 Kristeller 1951, 513. Woods 1999, 15, 17. terms that limit the artist’s freedom.

74 75 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 the inspiration and imitation of nature, their collections according to the practices Europe remained more akin to the crafts, a precursor of modern tennis that was which were subject to servicing certain developed in medical and pharmaceuti- following the old traditions of guild- played first in the open air, but later in predefined purposes. Unlike modern cal contexts.87 During the first stages of based crafts. Another rather isolated sign the early seventeenth century in specially artists, the Renaissance masters did not classification of the cabinets of curiosity, of the changing conditions in the arts designed indoor ball-courts. The game, have the freedom of creation and execut- the basic distinction between natural took place in the Dutch Republic, where played by the nobility, was also one of the ing their own ideas, but were subservient and artificial (man-made) objects was a local “art market” developed. The local first sports where special equipment (the to the boundaries of the commission and made. Later, it was replaced by a finer painters did not work only from com- rackets) was developed. However, being a purpose of their work.85 classification according to the origin and missions, but made paintings to be sold game for one class only, it did not repre- The practices leading towards an aes- purpose of the objects. This more accu- in shops and markets. This convention sent a sport in the modern sense.92 thetic appreciation of the arts advanced rate categorization existed in different resulted in new, although limited, free- somewhat during the Renaissance. versions; for instance, the collection could dom from patronage for the Dutch The transition from previous attitudes be divided in relation to the under- painters.90 towards art to a “proto-aesthetic” start- standing of the structure of the universe: Physical activities were still connected with a couple of minor changes; a paintings, sacred objects, objects made ed to local festivals. The horse races in The Transition distinguished vocabulary for comment- from inorganic material, objects made Siena and the archery tournaments held ing on the qualities of the paintings and from organic materials (divided into three throughout Europe formed the closest to the sculptures emerged. Another mark of the realms: earth, water and air), and finally resemblance to an organized physi- new interest in artworks was the private the artifacts and material glorifying the cal culture. However, the influence of Category of interest in collecting individual paintings founder. A classification closer to that of classical ideas in the Renaissance brought by a certain master. These paintings were the modern museum divided the collec- back some elements of ancient physi- Art often part of larger private collections. tion into fine art (paintings and sculp- cal culture. The almost total denial of Collecting was not systematic by today’s tures), applied arts (fine crafts), natural the body in early Christianity began to standards, but a more or less sporadic history, and historical material.88 be dismissed. This changing attitude The Medieval division of human activities activity run by private enthusiasts. A col- Paintings, sculptures, and prints towards bodily existence was first seen into the liberal and mechanical arts had lection could contain artworks (paintings already received special attention com- in the physical education of higher class survived through the Renaissance, with and sculptures) mixed with natural items pared to other objects. There was a children. Traditionally, the physical the addition of the pedagogical category or technological curiosities. The Renais- specialized vocabulary for describing education of higher class offspring had of studia humanitatis. In spite of some sance collections made little of differences them and identifying the important been limited to military training, but now progress in linking unconnected arts between the objects according to modern artists. Collected artworks were frequent- this limitation was questioned. However, together under one category, no radical categories – any precious and fascinating ly arranged into appropriate groupings the actual changes in physical education changes occurred in the categorization of objects were collected in the same cabinet according to their subjects, and paintings were sparse, in most cases the new ideas human activities. During the subsequent of curiosities.86 often covered the whole wall. Occasional- remained only concepts or suggestions. period of rapid changes, the position of Even though these first collections ly, paintings were cut in order to fit them In spite of the minimal alterations in real art within human activities was re- were composed of mixed items, a clas- into the display.89 education, these ideas represented a new, evaluated several times. The origin of the sification reminiscent of the modern Despite spreading of the Renaissance more positive attitude towards the body changes can be located in the separation one started to develop. Instead of just ideas about humanism outside north- and bodily health.91 Late in this period, of the experimental sciences from their preserving the various objects without ern Italy in the late fifteenth century, some instances of pre-sports emerged, previous categorization in the liberal arts, a plan, the collectors began to organize the position of the arts in other parts of the best example of which is probably an event that leads to a serious confu- the development of the jeu de paume, sion in the old categorization of human 87 Impey and MacGregor 1985, 6-7. 85 Shiner 2001, 46. activities. The reason that sciences were 88 Pearce 1992, 95. 90 Shiner 2001, 61. 86 Shiner 2001, 55. Impey and MacGregor 1985, 31. Turpeinen 2005, 47. 89 Pearce 1992, 93-94. 91 Mandell 1984, 122-125. 92 Eichberg 1998, 50-51.

76 77 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 the first activity to really separate them- core group later. The term Beaux Arts of its use in the context of crafts. By the fine arts from the old categorization into selves from the traditional categorization was used to describe the group of visual mid-eighteenth century, after a lengthy the liberal and mechanical arts, and they was the awareness of the fact that the arts in the late seventeenth century, but passage, the newly grouped set of five also assisted in founding a new branch for new results in experimental sciences were during the first half of the eighteenth beaux arts found their place under the fine arts in the tree of knowledge, which surpassing classical knowledge – an idea century the use of the term was expanded main principle of imagination.96 was used as an explanatory illustration in that has been inconceivable before. Even to include all members in the category of Les Beaux-Arts réduits à un même prin- the encyclopedias of the time. Eventually, before this became widely acknowledged, fine arts. cipe (The Fine Arts Reduced to a imagination (art) found its place side by the fundamental difference between the The question of defining suitable Single Principle) (1746) by Charles side with reason (science) and memory arts and sciences had been noticed; while principle(s) for justifying the grouping of Batteux, was the first text that clearly (history).99 practicing natural sciences required objec- different arts under the same category was defined the original fine arts as a separate The constitution of the category of tive measuring and calculation, practicing more complicated. The earlier principles group. Batteux divided the human skills fine art also had its institutional effects; arts was a domain of individual talent. used to formulate the differentiation of into three groups. The mechanical skills the modern art institutions began to find Sciences were based on accumulated some arts, or liberal arts in general from (Arts Mécaniques) were used to serve the their form during the eighteenth century. knowledge, while fine arts were seen as other practices, were either too narrow humanity’s needs, provide shelter from Theater and opera had found their form dependent on the genius of the individ- or too wide. the elements, and bring comfort to living. earlier, but other practices of presenting ual.93 The practices in the new category “The principle of design used by the Fine arts (Beaux Arts) arise from the art became customary through the estab- of experimental sciences could exceed Italian academies since the Renaissance feelings that produced prosperity (abun- lishment of the modern system of art. For the achievements of the classical world, was too narrow due its close connection dance) and tranquility, providing joy to example, art exhibitions and secular con- whereas in the arts the contemporaneous with the visual arts. The ancient liberal the people. The group of fine arts concerts are practices less than three centuries works could, at their best, equal classical arts principle of mind over body was too tained music, poetry, painting, sculpture, old. The yearly salons organized by the works.94 broad since it would not by itself account and dance. In addition to this separation recently established art academies were Even though sciences formed their for separating painting, poetry, and music of arts from practical skills, Batteux the first regular art exhibitions (relative- own category, the arts were still scattered as a group from the arts of grammar or constituted a third group, which consist- ly) open to the public. Also, some royal among various human activities. The vital history. One other long-established prin- ed of skills that combined two previous collections started to exhibit works of art features of art required more clarification ciple, imitation, was similarly too broad objectives: eloquence and architecture. In separate from their other exhibits, venues in order to form a definitive category of since it included activities such as embroi- addition to the separation of fine arts into which were gradually turned to art fine art. Shiner points out a few central dery, pottery, or birdcalls that might also their own group, Batteux also connect- museums.100 aspects that were required before the imitate nature.”95 ed them with a common denominator: The change in the system of art pro- arts could establish a new category for The antique principle of employing the principle connecting the arts was duced a new idealized behavior for look- themselves like the sciences had done: the powers of the mind instead of the the imaginative imitation of beautiful ing at and appreciating art. For example, there should be a limited set of arts, a body, used for separating the liberal arts nature.97 However, just imitating nature music performances turned into concerts commonly agreed body of terms to iden- from the mechanical arts, did not deter- was not enough: the artist must rearrange that where listened to in silence, instead tify the new category, and most impor- mine the difference between the new the imitations in order to create a work of as background for civilized socializing. tantly clear principle(s) to determine the group of fine arts and the old category of that is more ideal than the original source Theater underwent a similar transforma- members of this category. The limited set liberal arts. The Renaissance principle of of inspiration. To achieve this result, the tion; it had previously been the habit that of arts was eventually formalized in the design was not suitable either, because its artist needed genius.98 Batteux’s principles the most important members of the audi- 1740s, when painting, sculpture, archi- previous use was connected to the visual were sufficient for separating the group of ence were seated on the stage, but now tecture, poetry, and music were grouped arts only. Also, the previously employed this practice began to change; presenting 96 Shiner 2001, 82. together. Other arts were added to this principle of imitation, when used alone, was inadequate and too broad because 97 Batteux 1746, 6, 8. 99 Shiner 2001, 82-86. 93 Kristeller 1952, 19. Kristeller 1952, 20-21. 100 Shiner 2001, 90-91. 94 Shiner 2001, 79-80. 95 Shiner 2001, 82. 98 Batteux 1746, 8, 40. Pearce 1992, 99-100.

78 79 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 an illusion became the ideal for theater divided into the national schools, but rather than through heritage, required a secular concerts were open to public106. performances and, in order to preserve later, when art history developed further, civilized person able to make reasoned The emergence of the art market did not the illusion, stage seating was eliminated the artworks in a museum display were judgments relying on the information result the total disappearance of the old and the audience was requested to follow also arranged in chronological order. available, as well as taking responsibility system of patronage and commissioned the play in silence.101 The collections also presented the older for his actions.104 artworks, but provided other possibilities Art exhibitions, especially in the paintings and sculptures – going back to The rise of the capitalist market for the distribution of art. The new acces- new public art museums, reinforced the classical times – as a part of the history economy, especially in England, created a sibility to art had significant effects on the practice of the silent appreciation of art. of art. Even though the category of art new middle class that was wealthier and interpretations of artwork’s content and For example, the Louvre, which was was just forming, the historical depth of more literate than the lower classes, and value, and subsequently had effects on the partially opened as an art museum during art was created in retrograde. In many not tied to traditional modes of behavior status of artists and the conception of the the French revolution, had sign-posts in cases, the artworks were framed again in like the aristocracy or clergy. The mid- ideal artist.107 the exhibition spaces to guide the pub- uniform style and clearly labeled in order dle class had spare time, wealth, and an The separation of the artist and the lic’s behavior – to avoid excessive noise to educate the visitors.103 appetite for new experiences; the books craftsman took its first steps in the first and respect the space as a temple of art. In addition to the constitution of the and journals, new plays and concerts, as half of the eighteenth century, but the When visiting art exhibitions became a scholarly category of fine art, the devel- well as art exhibitions and later museums most significant development took place common practice, the need for guidance opment of art practices was influenced by provided these experiences. The wealth- from the 1750s onwards. Using Natha- also grew. The new middle class audience social change. Preben Mortensen con- iest members of the middle class took lie Heinich’s terminology, artists moved for visual arts did not need basic guid- nects the growing interest in art, and the the Grand Tour; they traveled to Italy from the regime of artisan craftwork to the ance, but required information about the development of the concept of taste – the and other Mediterranean destinations to regime of professional. In that time, the quality and noteworthiness of the works first widespread practice of exchanging admire Classical and Renaissance art in term artist stabilized to indicate firstly a of art. This new need for information views about art – to the transformation their original settings. These various new painter, whose work had already trans- about art led to the development of art of English society in the seventeenth cultural events and experiences provided formed into something different from criticism, and further to the emergence and eighteenth centuries. The civil wars, cultural capital that was valuable in the the traditional profession; the new artist of the first histories of art. For lower class revolution (1646), and Restoration (after social competition of the newly formed had often been educated in one of the audiences, a museum visit could develop 1660) ended the monarch’s ultimate modern and secular society, where the sig- recently established art academies instead into a confusing experience, where the power and reduced the weight of the nificance of ancestry was reduced and the of a master’s workshop, he worked in a purpose of art remained obscure. The church’s authority. The new societal situ- importance personal abilities increased.105 studio instead a workshop, and presented advent of aesthetics, in combination with ation, incorporating changes in the social The art market developed hand in his works in exhibitions, selling them the development of fine art and newly system, economics, politics, and culture, hand with the emergence of new audi- through private sales instead working refined behavior connected to appreci- made the emergence of the middle class ences for art – works of art became solely from commissions.108 Later, the use ating works of art, lead to the separation possible and stimulated trade and various available through new means of distri- of the term artist expanded to include of popular and high culture, where the brands of entrepreneurship. As a conse- bution. Literature could be bought or writers, musicians, architects, etc. Simul- former diminished to mere recreation quence, a new kind of public sphere, not borrowed, paintings and other artworks taneously, the qualities that were desired and entertainment and latter obtained an restricted only by heritage, emerged. The were sold, not always commissioned, and in an artisan and in an artist divided even elevated and ethereal nature.102 new social situation created a need for a further; the “mechanical” qualities, skill, In addition to the elevated appre- new kind of philosophy, because there ciation of art, the museums began to was no longer a single authority to trust. 106 Public did not include all the people, provide knowledge. In the early stages of The novel concept of individuality with- but a certain cultured public. However, the cultural products and events were more widely avail- the development, the paintings were just out a clear authority, and the possibility able than before. to prosper by employing one’s own skills 104 Mortensen 1997, 72-73,75-77, 79-80. 101 Shiner 2001, 92-93, 214-217. 107 Shiner 2001, 103. 105 Shiner 2001, 91-92, 94-95. 102 Shiner 2001, 92, 213. 103 Pearce 1992, 100-101. Mortensen1997, 83-84. 108 Heinich 2012, 698. Danko 2008, 247.

80 81 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 rules, imitation, and service, now applied the craftsman was left with only mechani- human activities. Kristeller describes how However, some aspects of taste were pre- to the artisan only, whereas the “artis- cal qualities, the routine imitation of past the interest in the visual arts and music served in aesthetics, but in a transformed tic” qualities, inspiration, imagination, models, service, calculation, and trade, grew in the early eighteenth century configuration; the ordinary pleasure of freedom, and genius, were transferred to which left no room for higher aspira- among both amateurs and professional beauty was replaced by a special, refined, apply to the new category of artists.109 tions.110 philosophers. Both these disparate groups and intellectualized pleasure, the idea of In addition to this separation of Taste formed the principal means of produced writings and treatises about unprejudiced judgment was transformed artist and artisan, the qualities applied making individual evaluations in aesthet- the qualities of art that finally lead to the into a disinterested contemplation, to an artist gained new substance. The ic issues. Its use was not confined only emergence of the discipline of aesthet- and the concern with plain beauty was term genius begun to indicate someone to the sphere of art, but incorporated ics.112 replaced by more defined notions of the being a genius, instead the previous idea, judgments about other topics too. Having The idea of aesthetics as an indepen- sublime and picturesque. The most fun- where everyone had a genius for some- good taste also included mastering the dent discipline was first promoted by damental difference between the concepts thing. It was not possible to become a right kind of behavior and being able to Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten, as a of taste and aesthetics was the idea of a genius by training in an art; rather, one evaluate the manners of other people. science of sensitive cognition.113 Sensitive special, refined pleasure received from was born with the genius. The previ- The principles of taste were impossible cognition was supposed to clarify the works of art through aesthetic apprecia- ous understanding of imagination as a to verbalize: the exact definition was character of knowledge accessed through tion, whereas when viewed through taste general image-storing faculty or a dan- avoided by saying that things or persons the senses, knowledge that diverged from the pleasure was understood as some sort gerous power of fantasy was replaced by presenting good taste had a je ne sais quoi clear scientific knowledge in the cartesian of controllable preference. Aesthetic plea- the modern idea of a creative imagina- (literally: I don’t know what) quality, a sense.114 The main purpose of the disci- sure was not instrumental, like the one tion, which was seen as the artist’s most French expression referring to something pline was to study perfection in sensuous experienced through taste, but “the object important attribute. Imagination, in its difficult to pin down. Parallel to knowing cognition – beauty.115 Even though the of higher, contemplative pleasure”.117 turn, was closely connected with the idea the quality of taste in one’s own clothing original scope of aesthetics was wider, The development from taste to aes- of creation, updated from the previously and conduct, the excellence in an artwork Baumgarten already saw art as a signif- thetics generated new concepts in order used invention. The term creation got could be just felt, even though the origin icant field for aesthetic study. Later, by to define the special features used in its new meaning when invention was of the sensation was hidden, i.e. je ne sais the end of the eighteenth century, the contemplating art: disinterested con- detached from imitating nature, and quoi. Because the principles of taste were discipline of aesthetics turned to the phi- templation, as well as the notions of the creation from its biblical associations. hidden it was, unlike the later discipline losophy of art.116 sublime and the picturesque, were all new The novel idea of creation was linked to of aesthetics, more dependent on personal According to Shiner, the former ideas that were closely tied to the birth creating order out of the chaos of existing views and features: Shiner sees that cer- concept of taste had been entirely social, of the category of fine art. The concept impressions in a spontaneous way. The tain social and mental characteristics were and by the eighteenth century had been of disinterested contemplation suggested creation of a genius-artist was expected to required for having a fine taste.111 degraded by its connotations with sensual the contemplation of artworks without a be original, thus not following any model The emergence of the discipline of and bodily aspects, while the new disci- material or personal interest. One should from the previous masters. Imitation of aesthetics in the first half of the eigh- pline of aesthetics dealt with the more be interested in the artwork only for art’s nature had the potential to be original teenth century brought more advanced elevated senses of sight and hearing. sake. The notions of the sublime and the if the work was executed in an original means for evaluating and assessing art. picturesque pointed to the special quali- style, or if nature operated as a source The development of aesthetic theories 112 Kristeller 1952,17. ties of beauty, which helped to define the for the inspiration of an artist. This new made it possible to analyze art beyond quality of the artwork. Sublimity had a 113 Baumgarten 2007 (1750), 11. artist also expressed his feelings or inner the limits of taste, and to distinguish it Also Baumgarten 2009 (1735), 246-247. connection to the new interest in natu- thoughts through his artworks. While more clearly as a practice with special ral landscapes and phenomena that felt 114 Beardsley 1982 (1966), 158-159. the status of the artist and his work were contents and clearly separate from other overpowering – greater than the human elevated with all these ethereal attributes, 115 Baumgarten 2007 (1750), 17, 21. mind could conceive. The picturesque 110 Shiner 2001, 111-114. 116 Baumgarten 2007 (1750), 11. Welsch 109 Shiner 2001, 101-103, 105, 106, 108. 111 Mortensen 1997, 94. Shiner 2001, 140. 1997, 78-79. 117 Shiner 2001, 140-141.

82 83 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 was a more limited concept, connected the birth of a novel practice. Gener- emergence of modern sport in England with looking at a landscape, usually one The Genesis ic forms of game-contests have been with the atypically permanent conditions that resembled a certain type of painting practiced in all cultures, but their level of of the society, as well as the civilizing pro- or picture.118 of Sport organization has been nonexistent, or dif- cesses spurred by peaceful development. As a side effect, the emergence of fered greatly from that of modern sport. Their vision is that the civilizing process aesthetics also transformed the perception The ancient Greeks had a system of sport, of a society leads to greater self-control of certain physical practices. The shift in Following the structure of the develop- but that waned finally after the Roman and a restraint of the use of violence in perception was mostly connected to the ment of the category of fine art, I have period. The few somewhat organized resolving conflicts. The English parlia- appreciation of the natural landscapes, divided the final integration of various physical activities existing in Europe mentarian system emphasized a balance especially extreme or outstanding ones, physical practices into modern sport into after the classical period were either fully between the two houses of the parlia- including mountains, coastlines, and three phases, which are partially overlap- subordinate to high class education, ment, as well as with the monarch. This waterfalls. High mountains were previ- ping. Eric Dunning suggests that there or related to learning and maintaining novel system of governance accustomed ously regarded as frightening, even repul- were two significant spurts in the devel- military skills. The only physical practices the members of the ruling classes to sive sights, but now the same emotions opment of modern sport in the eigh- that were free from educational purposes non-violent changes in governance – they were interpreted as sublime. The common teenth and the nineteenth centuries, both were local games and festivals, or the per- had to learn to give up ruling power to feature of the appreciated landscapes taking place in England. In addition to formance of sporadic ad hoc feats. These their opponents and take a stance as the was a distant location and the difficulty these two phases proposed by Dunning, a instances of physical activity later acted opposition. These non-violent changes of reaching the best sites from which to third one, featuring the developments in as an inspiration for the development of of power positions increased the securi- observe them. Thus, the appreciation of Germany and continental Europe during modern sporting events, but unlike mod- ty of society, which in turn promoted a landscapes, and especially the wilderness, nineteenth century, is included.120 ern sport these pre-sport physical prac- more equal society and more freedom for produced new physical practices; walk- The impetus for the evolution of the tices did not form a coherent, organized the citizens. The English development ing, which had served as a mere mode of early prototypes of modern sport is sim- system.122 was significantly different from that of transportation for the common people ilar to the birth of the modern concept continental Europe, where governance or a religious practice in pilgrimages, of art – the differentiation of medieval was more centralized and the citizens’ became a cultural act and a fashionable lifestyles, as well as the social changes that The Early Development of Sport freedom more limited.123 pastime. Especially new was the urge to took place in the course of the mod- According to Elias, the non-violent travel, and even to make difficult detours ernization of society. Norbert Elias and The earliest signs of modern sport first and open parliamentary contest, com- to see the wildest sceneries, which were Dunning link the emergence of modern appeared in England. The development of bined with the rather democratic compo- previously thought of as unpleasant if not sport closely to the civilizing process sport is connected with the same changes sition of the English parliament, lead to horrible.119 and pacification of society. In addition, in British society that drove the growing social circumstances that were favorable secularization and industrialization played interest in art and the emergence of the for a pastime devoted to competitive a role in the development of sport. The concept of taste described above, however struggles. The new and distinctive feature emergence of the middle class had a cen- from a different angle. of the English competitive pastime was tral role in the birth of sport but, unlike In consequence of the changes in their refraining from violent action in in the development of art, the emergence the governmental system, the nation- their game-contests, or the quest to of sport as well as gymnastics had national unity of England was quite settled restrict the inherent violence in activi- alistic features already from the outset.121 already from the late seventeenth century. ties like boxing, by following mutually 118 Shiner 2001, 140-141, 144-145. The development of sport was actually The sufficiently stable society advanced accepted rules and the gentlemanly code Mortensen 1997, 160-161. Gilpin 2008 (1792). the development towards a less violent of conduct. In addition, the national Burke 2008 (1757). 120 Dunning 1995, 23. culture. Elias and Dunning connect the 119 Solnit 2001, 82-85, 135. 121 Eichberg 1995 b, 37. 123 Elias 1986, 28-34. Gilpin 2008 (1792). Dunning 1995, 22. 122 Eichberg 2009, 88. Dunning 1995, 22-23.

84 85 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 unity of England helped to produce formed an exception in the early stages of entertainment, and from this process the living by collecting money from audience nationwide rules for games and competi- the development of sport.125 basic practices of boxing were generated. in exchange for promising to perform tions. These specialties of English society Betting, which formed an important For example, the concept of fighting in extraordinary feats, for instance running made the development of sport different convention in English sport, was prac- rounds, the use of the boxing ring, and and walking (extremely) long distances. from that of their continental counter- ticed widely in the regularly organized the referee were introduced during the To make the feat more interesting for the parts, for example Italian calsio stayed events, like horse races, dog and cock eighteenth century.127 The next devel- paying public, part of the distance was a local tradition, while English football fights, as well as prizefighting. This opment in boxing was a result of a law sometimes run backwards or on stilts. – that was codified 1863 – became a produced an educated audience that reform and social change; the aristocratic Another kind of pre-sport running com- worldwide sport.124 was interested in the results and thus duel was banned and became unfashion- petition were the various carnivalesque English society thus created an the details of the sport. Regular betting able in England. Fists became the gentle- races, where lightly dressed women ran environment that supported non-violent created special knowledge about these man’s means of defending one’s honor. for a prize, or an otherwise normal run- game-contests as a suitable pastime for sports, which eventually transformed into The upper and middle class adoption of ning race could be spiced up by adding the nobility and ruling classes, and the ranking lists of the competitors. The eval- boxing integrated gentlemanly behavior wheelbarrows to it, or converting the race existence of a relatively wealthy middle uation of the competitors by their suc- with the lower class amusement of prize into a sack race.129 class with some leisure generated more cesses led to the early notions of the sport fighting. The boxer’s posture changed The early carnivalesque races were demand for free time activities. One of record. However, the ranking lists did from bent to upright, and the use of still seen as precursors to modern sport the ways to spend leisure time was sport, not transform into records easily; fights padded gloves became the norm. An at the end of the nineteenth century, not in the modern narrow meaning, but did not produce comparable records, and important part of this civilizing process when Danish sportsmen considered the as popular game-contests, different races during the early stages of modern sport of boxing was introducing the idea of possibility of including events like the and hunting. The process of industrializa- the technology was not accurate enough fairness into the fights. Dirty tricks were sack-race, or race with a bucket balanced tion that took place during the eighteenth to compare results made in different already banned at an earlier time, but on top of the competitors’ heads, as a and nineteenth centuries produced a new contests. The invention of a stopwatch now the aim was not to harm the oppo- part of modern sport.130 Already in these working class which, unlike the previ- in the early eighteenth century made it nent but to defeat him, complying with early footraces, the difference between ous lower classes, had spare time. Even possible to compare results. However, the the rules and codes of boxing.128 running and walking was distinguished. though the spare time was sparse, the idea importance of sports in the eighteenth Before the eighteenth century, dis- In addition to these first organized of leisure was also introduced to the lower century was somewhat different from the tance running was mainly work for races for the greater public, there were classes. While the aristocracy had gener- later history of sports; the stopwatches professional messengers or so called occasional gentlemanly running stunts, ated their own types of sporting events, were first used for confirm records made footmen, who ran alongside the coach- usually resulting from a bet. These stunts which the middle class partially adopted, in long distance horse races.126 es of the upper class. There were for- were usually attempts to accomplish a the lower classes found and organized Human sports in England developed mal footraces in England from the late certain distance in a promised time, but their own. Hunting and horse-races were in the wake of horse races. Social change seventeenth century onwards, which can known examples of these stunts include typically upper class sports, while cruder in England and the rise of the middle be seen as a primitive form of modern eccentricities like a naked run around St. sport amusements like dog- and cock- class contributed to the development distance running. Most of these races James’ park in London. However, these fights were popular in all social classes. and refinement of sports. For instance, were arranged between professional running stunts were the first instances of The English pre-sport practices in the by the end of the seventeenth century, footmen, but specialized show runners the changing idea of running, introduc- seventeenth and eighteenth centuries primitive prizefighting developed into a and walkers also performed in various ing the gentleman pedestrians alongside were primarily practices of watching more professional activity and a less lethal places around Europe. They earned their and consuming sport. Nature sports like hunting, fishing, and mountaineering 125 Dunning 1995, 23. Mandell 1984, 127 Dunning 1999, 57 (”Broughton’s 136, 151-153. Rules”, dated 16.8.1743). 129 Mandell 1984, 145. Eichberg 1998, 152. 124 Elias 1986, 28-34, 37. 126 Mandell 1984, 140-141, 144, 146. 128 Mandell 1984, 148-150. Elias 1986, 21. Dunning 1995, 22-23. Dunning 1999, 73. Gotaas 2009, 71.Eichberg 1982, 46. Dunning 1999, 56-60. 130 Eichberg 1998, 149.

86 87 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 the gentleman boxers.131 In spite of the developed from traditional game-con- new aspect of gymnastics was the idea of the antiquity. The popularity of gymnas- superficial similarities, the early footraces tests, gymnastics had an intellectual rationalized exercises, where the progress tics lasted until the end of the nineteenth differed significantly from modern sport. background; German Enlightenment of the performances was measured and century, when the English fashion of The ideas of achievement and records that educators Johann Bernhard Basedow and the pupils were ranked according to their sport took over and became the dominant characterize modern sport did not play Johann Friedrich Guts Muths believed performances and progress.134 physical culture. Although gymnastics an important role in these competitions. in physical exercise as an important part The expansion of gymnastic outside was eventually eclipsed by sport, and it Instead of a measurable quantitative of a complete education, in addition school curricula took place in Germany, lost much of its significance as a physical result, the interest focused on the spec- to theoretical subjects. In contrast with where Friedrich Ludwig Jahn intro- culture, its organization formed a founda- tacle of the race and the person of the the early English sports, the practice duced his idea of a gymnastic program, tion for the organization of modern sport, winner.132 of gymnastics concentrated mostly on Turnen, that combined physical exercises and many of the gymnastic exercises were To some degree, the early enthusiasm participation, and thus functioned as a with German nationalistic spirit. Jahn’s transformed into sporting events.136 for pedestrianism in England stemmed predecessor of modern exercise and fitness movement, Turnbewegung, evolved into a The objective in gymnastics was ratio- from the recently popularized practice of practices where the main objective is to highly organized practice, with local clubs nal; the central aspiration of gymnastics appreciation of impressive natural land- promote one’s health instead of com- and dedicated exercise fields, Turnplätze, was to achieve a healthier and stronger scapes, which was a middle class exten- peting for success. The idea of physical being founded around Germany and body through organized and rationalized sion of aristocratic walks in the garden. exercises as a part of education was first organized inregular meetings, Turntage. exercises. In contrast to modern sport, the Reaching these scenic landscapes, as well tested in 1770s by Basedow in the school During the course of the nineteenth idea of gymnastics was to pursue general as finding the best view of them, incorpo- he founded in Dessau, called the Philan- century, gymnastic programs inspired by fitness instead of excellence in special- rated walking in nature. At first this walk- thropinum. The idea behind this physical Jahn’s Turnen developed into various local ized events. This objective was executed ing was restricted to the site of the view, education program was to introduce and national versions, and became widely through regular and varying exercises that but later, in the early nineteenth century, regular gymnastic exercises into the popular around continental Europe. followed a meticulously chosen gymnas- traveling to the site on foot or taking a school curriculum, so that the physical Local versions of gymnastics were estab- tics program. The training was extremely scenic route through nature became an activity would assist the schoolchildren to lished, for instance, in Sweden, Denmark, systematic, and every aspect of the exer- important part of this practice. The prac- work efficiently in the other parts of their Switzerland, Netherlands, parts of Russia, cises was instructed: the regular times for tice thus had an aesthetic origin, but it studies. At first the exercises consisted of the Austro-Hungarian empire, and Bohe- training, the times an exercise should be habituated the middle class to appreciate variants of traditional games and free play mia135. In addition to these geographically repeated, the exact length of the exercise traveling over distances by walking – even in the open air, but soon the traditional centered national gymnastic movements, in time, and the posture and manner when it was not absolutely necessary.133 games and playing were partially replaced a Jewish gymnastic movement was estab- of executing the movements or maneu- by formalized exercises, often executed lished in Germany, which spread around vers. The variety of gymnastics exercises on specially designed equipment, for Europe in several countries. The expan- included maneuvers that did not require The Case of Gymnastics instance horizontal bars, parallel bars, and sion of the gymnastic movement in its special equipment, for instance standing vaulting and climbing equipment. The numerous forms began in the early eigh- on one foot, making somersaults, stretch- Alongside English sports, another type of ideal surrounding for gymnastic exercises teenth century and continued throughout ing, and running, in addition to maneu- physical culture developed in continen- was an open air gymnasium surrounded the century. In continental Europe and vers that utilized simple equipment like tal Europe. Gymnastics originated from by trees, which included a playground Scandinavia, gymnastics formed the first horizontal bars or weights, or even more Enlightenment ideas about children’s for free play in addition to the equip- somewhat coherent physical culture since complicated apparatus like the parallel education. Unlike English sport, which ment for more organized exercises. The bars or the pommel horse. The exercises gymnastic exercises were performed 134 Mandell 1984, 159,161. Eichberg 1998, could be performed alone or in a group. 131 Mandell 1984, 141-142. Bale 2004, regularly at certain times and places, and 47, 52-54. In the latter case, the movements were 34. Gotaas 2009, 14. Eichberg 1982, 45. were carefully taught in order to ensure 135 Part of Germany in the nineteenth cen- 132 Eichberg 1982, p.46. their effect and the pupils’ progress. A tury, today parts of the Czech Republic and 136 Mandell 1984, 164, 168, 170, 173, 174. 133 Solnit 2001, 87, 91, 93, 96. Slovakia. Dunning 1995, 22.

88 89 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 executed in unison. The detailed instruc- gymnastics, Viktor Heikel, also collected which were not exceeded until the final The Transition to Modern Sport tions about the scheduling of the exer- instructions for running. His directions rise of the modern Olympic Games in the cises, as well as the manner of executing indicate that the runner’s head should be twentieth century.141 The concept of modern sport developed the movements, varied depending on the upright, and his chest pushed forward. The evolution of the technical equip- within a reasonable short period of time variant of gymnastics practiced.137 One should keep his mouth shut and ment used for these exercises continued in English boarding schools and univer- Running in the context of gymnastic breathe only through his nose, in order to throughout the dominant period of sities. Physical education in early eigh- diverged from both pre-sport running prevent cold or dusty air from harming gymnastics. In addition to the special- teenth century England took a unique as well as running in modern sport. As the lungs. He introduces one more run- ized spaces reserved for exercises only, direction that emphasized competition the idea of quantitative achievement was ning exercise, where one bends his legs gymnastic exercises were intensified by between the students. The practice of absent in gymnastics, the running exer- so that the heels touch the buttocks with the use of various equipment. There competitive sporting events became cises had a different emphasis. Running a every step. Heikel’s gymnastic practices were simple accessories like the iron bar epidemic in English schools and universi- certain distance was not the only option, also included a type of running where that was used as a supplementary weight ties, and the contests between schools and and instead running could be performed the gymnast carries an iron bar similar to in various movements, as well as more intercollegiate competitions soon adopted for a certain time or a certain amount the one used in Jahn’s Turnen, and shifts complicated apparatus, from the hori- standardized rules in order to compare of steps. A Finnish handbook of gym- its position for each running section. zontal bar to ladders for climbing and results.144 The codification of sport had nastics by Karl Gustaf Göös gives some In comparison with today’s running, a bock142 for jumping over. Already in begun already when prizefighting was examples of how meticulously a running gymnastic running was utterly classified 1816 Jahn had suggested several types of transformed into boxing; the second step exercise should be executed; Göös gives and organized in detail. However, the equipment: “Springel (for high jumps and was taken in the early nineteenth cen- exact advice on how the body should lean early running styles in modern sport carry pole vaulting), vaulting poles, a trench tury, when the rules of rugby were fixed forward, and how the arms should be some signs of gymnastic running, for to be jumped over, four horizontal bars, in written form in 1846. These generally bent and moved. For instance, running example Hannes Kolehmainen, four-time four parallel bars, four Schwingel (wood- accepted rules, which were available in should start with left foot if not otherwise Olympic winner in distance running, en vaulting horses), another suspended written form, finally made it possible instructed. In addition, various types of advocated breathing through the nose.138 horizontal bar, a post and javelins, a to develop a coherent sport where the running were distinguished; the objec- Even though the results of gymnastic towing rope, a rope for tug’o’war and matches could be compared, and where tive of lyhyt-juoksu (short running) was training were sometimes measured and other rope exercises, short ropes, two the superiority of the winning team beautiful and elastic running. The steps timed in order to track an individual’s ropes for climbing, two climbing poles could be ensured. In addition, techno- were performed on the ball of the foot progress139, the gymnasts’ gatherings were and a ladder” were considered necessary logical developments made it possible to and were kept short. One should keep more performances than competitions.140 for 80 gymnasts. The use of specialized measure records with adequate accuracy. up 160 steps per minute for a maximum However, these gymnastic meetings have equipment formed a continuation and By the end of the nineteenth century, time of three minutes. Lyhyt-juoksu could an important role as the predecessor of intensification of the already organized stop-watches that were capable of mea- be performed in- or outdoors, running sport competitions, as the number of par- system of exercising that gymnastics had suring time down to parts of a second in different patterns, and also stationary. ticipants in the meetings grew. The great established.143 became affordable enough to be used Nopea-juoksu (quick running) was closer gymnastic meetings with their numerous even in local sporting contests. Although to the modern (sport) idea of running. attendees were the largest athletic gath- 141 According to Deutscher Turner-Bund the basic codification of sport was thus In this practice, two gymnasts ran back erings during the nineteenth century, (http://www. dtb-online.de), the Turnfests during introduced fully by the mid-eighteenth and forth in a field, and the first reaching the latter half of nineteenth century had thousands century, it continued to develop over the back to the starting line was the winner. 138 Vettenniemi 2006, 112-113, 116-117. of participants, and for instance the Deutches course of the century and beyond. For Nopea-juoksu was performed outdoors Finnish variant of gymnastics was based on the Turnfest in Münich 1889 totaled 20 000 gymnasts. example, the familiar 400-meter oval German and Swedish gymnastic programs. only. Another Finnish advocate of 142 A simple precursor of the ”horse” and running track became the standard no Also Eichberg 1998, 152. the contemporary vaulting table used in various 139 Mandell 1984, 161. jumps. 137 Vettenniemi 2006, 111-112, 117-120. 144 Eichberg 1982, 46. Mandell 1984, Mandell 1984, 159-162. 140 Mandell 1984, 168. 143 Eichberg 1982, 49. 154-155.

90 91 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 earlier than the Amsterdam Olympics of to improve one’s achievement contrib- the working class. Mandell suggests that 1928.145 uted to the idea of an abstract record, the reason behind this was the novelty The Further A tendency to standardize sporting unlike previous ranking lists that merely of new sports; they were without tradi- events had existed previously in vari- arranged the competitors in order of tion and thus classless. The popularity of Refinement of ous places, but the final reason for the relative success. The concepts of a com- sports among the lower classes led to con- adoption of universal rules was the need petition, an achievement, and a record, flicts where the amateur regulations were Art and Sport for keeping comparable records. The completed within fixed rules and accord- used against the work-hardened working first impulse towards the codification of ing to the idea of fair play, developed class athletes.149 The original idea of sports was a part of the civilizing process over a hundred-year time span from the amateur sport was the feature that finally When the practices of art and sport of game-contests. The codification of mid-eighteenth century to the mid-nine- separated the pre-sport game-contest stabilized in the 1830s (art) and 1900 game-contests began with an attempt to teenth century, formed the foundation for practices from modern sport. Previously, (sport), there was still plenty of develop- make them less dangerous by forbidding modern sport, and decisively separated it physical activities outside regular work ment ahead before the practices reached the most extreme behavior.146 During from all previous physical cultures. had been local folk games and contests, their maturity.150 Both practices emerged the second phase of the development of The regularization of sporting events light exercises for the upper classes, or the in the course of the general differentia- modern sport, the example of the growth was concluded by transforming them professional athlete’s feats, but now these tion of human activities since the Middle and modernization of industry formed an into quantified, transferable abstractions; were combined into regular training and ages; in a process where activities that had implicit force behind the codification and omitting the sacks and water buckets competition without monetary prizes. been in a conjoined state started to find a regularization of sports; industrial work from running and other carnivalesque By the end of the nineteenth centu- new order in a more categorized system. rationalized previously naturally orga- features, the element of luck and coinci- ry all seven of the features Guttmann Although most human activities had nized work according to new principles. dence, as well as the play element, were used for separating modern sport from found their definitive places in the new Work became quantified and measured excluded from the competition, trans- previous physical cultures had emerged. system, their internal refinement as well by achievement and time. Where time forming it into a rational, abstract, and English sport had already become secular as the development of associated institu- had previously been considered contin- objective practice. The modern running during the first phase of its development; tions continued. Using Kuhn’s terminol- uous, it was now divided into time for space formed a straight line, where the equality of opportunities to compete ogy, the paradigm shift was over, and the work and time for rest. Furthermore, the boundaries between lanes separated the and equality in the conditions of com- normal practices were working according space for work became separated from the runners. Running events were no longer petition were introduced in eighteenth to the newly imposed rules in order to spaces used for everyday life. The orga- set up between locally known landmarks, century; at the same time the idea of purify each practice to its apex. nization of sport followed the structure but for exact distances, so the absolute fairness was connected to physical con- In spite of the different time frames of industrialized work; striving for an results between different races could tents; the specialization of roles emerged in the development of art and sport, the achievement in limited time and space be compared. In addition to the spatial at the latest with the rules of boxing; the formation of the institutional structures became the main principle of modern features of sporting events, the equipment rationalization of physical practices took was surprisingly similar. Both practices sport.147 used in field sports was standardized. place during the nineteenth century with needed spaces and facilities: places to per- Completing a run in the first place In pre-sport competitions, the objects the standardization of sporting events as form and exhibit, spaces for artistic work had always been the objective of pre-sport thrown or tossed were stones and logs well as the quantification and the quest and athletes’ exercise, and both practices game-contests, but completing a run varying in weight.148 for records; and the modern bureaucrat- needed special equipment and materi- with a record time formed a new type of Although the elite universities played ic organization concluded the shift to als. These are the most obvious material concrete, measurable achievement. Trying a key role in developing sport in England, modern sport during the latter half of the needs. These material requirements were the taste for sports quickly expanded to nineteenth century. arranged in various ways in both practic- 145 Mandell 1984, 156. Eichberg 1982, 46. es. Private collectors and enthusiasts sup- Bale 2004, 47. 148 Eichberg 1998, 149-151. Mandell 1984, ported the new facilities, and educational 146 Dunning 1999, 50. 151-152. Guttmann 1978, 15-55 passim. 147 Eichberg 1998, 143. Huizinga 1971, 13. 149 Mandell 1984, 153. 150 Shiner 2001, 218.

92 93 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 systems found uses for both art and sport systems of art and sport consisted of fur- practices.154 or style of executing the artwork. Later, and thus supported them. However, the ther defining the specific arts and sports The original visual arts extended their this bisection was completed by anti- institutional and material development of that should be included in the practices. expressive possibilities by stretching the art movements that rose up against art’s art and sport was not unique: similar dif- The evolution of the practices took place limits of their individual media. For original quest for beauty, the sublime, ferentiations of practices during the mod- mainly through the expansion of the orig- instance, the possibilities of painting were and transcendent utopias. Art’s division ernization of European culture produced inal set of arts and sports by assimilation, extended firstly through introducing dif- into various movements began in the late institutions of new kind in several newly but also excluding practices. Some prac- ferent painting styles, which either tried nineteenth century, and culminated on established practices (science, medicine, tices occupied a gray area, almost becom- to present the world in a new perspective both sides around the First World War, technology, media...) as well as specialized ing art or sport, but never being accepted (impressionism) or tried to picture the when cubism (around 1910), Dadaism equipment, most notably in the field of as a part of the systems. For example, parts of the world that cannot be visually (1916), surrealism (early 1920s), and sciences. landscape gardening ceased to be con- perceived (expressionism and abstract futurism (1909) all introduced their Both art and sport became widely sup- sidered as an art at quite an early phase, painting). Another way of extending the artistic programs. The previous domains ported by the states, for both were already and dance was adopted into the group of possibilities of the field of visual arts was of the visual arts (painting, sculpture, and seen in their early stages as potential arts. Part of the practice of photography to abandon the orthodox use of artistic architecture) were divided into numerous fields for displaying a nation’s excellence. was transformed into art by assimilation media and introduce traces of everyday movements that had their own distinctive For instance, in Finland sport was used at a rather early stage, by the end of the life into the artwork. Picasso and Braque ideas about each medium of the visual to create nationalistic feelings: in the nineteenth century, but becoming accept- applied this method in their cubistic arts, and often about literature, music, Stockholm Olympic Games of 1912, Fin- ed as a central medium of the visual arts experiments by using the collage tech- and dance as well.155 land presented as an independent team took several decades.153 In a similar way, nique, thus breaking the illusion of paint- The first period of maturity in sport even though it was not an independent the original formation of sport already ing as a window to the world. Similarly, can be situated during the years between nation.151 The use of art for nationalistic excluded popular game-contests like sack sculpture replaced the material purity the First and Second World Wars, when ends was similar to how sport was used; races or man versus horse running races, of stone and bronze by using all kinds the Olympic movement and Olympic Finland exhibited in its own pavilion at but tug-of-war was included in sports of materials, in order to produce works Games had been rooted firmly in western the 1889 Exposition Universelle in Paris, until the Stockholm Olympics of 1912. that would not reproduce objects already culture. The building of special spa even though it was still a part of the Parts of gymnastics were assimilated into existing in world, but rather produce new ces for practicing sports exemplifies its Russian Empire. The Finnish exhibition sports by sportification; an evaluation views of the world. importance at the time; the first Olympic emphasized the status of Finns as a cul- system for the difficulty and perfection In addition to the expansion of the Stadium was built for the 1912 Olympic turally unique nation through the means of individual exercises was added to the field of arts and the extension of the Games in Stockholm, and after that sport of art. The Finnish pavilion was designed gymnastic performances, and thus trans- limits of artistic possibilities, the matu- stadiums became places where the art of by Armas Lindgren, Herman Gesellius, formed what were previously exercises ration of arts is visible in the formation architecture was combined with sport and Eliel Saarinen, and decorated in into sports. Bodybuilding, in turn, was of several movements that emphasized performances, and provided sport a place national romantic style by Akseli Gal- once included in official sports, but later various approaches to art, or different separated from everyday life. The specta- len-Kallela, who was the most prosperous moved away from sport because of its styles in executing artworks. The two tors were also separated from the athletes Finnish artist that time. Art was used to attitude towards the use of performance main lines that can be seen in early in a similar manner as the theater and make a statement about an autonomous enhancing chemicals considered as illegal twentieth century art movements are concert audiences were separated from and unique Finnish culture, even though doping in the sports system. The grad- expressionism and formalism. The former the performers.156 such a nation did not exist yet.152 ual transformation of the practices did emphasized the arts’ (and artists’) abil- During this period, sport meant exclu- The process of refinement of the not obscure the boundaries of art and ity to express feelings through art, and sively competitive achievement sport, sport; moreover, the changes clarified the the latter concentrated on the method i.e. sport in its purest form. Even though 151 Laine 1992 a, 126. Viita 2003, 152-153 155 Shiner 2001, 228. 152 Sevänen 1998, 278, 302. Viita 2003, 154 Eichberg 1995 b, 31. Yttegren and 158-160. Fredrikson 2001, 20, 24, 26, 40. 153 Shiner 2001, 226, 230-233, 282. Bolling 2012, 10, 20. Kinnunen 2001, 48,95. 156 Bale 2004, 52. Eichberg 1998, 57-58.

94 95 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 sport was already a popular pastime, the in a hierarchical order. There was hardly stages of the development of his image. on many social institutions, both official objectives of sport were in the compe- any room for the freedom of expression The declaration of independence from and informal. These institutions were titions, and achieving quantified results that later characterizes artists and their surrounding values and ethics became (and are) connected with the process of in a standardized environment. This work.159 determined, even though most artists’ becoming an artist, earning one’s living concentration on achievement produced Many of the qualities that define the income was dependent on success in the as an artist, and gaining artistic fame. An a sports culture that was significantly dif- artist and her role in today’s culture were art market. If an artist was not (finan- aspiring artist needed education, buyers ferent from our contemporary ideas. For formed already in the late nineteenth cen- cially) successful, he could always turn or institutional support, and places to instance, practicing sport was confined tury. Imagination and creativity already this into a success by appealing to the exhibit his art in order to be considered to the specialized sport fields. Several took their place as artist’s attributes idea that spirit was more important than worthy as an artist.165 sources describe how distance runners during the early stages of art’s separation money.162 The images of an alienated artist work- were ridiculed if they exercised in public, into an independent practice. During the The ideal features of an artist were ing only for art’s sake, suffering from the outside the running track, and for this course of the nineteenth century more further divided into subcategories that “curse of genius”166 , and the idea of the reason they often walked outside densely elevated qualities were added. Heinich defined an artist’s disposition more care- creative and original artist misunderstood populated areas in their everyday clothing sees that in the early stages of the second fully. Some of these subcategories enjoyed by the great audience is so powerful that before setting out for a run.157 This was system of arts, artists educated in an art a short period of popularity, but some it conceals the fact that most artists in the also the time when the idea of the ama- academy belonged to the regime of profes- have endured as a part of artist’s image nineteenth and twentieth centuries – and teur athlete existed in its most authentic sional, but during the nineteenth century until today. One of the nineteenth cen- even more so today – had a normal pro- form. For instance, Paavo Nurmi, a nine- the artist’s status was transformed further tury’s artistic stereotypes was the dandy, fessional status and were socially respect- time Olympic champion, was rejected – in Heinich’s words into the regime of who distinguished himself from the ed people. For instance, Howard Becker from the 1932 Olympic Games in Los the vocational. The artist became a person common people by refined outfits and describes how regularly an artist can work Angeles because his amateur status was with a special kind of creativity and a gestures. In real life, most dandies were regardless of any inspiration. The steady suspect.158 However, the idea of ama- higher calling for art. His devotion to art not productive artists, but concentrated working schedule helps to produce works teurism did not apply the professionals was much more demanding than that on the presentation of themselves, turn- with a consistent artistic quality, even supporting athletes or working for the required in a normal profession.160 ing their lives into artworks.163 Another though this everyday practice of working sport bureaucracy. The artist’s destiny was to suffer for his archetype was the bohemian, who disre- is totally inartistic according to the ideals Once the artist was separated from the art; art was surpassed by nothing. To be a garded the middle-class norms, especially inherited from the nineteenth century.167 craftsman, the perception of his qualities real artist was to be a genius that lived for those pertaining to behavior and morality. While the dandy and bohemian were shifted too. In the first phase, the art- his art, and used all his powers to produce On the other hand, the practices of many rather superficial and brief examples of ist’s profession preserved a hierarchical artworks that uncovered his imagination, artists drew close to those of the artisans. the nineteenth century statements on organization that somewhat resembled creativity, and capability for self-expres- These artists did not perform with flam- artistic freedom, the more universal ste- the previous guild system, and opposed sion. Real artists abandoned the approved boyant, expressive artistic freedom, but reotypes of an artist, as a rebel and a suf- the later ideas of what an artist should be. rules in order to employ their individual strove for perfection in their art. Instead ferer, can still be found among contem- The education in art academies concen- sensitivity for creating unique artworks.161 of underlining their artistic personality, porary artists. Surprisingly, these (self) trated on the artist’s skills in drawing and In addition to this devotion to his they concentrated on the end products of images of an artist were not affected by using color, as well as designing and exe- work, freedom as an artist’s quality was their artist’s vocation, while still dedicat- subsequent changes in art style or period. cuting paintings according to predefined already emphasized during the early ing their lives to art.164 The permanence of these ideals exempli- rules that followed classical models. Despite the emphasis on freedom, fies the special and honorific status artists Even the subjects of artworks were set 159 Walsh 1999, 234-236,243 nineteenth century artists were dependent 165 Wolff 1994 (1981), 40-47. 160 Heinich 2012, 698. Heinich 2009, 88. 162 Shiner 2001, 115, 201,203. 157 Bale 2004, 16, 48-49. Vettenniemi Danko 2008, 247. 166 Shiner 2001, 203. 2006, 158-164. 163 Garelick 1998, 28. 161 Barker, Webb, and Woods 1999, 9. 167 Becker 2008 (1982), 18. Shiner 2001, 158 Yttegren 2006. Walsh 1999, 243. 164 Shiner 2001, 201, 203, 205. 201, 203.

96 97 The Development of the Modern Practices of Art and Sport • 3 achieved during the nineteenth century. their nation – idealistic figures, pure and became significant as traces of the paint- The athlete was a new type of charac- truthful. Their private personalities did ing process. The painter was supposed to ter in nineteenth century society, without not come in view. Athletes conformed concentrate purely on the act of painting, historical exemplars like the artist. Prac- to the purified public image and took which became the subject of the work. ticing physical activities brought together advantage of it by appearing in com- Art in modernism transformed into a people from all walks of life. Naturally, mercials. The ideal of an amateur athlete dissimilar – even unrecognizable – form groups practicing together – both in sport did not prevent athletes from employing when compared with previous art; howev- and gymnastics – were segregated accord- their fame commercially. Occasionally, er, the conception of art still remained the ing to social groups and/or ethnicity and/ the athlete was certainly used to promote same, and along with it the artist’s status, or nationality, but in sport competitions various interests that were sometimes the idea of artwork, the modes of presen- the boundaries between these groups in conflict with the athlete’s preferences tation, as well as the aesthetic modes of were lowered, if not eliminated. In and remote from the ideals of sport. For reception of art.170 athletic meetings, the measurable result instance, the four-time Olympic champi- Even though sport in the early twenti- or skill of performance was the yardstick on Hannes Kolehmainen was exploited in eth century emphasized the independence for ranking, not social background. In the marketing of cigarettes, even though of sporting events in a similar way to the contrast to the artist, an athlete had a less he strongly opposed the habit.169 mediums of art at the time, it did not pronounced figure; his personal qualities The boundaries between different arts transform away from the organization needed no exaggeration, as the results became higher as modernism took over that developed at the beginning of the spoke instead for the personality. The as the primary art movement. The quest century. Instead, sport reinforced the pre- archetypal athlete finds his form in the for purity within the medium became an vailing system through an internationally early twentieth century, and remained essential approach in art. In visual arts, controlled bureaucracy and later through unaltered until the late twentieth century. this tendency is best exemplified in paint- the global expansion of sport practice. The rise of professional sports in the late ing. American art critic Clement Green- twentieth century brought new kinds of berg formulated the essence of modern- athletes into public knowledge. A suc- ism as eliminating imitation, especially cessful professional athlete needed the of literary material, from the plastic arts. personality as much as the results.168 Presenting the world outside painting was Unlike artists, the qualities of an ath- not relevant, according to the ideals of lete were defined by the sport authorities modernist style. Greenberg’s idea was that and the audience. While artists actively by concentrating on the internal aspects build up their ideal qualities and position of the discipline, painting reinforces itself in society, athletes were more the subjects as art. For this reason an ideal modernist in the formation of their public image. painting had a flat picture space, with no The sport audience wanted to see them effort to achieve the three dimensional as heroes; they were seen as good, hard space or perspective that had been seen as working citizens, presenting a natural characteristic of the medium of painting. talent that had been purified by exer- Instead, the visible indications of the cises. The ideal of amateur sport made painting process, which have been faded the successful athletes, who spend their from view in the nineteenth century, leisure training for their sport – and for 169 Viita 2003, 227, 304-305, 307-308, 168 Welsch 2005, 136-137. 336, 380. 170 Greenberg 2005 b (1940), 562-563.

98 99 4 • The Diverse Field In-Between

100 101 Art – Play – Sport

102 103 Art – Play – Sport (detail)

104 105 Skull, Black Square, Perfect Circle, Step Piece Igloo, Rhoenrad, Slackline, Juggler

106 107 Stationary Trainer, Cooper Test

Unicycle, Mountain Biking, Archery, Basketball

108 109 Reality Reality

Visitor Visitor

110 111 The Diverse Field In-Between • 4

After investigating how the historical development of art and sport resemble each other, I realized that it would be interesting to explore how the acts and practices within contemporary art and sport either depart from each other or resemble each other. Moreover, what new kind of practices could be situated in the field between art and sport? My second artistic project was inspired by ideas awoken by the historical similarity of art and sport, and the possibilities created by their intertwining today. This vantage point, the comparison of the differences and similarities between the contemporary forms of art and sport, became the main theme of the second art project. Some sub-themes soon surfaced; the parallel experiences of the active participants in both practices, as well as the polarity of the participant and the perceiver, were the two most important ones. I approached the similarities and differences between art and sport by inspecting their core acts – trying to find the significant features of the artist’s and the athlete’s practices. For instance, drawing and painting form core acts in art, just as running, throwing objects, and ball games are core acts in sport. I first focused on the traditional or conventional contents of the practices, but in addition tried to find the means for tracing the active participant’s unique experience in certain acts. The extent to which the active participant’s experience could be conveyed to an individual perceiver formed one of the central artistic problems in the project. I needed to find an approach to art and sport that would give the perceiver in the exhibition the opportunity to share my view of the analogies between the practices. My perspective on art and sport as parallel cultural practices is a constructed view, set up especially for the art project and the research project. However, I also wished to promote the benefits of this view through the art project. I started to construct artworks that would be based on a collection of various acts typical to art and sport, as well as the field between them. All the acts would be presented from the usual onlooker’s point of view, as well as from that of the active artist or athlete. The two versions of the acts should be visible simulta neously, so that the perceiver could alternate between them by just turning her eyes. I would try to complete various acts, record my attempts, and present the recordings as the result of my laboratory work. The presentation of the artworks in the exhibition should be designed to support this conception: the visual presentation of the acts needed to be as plain as possible. I tried to avoid “artistic”

112 113 The Diverse Field In-Between • 4 filters while constructing my work, to just constructing the finished works. The path of the active participant’s. In the final testing possible actions. Some of the show the bare acts without any enhance- traveled from the original ideas to the video installation, the array of chosen acts actions became possible by coincidence or ment or decoration. My objective was exhibition during the art project benefits was projected simultaneously onto two sheer luck. For example, I recorded many to record and present the acts faithfully, the research as a whole. In the exhibition, screens, thus juxtaposing the two differ- of the videos on the premises of a local trying to preserve the atmosphere of the the visitor faces the same questions I had ent views. In addition to the immediate dance theater. The dance company shares original setting, and so documenting confronted during the artistic process, evaluation of the various acts presented the space with some circus artists. This them with video seemed to be the best but without the same preliminary under- on the videos, another level of commu- coincidence made it possible to add some solution. Even though the moving image standing. nication was present; through prolonged circus acts to the videos. on a video does not convey bodily experi- The project produced three artworks attention, the set of videos will gradually While selecting the tasks to perform, ence, which was significant in my case, it that were presented in an exhibition at place art and sport in relation to each I did not try to build a full continuum can represent the visual perception of acts Gallery Sinne in Helsinki. One of the other. from art to sport and vice versa: my reasonably faithfully. artworks, Art – Play – Sport, formed the The conceptualization of the work attempt was more to record some acts that The outlines of the artistic work were foundation for the exhibition, dealing began with a fairly limited concept. At clearly belong to the historical traditions set beforehand, with the intention being most faithfully with the subject matter of first, I wanted to make the presentation of art or sport, and to then complete the to clean up the process that led to the the art project. Two other artworks in the of the tasks as minimal as possible, to set of acts with actions more ambivalent finished artworks. Deciding some goals exhibition provided further comments isolate them from reality by using the in their relationship to these traditions. for the project, and setting up a few and other points of view on the central bare white hall in a local dance theater as The idea behind the set of ambivalent acts criteria to limit the working process and artwork, as well as the theme of the proj- my studio. The intention was to create was to provide the potential for different the materials used, left me more time ect in general. a laboratory-like environment, where interpretations, and to encourage a recon- and energy to concentrate on the most all the tasks could be recorded and later sideration of these acts in relation to art important factor, the content of the compared under similar circumstances. and sport. Together, the detached and the artworks. As the project advanced, this narrow rooted practices were intended to stimu- At this point, at the outset of the concept became too limiting, and I ended late connotations within the framework second art project, I wanted to see the Art – Play – up recording some of the videos in other of similarities and differences between art artistic projects as a test-site, where ideas environments. and sport practices. concerning my research topics would Sport In order to make the videos coherent, While the art-actions were performed be tested. The artistic process produces I performed all the tasks, and the array and recorded on the premises of the ideas and knowledge based on my recent reflects the limits of my abilities. The dance theater, the sport acts were mostly academic interests. The ideas and knowl- The video installation Art – Play – Sport artistic tasks had no real connection to performed in authentic settings; organiz- edge obtained in the art project would became the central work in the art my working methods, but represented the ing a mountain biking or track running be utilized in the research, both in the project. The installation consisted of archetypes of artistic methods used in art. performance in a studio space would have written part as well as the next art project. fourteen video recordings about actions The sport-related acts were mainly chosen been impossible. Unlike the more realistic The nature of the knowledge gained is that introduced some possibilities for from physical activities with which I sport acts, which stayed more on the doc- such that it would not necessarily be pos- connecting art and sport through physi- had previous experience. I tried various umentary level, the acts presenting “pure sible to present it in the exhibition, but cal activity. Art – Play – Sport presented ways to define the appropriate set of acts art” turned out to be just representations it would be visible in the upcoming part all the foundational ideas I had for the that would build a bridge between art of making art, because none of them real- of research. The part of artistic work that exhibition in a focused manner. At the and sport, and which I would be able to ly presented my methods for making art, provides for the research can be found in center of the work were documented acts perform. Despite my preparatory consid- the choices made during the artistic work, situated in and between the fields of art eration about the correct set of actions, in the conceptualizing and planning of and sport, as seen from two viewpoints: the final set of tasks presenting the field the contents of the artworks, as well as that of an anonymous perceiver’s and that between art and sport were chosen by

114 115 The Diverse Field In-Between • 4 but generic ideas about artistic work.171 video. The final videos needed to be com- The Videos form a domain separated from mundane Catching the active participant’s piled from short clips, and the abundant activities. The recorded sport activities point of view formed the first problem video material and selective editing from The final work consisted of fourteen vid- fulfill Guttmann’s characteristics for in constructing the work. How would various recording sessions made it possi- eos, four of them representing art prac- modern sport172, whereas moving towards it be possible to use a camera that has a ble to obtain the result I expected. Some tices, four modern sport, and the last six art their importance declines and other fixed viewpoint to capture a much more of the actions were brief, and that made it videos something in between. All the acts aspects come forward. multi-faceted personal perception? In possible to use just a few video clips that required physical exertion, some intense The middle acts suggest more sport practice, the solution used is obviously covered most of the time, but other acts action, some to a lesser extent. Some of than art, because of their physical nature. a compromise. After considering the lasted a longer time, in a few cases hours, the videos show a serious attitude towards However, I believe that they take a clear problem, and conducting many prelim- and then the material had to be edited the task; it is something that needs to be step from the ideals of modern sport inary tests on possible set ups, I decided radically in order to show the whole act completed properly, something that needs towards art. These actions are not con- to use a stationary camera to record the in a reasonable amount of time. an all-out effort. Some tasks are more fined to rational rules, in a manner simi- acts from a detached observer’s point of Committing the chosen acts in a playful; the action is something I am lar to modern sport. The equipment used view, and a head-mounted action cam- staged setting transformed them into trying out and I am not certain about the in a creative manner provides a starting era to record the action from the active representations of the real acts. However, outcome. If the videos are put on an axis point for the creativity to play – like an participant’s point of view. The stationary this was needed, because the pursuit of between art and sport, according to my artist’s medium provides a framework to camera, and its distance from the action, similar, consistent perspectives through- experience the array is as follows: work within. The measuring or counting emphasized the remoteness of the observ- out the series of videos was needed to Art: (quantification) is not important within er’s perspective; a real observer would be bring their contents to the same level – as Skull – Black Square – Perfect Circle – these actions. They can be physically more emphatic in the situation, and con- comparable activities, regardless of their Step Piece – Igloo – Rhoenrad – Slack- demanding or even competitive, but tinuously follow the act with movements original status as art or sport. line – Juggler – Unicycle – Mountain neither is essential when engaging them. of her gaze. The remoteness of the observ- Biking – Archery – Basketball – Sta- The aspect that connects the middle er’s view creates a juxtaposition with the tionary Trainer – Cooper Test section videos is the playful attitude. You participant’s restless point of view. :Sport play with your equipment and environ- The initial result of recording each The art videos present or mimic classi- ment in order to find new angles on the task from both viewpoints was two cal approaches to the modern conception practice. There are certain conventions, videos, each somewhat resembling the of art. Art is something special, made by but they do not regulate the search for same action. Later in the production, the people with special skills through a cer- new solutions. In art, similar testing of raw videos were edited into two video tain system. The result of the artistic work the limits of creativity and medium is a clips presenting the same action from can be an object or, in the late modern normal working method. Trying some- two perspectives. In order to maintain understanding of art, a documentation of thing new, leaving one’s comfort zone, the illusion of a single act seen from two an action. However, the result belongs to can help in opening dead ends in artistic points of view, two sessions were needed, a special category of art that is separated work. Related creativity also exists in so that neither of the cameras nor the from everyday life. Usually the artis- sport, usually outside organized com- staged setting would be visible in the final tic process is hidden, only the result is petitive events, but its potential is more public. Again, the four videos presenting limited. For example, various fashions 171 The unwillingness to include a video sport activities focus on the main ingre- are generated in recreational running, in about my own artistic practice in the series was an dients of modern sport: extreme physical important reason for making Reality as the second 172 Secularism, equality of opportunity to effort, measuring, counting, and compet- work in the exhibition: the work exposes the set compete and in the conditions of competition, up used in Art – Play – Sport and shows my actual ing. Analogously to the results of artistic specialization of roles, rationalization, bureaucratic artistic practice without the illusion utilized in Art actions, the traditional sporting activities organization, quantification, and the quest for – Play – Sport.. records.

116 117 The Diverse Field In-Between • 4 order to bring variation and new kinds Black Square Igloo Unicycle of experiences to the practice, but they do not affect the competitive variation of The video reflects the objectives of the I tried to build an igloo, attempting to A video about learning the fundamentals running. I have not found any references modernist movement; the action that maintain the shape as a perfect hemi- of a skill. A normal person should be able about competitive track runners par- produces the artwork is an integral part sphere. The encounter of building theory to learn to ride a unicycle quite easily. ticipating in ultra-marathons, or advo- of the work. My task was to color one and practice did not result in perfection. Achieving a basic skill level should take cating the new experiences to be found square meter of paper black for the dura- The capricious behavior of snow stretched a few hours, or a couple of days at the in barefoot running. The creativity that tion of one hour, and to get the paper as the building process over three days, and most. I had no previous experience and explores alternatives in sport is found in black as possible. The task focuses only on forced a compromise in the shape of the received no guidance. hobbyist sport, not competitive practice. volume and endurance. When quality is igloo. In a way analogous to sport, the tradi- not imperative, working with both hands tional mediums of art are less open to is an option. Mountain Biking play. Naturally, one can play with classical Rhoenrad drawing materials and technique, but not Watching some sport events is simply until the emergence of contemporary art Perfect Circle Rhoenrad gymnastics is a special activity ridiculous and absurd. Following a cross routines in the 1960s was it customary situated between a sport and a variety country mountain biking race is mainly to see a fully random action as art. The The objective during this act was to draw show. In Germany, the country of Rhoen- waiting in the woods for the riders to pass (physical) practices in the middle section an exact circle in 60 minutes. The task of rad’s origin, it is clearly a sport, but in my that point. The experience is over in just of my videos reveal one possible con- drawing a perfect circle combines striving native Finland it is better known from the a few seconds, while the rider’s experience nection between art and sport in their for a pure form with skill and eye-hand circus. After a day’s training, I was able to is totally different, as a lengthy and inten- contemporary forms. If there exist more coordination. perform some basic moves. sive movement through the environment. connections between art and sport, this is the area to look for it. … Step Piece – a remake Slackline Archery

This video is a remake of Vito Acconci’s Slacklining is almost pure play, but Archery is a sport, and it is an ancient Skull Step Piece from 1974. In his work, Acco- extended exercise becomes tough, and skill. Only the result counts in compet- nci stepped up and down on an 18 inch advanced tricks require fine-tuned motor itive archery, but advanced shooting is I had never before used drawing as the high stool every morning as many times coordination and courage. For me, bal- also extremely elegant. When one starts medium for my artistic work. For me, as he could for a three-month period. In ancing on the line is enough. archery, one has to learn a completely drawing has been a tool for taking notes addition, he meticulously recorded the new set of movements as well as learn to and planning the artworks. However, daily results and the progress he made. control those movements very carefully. I wanted to involve one of the most Juggler traditional practices of art into my work. In the video, I attempt to draw a human An embarrassing performance of my skull with a pencil for one hour. elementary juggling skills.

118 119 The Diverse Field In-Between • 4

Basketball In the Exhibition The user interface in Art – Play and the conventions of exhibiting the – Sport consisted of imitations of clas- results of artistic work in a gallery. The Basketball is one of the most popular In the exhibition, the videos were pre- sical sports pictograms173 mounted on intention of the two minor works was games in the world, and was the first sented as a two channel video installation, plywood squares, and a desk were the to detach the contents of the exhibition sport I engaged in seriously. My active where the spectator’s and the maker’s pictograms were placed. Each pictogram from a pure art-sport relationship, and career lasted five years during my teens. viewpoints were projected in adjacent was equipped with hidden RFID-tags draw attention to the real activities of After that, I have played only occasion- rooms. Although it was possible to see (radio-frequency identification -tags). art-making and the habits relating to art ally. both projections simultaneously, more Each tag triggered a corresponding pair of exhibitions. careful inspection required moving videos when it was moved to the play area between the projections. marked on the desk. Below the painted Stationary Trainer The projections were realized as play area was a hidden reading device that Reality rear-projections, fitted in free-standing communicated with a computer to play A stationary trainer is an alternative for frames on the gallery floor. This arrange- the videos. In addition to the practical This work follows the preparation of this an exercise-bike or a spinning bike. While ment enables a closer inspection of the matters of designing the interface, I want- very exhibition, in a 20-minute period using the stationary trainer the rider videos, and thus a more intensive experi- ed to incorporate the perceiver’s physical of a real-life situation. Following in the needs, in addition to simply pedaling, to ence than the normal movie theater-like experience as a part of the art experience. fashion of Art – Play – Sport and yet devi- balance the bike. On a stationary trainer, situation, where the video is projected Physical interaction adds an extra sensory ating from it, I recorded my work from the balance is extremely delicate, and onto the wall. In my work, this is a bene- layer to the visual experience. Selecting two angles, now simultaneously. The pedaling the bicycle is hard because there fit, especially considering the videos made the videos by pressing buttons would uncut material was used to make a split- is no possibility to coast; one has to keep from maker’s point of view, where this probably have been the more obvious screen video that loops continuously. The the wheels rotating all the time. Also, arrangement places the perceiver closer to option, but by using a special interface I videos in Art – Play – Sport hide the real the absence of the cooling airflow makes the original participant’s point of view. could hide the technique, as well as the situation by carefully editing the material the exercise heavier than a regular bicycle The conventions of exhibiting video similarities with the remote control of a from various video clips, thus creating an ride. based art works are often unsatisfactory. regular television set. illusion of two individual viewpoints. In Usually, the perceiver has no chance this work, the reality of an artist’s every- to influence the work, for instance to day work, visible in the entirety of its Cooper Test restart it, or even has information about tediousness, engages in a dialog with the the duration of the video. Also, there is edited acts. The work exposes a limited The objective of a Cooper test is to run usually no information about whether the Other Works part of my life in Big Brother –style, and flat out for 12 minutes. The level of phys- work requires watching it from beginning the result is similarly interesting. Work- ical fitness is measured by the distance to end, or if watching just a random part ing in a messy bedroom, multitasking traveled. will be enough to achieve the desired In addition to Art – Play – Sport, two various projects on the computer, making … effect. I wanted to avoid these issues, and other works were presented at the exhi- coffee; it is just a normal day at the office therefore designed a user interface that bition. Their importance was lesser than with an action camera attached to my enabled the perceiver to play the video the principal work, but they acted as forehead. As well as being a documentary clips as she wants. The active use of the commentaries on Art – Play – Sport and about the project as a whole, Reality is an interface was not obligatory in order to expanded the questions presented by it essential part of the exhibition. It stays see the videos. If there was no activity on towards the reality of the artistic work, in the background, but at the same time the interface, the videos were played in a connects the exhibition, normally seen random order. 173 My pictograms were modeled after as a part of the artworld, to the every- the iconic pictograms used in the 1972 Olympic day world. Soon after the opening of Games in Munich, designed by Otl Aicher.

120 121 The Diverse Field In-Between • 4 the exhibition, Mikko Oranen wrote in brought further illumination to the the research. The processes initiated in the Skenet-magazine that “The artist’s work Some Halfway subject. This time, the central problem in artistic work affect the research during the by the computer is quite uninteresting to combining art and traditional academic whole of its duration. The artistic work follow”.174 Creating an engaging experi- Conclusions research was the reality that they operat- shifts the orientation of the research, ence was not the objective of this work ed at different paces. Artistic work (for produces material for the more academic – an occasional piece of everyday life is a specific exhibition) initiates some time part of the research, and raises questions seldom interesting, but nevertheless it is In the end, this art project dealt more before the exhibition, and the fundamen- to consider during the later stages of the the unglamorous work that takes place with clarifying the findings in chapter tal thoughts behind the work connect research and artistic projects. behind every artwork. two than looking for new features in quite permanently to the research prob- the relationship between art and sport. lems active at the same moment. When In addition to probing the possibilities the result of the artistic work is exhibited Visitor of a field between art and sport, the key – usually months and sometime years elements of the project were to explore later – the actual research problems have The second complementary work deals the differences between a practice and already moved forward, and the results of with the conventions of watching art. It its results, as well as the development the artistic work, a collection or an exhi- presents an imaginary visit to a gallery. which took place between the traditional bition, do not have a connection to the Two small screens show a visitor having conceptions of art and sport and their current questions in the research. Avoid- a tour of a fairly similar exhibition. The contemporary forms. Even today, both ing this problem seems quite impossible, first video follows the tour from the art and sport are most often seen through because of the slow process of planning point of view of security cameras, and the their traditional conceptions, while the and executing the artworks. This means other video presents the same tour from new forms stemming from or breaking that art as a part of research is always a bit the visitor’s point of view. In principle, from the tradition are passed over. Even unsatisfactory, a bit late. Although the art the exhibition is similar to mine, but it if the new ways to approach art – and project can be successful as art, especially is more anonymous, a draft of the final sport – creativity in obtaining physical for the audience, its relevance as a part of exhibition. The work brings the perceiv- experiences – are seen as developing from the research is somewhere else than in the er’s experience of the exhibition to the the tradition, the factors that make them finished artworks. The process of dealing fore, and simultaneously draws a parallel novel are not carefully perceived; instead, with the joint problems in two different between the staged acts in Art –Play – the factors that tie the practices to the tra- working methods can be fruitful, even Sport and the visitor’s experience, as well dition are emphasized. Between the new though the benefits only become visible as the artist’s work lying behind all the approaches to art and sport it should be later, when both processes are treated presentations in the exhibition. possible to find practices where the only simultaneously – while concluding the difference is in the framework to which research. they belong or are interpreted through. Although the exhibition did not Again, the exhibition taught me perfectly communicate all the thoughts something about combining artistic work behind it to the perceiver, it does not with academic research. My understand- nullify its meaning to my work as a ing about the interplay between art and whole. When the academic research and academic research, art and sport practice, artistic work are out of phase, it does and academic research and sport prac- harm presenting the artistic work in an tice, already began to develop during my exhibition, but it will not neutralize the first art project, and the second project significance of the artistic processes for 174 Oranen 2010.

122 123 5 • Participating and Perceiving

124 125 Participating and Perceiving • 5

It has been quite natural to treat art and sport as domains that are observed from the outside. Established scientific practice has emphasized an objective view, and the academic study of art and sport have also employed the same position – both artist and athletes have been objects of study, not the active producers of knowledge concerning them. The outside perspective allows one to treat the object of study as an objective and generalized entity. Even if the observer has himself been an insider in the domain, the subject has traditionally been treated from a distance. The spectators view concentrates – lopsidedly – mostly on the end result of the practice, an artwork or a performance, a sport competition or a recording, and that end result is used for the assessment of the practice as a whole, which naturally produces a partial understanding of it. Later, in spite of the general tendency to emphasize the outsider’s point of view, approaches were developed to deal with various practices from the participant’s point of view, but they still form a clear minority. Even today, art and sport are, in most cases, seen through the perceiver’s eyes – as the end products of a finished process. This concentration on the outsider’s perspective and the end results usually produces a clearly defined, even analytical conception of the practice. However, including the participant’s point of view can complete this one-sided perception, by opening up the processes behind the finished work. Gaining knowledge about unique instances of long lasting and common processes gives a fuller, however still fragmentary image of the practice. When compared with the knowledge gained from the outsider’s view, the participant’s view emphasizes more subjective and detailed aspects than the outsider’s more generalizing gaze.

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routine, everyday activities that form the need for change, and the uncertainty will be low. Similarly, an artist can make The Double the major part of the practice, and then can be nearly unbearable. There can be great works of art, but if they are never the short-term festive public activities, trusted people whose opinion may help exhibited, her artistic weight is low. How- Role of the the competitions and the exhibitions or with the difficult choices, but their opin- ever, an artist’s situation is slightly more performances. The balance between the ions can be balanced in one direction or forgiving in one sense - artistic signifi- Participant significance of and the time and energy other because of personal or financial rea- cance can be defined posthumously. consumed during the different parts of sons: a friend may avoid criticism because the practices is not even; most of the she wants to support the uncertain The role and the experiences of the active time and effort are clearly spent on the artist, or a gallery owner may want the participants in art and sport are similar non-public practice. The private part of artist to follow the previous line of work in many of their aspects - but there are the practices is often forgotten, empha- because she knows customers are willing Conducting also significant differences. Both practices sizing instead the advantage of the short to buy works with a similar appearance. are partly hidden from the audience and appearance in a major competition or an An athlete usually has at least one close Research from partly public. In both art and sport, the exhibition. person to share her uncertainty with – her private work is the preparation for the The routine, everyday activities are coach. The nature of an athletic perfor- the Author’s performance that forms the single crite- usually private in nature, practiced alone mance is also more standardized than an rion of one’s success in their pursuits. In or with the closest partners - a coach, artistic one, which makes choosing the Point of View spite of the external assessment of success, teammates, a studio assistant, a model. appropriate actions somewhat easier. The the participants are mostly motivated by These private parts of the practice form athlete and her coach share an objective, internal, personal reasons. In this respect, the crucially important foundation for so the coach can make long-range plans Various participatory methods have been participants in both art and sport are the fleeting moments of public activi- for the athlete. However, it is the athlete developed in order to produce knowledge driven by the quest for excellence, in a ties. During the everyday practices, the who finally has to execute the workouts for research purposes from a group of way analogous to how Richard Sennet athlete builds up the condition for the and feel her condition when the com- people who have first-hand experience describes the craftsman’s quest for excel- competitions (competing season), and the petition arrives. Today, there are several about a subject. The participatory work- lence in his book The Craftsman. Accord- artist prepares the artworks for a public ways to measure, to quantify, an athlete’s ing method is one element in a larger ing to Sennet, a craftsman’s striving for presentation. In addition to the basic performance prior to a competition, but group of methods comprising action excellence takes the form of an obsession artistic work, or an athlete’s training, no test will tell the final truth. On the research. Some approaches, especially with the quality of the results.175 Both they both negotiate their financing and starting line, the athlete striving for best in the social sciences, follow previously artist and athlete – if they have any ambi- future schedules, and generally organize results feels the similar uncertainty as the developed methods, while others employ tion – try to do their best. Even though the foundations for their public appear- artist feels before an exhibition opens or a more generally conceived participatory they never reach the top of their chosen ances. For both artist and athlete, the key performance commences.176 approach. Regardless of the exact method practice, their attempts are focused on experience during their private work is For both the athlete and the artist, used, the presence of a few core elements producing the best possible personal uncertainty. One cannot know for sure if their public appearances create the foun- is recommended: “Action research is result. However, part of the motivation the actions made for the public appear- dation for their status and ranking within grounded in lived experience, developed in art and sport comes from external ance were the right ones. The artist has their fields. One can be the fastest runner in partnership, addresses significant pressure, such as an upcoming exhibition to balance between the history of her during the training season, but if she does problems, works with (rather than simply or competition, but the need to exhibit or previous work and changes she is going to not manage to show the same perfor- studies) people, develops new ways of see- compete also comes from the individual execute in the new body of work. Some- mance in the competitions, her signifi- ing/interpreting the world (i.e. theory), artist or athlete herself. times the situation is easier, especially if cance as an athlete as well as her ranking and leaves infrastructure in its wake.” 177 Both artist and athlete have their one is continuing in line with previous works, but at other times the artist feels 176 For instance: Koivula, Hassmén and 175 Sennett 2008, 243. Fallby 2002. Hamidi and Besharat 2010. 177 Bradbury and Reason 2003, 156.

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The original settings of action research found their way into the field of art his- ence. His approach combines traditional not a full-blown and structured partic- emphasize problem-oriented work and tory. In her recent doctoral dissertation, academic research with practical work- ipatory method, where the participants practical results, but the more generally Katve-Kaisa Kontturi closely followed the shops, in order to widen the understand- are co-researchers and have a certain understood participatory view simply artistic processes of the artists taking part ing of physical experience.186 degree of control over the research, as highlights the convergence of science and in her research, and even produced an These examples show how custom- described in Jay Bergold’s and Stefan practice instead of listing the elements exhibition at a local art gallery together ary the participatory and subjective Thomas’ article, but more of a free-form required. The key element is the orien- with the participating artists.181 approaches are in various academic fields participatory attitude towards the subjects tation to inquiry, a research style. The The participatory approach also has today. They promote the potential of of the research.187 The initial guideline methodology used should be adapted a tradition in the context of sport and personal experiences in order to achieve in my approach has been adapted from to the unique settings of the research.178 other physical activities: for example John profound and often novel knowledge in the ideas about the participatory philos- Outside the social sciences, the idea of Hockey and Jacquelyn Allen-Collinson academic disciplines ranging from sociol- ophy of sport that have been pursued the participatory method is often adapted have studied athletes, and especially ogy and urban studies to philosophy and by Timo Klemola and Tapio Koski in even more. However, active and practical distance runner’s experiences, basing their aesthetics: the participatory approach can Tampere University in Finland.188 Their participation has been seen as a method research on their own running practices reveal new sides of cultural practices that idea has been that one cannot analyze or that provides the possibility to produce in the context of sociology.182 Similarly, are thought to be extensively studied. explain the meaning of a sport, or the knowledge that cannot be obtained Timo Klemola and Tapio Koski have used My view is that a researcher’s own experience of a sport, without practicing through the detached observation of their own experiences as a material for participation in an activity impart a it itself. Klemola’s and Koski’s approach others. philosophical studies about the nature first-hand experience that helps him to has been phenomenologically inclined, In the areas touched in my research, of sport experiences in several sports and understand other practitioner’s experi- and so emphasized the unity of bodily participatory methods have been physical traditions, ranging from yoga ences, even though they are not the same. and mental experience. Their first stud- employed to obtain an understanding of and karate to climbing and distance run- Participation also gives insight about ies were concerned with Asian body both the artist’s and athlete’s experiences. ning.183 Rebecca Solnit’s multiperspective the conventions of the practice. These cultures - budo and yoga – with which The usual approaches have been to study study of the meanings of walking com- conventions are not always explained any- both researchers had a long history in one’s own practice, and to engage in a bines historical and personal viewpoints where, and one can discover them only practice. However, they have also applied practice where the other members of a on various practices within walking.184 through one’s own activity. Being active this method to modern sport; Koski to group are in the main role. In art, artistic Ian Borden used his lifelong experience in does not mean only doing the exercises distance running and Klemola to various research already possesses a potent tra- skateboarding to produce a study about or private practices, but also taking part practices from rock climbing to Nordic dition of participatory research. Artistic the spatial experience of architecture and in the social side of the practice - doing walking. Even though Klemola and Koski research can take various forms, with a urban planning from a novel perspec- organized runs and having exhibitions in have used their own experiences for their different approach to the participatory tive.185 Richard Shusterman’s research in my case. A further approach I have used research, it has not been the only source element: one common approach is to somaesthetics takes a new initiative in to understand the practices of art and of information. In his book Juoksemisen study one’s own practice179, while a more aesthetics by using personal experiences sport has been obtaining other partici- filosofia (The Philosophy of Running), in uncommon method is to use one’s own to study the meanings of bodily experi- pants’ descriptions - written or otherwise addition to his own first-hand experience artistic work for gathering information 181 Kontturi 2012. Kontturi 2010. recorded - about their experiences. Today Koski relies on several runners’ records from the audience.180 the possibilities of employing the latter of their experiences from various written In addition to the field of artistic 182 For instance: Hockey and Allen-Col- method are wider than ever; all new social linson 2006. Allen-Collinson and Hockey 2011. research, participatory methods have also Hockey 2004. medias help to share one’s experiences 187 Bergold and Thomas 2012, with other practitioners, and many ath- sections 3.4 and 4.1. 178 Bergold and Thomas 2012. 183 Klemola 1994, 1998 A, letes and artists are willing to do so. 1998 B and 2003. Koski 2000 and 2005. 188 Klemola and Koski use the Finnish word 179 For instance: Pitkänen-Walter 2006, The method used in this research is liikunta instead of sport. Liikunta especially refers Mäki 2005, Mäkelä 2003. 184 Solnit 2001. to voluntary physical exercise to improve health - it 180 For instance: Pälviranta 2012. 185 Borden 2001. 186 Shusterman 2008. can be sport, but it is not necessarily so.

130 131 Participating and Perceiving • 5 sources.189 Art research work forms a tool for making not necessarily the case in art.192 Partici- While the participant’s experience can art. Current bio-art practices can employ patory research about other subjects can be accessed through various approach- Artistic research forms the most custom- this approach, when the results of scien- produce results that can be generalized, es, for me the most important has been ary tradition within the contemporary tific study are employed in artworks.191 at least to some level, but artistic research the researcher’s own participation in the participatory research of art. There are While Sullivan outlines the practice has a more atomistic nature – it always activity, which I have experimented with various approaches to executing artistic of artistic research solely from the artist’s reflects a single practice. However, as a in both components of my research. I research. Graeme Sullivan approaches it perspective, Mäki evaluates the power genre artistic research can produce more have connected my artistic activity to from visual arts knowing, which operates relations between art and traditional universal information, and thus benefit part of the research, as well as continuing within the practical-theoretical creative research. In spite of the difference in academic research in a traditional way.193 the artistic work outside the context of practice in an artistic context, and where their approaches, both Sullivan and Mäki The current interest in artistic research research. Making art in the context of the artist self is the site of knowing. share the same preconception: artistic provides diverse examples of artistic research was a conscious choice, because Visual arts knowing taking place in art practice is capable of producing knowl- processes and the insider’s understanding I wanted to explore the possibilities of practice is conceptualized and connected edge that cannot be reached in other about the artist’s experience, which has artistic research. However, in my case with the research through some overlap- ways. This view is shared by most people not been possible to reach before. When the combination of academic research ping angles: thinking in a language that engaged in artistic research, despite other artists are working as researchers, they and artistic work changed the nature of is oriented towards the viewer, thinking disagreements about the position of artis- often formulate their intentions, working the artistic work; it became somewhat in a medium oriented to the artwork, tic research in academic institutions and processes, analyses of the finished work, subordinate to the research. The artistic and thinking in a context oriented to the outside them. and theories after their own work. Artistic work that was not part of the research setting and situations. Sullivan’s view is However, all variations of artistic research does not have to include this had a very different degree of freedom, tolerant of the manner of conducting research form a special case within the kind of self-analysis, but in most cases which was a useful observation. As a more artistic research, as long as the artistic conventions of participatory research, it does. For instance, Denise Ziegler’s private practice, I have continued my practice is in the focus.190 as the researcher creates the subject of Poeettisen piirteistä: kuvataiteilijan distance running exercises throughout the Teemu Mäki chooses to categorize the research through her own artistic practice. mimeettinen työskentelytapa (Characteris- research and writing processes. Running relationship between art and research in What makes artistic research different tics of the Poetic: The mimetic practice practice that was not actually an official five groups. One extreme is to consider from, for example, the participatory of visual artist)194 deals with the artist’s part of the research took on various roles art itself as research. The artist search- research of sport and the autoethnograph- methods of constructing her works from during this time. Firstly, it has functioned es for new possibilities in her artistic ical approaches to various practices, is the fragments of everyday life. While as relaxation after days by the computer, work – the work is research, no written the specialty of the artistic work; even written research and practical work are in the normal role of exercise for fitness. account is needed. In the second category, though two artists produce works that closely intertwined in Ziegler’s research, Secondly, running has allowed me time artistic practice is connected to a written represent the same artistic genre, the Harri Pälviranta divided his study Toden for thought; while running I have been research. This is the established way of background work and the artists’ ideas tuntua galleriassa. Väkivaltaa käsittelevän able to digest the various meanings of conducting artistic research. Art can also about their practices can be worlds apart. dokumentaarisen valokuvataiteen merki running and sport in contemporary be subordinated to the research to such In the academic tradition, researchers tyksellistäminen näyttelykontekstissa culture that I have addressed theoretical- a point that the outcome is completely working within the same line of research 192 During the academic year 2010-2011 ly during the workday. And, finally, my verbalized. This manner of pursuing usually share a substantial part of their I attended Department of Art’s weekly seminar running habit has served the artistic proj- research forms the third category. Mäki’s presuppositions and methods, which is about artistic research, where most discussions ects concerning contemporary running fourth category, the research of art, is that became tangled in the question of artistic work culture, both as a source for artworks and conducted in art history, for instance. The procedures – we couldn’t agree about aspects of artistic research, because we did not agree about as a method of artistic work. last category is research for art where the the qualities of artistic work.

193 Sullivan 2005, 102, 173-174. 189 Klemola 1994, 1998 A, 1998 B and 2003. Koski 2000 and 2005. 190 Sullivan 2005, 128-130. 191 Mäki 2012, 8. 194 Ziegler 2010.

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(Experiencing Reality in an Art Exhi- interviewing them, Kontturi curated an material. Naturally, as they are conduct- crosscountry studs.”201 bition. Encountering violence-related art exhibition Siksakkia taiteesta teoriaan ing research in the sociology of sport, For an experienced runner, their documentary photographic art in a – ja takaisin (Zigzagging from Art to Hockey’s and Allen Collison’s objectives observations do not offer much that gallery context) into artistic and academic Theory – and Back) where the artists par- have been different from Koski and is new, but strengthen accumulated parts. The connection between art and ticipating her research, Susana Nevado, Klemola, who as philosophers of sport personal experiential knowledge. Even research arose from the use of artworks as Helena Hietanen, Jaakko Niemelä and have approached the general level of expe- though I run in Finland and Hockey and the material for a questionnaire aimed at Marjukka Irni, exhibited the key works riences instead of the particular. However, Allen-Collinson run in United Kingdom, the exhibition visitors. The artworks form made during the research cooperation.198 on the level of description the experiences I can share the impressions they have had a part of the research: they are part of seem very similar. running through local streets and parks. the publication as images, but only their When opening up their experiences, There are some differences between us; effect on the exhibition visitors is pres- Sport Hockey’s and Allen-Collison’s style is for example their history as competitive ent in the written part of the research.195 plain and descriptive: for instance, in runners and having more running years Now, the first-hand experience of artistic While art and the theoretical research their article about a runner’s everyday behind them shows in their remarks processes is provided for the reader in a of art have developed their own custom- experience 200, most of the text describes about the possibilities of sport injuries, more reflected format than ever before. ary and more experimental procedures for their regular running route and events and the descriptions about detailed phys- The academic context of artistic research capturing the artist’s perspective on the relating to certain landmarks along the ical feelings as well as notes about places makes the accounts of artistic work and it practice of art, a similar development has way. The photographs en route help to suitable for speed training, all features backgrounds more honest than previous taken place in the academic research of contextualize their account. On another of running that are rather unfamiliar to artist’s autobiographies or memoirs have sport. Unlike art, doing sport is not yet occasion, Hockey describes a short part of me. However, I can easily relate their been. conceived of as research, so the participa- his running route, combining the physi- thoughts to my running experiences. For Apart from artistic research, other tory work is done within the framework cal experience, observations, and previous a non-runner, their accounts would give approaches to view artistic practice from of traditional research. knowledge about the particular stretch in even more understanding about distance the maker’s perspective have emerged. For John Hockey and Jacquelyn a seamless manner: running and contemporary running example, there have been experiments to Allen-Collinson have used the participa- “At last on to the approaches to the culture. adopt the artist’s viewpoint in art histo- tory and autoethnographical approach park and the body begins to ease, the The researcher’s own bodily under- ry, traditionally specialized in looking at in their studies of the sociology of sport. stride begins to lengthen, picking it up, standing is crucial for analyzing the art and artists from the perceiver’s point Unlike Klemola and Koski, they have picking it up, as the flow of movement athlete’s reality. One does not have to be of view. Katve-Kaisa Kontturi followed opened up the experience of running only begins to build on a nice flat piece of an elite athlete to understand a sport, artists in their work while conducting through their own practice, employing pavement, no flagstones, much smoother. understanding the basics and exercising her research about artistic processes. their accumulated experiental knowl- But watching the small alley on the right regularly at least for some time is enough. Kontturi spent a considerable amount of edge together with fresh observations.199 out of which rabid motorists occasionally One example of this approach is Michael time in artists’ studios trying to under- The usual method used by Hockey and shoot. Hit the eroded approach path to Atkinson’s study on parkour. Atkinson stand the inarticulate dimension of an Allen-Collinsonhas been to describe the the park, it’s ok this weather, but in the had a background in distance running, artist’s work.196 However, she found that running experience, the route, their phys- very wet months it has a propensity to but no previous experience in parkour, simply following an artist was not really ical feelings, and thoughts. Occasionally, get slushy and is difficult footing, causing when he came into contact with the local sufficient to the purpose, and calls her the account has been accompanied with one to slide suddenly, much to the pained parkour practitioners and participated in observations glimpses of art processes.197 visual recording using photographs, thus consternation of inner thigh adductors. their activities for several months. Atkin- In addition to following artists’ work and expanding the potential of the partici- So I normally avoid that area in the son’s approach was to understand the patory method through the use of visual winter and take the road, unless wearing social relationships of the traceurs (park- 195 Pälviranta 2012. our practitioners), but he also obtained a 196 For instance: Kontturi 2012, 65-68. 198 Kontturi 2010, 32. 200 Hockey and Allen-Collinson 2006, 197 Kontturi 2012, 26. 199 Hockey 2004, sections 3.5, 7.1 and 7.2. 73-76. 201 Hockey 2004, section 5.4.

134 135 Participating and Perceiving • 5 good perception of the bodily experience difficult to compare with sport experi- understanding of the practice. Even in the core work, these artists work share the of doing parkour, which in turn formed ences. However, the concentration on case of an athlete, the first-person view dual nature of artistic work; there is a pri- the foundation of his understanding of rather particular physical practices in the is not only physical. The participant’s vate part of the work where one prepares the parkour culture as a whole.202 original application of practical somaes- experience combines previous knowledge the works of art, and there is a public part Ian Borden, in turn, uses his life-long thetics does not exclude the possibility of with the current activity. This combined where the work is brought to the public experience in skateboarding to study applying somaesthetic methods towards understanding can form a broad experi- and is then open to the criticism. the meaning of urban environment. His the understanding of an athlete’s experience, in the sense of John Dewey’s aes- Despite the recent changes in the study combines an extensive historical ences.204 thetic experience, producing a view where artistic paradigm, the private and the account on the different practices with- Instead of special techniques for the subjective and objective perspectives public practices are usually very different in skateboarding to the main theme of promoting higher bodily sensitivity, fol- mix in a novel way.206 kinds of activities. The private practice skateboarders’ vision and use of urban lowing the original approach of somaes- ranges from the conceptual organization structures. The personal insight into thetics, my interest is instead directed to of the artistic work to the practical and skateboarding makes his research much the more ordinary bodily experiences, in sometimes very technical execution of more powerful than a study in which an the manner Joseph Kupfer describes in the artworks, or preparation for events. outside researcher tries to find answers his book Experience as Art: Aesthetics in The In a public exhibition or performance, about street-style skateboarding and the Everyday Life. Kupfer writes mostly about the final results of the private practice are practitioners’ vision of the urban environ- sport as aesthetic experience, but brings Protagonists presented as a coherent and logical whole. ment.203 the physical experience back to the every- The work in the background, including An experimental method for analyz- day level by noticing that jumping over all of its uncertainties, the search for ing bodily experiences is somaesthetics, a puddle or slipping on your coat can Artist’s work has changed radically since solutions, and the probing of possibilities developed mainly by Richard Shuster- remind an ordinary person of the bodily the emergence of the modern system of is usually left from view. man. Unlike other analytic approaches to experience of excellence in sport, or pro- art: art is much more than producing The bodily experience of an artist the experiential features in sport, somaes- vide a moment when one feels a master of images and three dimensional objects for naturally stands apart from that of the thetics promotes the further use of the the physical world.205 Kupfer’s examples aesthetic pleasure. The variety of working athlete’s, but the inherent problems acquired knowledge for improving one’s provide a starting point for developing methods and mediums in contemporary involved are quite similar. Artistic work quality of life. In addition to this benefi- somaesthetic applications for every-man’s art makes it impossible to describe the is not so exclusively physical as sport, cial approach, Shusterman’s idea is radical recreational exercises, like jogging (dis- average work and working conditions although physical activities are often part in the academic context, as he reduces tance running), bicycling, laid-back ball of today’s artist. A visual artist can be a of making works of art. In traditional fine the importance of written research and games (football, basketball, ice hockey), painter when her procedures resemble the art, creating the artwork was a physical emphasizes the significance of bodily aerobics (or other similar exercises like painting practice of the nineteenth centu- action. Even in contemporary art, where practice, so that the active bodily practice zumba), or swimming. ry, but a video artist or an environmental the medium of artistic work does not is actually doing aesthetics. The deficiency While conducting research from the artist have totally different kinds of tools, require physical contact with the (raw) in Shusterman’s approach in the context active participant’s point of view, the working environments, and schedules. materials, executing a work of art requires of sport is his concentration on special transient experience of a maker/par- However, all artists share at least one con- physical activity in the real world. At a physical practices like the Feldenkrais ticipant blends with a further personal dition; they have some relationship with minimum, this might be writing code on Method or the Alexander Technique, the artworld, and thus follow, at least the computer, but often some aspect of 204 Richard Shusterman, “Pragmatist Aes- which provide a good starting point in thetics and Somaesthetics” (seminar: Pragmatist partly, the internal habits of the artworld performativity is present in the work. the search for heightened somatic sen- Aesthetics and Richard Shusterman, University of concerning the methods of preparing The athlete’s role is quite similar sitivity, but where the experiences are Helsinki 29.2.2012) . their works and presenting them for the to that of an artist, but there are also 205 Kupfer 1983, 116-117. Also Anderson public. In spite of the differences in their significant differences. Where the artist is 202 Atkinson 2009, 169. (2001, 145) deals with the transformative possibili- usually the only person in charge of the 203 Borden 2001. ties of sport and movement. 206 Dewey 2005 (1934), 42-43 .

136 137 Participating and Perceiving • 5 practice, most competitive athletes have event is the goal, not the athlete’s best.208 some light on the signification of run- a close relationship with their coach. Or, An athlete performs similar activities ning today.209 The contents of a practice Artworld and at least the coach is a person to whom the in exercises to those that she presents varies greatly according to personal athlete is responsible for her voluntary in public competitions, i.e. running is preferences: running can be an internal Sportworld engagement in training and competing.207 trained predominantly by running. In part of a lifestyle, and form a regular The athlete is more closely dependent on addition, there are other kinds of exercises part of one’s daily tasks. There can be a supporting personnel and organizations like running at a different pace or in a work-like ethos in the exercises, and one No artist or athlete is totally independent than is the artist. In addition to the close different style than those used in compe- can even view running as a philosophical in her practice. The active participants in relationship with the coach, there is a titions, and complementary training like enterprise. Despite these differences in both practices are part of greater networks certain difference in being a member of a stretching and workouts in a gym. How- the foundational aspects of individual that form the institutional systems of art sports club or team from being a mem- ever, these exercises correspond much running practices, there are connecting and sport. The details of these institution- ber of an artist’s association or a group more with the public event than the features in most of the running practices al systems are different, but on a general that joins forces for an artistic activity. background activity in an artist’s work. A I have encountered. The emphasis on level they are remarkably similar. An artist’s association is a background footballer plays football both in exercises new experiences forms the most common The institutional system of art incor- professional organization, and an artists’ and games, and a javelin thrower throws link between the various recreational porates more professionals than just the group a joint operation, but when an the javelin in both occasions, even though approaches to distance running. Testing artists; all those who work with artworks athlete takes part in a competition, she is in the exercises the emphasis is in finding one’s limits is another one; instead of and events, as well as those who have representing the club or team, if not her the right movements and developing the competing against other athletes, today’s authority in the field of art through their country. A recreational athlete is usually basic physical abilities needed, and in the recreational runner struggles against opinions and expertise, are part of it. The more like an artist in her dependence competition to give a full-out effort: the her own abilities. There is a significant professions of curators, critics, collec- on others. There is no one to tell what public practice concentrates in giving a difference between the achievement that tors, art historians, dealers, etc. emerged today’s training program contains, and no maximum performance in a specialized defined modern sport, and struggling together with the system of art. In the late requirement to join a club. event. If the exercise program is success- against oneself in contemporary recre- twentieth century, this complicated social If the athlete competes at the top ful, the performance in competition looks ational sport. When an athlete engaged system was defined as the artworld, which level, her performance is measured by natural and often almost effortless. The in modern sport notices that the peak here signifies the practical activity of various quantitative methods and the pain and strain of the daily exercises are of her results is behind her, she usually art-professionals. A wider comprehension results are used to optimize her training. not visible. terminates her career, but a contemporary of the artworld also includes the sup- The methods of measurement range The practice of a contemporary athlete goes on: declining results do not porting professionals and other helpers, from monitoring the heart rate to full recreational athlete differs from that of nullify testing one’s limits and the search like the technicians, manufacturers, and fitness testing on the treadmill, and video a professional athlete. The recreational for experiences.210 suppliers of art materials. Today, interna- assisted optimizing of the tiniest parts of runner adjusts her exercises according to tional art has grown into an industry that the biomechanical performance. Testing her own goals and sensations; she fol- needs numerous professionals to realize is used as a foundation for adjusting the lows timetables and programs decided ever more complicated and larger works. training – often the athlete’s opinion by herself. The basic structure of training This wider social ecosystem varies greatly, about the methods used is not asked, for a competitive runner can be found depending on the internal practice of because the method is based on scientific in various guidebooks, but in the case the individual art or even the artist, so it knowledge about sport performance. The of a recreational runner the reality of a is more appropriate to refer to different best possible achievement in a certain practice is more difficult to reach. How- separate artworlds instead of a single ever, some runners have written about one. However, it is significant that the their practice, and these accounts shed 209 For instance, Koski 2005, advent of an autonomous practice of art, Murakami 2008, Roos 1995. 207 Bale 2004, 78, 80. Burke 2001, i.e. the modern system of art, created a 232-233. 208 Bale 2004, 87, 92-95. 210 Tainio 2012 a. Abbas 2004, 169-170.

138 139 Participating and Perceiving • 5 support system that is substantially more exceptions to this general perspective can practice, which emerged from the fine wide-ranging than the artists’ practices The Audience, be found in artists’ autobiographies, and arts in the traditional sense, the border alone.211 some recent artistic research. between maker and perceiver is chal- The term “sportworld” has never the Spectator, The changes in contemporary prac- lenged by the new forms of decorating come into such everyday usage as has the tices have lowered the divide between and marking urban space, for instance in term artworld, but eventually the sport the Perceiver the audience and the active participants various genres of street art. For instance, practice incorporated a networked struc- in both art and sport. In art, this devel- from the traditional spray-painted graffiti ture similar to that of art. At the core of opment has taken place through com- (which is not seen as art) has been devel- sport there are the athletes, and situated In addition to the participants and the munity art practices, where the artist oped into various methods of marking around them are the supporting person- background professionals, both art and works more like a conductor with the urban space; on the craft-oriented end nel, coaches, agents, carers, massagers, sport practice are defined by their audi- non-professionals, often the audience, there is knitted graffiti, which is the physiotherapists, officials, etc. The group ences. The audiences watch art and sport and creates the work in co-operation with practice of making knitted decorations of associated authoritative professions, with competent eyes: a casual observer them. This kind of work often takes the into urban details, and on the artsy end similar to curators and art critics, can be can find both art and sport interesting, form of an intervention, and regularly there is light graffiti, where the walls found in the sportworld too, even though even fascinating, but cannot easily find deals with minorities or groups of people are temporarily marked with projected it is not as large as in the artworld. This the aspects that make the work, compe- with a common problem, but can have images. Both practices are more tolerated group consists of the members of the tition, or game special and raise it above a more traditional approach towards than traditional graffiti, and they can various local, national, and international the average. It is a skill that requires creating an artwork too. Community art be either legal projects or unauthorized sport committees, researchers in sport dedication in order to learn to under- practice emphasizes the work of art as an interventions, made by professional artists sciences, and writers in different fields stand the finesses of art or sport. In sport, event instead of as a solid piece of work. or untrained activists.214 of sport: historians, sociologists, ethics, the spectators can be present explicitly, However, the practice also produces more In sport, the lowering of the bound- etc. Sport journalists hold a weighty but often they are present as an implicit permanent works, as traditional works or ary between the participants and the position in the field of sport. Nowadays part in the apparently neutral studies of as documentation of the passing event. audience has emerged through the rise of there are even sport museums and halls of sport statistics and records, sport history, In spite of the co-operative working adventure sports. In various new sports, fame that formalize and solidify athletic and the philosophical studies of sport. model in community art, the artist is in like snowboarding, skateboarding, and achievements for future generations in Artworks are generally observed as well many cases distinguished as the origina- ultra-marathons, the spectators are often several places around the world.212 as studied from the spectator’s point of tor-creator of the work. This latter kind practicing the sport themselves, and the view. The academic disciplines of art of activity is exemplified by Miwon Kwon participants also behave like spectators history and aesthetics tend to look only through Full Circle, a project by Suzanne while waiting for their turn, or after at the object and its reception, and leave Lacy. The artist organized groups of finishing their competition. What is the artist’s point of view unnoticed. Only female volunteers to decide the contents common between these sports is their sometimes is the artist’s intention, or the of the artwork, e.g. one hundred boul- fairly short history as sports (snow- and circumstances of production, taken into ders placed on the streets of Chicago that skateboarding), or a new adaptation of a consideration in addition to the reception would commemorate historically signifi- traditional competitive achievement sport of the work. A researcher represents the cant local women. The co-operation with (the ultra-marathons), where the mod- audience for art – in her position relative the groups of women was limited to the ern competitive quest for winning and to the artwork and usually in her social selection of the women that would be records is replaced by competing with position as well. Her knowledge about art honored, while Lacy was in charge of the oneself, together with other participants. might be greater than that of the average rest of the project.213 214 For instance Pitsihilli (2009) by Kaija 211 Becker 2008 (1982), 13, 25. visitor in the exhibition, but her attitude In addition to community art Papu (http://www.kaijapapu.com/pitsihilli.htm, 212 Edgar 2013, p.38, 41. Polley 2010, towards art is probably similar. The rare accessed 3.1.2014) could be an intervention, but it 139-140. 213 Kwon 2008, 118-120 is a commissioned project.

140 141 Participating and Perceiving • 5

The achievement is no longer measured contrary to being an actual participant in out aggression in an acceptable manner, is a global superstar, while Gumbrecht’s by success against the other participants, a sport event. When one is a participant promoting nationalism in a somewhat view applies to the rest. However, an but against personal performance. in a sport, one is in contact with only a civilized way, taking care of one’s health, athlete’s personality and character are just In addition to the physical sports, small group of people, which can range or socializing with friends, the appeal of a part of sports drama. More important some novel conventions within sport from fifteen players in a local basketball sports relies on the aesthetic experience of is the passing drama that comes from the fandom can mix the roles of the audience game to thousands of runners partici- the process of the game or competition.218 framework of the rules of the particular and the athlete. On sport games played pating in the same marathon. In the first Gumbrecht parallels watching sport sport, combined with the abilities of the with a computer or a game console, the case one has a contact with all the other to a theater performance. There is no athletes and the local circumstances and player can control the characters in the participants, but in the second case only predefined plot, but there is a framework sheer chance. game, and control the game itself, like a a fraction of them. However, the par- that allows the dramatic events to take Paul Woodruff defines theater as art by real life player. In addition to these com- ticipant’s point of view is always on the place. The dramatic quality naturally which human beings make or find human puter games, the contemporary practice move, and all the participants have their varies according to the particular event, action worth watching, in a measured of playing fantasy leagues brings the sport own perspective. The events are shared, and the environment present at the event. time and place.221 Woodruff also sees fans closer to the players. In a fantasy but always from different points of view. A 100-meter sprint has different dramat- sport as a good example of contemporary league, the player creates a team from Even though urban marathons do ics from a marathon or a football game. theater. For him, theater can be seen in real-life players and competes against attract masses, contemporary distance Also, a particular 100-meter sprint differs various everyday actions, among which other imaginary teams in the league. running is not a popular audience sport in dramatics when it takes place on a sport forms one of the most interesting Unlike fully commercial sport computer in a similar way as it was during most of local track or in a major competition, for examples, as it both diverges notably from games, fantasy leagues are played between the twentieth century. Today’s running instance as a part of the IAAF Diamond the traditional idea of theater and beats acquaintances as well as in commercially culture emphasizes participation over League. Unlike the conventional view, traditional “theatre as art” in terms of organized leagues.215 watching. As more and more people Gumbrecht sees that the athletes are not popularity. In sport, the theater emerges have engaged in running, the wonder of simply performing as themselves, but as from the formal staging of actions that distance running achievements has dis- archetypes similar to the medieval theater are presented in front of an audience. Watching sport solved: while running a marathon in just –“the incarnation of a certain physical Like Gumbrecht, Woodruff does not over two hours is still an amazing accom- and/or strategical function”. According to trouble himself with the lack of a script, Watching sport moves masses. A typi- plishment, it is possible for many to Gumbrecht, the player playing forward but focuses on the predefined frame of cal case is a major league football game, participate in the same marathon race as during a football game is nothing but a action that is known by the audience. where there are tens of thousands peo- the elite runners, and to enjoy their own forward, and the sprinter in 100 meter This framework directs the action, which ple in the stadium, and multiple times achievements instead of only watching contest is nothing but a sprinter, even is limited to a previously defined time, more watching through their televisions the contest. In addition, among today’s though they can be well known celebrities measured by a clock or other means, for around the world. All these people see elite runners there are no such stars that outside the competition.219 instance the length of the run, or the the same game, and approximately from could challenge the most famous teams in On the other hand, Wolfgang Welsch number of attempts or innings. The result the same point of view. They see and popular team sports and make themselves finds the personality of the athlete more of the arrangement for the contest can react to the same events, and share their into household names.217 important. In contemporary mega-sports, produce just a routine performance, or an feelings with the other people in the Hans Ulrich Gumbrecht explores the successful athletes become their own exceptional event that cannot be repeated audience. The quality of the feeling can aesthetics of watching popular sports with trademarks, which are always noticed – in Finnish sport a particular event to vary if one of the teams is important to enormous audiences. For him, the main and aesthetically meaningful.220 Welsch’s remember is, for instance, Lasse Virén’s you, but still there are many others who reason for watching sport is aesthetic; view is probably true when the athlete victorious 10 000 meter run in the 1972 share the feeling.216 The situation is quite in spite of other reasons, like working Olympic Games in Munich, where he fell 218 Gumbrecht 1999, p352. during the competition and still finished 215 Turtiainen 2012, 93-94. 219 Gumbrecht 1999, 353, 357. 217 Hardman 2013. Berking and Neckel 216 Mumford 2012. 1993, 68-69. 220 Welsch 2005, 137. 221 Woodruff 2008, 18, 50.

142 143 Participating and Perceiving • 5 first. Both types of events produced by a gardens, where nature is mastered in onto the field also takes place, which and who introduce an element external to sport contest (or other kind of theater) order to create a standardized space for crosses the line that defines the sacred sport to the event. generate a sense of belonging. A generic sport. The space of sport has developed space. Not all sporting events are real spec- type of event produces a passing and not from natural space, from a field of grass Neither is the stadium quiet. There tacles. For example, Ossi Naukkarinen especially momentous sense, while an to an increasingly technical and standard- are the sounds made by the audience, the writes about the interiors of Finnish exceptional event can produce senses that ized space. At first the space was demar- announcements, and the commercials. ice stadiums. The recently built are- move a nation. cated by chalk lines that limited the game There can be music, and special sounds nas, owned by the wealthier teams, are Most authors who have dealt with to a certain area, and later the surface indicating a score has been made. In equipped according to the international sport from a spectator’s point of view was made more even and the sport fields international events, the national anthems standard with soft chairs, nice restaurants, treat the stadium as a place where the around the world were standardized in are played. If refreshments and snacks and VIP boxes, but the traditional ones everyday world is shut out. For Woodruff order to provide equal circumstances are sold at the event, it turns into a real have only very basic conveniences. The it is a sacred space, marked off from the for contests. In many sports the natural multi-sensory experience. Even if one is floors are made of concrete, the chairs real world by chalked lines.222 Gum- surface, of grass or gravel, was replaced by not drinking or eating oneself, the smell are hard plastic or wood, and the atmo- brecht describes a stadium as a space man-made materials that allowed better is present all over the arena. In addition sphere is rather chilly. The acoustics are “isolated from the space and time of the results. Then, stadiums were built around to the contest itself and spectators’ partic- harsh and echoing, and the rock music surrounding everyday world” which in the sports fields. Bleachers provided some ipation, there are other visual diversions. played during the breaks always sounds between games forms an unused, isolated shelter from the wind and later, during The athletes are wearing clothing appro- the same. In spite of the modest envi- place within an urban environment.223 the last half of the twentieth century, the priate to the sport. Modern sport gar- ronment, the ice hockey games played Joseph Kupfer describes the changes in roofing of stadiums finally cut the natural ments are specially designed to improve in these halls can provide similar expe- the notions of time and space with an element away from watching as well per- the athlete’s performance, and in addition riences for the spectators to the games apposite anecdote about professional forming sports – at least in competitions. they are designed to fit current fashion played in the new arenas. Some part of baseball: “...before every ballgame the Some sports (for instance basketball) were trends and form a colorful addition to the the audience even values these modest umpires shout “Play ball”...” Playing is practiced indoors from the beginning, visual joy of the sport. In many sports, ice stadiums over the new ones, because the key, even in professional sport. Even if but the development of sport arenas has the suits are tight fitting and reveal the the atmosphere is more true to “real” ice the players are paid enormous salaries, the confined originally outdoor sports like athletes’ trained bodies. In other sports, hockey.226 sport is still play - a serious play, but not ice hockey and football to indoor spaces. the clothing forms an armor that helps Nick Hornby has a similar nostalgic deadly serious, and being at play is being Even smaller sports, like speed skating to cope with the physical contact in the tone when he writes about the rebuilding in a different world within our everyday and rock climbing, are today practiced in game. This type of clothing transforms and refurbishment of English football sta- world. Sport-play is played in the sanctu- man-made environments.225 the athlete into a modern gladiator. diums in his autobiographical book Fever ary of a sports field, and it is confined by Watching a sport contest is a seeming- In competitions, the athletes wear the Pitch. He complains about the disap its rules and traditions. Both the athletes ly theater-like experience, and a stadium official suits of their club or team. These pearance of the old, traditionally working and the audience share (should share) an is a special, sacred space; but what is suits are often covered in the logos of class football culture, which was replaced understanding of the special rules taking experienced there? The contest and the the athlete’s or team’s sponsors, or when by a safe and clean middle class (sports) place while playing.224 action of the athletes are at the center of representing a nation they are marked entertainment. The renewal of English John Bale refers to stadiums as attention. Most of the time, the audience with a flag or a crest. Both types of deco- football, complains Hornby, has all the follows this action and participates in the ration change the atmosphere of the event typical features of turning sport into an 222 Woodruff 2008, 111. event by cheering, usually chanting and – imagine if Formula One drivers had 223 Gumbrecht 1999, 363. In fact, most sta- making gestures, standing up, waving national emblems on their outfits instead diums are used for daily exercises in between the hands, and sometimes synchronized of their numerous sponsor logos. Some games. They just look empty for those who are not movements like waves. Throwing objects sports have cheerleaders, who entertain permitted to enter. the (male) audience during the breaks 224 Kupfer 1983, 111, 113. 225 Bale 2004, 41-43. 226 Naukkarinen 2008, 199.

144 145 Participating and Perceiving • 5 entertainment industry.227 spectator’s experience. The experience key moments can be shown from several sports are recordings of previous events, Learning to watch a sport reveals in a live situation is dependent on the angles and in slow motion, so no detail although the content is updated often various interesting details in the culture environment of the contest: the experi- will escape the spectator. In addition to and fresh material is available all the time. surrounding that particular sport, which ence of watching is different in a modest TV, many of these effects are available in The possibility to access all kinds of sports are not clearly noticed when the practice sports field, watching a local contest, a modern stadium equipped with giant all over the world produces a new kind of is too familiar. Max Ryynänen started from following a spectacle of sport in the video screens. Unlike the live situation, sport phenomenon. In his writings about to follow NHL ice hockey with little comforts of a modern stadium. Despite a TV-broadcast is an edited experience; NHL ice hockey, Ryynänen states that previous knowledge, and decided to learn the differences, these experiences are the broadcasted contents are selected by the possibility to access NHL games over the subtleties of the sport. His aim was related. Watching sport through media the director, who ideally has an idea what the internet is a paradigmatic change that to concentrate on the philosophical and forms a different context, which has its aspects of the contest are important and has turned North American ice hockey especially aesthetic aspects of the game. own peculiarities. The traditional man- how the tension (and the interest of the into a truly international game. Follow- This analysis extends all the way from the ner of following sport through radio spectator) is built up.229 The television ing American ice hockey, for instance general features of today’s NHL ice hock- and television broadcasts has expanded broadcast produces meanings that are in Europe, was possible before this, but ey league and its characteristics to the into other mediums, mainly through the not exactly similar to the live experience. now the games are online soon after they small details of the game: the anatomy of internet accessed with various devices. Moreover, the spectator is detached from are finished, thus turning European ice great goals is examined as well as play-off While radio and television broadcasts fix the events in the stadium; no cheering or hockey fans into potential NHL addicts. beards. En route to deeper understanding, the following of sport to certain events gestures made there affect the situation or In addition to the novel international Ryynänen found connections between and times, the internet provides access to atmosphere of the contest.230 dimension, using YouTube and other classical philosophers, for instance Kant, almost any event, and also provides the Furthermore, the environment of sites to follow sport give the fans a chance the community, and changes in profes- possibility to see earlier events at a later watching televised sports affects the spec- to watch the events and their details sional ice hockey. His approach to the time or to return to historical contests tator’s experience. It is utterly different over and over and in slow-motion. This tough world of professional ice hockey is over and over again. Radio broadcasts of to watch an important contest alone produces more knowledgeable spectators, systematically positive. The game has its sporting events are quite obsolete today. at home than in a crowded sports bar. who can appreciate the sport more.231 flaws, such as the enormous salaries paid They seem to work only as a substitute for The latter can be close to the live expe- The internet, and especially social to the players and the endemic violence, the “proper” means of following sporting rience, but the event is still an edited media, is also used to comment on however Ryynänen does not straightfor- events. The diversity of the possible chan- one. Watching sport alone by TV draws sporting events nearly in tandem with wardly criticize these faults but analyses nels for following sport outside the live closer to the experience of sports over the action on field, and naturally for the them in a neutral tone. The violent acts game is wider than ever before. In addi- the internet, but without the immediate post-match analysis. The variety of medi- that are a natural part of modern ice tion, some of the new media channels two-way channel. Following sport over ums used is abundant. Besides the more hockey can damage the sport as a whole, make it possible to mix their feed with the internet is still an extension of the official websites that report the results and but Ryynänen can find somewhat positive the live situation, creating a new dimen- lonely television experience. There are details of the contests, there are unofficial aspects in hockey fights, such as making a sion to watching sport in a stadium. not yet any established live sport feeds on websites, discussion forums, and blogs good show for the audience, who expects The TV-experience of sport departs the internet as of 2014, so most online that bring out diverse opinions about to see them, and even admits that the from the live contest in various ways. the same events. Many of these medias fights have their own aesthetics too.228 Firstly, it is not always “live”, but a 229 An excellent artistic example of building already allow commenting, and create up the experience is Zidane: A 21st Century Por- The context of watching affects the recording, for instance a short clip in the open discussions about the sport, but the trait, a documentary film by Douglas Gordon and sports news. Secondly, the point of view Philippe Parreno (France/Iceland 2006), where the recently expanded use of various social 227 Hornby 2000 (1992), 68. However, later in television broadcast changes constantly, cameras focuses only on the soccer superstar Zine- media networks, such as Facebook and in the book Hornby admits that the stadiums had from a wide-angle view to close-ups that dine Zidane, producing a novel view of a football to be renewed because of the safety issues uncov- match. can concentrate on the center of events or 231 Ryynänen 2006-2008, “Internet, Goo- ered after the Hillsborough accident in 1989. the facial expressions of the athletes. The 230 Gumbrecht 1999, 367-368. gle and Computer Games,” blog entry by Max 228 Ryynänen 2006-2008. Kupfer 1983, 131. Ryynänen, 6.11.2006.

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Twitter, has added an extra dimension to closely to the sport. 234 different from the sports field, where in the Kiasma Museum of Contemporary following sport events. The opportunity shouting, cheering, and encouraging one’s Art, have functioned as showcases for to connect fans instantly from various favorites was allowed, and even expected. international contemporary art since the locations creates new kinds of commu- The Audiences of Art After the basic behavior in the museum 1960s. For artists and other experts, they nities. The lonely sporting event in front was learned, the tuition continued as have been an opportunity to see new art of a television can turn into a heated dis- The practices connected to watching art guidance about the history, significance, and to be inspired by it. However, for the cussion about the contest at hand.232 New developed simultaneously with the system and value of artworks and artists. Art greater public the exhibitions have been a media also works as a connection between of modern art. Unlike sport, which critiques and histories emerged to meet contradictory experience; the experts have the (professional) athletes and their fans, developed from a compound of high and demand. Previous texts about art, as well been advertising the artworks in the exhi- through various social media networks. low class physical practices, art practic- as artist’s biographies, had been directed bition as the best of contemporary art, Today, the communication between es expanded from the top of the social towards the artists and a small group of but the public have experienced the works enthusiasts on the internet can also take hierarchy downwards.235 The advent of connoisseurs and collectors, but now as puzzling and even forbidding. The first place at live contests; smartphones bring public art museums and galleries extend- their aim was to educate the new audi- exhibitions in 1961 and 1969 brought the internet to the bleachers and stadium ed the audiences of art from the higher ences of art.238 a totally new view of art to a developing backstage, which in turn can produce classes to the middle and, to some extent, This role differentiation of art audi- and reasonably isolated Finland, but as new types of problems. In fact, during the the working classes. The difficulties and ences continued to exist throughout the late as 1995 some artworks in Ars-exhi- 2012 Olympic Games in London, the use fears connected with the presence of the modern system of art. There were the bition caused wide public discussion. For of Facebook and the popular microblog lower classes at art events were various. experts – artists, collectors, art historians, instance, Ulf Rollof’s 11 February 1994, Twitter was restricted for the athletes Shiner exemplifies this with the fic- and critics – who very much acted as where a specially built machine made and volunteer Olympic Game workers tional wedding party from Emile Zola’s the gatekeepers of art. Their opinion was pine trees fall down and rise up again and because of the strict sponsorship rules of novel L’assommoir (1877). The wedding significant when the quality of artworks again, as well as Henrik Plenge Jakobsen’s the Games. The members of audience party visits the Louvre and is baffled by was assessed. If the experts decided that White Love, where various bodily fluids also encountered some restrictions on the contrast between the finely dressed some art was obsolete, it was difficult to and excretions were constantly mixed in their social media use.233 guards, the mirror finished parquet floors, create any further interest in it.239 Espe- blenders and other household appliances, In addition to the newsfeeds, com- and the low and obscene subjects of the cially during twentieth century mod- provoked loud objections. The series of mentaries, and discussions on the inter- artworks. Without even a basic knowl- ernism, the “right” art was difficult and Ars-exhibitions exemplifies how in art the net, other new media applications add to edge about art and the practices of look- continuously testing the limits of artistic experts’ vision of good and significant art the experiences of consuming sport. Sport ing at art, the party is lost in front of the expression. The expert’s opinion was often contradicts with the public’s quest for the computer and console games bring the paintings.236 Zola´s story is an extreme contradictory to the public opinion about original features of the fine arts: beauty “real” sport leagues and the “real” athletes example, but the museum visitors were what constituted good and agreeable art, and elevated experiences.241 to the fans’ computers and television instructed in proper behavior by signs but this did not create a problem, because Even today, the art experience is screens. These games replicate the real that told them not to sing, tell jokes, or one important function of art was to be clearly less democratic for its audience teams and series, and give the fans an play games in the museum galleries. The in opposition to society’s general tenden- than the sport experience. The opinions opportunity to live the action through the museum space was to be respected as a cies.240 of the art experts often conflict with athlete’s experience. The authorization of sanctuary of art.237 For example, in Finland the series of more commonly held views. Contempo- the games by the official leagues (NHL, The sanctuary of art was quite Ars-exhibitions that took place first in the rary ideals and the system of art require NBA, FIFA) ties the game players more Ateneum Art Museum, and since 2001 this disagreement of tastes, even though 234 Turtiainen 2012, 94. it makes art look difficult and elitist. 238 Shiner 2001, 92. Unlike in art, in sport there is less need 235 Shiner 2001, 95. 232 Turtiainen 2012, 77, 83. 239 Becker 2008 (1982), 138, 141, 153. for experts to tell the audience what kind 236 Shiner 2001, 213. 233 Pfanner 2012. McClusky 2012. 240 For instance in Adorno1997 Morse 2012. 237 Shiner 2001, 135. (1970), 226. 241 Kastemaa 2009, 16, 38-39, 79.

148 149 Participating and Perceiving • 5 of performance is good or excellent - the of these forms of expressive practices have affect the other practitioners. The most cinemas that present movies related to results in the contest will tell it to every- existed for a long time, but only became famous recent example of the transfor- art. The museum exhibits do not change, one. Even in the qualitative sports, where better known and even exhibited publicly mation of a street artist is Banksy, whose only a new layer is added to the museum the judges evaluate the performance, in an art context quite recently. Examples street art pieces turned into museum art visit: it is not only didactic anymore, the criteria for excellence are commonly of this kind of practice are outsider art, at a swift pace.245 What is common to all but entertaining as well. The contents known. artistic practices outside the western tra- these practices outside the artworld is the are wrapped in an entertaining package, In spite of the tradition of expert dition that have emerged from the fringes unstructured organization; the division where the visitor is not only a viewer, but knowledge in art, there are recent of the art world since the 1980s: the exhi- between the makers and the audience is has the possibility to participate in some changes in art practices that have some- bition Magiciens de la terre, organized in fluctuating – anyone from the current activities. The majority of the visitors what reduced the weight of expert opin- Paris in 1989, brought artistic traditions audience can become a maker. do not go to the museum only to learn ion, and in addition undermined the tra- from outside the western culture, from Another phenomenon that has about art, but because of the museum ditional market possibilities for artworks. the margins, into common knowledge by changed art’s relation to its public is the experience. A visit to a major museum is The most important change has been the presenting it together with contemporary recent tendency of turning art into a form a wow-experience, because of the muse- advent of community art projects, where western artists working in centers. A few of cultivated entertainment. This develop- um as a whole – not necessarily the art on the artist works in co-operation with years later, contemporary Finnish folk art, ment has taken place in various occasions; display. 248 non-professionals and gives them some ITE-taide, became known through active for instance world class art museums like The tendency to turn art exhibi- authority over the work. The expert presentation in books and exhibitions.243 the Tate Modern or Guggenheim muse- tions into a cultivated entertainment artist’s opinion and power in the com- Likewise, many visual practices that ums have been transformed into tourist - edutainment - is visible in other occa- munal work focuses on the idea and the have developed in connection with urban attractions, “cultural supermarkets”246 sions too. The art projects/programs that practice, but not the results of the project. (youth) cultures have recently been seen where the importance of the overall are organized in connection with other The end product, if there is any, can be as crossing the borders of the artworld. museum experience increases. In these events often turn into entertainment. The contradictory to the policy of the organiz- The experts of the artworld are interest- “superstar museums”247, the quality of the dominant event can be a cultural one, for ing party. When thinking from a per ed in these practices, but their opinion exhibits is not enough, and the visitors example the European Capital of Culture ceiver’s point of view, it is significant how about the right and good does not have a require a range of subsidiary facilities; at or World Design Capital, or something the participation changes the conception great effect on the original practice. For the minimum there has to be a museum totally different, like the Olympic Games. of the artwork. Being a co-creator proba instance, graffiti is created and valued store selling designer souvenirs and mer- Before and during the London 2012 bly makes the work more meaningful according to the collective opinion of chandise adapted to the current exhibi- Olympic Games various art events were than being just one of the audience. This the graffiti painters and hip-hop oriented tions, and cafés and restaurants that can organized under the label of Cultural effect, however, varies according to the urban culture. The visual end product of also adapt their menus to the museum Olympiad and London 2012 Festival. type of co-operation. If there is a possibil- graffiti does not cover every aspect of the program, but these extra elements can be Many of the events fall into the catego- ity to really have an effect on the contents practice. A graffiti is also valued accord- anything from the museum architecture ry of art as entertainment: for instance, of the work, the effect is certainly stron- ing to the qualities of the location of (Tate Modern, The Guggenheim Muse- topping up London’s best known public ger than in a case where the participants the piece and the attention it receives.244 um Bilbao, Kiasma in Helsinki) to 3D statues with decorative headwear was just follow the organizing artist’s orders.242 Naturally, some of the makers working purely and only entertaining, and exhib- Furthermore, lowering the borders within practices outside the artworld are 245 The website of Walker Art Gallery: iting a collection of BMW cars decorated between art and other practices has cre- taken into the artworld, but that does not “Banksy sculpture on display at the Walker Art by leading international artists is half Gallery,” http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/ ated independent areas of activity where 243 Araeen 1989, 3-4. Buchloh 1989, 150- entertaining and half marketing of the walker/collections/room-guide/banksy-sculp- the art expert’s opinion about the “right” 151. Granö, Honkanen, and Pirtola 2000. Exhibi- ture-liverpool.aspx, accessed 4.1.2014. or “good” art does not have weight. Many tion Omissa naailmoissa - Toinen taide .In Kiasma, Also Dickens 2008. Museum of Contemporary Art, Helsinki 248 van Aalst and Boogaarts 2002, p.197. 14.5.-21.8.2005 . 246 van Aalst and Boogaarts 2002, p.197. 242 Kwon 2004, 107, 116-117. Frey 1998, 118- 119. Kotler and Kotler 2000, Haapalainen 2006. 163-164. 244 Merrill 2014, 4. 247 Frey 1998. 271, 272, 276, 284. Plaza 2000, 270, 272.

150 151 Participating and Perceiving • 5

BMW brand.249 Whatever the method used, bringing the opposite; despite the occasional those brought out in the historical com- A further novel convention for con- art closer to entertainment affects art’s underrating of new sport practices, sport parison of their development as seen in necting art, entertainment, and mar- audiences. In the first cases presented, the audiences have generally welcomed new chapter three. The roles of the contempo- keting is the practice of bringing high original artworks in museums or in the ways of enjoying sport. rary artist and athlete appear more similar quality art into the commercial spaces. context of a festival get a wider public My comprehension is that the key to to each other than the roles of their In Helsinki, the department store Stock- access, which in turn has an opportu- the different attitudes between art and audiences. Being physically in the center mann, together with the furniture com- nity to become more familiar with art. sport audiences is that following sport is of the action connects these otherwise pany Artek, organized an exhibition in The part of the audience that has been generally understood as an act of con- dissimilar practices. In addition, focusing Stockmann’s exhibition hall (Argos-halli) interested in art before the museum suming, while following art is not (even on the participant’s perspective stresses showing an installation by internationally was turned into a tourist attraction will though it can be). The idea of consuming the importance of the everyday practice known artists Tommi Grönlund and Pet- probably continue their visits, because the makes it possible to utilize sport in any that prepares both the artist and the ath- teri Nisunen. The installation consisted art is still in the focus. The masses visiting possible way, while art cannot really be lete for the public parts of their vocations. of nearly 400 Alvar Aalto’s Stool 60s and the exhibition can be annoying, but not separated from experiencing the original The polarity of the hidden daily actions coincided with the stool’s 80th anniver- seriously so. work - for instance, viewing art through and the festive public exhibitions and sary.250 The exhibition met evidently high In the second case, when art is mass media is no substitute for experienc- competitions are the key elements that artistic standards, but in my view the brought into a commercial context, the ing the real thing. Art can be presented are shared both by the artist’s and athlete’s context of celebrating a design furniture’s (supposedly) deeper meanings of art are and introduced on television and the views. In addition to these similarities, anniversary in a department store brings more overridden by the commercial hype. internet, but the experience is seldom the looking at the practices of art and sport it into the framework of a marketing In this case the new kind of art project same as seeing the real works. There are from the maker’s perspective reveals that gimmick. can draw new audiences to art, but it is exceptions: for instance, computer-based even though there is a single protagonist, Turning art into entertainment has probably not so attractive to traditional works that are always exhibited on she is not alone, but supported by a wider two different consequences, depending art audiences, who might avoid these monitors, and in some video art the size network of professionals. on the context: the first turns original events not because of the quality of the and quality of the image does not play The audience’s view of art and sport art into entertainment by changing the art, but because of the openly commercial an important role. However, these works contains more differences. Watching context of the art’s presentation, from the context, which is seen as in opposition to are more willingly seen in a real “exhibi- sport is more of a social action than traditional museum setting to a cultural art’s goals in the context of the modern tion” situation, controlled at least to some contemplating art. Even though one theme-park; and the second makes art system of art.251 degree by the artist. might attend a sporting event alone, the less serious, less independent, by bringing Both the new practices of art, as well Comparing the participant’s and bleachers will be filled with like-minded it into a commercial context or by using as the new ways of exhibiting art, have the audience’s perspectives in art and individuals. Even if the event is perceived art to elevate or accentuate some event or expanded the possible audiences of art. sport reveals the double character of the through TV or other media, it is a shared product. Neither of the consequences is However, only the new practices have experiences these practices can provide. one – the awareness of a mass of people purely negative, but their effect on art’s been embraced by the core audiences The conventional observation of art and following the same unique event can’t be status and position in culture must be and authorities of art, while the new sport from the audience’s point of view avoided today – and the role of modern noticed. exhibition practices are valued differ- does not produce a comprehensive view social media reinforces this feeling.252 ently depending on their relationship of them. Including the participant’s view The conduct of the art audience is to commercial products and practices. in the inspection sheds additional light, more solitary and reserved, even conser- 249 The website of British Fashion Council: “Hatwalk,” http://www.britishfashioncouncil.com/ The idea of independent art is still very especially on the everydayish aspects of vative. The proper behavior one should news_detail.aspx?id=443, accessed 4.1.2014, ICA strongly rooted in the art audience. The the practices. 252 Similar awareness of a shared experience website: “Art Drive!,” http://artdrive.ica.org.uk, attitude within the sport world is quite Paralleling art and sport in the context can be found in some internationally televised cul- accessed 4.1.2014. of doing and watching brings into view tural events, for instance Live Aid at 1985, which 250 The website of Artek, http://www.artek. 251 For instance: Jones 2012. Also Adorno similarities and differences, different from reached a global audience of 1,9 billion, and its fi/fi/news/pressreleases/279, accessed 27.3.2013. 1997 (1970), 226. successors.

152 153 Participating and Perceiving • 5 display in front of artworks was defined early on. Already in the first museums, the public was instructed to controlled manners, as the exhibition was a haven for art. Although the standards of behavior have been liberated since, the norm is that art is watched in silence, and if one wants to discuss the works, it is done in a low voice. Stopping in front of artwork is part of the good conduct of contemplating art, and touching the artworks is still strictly forbidden. Even in cases where touching as artwork is an intrinsic part of the work, part of the audience will find it hard to follow the artist’s wishes. Howev- er, the situation is gradually changing, as the new art practices gain ground within the artworld. Artworks that encourage active participation, and especially communication among the audience, can make the art experience more shared, and thus more similar to the experience of watching sport.

154 155 6 • The Aesthetic Links

156 157 The Aesthetic Links • 6

After the emergence of aesthetics as a discipline, its further development was closely connected to the newly formed category of art. The connection between aesthetics and art was reciprocal: while aesthetic focused mainly on the features of art, the emergence of the category of art was affected by the advent of the specific manners of attention, interpretation, and vocabulary that were used in the appreciation of art.253 The close connection between the development of aesthetics and art confined aesthetics almost purely to the questions of art: from the early nineteenth century the discipline has been understood as the philosophy of art, dealing with the definition of fine arts, the qualities of art (beauty, sublime), or even metacritics, the philosophical inquiry dealing with the aspects of art criticism.254 The understanding of aesthetics as a philosophy of art con- strained the development of aesthetics for nearly two centuries. Alexander Gottlieb Baumgarten’s original idea of aesthetics as the discipline for sensuous knowing received little attention until the end of the twentieth century, when the field of aesthetics began to expand. The importance of aesthetics in the modern world has predominantly grown in two ways: by expanding the scope of aesthetics outside art and by the aestheticization processes taking place in contemporary culture, and the acceptance of the aesthetic foundations of our cognitive processes, truth, and ethics. Both current trends in the transformation of the discipline of aesthetics also justify exploring the relations between art and sport through aesthetics.255 Until recently, aesthetics outside art has been a subject of lesser interest. However, the aesthetics of the environment, the human body, and everyday life (costumes, gardens, wine) have existed as a minor strand of interest alongside that of art-aesthetics. Thomas Leddy has explored the development of aesthetics outside art, and has found that the aesthetics of everyday life has been at least mentioned on various occasions over the entire history of aesthetics. The early observations on aesthetics outside art were usually just passing remarks, but Leddy finds that Hume and Kant, for instance, have considered the qualities of aesthetics outside art. Moving closer to today, Leddy also cites Ralph Waldo Emerson’s positive remarks about the aesthetic value of ordinary things, as

253 Mortensen 1997, 3-4, 96-97. 254 Stecker 2005, 1-2. Beardsley 1981, 6. 255 Welsch 1997, p. 1-3, 38.

158 159 The Aesthetic Links • 6 well as Charles Baudelaire’s and Walter John Dewey in the 1930s.259 His idea the realm of physical culture. Benjamin’s enthusiasm for the aesthetic was to emphasize the concept of aesthet- The Impact of Many of the late twentieth century aspects of city life, which expands the ic experience, and to apply it to various cultural phenomena are connected with a scope of the early appreciation of aesthet- phenomena outside the category of fine Postmodern general exhaustion of the modern proj- ics outside art.256 art. The aesthetic appropriation of non- ect, which had been a prevalent cultural Outside the mainstream of aesthetic art matters would result in a heightened tendency throughout the last century. discussion, the ideas about aesthetics out- aesthetic sensitivity, which would pro- The idea of modernism emphasized The modern project is conceived of as side of art, as well as the aesthetics of the mote improvements in the quality of life. clear and separate cultural practices, and the effort to finalize the differentiation everyday, developed over time towards However, the proposal attained very little well-defined objectives that were striv- of cultural practices, so that different our contemporary understanding. For interest before the late twentieth centu- en for within these practices, whereas cultural practices would be separated into instance, in the late nineteenth century ry. 260 The first successful approach uti- contemporary culture gives priority to their own compartments and could be Jean-Marie Guyau explored ideas about lizing aesthetics outside art was directed pluralistic approaches and goals, as well advanced without a connection to other the importance of aesthetics in everyday towards the aesthetic appreciation of the as to contradictory readings of their practices. The formation of art and sport life, the connection between ethics and environment. Starting from ideas similar meanings. Even if it is sometimes argued was a good example of this tendency; they aesthetics, as well as the general scope of to eighteenth century nature aesthet- that the cultural current is late modern, both formed their own worlds, which had the aesthetic discipline, that are remark- ics, environmental aesthetics expanded instead of postmodern, a continuation created internal rules about the significant ably modern; for Guyau, the scope of towards a versatile understanding of the of modernism rather than the beginning contents of their practices. They were in aesthetics extends beyond art and beauty, environment, where nature was only one of a new era, various ruptures in cultural interaction with the surrounding culture play and entertainment. Aesthetics forms possible environment. Environmental practices have nevertheless since the late and society and reflected its development, an essential part of life: “being alive is aesthetics opened the route for other 1960s been designated with the prefix but through their own principles. From in itself pleasurable and aesthetic feel- approaches to various subjects; the study “post”, indicating their departure from the beginning of the 1960s to the 1980s ing which engages all our senses, which of the aesthetics of popular culture and modernism. This change, which had the situation gradually changed; various makes our sensuality and perception numerous aspects of everyday life being started from the gradual development of experiments in crossing over the previ- aesthetic pleasure in itself.”257 In addition, the most notable areas of study. Current- modern tradition, became more articulat- ous borders became more frequent, until Guyay’s view of aesthetics links aesthetics ly, aesthetics is used to deal with various ed and theorized as “postmodern” first in they joined the mainstream practice. The and ethics; the ethical choices in every- topics in contemporary culture, for literature, architecture, philosophy, and common goals of the practices became day life depend on aesthetic judgment of instance the aesthetic aspects of politics, later in other arts as well as in culture in more unclear, until there was no longer a the situation, not predetermined rules. mobility, and human appearance. Today general.262 shared end within a practice, but various Guyau emphasizes the social condition of it is widely accepted that there is no spe- While theoretical discussion about goals that were approached in multiple this judgment. A balanced judgment does cial field of subjects that can be studied postmodern exists within the theoretical ways. While there was no further visible not concern itself only with an individu- from an aesthetic vantage point, however approaches to sport, the new ideas have development of the modern project, a al, but also with the benefit to others.258 some subjects are more rewarding.261 not affected the actual practice of sport. new kind of fragmented reality became Although aesthetic phenomena However, the framework of contemporary visible. According to Shiner’s view on the outside art had previously been explored sport has adapted to the changes in the development of art, the changes taking on a small scale, the first approach with cultural environment, which exists today place during the 1960s began the slow a wider significance in applying aesthet- in a postmodern form. In addition, if the downfall of the second system of arts.263 ics outside the realm of art was made by numerous physical cultures are inspected Even though postmodernism was seen as a larger whole, the practices emerging as the end for many previous cultural 256 Leddy 2012, 22-25, 26 (Hume), 31-32 outside the tradition of modern sport (Kant), 36, 39-40. 259 Dewey 2005 (1934). have brought postmodern tendencies into 263 Lyotard 1984 (1979), 72, 76, 81. 257 Kreft 2011, 78. 260 Shusterman 2000 a, 3, 6, 13. Tavares 2006. Jameson 1991, 25. Shiner 2001, 258 Kreft 2011, 78-79. 261 Ziff 1994 (1979). Shusterman 2012. 262 Welsch1988, 14,16,18,23. 10, 303-304.

160 161 The Aesthetic Links • 6 models, it also brought many novel pos- it not a period style with recognizable aesthetics was bound to art until the end sibilities to light. Instead of focusing on features, but a cultural dominant of the The of pure modernism, when art began to high culture alone, postmodern culture late twentieth century. Instead of a certain lose its divine status and turn back to the strives to value all kinds of cultural prac- clear style, postmodern is visible as an Significance everyday world.269 tices in spite of their previous status as attitude. Jameson finds the suspension of During the nineteenth and early high or low. The first part of Robert Ven- reality driving the focus on the surface, of Aesthetics twentieth century, the further loosening turi’s, Denise Scott Brown’s and Steven on superficial aesthetics.266 However, of the ties of the traditional social system, Izenourof’s book Learning from Las Vegas, from the same outset of suspended reality, and the shaking of the previously solid “A Significance for A&P Parking Lots, or Wolfgang Welsch has found the possibili- The contemporary advent of aesthetics scientific foundations by the advances of Learning from Las Vegas”264 is an explo- ty for a deeper aesthetic understanding of as a beneficial means for comprehending physics beyond Newtonian models, again ration of architectural forms that had reality, in the form of an epistemological the world is linked to the decline of the shifted (western) culture’s perception of previously been thought of as banal and aestheticization, where aesthetic percep- fundamental truths that had, since early values, its understanding of the world, unworthy of serious analysis, which indi- tion determines our fundamental under- Christianity, guided the members of and the position of humankind in the cates the change in perspective. In post- standing and evaluation of the world as western societies in their relationship with cosmos. Gradually, the idea that there is modern the reality evolved into a state of well as our orientation within it. Accord- their neighbors, their environment, and no solid basis to build our knowledge on, fluidity, where an absolute certainty does ing to Welsch, reality is “produced poi- the world in general. The differentiation even in the most fundamental sciences, not exist. Everything is in a state of sus- etically, structured with fictional means, in European culture, as well as growing affected the whole culture – everything pension, and judgments and choices have and in their whole mode of being of that scientific knowledge, especially in natural is based on floating truths, and there to be made again and again as the context floating and fragile nature which had tra- sciences, shook many of the foundations is no absolute certainty, and the most changes. Although postmodernism was ditionally been attested only to aesthetic of culture and rendered them obsolete: important principles have to be defined only a brief and limited style in art, most phenomena and had only been consid- the importance of religion diminished, again and again in consideration of the visible in architecture, the postmodern ered possible with these”.267 Welsch’s the concept of a humankind created by current circumstances.270 When there is period took over the modern. The diverse point of view is that the postmodern state an omnipotent god lost its position as no solid foundation, sensuous knowing cultural transformations were seen as the of culture has made it possible to leave the center of the universe; accordingly, is a viable option upon which to base symptoms and results of the end of the the stiff norms of modernism behind and the absolute power of monarchs, as well decisions and values.271 Even though the modern.265 look at the world with open eyes.268 as the rigid and hierarchical division of disappearance of solid foundations seems Fredric Jameson connects the shift to social orders (classes), gradually lost their a contemporary phenomenon, it has a postmodernism to the merging of aes- significance. As a consequence, the foun- lengthy history as an undercurrent in thetic production with the production of dations of the modern egalitarian culture our culture. Wolfgang Welsch traces the commodities, and the power of capitalism were built on a secular basis, provided emergence of epistemological aestheti- as the prevailing ideology of the time. by natural sciences and reason instead of zation, i.e. “aesthetics as a fundamental According to him, the rise of postmod- previously held ethereal truths based on epistemological discipline”272 to Immanu- ernism was connected with the advance religious beliefs and tradition. Despite el Kant. According to Welsch, the human of capitalist ideology, as well as changes in this secularization of culture, the recently connection with reality, as well as human society. The previous industrial society was formed cultural category of art assumed cognition, are aesthetically constituted. transforming into a post-industrial one, a position in many ways similar to that Because human understanding of the into a consumer society. For Jameson, which religion had held during the previ- 269 Hopkins 2000, 104-105. Bourriaud the plurality of postmodernism makes ous centuries; art had essentially a divine 2002, 28. nature, and could reach truths beyond the 266 Jameson 1991, 3-5. 270 Feyerabend 1980 (1975), 66-68. 264 Venturi, Scott Brown and Izenourof normal scope of the senses. 1988 (1972). 267 Welsch 1997, 21. This is one reason why the field of 271 Welsch 1997, 42-43. 265 Welsch 1991, 175. 268 Welsch 1997, 8, 21. 272 Welcsh 1997, 38.

162 163 The Aesthetic Links • 6 world is conveyed by the senses, it has an to Ludwig Wittgenstein’s concept of of two levels of sensing: the lower level element.278 aesthetic basis, and our understanding language; the various uses of aesthetics of sensation and the distanced level of In addition to these semantic ele- of reality has an inevitably fictional and form a family resemblance. Welsch’s idea perception. Sensation is at some level ments, which are connected somewhat poeietic character.273 about the contemporary organization of aesthetic, but according to Welsch only closely to higher level features of aesthet- By the 1990s, aesthetics was regarded aesthetics is layered in various dimen- as a hedonistic semantic element, related ics, Welsch states that various semantic as a somewhat valid means for dealing sions. The aesthetic features function at to pleasure and emotions.276 While the elements belong within the scope of with various issues. Wolfgang Welsch calls several levels of which some are essential sensation is focused on subjective experi- aesthetics because of their family resem- the new direction of aesthetics aesthetics for aesthetic thinking and others affect ence, the bearing of aesthetic perception blance, but not as clear subcategories.279 beyond aesthetics, which stands for the on lower level, as underlying sensations is observational and theoretical. When These remaining semantic elements form detachment of aesthetics and art, and of the aesthetic thought. The different the theoretical stance is taken, the stim- various overlapping groups that are more the active cultivation of aesthetic think- uses of aesthetics do not necessarily share ulus of aesthetic sensation is turned into or less connected to the semantic ele- ing outside the traditional boundaries the same features, but there are semantic a perception, a more objective analysis of ments already described. The connections of art and beauty. His conception of the elements and semantic groups which are the same impression, reflecting the same between these different semantic elements expanded field of aesthetics understands partially connected with overlaps, links, pleasure felt in the sensation.277 are not self-evident; they form a complex aesthetics as a transdisciplinary discipline and transitions, which thus connect the Whereas sensation is connected only web that expands over the numerous uses that can deal with “all questions con- various uses of aesthetics. 275 to the hedonistic semantic element, of aesthetics today. cerning aisthesis”. In the contemporary According to Welsch, some features Welsch sees various semantic elements While the various semantic elements world, where everything is floating and are shared by all the semantic elements, the having a connection with aesthetic per- introduce the extent of the possible contingent, in a state of suspension, aes- defined aspects of aesthetics. The primary ception as well as being linked with eleva- applications and contexts of aesthetics in thetic judgment forms a valid method for one is the sensuous semantic group that tory semantic element. In the context of contemporary culture, they still cannot making choices.274 emphasizes the connection between the conventional understanding of aesthetics, reveal the real importance of aesthetics in Welsch’s ideas about employing aes- sensuous and the aesthetic, and at the most important connections exist with modern thought, and consequently the thetics outside its traditional domain take same time introduces a division into two form- and proportion-related, theoreticistic effects of aesthetization. Aesthetics is rou- a more concrete form when he starts to levels of sensuousness: the low level vulgar and phenomenalistic semantic elements. tinely thought to concern itself only with analyze the aesthetic features of con- sensuous element and the higher eleva- The form- and proportion-related seman- 278 Welsch 1997, 10-11. temporary thinking: the objective of his tory semantic element, where the latter, tic elements refer to the relations between 279 The subjective semantic element, linked analysis is to clarify the various meanings elevated and distanced sensuous forms the elements of the perceived phenomena with the subjective nature of aesthetic perception; connected to the general concept of aes- the core of all aesthetic apprehension. or object, its connections, contrasts, and the reconciliative semantic element, related with thetics in contemporary thought, to shed Aesthetic appreciation requires sensu- harmonies. The theoreticist semantic the manner the objects of perception are joined to light on the feature he calls the semantic ous and same time takes distance from element is present in contemplation, each other; the callistic semantic element, associ- ambiguity of aesthetics, the variation in it. Welsch defines these features, taken treating an object or phenomenon from ated with the aesthetic as synonymous with beauty; uses of aesthetics and the variation of together, as the aisthetic semantic element. a theoretical orientation. The dedication the cosmetic and poietic semantic elements, connected to skills, production and the use of mate- its point of reference. In addition to Even though both variations of sensuous the aesthetics of the appearance of the rials; the artistic semantic element, the art-related clarifying the contemporary, multifacet- belonging to the sensuous semantic group subject under perception forms the third meanings of aesthetics; the semantic element “con- ed understanding of aesthetics, Welsch are associated with aesthetics in general, semantic element connected with performing with aesthetics”, aesthetics as accord- attempts to unfold the reasons behind the the elevatory semantic element contrib- ception; the phenomenalistic semantic ing with the theory of aesthetics;the “sensitive” semantic element, associated with a person’s abil- significance of aesthetic thinking in the utes more to actual aesthetic inquiry. 276 In my opinion, Richard Shusterman ity to sense something very sensitively; the “aesthe- contemporary world. He sees the con- Welsch furthermore discerns another presents new methods for analytic approach with tistic” semantic element, connected to an aesthe- temporary uses of aesthetics as analogous parallel double-level feature in aesthet- his somaesthetics, and thus brings the sensation at tism taken to perfection; and the virtual seman- least partially into aesthetics proper. See Shuster- ics; aesthetic experience is composed tic element that denotes aesthetics as the guiding 273 Welsch 1997, 38-39. man 2008, 23. model for the relationship towards reality. Welsch 274 Welsch 1997, 38; 48-49. 275 Welsch 1997, 8-10. 277 Welsch 1997, 10-11. 1997,12-15.

164 165 The Aesthetic Links • 6 surface qualities. However, in addition to and Baudelaire. In the late twentieth zones, surface aesthetization has conse- have gained in popularity: techniques these surface level qualities, aestheticiza- century, the idea of life as artwork was quences that affect our lives more deeply. concentrating on heightened bodily sensi- tion also takes place on a deep level that emphasized by Michel Foucault. The One can always avoid shopping centers, tivity, yoga, and various meditative prac- affects the foundations of our relationship third instance of the aesthetization of the but the artificial aging of beautified tices, for instance, have also become more with reality. While surface aesthetization everyday comes close to Welsch’s ideas. articles, for instance, typical of surface popular than ever before. Shusterman is more visible in our daily life, the latter Even though Featherstone emphasizes aesthetization, cannot be avoided.282 connects the contemporary dedication epistelemological aesthetization has more images, he connects the phenomenon to Featherstone’s emphasis on images to the body to the “social conformity” profound consequences for the basis of commercial culture and the transforma- brings forth one more aspect of aesthe- and “heightened individualism” present living in the world. Surface aesthetization tion of the citizen into a consumer. The tization that cannot be escaped: today’s in today’s affluent societies, as well as the takes place on the visible surfaces of mod- abundance of images serves similar ends cityscape is flooded with all kinds of loss of religious sentiment. Furthermore, ern life: it is present in all the embellish- as the embellishing of the urban environ- advertisement, trademarks, and other Shusterman sees the increasing interest in ments of urban environments, the styling ment, in order to make them attractive commercial information. The extent of bodily aesthetics coming at least partially and beautification of various objects from to experience-hungry people and to commercial imagery is so great that it is from the response to constant interac- consumer goods to human beings, and in convince them to consume their time and easy to become blind to it. The commer- tion with computers and other technical the creation of new kinds of experiences funds.281 cial signs transform into a natural part devices that estrange us from everyday in order to entertain people.280 Welsch’s grim view is that the char- of the buildings, and the advertisements bodily experiences.284 Mike Featherstone describes a sim- acter of surface aesthetization is mostly on the internet form a natural element However, the negative consequences ilar development as the aesthetization superficial and hedonistic: the central alongside our emails and everyday of surface aestheticization that Welsch of everyday life. According to him, the values are “pleasure, amusement, enjoy- news.283 and Featherstone emphasize are not the aesthetization of everyday life is visi- ment without consequences”. Aestheti- In addition to this aesthetization of only truths; they simply concentrate on ble in three contexts: it takes place in cized contemporary culture is steered by environments, experiences, and objects, the typical signs of aestheticization pro- connection with the lowering of the the guidelines of experience and enter- human bodies are also subject to aesthe- cesses in the late twentieth century. Yrjö boundary between art and everyday life, tainment. The most visible manifestations tization. Richard Shusterman terms the Sepänmaa sees the positive potential in in shaping one’s life into an artwork, and of surface aesthetization are often driven growing emphasis on personal appearance surface aestheticization. For him, the aim in the overloading of everyday life with by commercial purposes, turning people that is today enhanced using various of the cultural trend of aestheticization signs and images that is taking place in into consumers. According to Welsch, methods the somatic turn. The concen- is connected with pursuing a good life. contemporary culture. In the first case, this embellishment actualizes most often tration on one’s appearance is not limited The attention to the aesthetic aspects in the aesthetization has taken place in art in the course of revitalizing city centers, to clothes and other wearable decora- human culture will produce good effects, since the early twentieth century, in the when building new grandiose shopping tion, and the enhancement of personal if the appropriate values are taken into context of dada, surrealism, and other malls, frequently in connection with appearance often focuses on the body. account. The values of aestheticization avant-garde movements, and again during transforming run-down quarters into Traditional sports and exercise methods are not fixed, but the choice of the values the 1960s as a reaction to the institu- lively commercial areas. The results can are outmoded by specialized programs. affects the result of the process. For tionalization of modernism. The second be stunning: for instance in the old city The body is dissected, and the parts that instance, aesthetic environmental cul- manifestation of aesthetization, turning center of Birmingham in central England, require improvement are subjected to ture does not mean anything more than one’s life into a work of art, has a long the contrast between the futuristic curved special training to perfect them. When arranging the relationship with the envi- history. Featherstone traces its beginnings walls of the Bull Ring Shopping center, the physical exercises do not produce ronment in accordance with the concepts back to the nineteenth century dandyism. covered with shiny aluminum disks, and the desired looks, plastic surgery is used. of beauty. The values that govern these Since then, the idea has surfaced regularly the surrounding rough industrial build- The surface techniques used for bodily environmental choices are associated on various occasions, for instance in the ings could not be greater. In addition to improvement are not the only ones that with aesthetic values. If economic values writings and life of Oscar Wilde, Balzac, the surfeits in the commercial building 282 Welsch 1997, 2-4. 284 Shusterman 2000 b, 154-157. 280 Welsch 1997, 2, 38. 281 Featherstone 2007, 65-66. 283 Featherstone 2007, 66-67.

166 167 The Aesthetic Links • 6 overpower the aesthetic ones, the aesthet- the embodied mind, the cognitive uncon- the discovery of DNA’s structure; James the experience, bringing it to its natural ical quality of the outcome might suffer, scious, and metaphorical thought, make Watson confesses that he was able to end. The aesthetic experience is sensed as but if the values are balanced a positive the idea of objective, disembodied science construct the structure only because he an experience, unlike the regular expe- result can be achieved from the aesthetici- as well as the goal of finding fundamen- chose to look for an aesthetic solution riences within the everyday humdrum. zation process.285 tal truths impossible. We are embodied among all those that were theoretically There is no exact boundary between nor- Eventually, Welsch suggests that the beings, physically engaged with our open. Epistelemological aestheticization mal and aesthetic experiences; they form recent growth in the significance of aes- environment, so scientific observations takes place across the academic disci- a continuity, where some experiences are thetics lies in the comprehension of reali- are reliant on human perception and plines: from the philosophy of science more distinctly aesthetic than others.292 ty through consciously aesthetic consider- cognitive faculty. The fact that scientific and analytic philosophy to hermeneutics, According to Dewey, all human con- ations, an epistelemological aestheticiza- observations extend today beyond human semiology, and sociology, as the hope tact with their environment takes place tion that affects the deep-seated structures capacity results from the development for fundamental truths disappears, the through a constant experience, but most of the human mind and the foundations of instruments that extend the scope of aesthetic character of cognition is recog- of that experience remains in the back- of the culture; the sensuous knowing that observations and assist in the manip- nized as the basis for science’s connection ground.293 However, the aesthetic experi- is the only track between human thought ulation of the gathered information. to reality.291 ence rises clearly above those experiences and the reality we are immersed in.286 However, the mechanical observations that constitute the basis of living in the This epistelemological aestheticization made with these instruments do not world. For Dewey, the aesthetic is never takes place in the foundational aestheti- turn into the results of science without really disinterested, the sensing human cization of knowledge, truth, and reality, human interaction.288 Moreover, the truth being is always in the middle, and there is and it has nothing to do with surface acquired through scientific procedures has Aesthetic no possibility to detach oneself from the aestheticization. Welsch traces the idea of an embodied nature: according to Lakoff interaction with the environment.294 The epistelemological aesthetization back to and Johnson, the formation of truth is Experience aesthetic experience is without exception Baumgarten and Kant in the eighteenth linked to our everyday experience. These a first person experience; one is always century, and Nietzsche in the nineteenth experiences lead us to find correlations involved in the particular experience. The century. The idea of the aesthetic basis of between our perception and environment The contemporary understanding of the experience takes place for one person, cognition has been more accepted during that contribute to the primary metaphors. scope of aesthetics advocated by Welsch at certain time, and it cannot be either the late twentieth century, especially in The primary metaphors form the basis emphasizes the aesthetic experience that duplicated or even fully verbalized. the philosophy of science. The attempt of further thought, including abstract plays a foundational role in John Dewey’s Another difference between Dewey’s to find the fundamental truths beyond concepts and scientific theorizing.289 pragmatist aesthetics. The main contri- aesthetics and other aesthetic theories is the laws of nature has gradually revealed In addition to the impossibility of bution of Dewey’s aesthetics is giving the its independence from the definition of that there is no firm ground to be found; finding solid foundations, several scientif- central position to the aesthetic experi- art. His aesthetics do not require a special new scientific breakthroughs have always ic discoveries are based on aesthetic argu- ence initiated by art or other features of category for art; the source for aesthetic revealed new complexities beyond the ments, and have even been found using the environment, instead of concentrat- experience can be anything that raises the limits of previous knowledge.287 aesthetic premises. Developing scientific ing on the aesthetic qualities of artworks. magnitude of experience above the every- The contemporary foundations for theories can be connected with the use of For Dewey, the aesthetic experience as an day fragmented humdrum, and provides epistelemological aestheticization can be imagination, and discovering them can experience with a clearly noticeable start an experience that forms an organic unity. located through the cognitive sciences: even happen in an artistic fashion, using and end. In the aesthetic experience each The traditional fine arts form only one Lakoff and Johnson demonstrate how the imagination and aesthetic judgment.290 successive part of the experience runs possible source for aesthetic experiences, three basic findings in cognitive sciences, A revealing example used by Welsch is together without disturbances; the expe- and Dewey sees possibilities for aesthetic rience forms a unity, and in the end there 285 Sepänmaa 2012, section 3 . 288 Lakoff and Johnson 1999, 90-91. 292 Dewey 2005 (1934), 37-38, 45-47. will be a consummating phase that fulfills 286 Welsch 1997,38-49. 289 Lakoff and Johnson 1999, 128. 293 Dewey 2005 (1934), 15-16. 287 Welsch 1997, 44-45. 290 Feyerabend 1980 (1975), 166-167. 291 Welsch 1997, 44-45. 294 Also Shusterman 2000 a, 6-7.

168 169 The Aesthetic Links • 6 experiences in, for example, jazz music, art object is bad, or if the viewer does not expansion of aesthetics outside the realm or environments are man-made, they fre- movies, and sport.295 concentrate on the interaction, or if she of fine arts was in the aesthetic approach quently have practical reasons for creating The whole construction of Dewey’s comes from a different culture, there will to the environment, where the ideas them that overpower the aesthetic aspects. aesthetics differs from most approaches be no work of art present, as the interac- stemmed from the eighteenth centu- The function or reason for the existence to aesthetics; instead of trying to define tion is flawed.296 ry’s aesthetics of nature and romantic of natural subjects is more hidden, but art and the aesthetic qualities that make Dewey sees aesthetics, especially appreciation of nature. In environmental still present. Their function is being a something artistic, he prefers to see the aesthetic experience, as a tool for aesthetics there is no single, highlight- part of the larger ecosystem, to support the reality as a continuity, where some improving the quality of life, and thus ed feature that could be the focus of other living things. In general, a wider features and creatures provide more opposes “the museum concept of art” that aesthetic analysis; instead, it is a whole knowledge about the function of non-art aesthetic experiences than others. There is prevents expanding the use of aesthetics multisensory experienced environment, subjects shifts their aesthetic appreciation no aesthetic borderline that separates art outside art. In place of the traditional fine with the observer as a part of it. Even – just as a functionally fit practical object from other parts of life, just a socially and arts, he wants to expand the conception though visual and audible features play appears more aesthetically pleasing, so a historically constructed border. Artistic of art and thus combine art and aesthet- an important role, one still feels the wind, soggy wetland is more agreeable when its work is a habit of action within one prac- ics as an integral part of everyday life: smells the air, and can even use taste function in the ecosystem is known.300 tice, developed within European culture. when the aesthetic experience is not tied while inspecting the features of the envi- Since the emergence of environmen- If the difference between art as a cultural to objects or immaterial works produced ronment. All of these sensations together tal aesthetics, the scope of aesthetics has practice and as a source of aesthetic expe- within and according to the rules of the form a significant and inseparable entity. expanded from concentrating on spe- rience is acknowledged, and the aesthetic category/system of fine art, the aesthetic Unlike in artworks, there are no cial art-like objects or features and the practices (and the expressions of the aes- experience is liberated to enhance the predefined intentions or boundaries for ambience of special landscapes to the thetic) outside the practice of fine art are quality of everyday life.297 For Dewey, this the observed environment. Neither is the aesthetic appreciation of the normal, or given their proper value, aesthetics will was an idea he wanted to promote, but environment in a fixed state, everything is even the modest, things that we constant- function better in improving the quality today it is becoming reality. in flux. The aesthetic appreciation of the ly face in our lives – finding aesthetic of life. Some practices are more suitable environment balances the direct sensory features in places and situations that were for producing aesthetic experiences, but experience of the environment and the previously thought aesthetically insig- the effect of an individual action cannot experience that is affected by previous nificant. The field of everyday aesthetics be judged beforehand. information about the site, as well as the concentrates on the aesthetics of ordinary Consequently, Dewey’s understanding Aesthetics in part that is beyond our direct sensing.298 phenomena and experiences without an of a work of art deviates from the estab- Early environmental aesthetics was largely immediate connection with arts or special lished convention. He separates the work the Expanded animated by the rising ecological con- natural environments. The weight of of art and the art object. The latter is just sciousness, but soon the environment these mundane matters is greater than it the object, usually made by an artist, and Field was understood as a wider concept, and first looks: Yuriko Saito points out how it functions as a container, as a possible aesthetic inquiries were directed towards seemingly insignificant everyday matters source for a work of art. The work of art the qualities of all kind environments, do have serious consequences that can be is realized in the interaction between the Parallel with the increased understanding ranging from famous landscapes to urban moral, social, political, or environmental. perceiver and the art object, the work of of the importance of aesthetics in our areas and domestic environments.299 Firstly, the common everyday aesthetic art is created again and again when the connection with the world, the practice Aesthetic appreciation is not usually the preferences towards beautiful, spectac- art object produces an aesthetic expe- of aesthetics has detached itself from its primary function or reason for the exis- ular, and special features obscure the rience. The emergence of a work of art solid connection with art and approached tence or creation of these environments, meaning of the aesthetically insignificant depends on the quality of the art object other areas. The first well-established objects, events, or features. If the objects objects, features, and issues. This becomes and the vantage point of the viewer. If the evident in questions about environmental 296 Dewey 2005 (1934), 108-109. 298 Parsons and Carlson 2008, 126-127. 295 Dewey 2005 (1934), 4, 65-66. 297 Dewey 2005 (1934), 4, 9-10. 299 Carlson 1994. Berleant 1995. 300 Parsons and Carlson 2008, 126-127.

170 171 The Aesthetic Links • 6 protection: it is much easier to protect tion: my everyday now. Everyone is the for characteristics of another kind. The vegetation in one’s front lawn is deemed species and environments that are beau- sole observer of their everyday life, even terminology is not settled, but the terms weeds, but in a meadow the same dande- tiful and spectacular than those that are though we share much of our everyday connected with everyday aesthetics have lions are flowers.305 insignificant or even repellent. Secondly, life with our family, and even with strang- various meanings, and only some of those Even if there exist no definite aesthetic everyday aesthetic preferences affect the ers living in a similar culture. The basis of have an aesthetic connotation. Leddy experiences in an average everyday, there environmental planning, building, and the everyday is in the routines that find explores a number of different phrases are still aesthetics that can be worth study, production of consumer goods. The their form from personal preferences and and their different usages in relation to and that can promote our understanding products that are manufactured with mandatory tasks. Although routines are the everyday aesthetic and art related of the world we live in. Sherri Irvin writes less damage to the environment or the important in everyday life, there is also aesthetics. His study shows that words about the pervasiveness of the aesthetic people making them are easily overlooked change. Some of the changes commonly used in everyday aesthetic in the ordinary experience, meaning that because of their aesthetics. For instance, in everyday life are gradual ones that evaluations are not usually appreciated in one cannot escape aesthetic experiences recycled paper and environmentally slowly transform the everyday life with- the context of traditional aesthetics. For in even the most modest encounters in friendly printer inks are seen deficient out disturbing the routine, and some are instance, expressions like nice or fun have everyday life. The incident might not be a when compared to normal paper and sudden ones that break the everyday rou- limited use in art-related aesthetics, but full aesthetic experience in the Deweyan regular printer inks. Similarly, wind tine for some time. The changes can be are found appropriate in the context of sense, but despite the modest sensations turbines are resisted for their effect on positive, such as parties and other social everyday aesthetic judgments.304 involved, the connection to everyday the aesthetics of the landscape. The fact occasions or learning a new skill, but also Although the terminology used in reality has an aesthetic origin.306 that the electricity produced by wind is negative, such as illness and accidents. everyday aesthetics would be too simple Everyday life is our most omnipres- cleaner does not matter. Even though the The usual everyday life that consists of to use in the context of art, the qualities ent environment, and thus its impor- aesthetic quality of everyday objects and various routines, interactions with people, the terms used can be complicated. Saito tance is great even though it usually just features would not be significant enough objects, and environmental conditions is exemplifies this complexity with the qual- forms the background for our life’s more to justify their study, the consequences mainly regular, but still in a constant flux ities of everyday aesthetics as pairs like colorful events. The subject that is not of the everyday aesthetic preferences are and subject to abrupt changes. My every- clean and messy, neat and dirty, organized spectacular might be still worth attention, far-reaching, and for this reason the study day will certainly be different next year, and disorganized. The pairs form focal even enjoyment, if it can form a perfect of everyday aesthetics is meaningful.301 but it can change totally tomorrow.303 qualities in everyday life, where the first background for the everyday life, and While art and environment oriented Detaching aesthetics from single quality presents the desired state, while changing it would worsen living con- aesthetics concentrate on a limited group objects required a totally new attitude the latter is the state that requires action. ditions or be environmentally harmful. of subjects, the list of possible subjects for towards sensing the research subject, but The qualities that call for action do not Sometimes, the aesthetic preferences of everyday aesthetics is vast. Thomas Leddy when the object of aesthetic interest is exist in the context of art, but are featured an aspect of everyday life might need provides a basic list: “personal appear- not distinct or special by any measure, frequently in everyday life. In normal reconsideration. Saito uses the example ance, ordinary housing design, interior the terms of appreciation and evaluation life, disinterested observation exists only of a suburban lawn, which signifies an decoration, workplace aesthetics, sexual have to change once again. The previous momentarily, and in most cases an obser- accomplished middle-class lifestyle: a experience, appliance design, cooking, terminology used to analyze art, as well vation results in an action, an action that perfect lawn is thought to be aesthetically gardening, hobbies, play, appreciation as the reasons for aesthetic consideration, is an everyday concern for most people. superior because of its neat and organized of children’s art projects”.302 Naturally, are not applicable when the studied fea- In addition, the qualities of everyday outlook. However, it becomes aestheti- Leddy’s list is not complete, but provides tures and their qualities are mundane: the aesthetics are context dependent; a pile of cally problematic when the detriments some understanding about the scope of qualities used in the context of art do not unwashed laundry does not turn a home of maintaining the lawn are taken into everyday aesthetics. Generally, the outset really apply while dealing with the fea- into a messy one when it is in the laundry account. Because the lawn is an artificial of everyday aesthetics is the personal posi- tures of everyday life. Instead of the beau- basket, but when dumped in the mid- ecosystem in most environments, it needs tiful and sublime, everyday situations call dle of a room it would. Similarly, wild 301 Saito 2007, 57, 58, 61, 65-67. 305 Saito 2007, 152-153, 155. 302 Leddy 2005, 3. 303 Naukkarinen 2013, sections 2-4. 304 Leddy 2012, 151, 185. 306 Irvin 2008, 30-31.

172 173 The Aesthetic Links • 6 constant care such as watering, treating these themes are treated, do not need to into consideration.310 Probably the most experiential mode correlates with the with herbicides, pesticides, insecticides, be compared against the high arts; it is prominent and advanced approach to the felt somatic experience. The performa- and fertilizers as well as regular, usually just enough to accept that the aesthetic territory of the other senses is somaesthet- tive mode implies the objective of the motorized mowing. In most cases leaving preferences within the practices are differ- ics, introduced by Richard Shusterman. somaesthetic practice in connection with the original ecosystem untouched, or just ent. Both high and popular arts contain Shusterman introduced this new disci- striving for bodily strength, skill, and slightly altering it, would be ecologically weak or mediocre artworks that do not pline in order to concentrate on the felt health. However, the performative mode – and aesthetically – appropriate. One’s fulfill the aesthetic expectations, but there experience, and even more radically the can be assimilated into the dominant neighbors might see the traditional lawn is no essential difference in the aesthetic felt experience of one’s own body.311 mode (representational or experiential). as a neat and organized option, but when level of the good works. Today, there is no Along with introducing a new field to Even though the somaesthetic approach considering the environment as an aes- fundamental difference between tradi- aesthetics and analyzing the experienc- suggests concentrating on first person thetic whole, the yard with a more indige- tional high art and popular artforms; all es of the body, Shusterman has further experiences, it can be practiced for others. nous ecosystem of natural hays is more the new areas and forms of life or new objectives for somaesthetics. In addition For example, a doctor or therapist applies desirable. Sometimes, usually in very dry kinds of art need new criteria for aesthetic to analytic somaesthetics, which aims at somatic methods to their patients.313 areas, even substituting all traditional analysis, and the discovery of new kinds analyzing somatic experiences, he intro- vegetation with a natural desert ecosystem of aesthetic qualities and experiences in duces the pragmatic and practical somaes- could be an option.307 them enriches the potential of aesthetics thetics, where the first means proposing At the same time as the expansion in other categories.308 specific methods for somatic improve- of aesthetics towards the environment Many of the new subjects within ment and their comparative evaluation, Contemporary and the everyday was occurring, changes aesthetics are connected, not only by a and the latter is the actual practice of taking place in the conception of art also common derivation from environmental somatic exercises striving for somatic Art and opened up new possibilities for aesthetics. aesthetics, but also by their ideas about self-improvement. By adding a practical Today, art is not conceived of solely as aesthetic experience. Even when study- dimension to aesthetics, somaesthetics Aesthetics high culture; the more common expres- ing separate works, they challenge the performs a radical re-evaluation of an sions of cultural life are also thought of traditional ideas of disinterested con- established academic practice.312 as arts, and thus worth closer study. The templation and the purposelessness of In addition to the tripartite division The previous sections unfold the recent borderline between the category of art an art object. The observer of the envi- into analytical, pragmatic, and practical expansion of the field of aesthetics: the and other activities has become more ronmental or everyday phenomenon is branches, each somaesthetic approach change of aesthetics in connection to the porous than it was during most of the literally immersed in her subject of study, can exist in three modes: representational, realm of art. Aesthetics, however, is not twentieth century. Cultural forms that and much of popular culture is not just experiential, or performative. Shuster- the only practice that has changed; the have previously thought of as vulgar and contemplated but fully and bodily experi- man emphasizes that this division is not category of arts has also transformed over pedestrian are now considered aesthet- enced, by feeling the live performance or a rigid one, but the modes should be recent decades. The previously auton- ically intriguing. For example, Richard dancing with the music.309 seen as dominant tendencies, where the omous field of art has opened up; new Shusterman has found hip-hop and Until recently, vision and hearing representational and experiential modes methods and techniques adopted into the country music worthy of a serious analy- have dominated aesthetics, but here form an opposite pair that are still closely field of art have changed both artworks sis, which revealed advanced techniques the situation is also changing. The connected. The representational mode is and artistic work. In general, the practice and complex messages in them. The so variety of potential aesthetic analyses associated with visible somatic expression, of art has moved towards other cultural called lower arts have been revealed as expands when other senses are taken dieting and bodybuilding for example, practices: the gap between art and other not lower, but only popular. The themes or even getting a new haircut, while the practices created by the emergence of dealt with in popular forms of art, as well 308 Shusterman 2000 b, 60, 76. Ryynänen the category of fine art is not closed, but 310 Brady 2005 and Kuehn 2005. as the manner and delicacy with which 2005, 164. today there are many ways to cross it. 311 Shusterman 1999, 299. 309 See Kupfer 2003. Shusterman 2000 a, 307 Saito 2007, 85. 184, 204. 312 Shusterman 2008, 23-24, 29. 313 Shusterman 2008, 26-28.

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The movement takes place both ways: are simultaneously mundane and out of works. The expansion of artistic methods artists are looking for new and interesting the ordinary. They are multisensory, low has transformed the experience of artistic The Aesthetic ways of realizing new kinds of visions, key experiences that tickle one’s cognition work too. While a considerable portion or starting new artistic processes, and as much as the senses. Unlike traditional of artistic work is planning, contacting and Artistic in many professionals outside art are using artworks, paintings for instance, they do people, attending meetings, writing, even the same methods as artists, but present not exist without actual and active partic- writing computer code, the experience of Sport the results in a different context. Along ipation (as opposed to the passive par- the work must be different. Even though with the traditional artworks, there are ticipation of contemplating a painting). the work is artistic work, it does not works that can be difficult to distinguish While painting retains its character as produce art-related experiences similar to The aesthetics concentrating specifically from everyday objects – if the artwork artwork when stored, works like Tiravani- traditional direct contact with materials, on sport form a special case of aesthetic even contains any kind of distinguishable ja’s installation or Superflex’s free shop where the artist shaped and experienced discourse. Sport is mentioned often when object. In addition to museums and gal- can be preserved only as documentation the artwork simultaneously. The new the possible applications of aesthetics leries, artworks are exhibited outside the of the events. mode of artistic work separates the artistic outside art are discussed. Already John traditional forums. A growing number of contemporary work from the continuous art related Dewey connected sport to the aesthetic The majority of the contemporary art- artists utilize processes analogous to those experiences. Where the work produces art by linking the aesthetic to the bodily works follow the logic inherited from the of Tiravanija and Superflex, which makes related experiences only for short periods interaction between a living thing and beginning of the modern system of art, the approaches used in the contexts of time, the aesthetics of artistic work her environment, instead of the mental but a growing number of art professionals of environmental aesthetics, everyday start to take on the qualities of everyday faculty only.317 The contemporary discus- try to move their practice closer to every- aesthetics, and other fields outside fine art aesthetics, especially if the concept of sion about the aesthetics of sport began in day life. The new working methods and suitable for their evaluation. For instance, everyday proceeds from everyone’s per- the late 1960s, when the possible artistic, kinds of artistic processes challenge the the ecological background information sonal position: my everyday now, everyday and subsequently aesthetic, features of traditional art-aesthetics. For example, utilized in environmental aesthetics can transforms from a general to a particular, sport were brought up in various articles. Rirkrit Tiravanija’s installation art, based be replaced by the appropriate infor- and thus covers all possible everydays – Today, the discussion of the aesthetic on offering noodle-soup to exhibition mation needed for the current artwork. even the most exceptional ones.316 in sport does not concentrate on the visitors,314 or Superflex’s free shop project The background information can be In artistic work, the aesthetic is presence of the aesthetic in sport, but in Helsinki (2010-2011), where some knowledge about social conventions, like manifested as sensuous knowing; there on the qualities of the aesthetic in sport. customers in regular shops got their pur- serving food to guests and habits connect- is no absolute predetermined goal for The question of artistic features in sport, chases for free.315 Tiravanija’s work brings ed with eating together, or the economic the artwork. Even though the artist has a however, remains open. a non-art event into an art museum, conventions of buying goods and the certain intention, she can (and will) make During the first decades after the while Superflex’s project is a new type of capitalist and monetary systems that run adjustments to the work en route. There emergence of modern sport, the aesthetic public intervention that also breaks the the modern world. Having or obtaining is no rule that steers the adjustments; they dimension of sport was not considered conventional rules of commerce. this information is not compulsory, but are made by judging the current state of important or meaningful at all. Aca- The aesthetics of these works draw it makes the (aesthetic) experience more the work – by sensuous knowing. demic discussion about the aesthetics of near to environmental aesthetics and meaningful and assists in understanding sport was virtually nonexistent until the everyday aesthetics. The works are not the meaning of the work. latter half of the twentieth century. Some exactly framed entities, but events that Together with the metamorphosis of manifestations of the aesthetic attitude art, artistic work has changed; an artist’s towards sport have existed in art, but they 314 Bourriaud 2002 (1998), 25. work is no longer confined to painting, have been more or less sporadic: sport has sculpting, or executing works on paper been one possible source of inspiration 315 IHME Edition 2010 – Free Shop, The website of IHME Contemporary Art Festival, only. Neither do all artists require a http://www.ihmeproductions.fi/en.php?k=16243, traditional studio in order to execute their 317 Dewey 2005 (1934). For instance, accessed 17.3. 2011. 316 Naukkarinen 2013. 21-23.

176 177 The Aesthetic Links • 6 for artists, but it never became a common world can be traced to the 1960s.319 theme.321 The earliest texts already con- as a fundamentally aesthetic sport, it is theme within the visual arts. The most During the 1970s, it became a more tained many topics that have retained mechanical efficiency and strength which usual manifestations of the aesthetic in established but still not very com- their relevance in the contemporary aes- are central.323 early sports were the memorial statues to mon topic. The aesthetics of sport was thetics of sport. These central aspects of An opposite view to this perspec- successful athletes; however, their artis- addressed mainly within the discussion sport aesthetics have been brought forth tive was formed by those scholars who tic quality varies greatly. An example of about the philosophy of sport, which was and treated frequently. thought that sport has an aesthetic good artistic quality, combined with a not a widespread subject either. Devel- In the early discussion, three main dimension similar to art, and that it can typical presentation and style of such a opment of the academic discussion since tendencies regarding the relationship be meaningful in the context of sport, monument, is the statue of Paavo Nurmi the mid-1970s has been lingering, and between the aesthetics and sport can be or even that beneficial applications of by Wäinö Aaltonen. The statue combines often mixed with other topics related to found. Some scholars taking part in the the aesthetic dimension of sport could the limitations and possibilities of the aesthetics, for instance environmental discussion thought that the aesthetic be found. In the early discussion, many aesthetic expression of sports in the early aesthetics and the aesthetics of popular attitude or thinking should have no place of the members in this group wanted to twentieth century art very well – as well culture. Interest in the aesthetics of sport in sport. For them, sport was above all contrast or even parallel sport and art. as the current understanding about sport has recently grown again after some about testing the limits of human perfor- Louis Arnaud Reid, one of the earliest amongst artists. Sport was looked at from decades of only sporadic interest.320 mance, fierce competition for victory, and writers about the aesthetic in sport, ends the outside, and an athlete represented an The early debate focused mostly on breaking records, and any concentration up claiming that there are sports that exotic subject for art similar to that of a the existence and meaningfulness of the on aesthetics meant a departure from have artistic elements, but he is reluctant skilled dancer; he represented the poten- aesthetic dimension in sport and concen- these central values. For instance, Paul to classify these sports, e.g. figure skating, tial implicit in every human being. trated almost solely on the qualities of Ziff argued very strongly against research diving, and gymnastics, straightforwardly Perhaps the most important, although modern competitive sport. Because of the on the aesthetic dimension of sport in the as art. 324 In the very first article of Journal dubious in several aspects, expression of narrow understanding of sport and the first issue of the Journal of the Philosophy of the Philosophy of Sport, Paul G. Kuntz the aesthetic elements in sport during comprehension of aesthetics as the philos- of Sport: finds a great similarity between sport the first half of the twentieth century was ophy of art, the discussion was sometimes “Research devoted to the aesthetics and art, and admits having experiences Leni Riefenstahl’s film Olympia docu- rather disoriented. Regardless of skeptical of sport can accomplish nothing. There resembling those obtained from art while menting the 1936 Berlin Olympics, from tones about combining aesthetics and is nothing to be accomplished. Worse it watching a particularly impressive sport- the year 1938. In addition to document- sport, the question of the aesthetic aspects would not only contribute to the vaunted ing event.325 ing the Olympic Games, a large part of of sport was thought to be an important dreariness of aesthetics it could serve to However, most of the writers sup- Riefenstahl’s film concentrated on the delay even impede other possibly signifi- ported the third tendency, which stays presentation of the excellence of human cant research.”322 in the middle ground and admits that bodies in motion.318 Although even Ziff admits that some there is an aesthetic dimension in sport, The contemporary discussion about sports, such as gymnastics, have an aes- but that it is a trivial matter and has very aesthetics in sport started reasonably late 319 The first article I have found and read, thetic aspect, he almost simultaneously little to do with the real values of sport. - its emergence in the Anglo-American ”Sport, Aesthetic and Art” by Louis Arnaud Reid, judges the aesthetic aspect as having an Reid, who advocated for the existence was published in 1970. He mentions some earlier inconsequential, ancillary role to play artistic elements in sport, also thought publications and conference papers about aesthetic in the sport. According to him, even that the aesthetic and artistic qualities of in sport, for example a paper by E. Jokl from 1964, in gymnastics, which many consider an article ”Sport and P.E. as Means of Aesthetic 323 Ziff 1974, 101, 103. (Notice the sud- Education” by W.J Anthony, and a conference on 321 For instance, the first volume of the den change in Ziff’s thinking, visible when one aesthetics and sport held in the University of Sal- Journal of the Philosophy of Sport in 1974 was compares this article to his well-known “Anything ford in the United Kingdom in 1968 or 1969. dedicated to aesthetics. Also, the British Journal of Viewed” just five years later). Aesthetics published some early articles about aes- 320 For instance, Journal of the Philosophy thetics in sport. 324 Reid, 1970, p.258. 318 Olympia, Parts I & II, directed by Leni of Sport dedicated its issue (2012) 39:2 to aesthet- Riefenstahl 1938, Germany. 218 minutes. ics of sport. 322 Ziff 1974, 93. 325 Kuntz 1974, 28.

178 179 The Aesthetic Links • 6 games and sport are by-products – both sport as a competitive and achievement lacking in sport. Sometimes connecting 1960s, especially in the visual arts.331 for the participants and even the most oriented physical activity. The group of art and sport took a rather radical form: This awareness of the departure from the aesthetically-minded observer, if they physical activities that were considered “Art is also performed in our natatoriums, modern concept of art seems to make are really interested in sports or games to be proper sport was very limited. The gymnasiums, and playing fields through their opinion on the possibility of sport as such. David Best has a similar per- sphere of voluntary and unorganized the medium of sport. The definition of being art more plausible. Gaskin and spective on aesthetics, and believes that physical activity was just developing.328 At art needs to be expanded to include the Masterson suggest that in the contempo- sport can be watched with an aesthetic the same time, aesthetics was understood skilled athletic performance.”329 rary (1970s) situation sport can be seen as attitude, but that the aesthetic experience mainly as the philosophy of art, which led The simplified paralleling of art and a medium in which, from time to time, is subordinate to the efficiency and the the scholars to look for contacts between sport often lead to a comparison of the works of art are produced.332 Thirty years success of the performance. Furthermore, art and sport as well as comparing them. finished work of art and the athlete’s later, an analogous view was reformulated he thinks that the quality of the aesthetic The aesthetic element in sport was seen performance, instead of the artist’s work by Wolfgang Welsch, who found that: in sport is dependent on the qualities of as a token of the artistic in sport, and and the athlete’s performance, where “Sport is one kind of art. Art (in the usual the sport and the perceiver’s predilections. concentrating on the aesthetics of sport more relevant points of comparison could sense) is another one.”333 However, the For example, Best cannot find anything as a departure from sport’s ideals. While be found. Some early articles, however, comprehension of both art and sport positive in the aesthetics of race walking, the writers’ understanding about art was promoted the latter point of view. For had changed considerably from the time while he finds aesthetics possibilities in still somewhat traditional and narrow, the instance, Carolyn E. Thomas explores Gaskin and Masterson wrote their article, weight lifting.326 combination of these two restricted views the possible similarities between art and and thus Welsch has a more solid founda- The early discussion thus suffered led the discussion astray. sport through the aesthetic experience of tion for his insight. from various problems in reconciling the active performer in sport, as similar The connection between art and aesthetics and sport. Aesthetics, and the to an artist’s experience: she looked for sport was centrally topical in the early aesthetic attitude towards sport, were seen Linking Art and Sport the element of play concealed by the discussion about the aesthetics of sport, as a threat to the original nature of sport. competition and desire to win, as well as but when the understanding of the scope For example, Paul Weiss (in Kuntz 1974) The discussion about aesthetics and the qualities of perfect moments and peak of aesthetics changed, the importance emphasizes the struggle for the best pos- sport deviated both when similarities experiences as special aesthetic experi- of this topic ebbed. The question about sible performance as the most important between sport and art were found, as ences achievable through sport. Thomas’s the parallels between art and sport still aspect of sport: “he who does not try to well as when the connection was totally view on the connection between art and occasionally surfaces, but usually in quite make maximal use of his body is playing denied. Analogies were found between sport draws close to the contemporary a different tone. The similarity between at, not in a sport”. 327 The result was more some sports and various artforms, and views on the subject.330 art and sport is more a tool for the better important than the style or manner of correspondingly fundamental differences Another exception to the usual- understanding of some qualities of sport achieving it, as long as the ethical values were found between other sports and ly narrow view of art is found in the than a real fact. of sport were not (openly) violated. artforms. Measuring sport against drama article “The Work of Art in Sport” by The traditional connection of aesthet- The major cause of the problems in and dance was the most common parallel Geoffrey Gaskin and D.W. Masterson. ics and art, as applied to the aesthetics of combining aesthetics and sport was the drawn between art and sport: most sports When exploring the work of art in sport in the 1970s and 1980s, deviates prevailing understanding about both have a temporal nature similar to the sport, the writers take into account the from today’s views, but sport was also sport and aesthetics. During the 1960s dramatic arts, and there are sports that recent changes in art, the detachment generally understood differently from and 1970s, sport still remained very are superficially related to dance. Still, the of art from the object, and the rise of today’s notion. Much of the study of close to the original ideals of modern dissimilarities between any single form of conceptual art as taken place during the sport philosophy and aesthetics at the art and sport also proved to be great: the time maintained the understanding of 326 Best, 1974, 199, 210. artistic is not intrinsic to sport, and in art 329 Kuntz 1974, 13 (originally: Kovich, 331 Gaskin and Masterson 1974, 48-49. Maureen: “Sport as an Art Form,” JOHPER, 327 Kuntz 1974, 23. (originally: Weiss, Paul: there is usually some kind of script that is October 1971, Vol.42). 332 Gasking and Masterson 1974, p 37. ”Records and the Man,” Philosophic Exhance, Vol. 1, No. 3, Summer 1972, p.94.) 328 Latham 2013, 2. 330 Thomas 1974, 69-70, 88. 333 Welsch 2005, p 150.

180 181 The Aesthetic Links • 6 sport as an unquestionable and unchange- not exist, or at least the possibility of any Reid and Best both advocate echoes the A Taxonomy for the able practice, unlike the view used in the aesthetic aspects occurring in them was traditional approach of appreciating of Aesthetics of Sport sociology of sport and this study, where not important enough to be mentioned. art as adapted to sport. Kupfer sees sport modern sport is often understood as one Neither was the aesthetics of training as inherently aesthetic, even though the Key issues initiated in the 1970s studies organized practice in the history of phys- addressed. Sport aesthetics existed only in interest in the results forms an important of the aesthetics of sport were the catego- ical cultures instead of being a consistent, the festive occasions, when the audience part of a sport event. Despite the signif- rization of varying aesthetic qualities in pure, and isolated practice.334 This rigid was present – sport aesthetics existed for icance of the results, the foundation for sport, and the debate about the signifi- view of sport also affected the under- the audience, not for the athlete, an idea enjoying sport is aesthetic. For Kupfer, cance of aesthetics in different types of standing of aesthetics in sport. It is my that conforms to the aesthetic ideal of sport is above all a non-practical element sports. For instance, the quality of aes- belief that this particularly restricted view modern art. in our lives, and thus calls for our aesthetics in figure skating or diving has dif- of sport enabled comments like Kuntz’s thetic attention. Sport is something that ferent qualities than the aesthetics of run- previously mentioned idea of play being allows us to leave daily life behind for ning, swimming, or the long jump, and the opposite of sport. Fortunately, other The Aesthetic Attitude some time and enjoy (both by watching again the aesthetics in games like soccer tones also existed. For instance, Joseph or as an active participant) bodily activity or baseball are different from solo sports. Kupfer finds the play element in sports to The aesthetic attitude towards sport without an external practical end. The It was also thought that the significance be an important aspect in their aesthetic was seen as essential for inspecting the crucial element that makes sport aesthet- of aesthetics varies between these sports. potential.335 aesthetic element in sport already in the ically enjoyable is the ingredient of play. For instance, David Best saw the aesthet- The desire to see sport as ideal and earliest texts: if sport is watched normally, The playful attitude makes sport amena- ics in gymnastics and figure skating as an pure had obvious effects on the aesthet- i.e. focusing on the athletes’ performances ble to aesthetic contemplation. However, inherent part of those sports, as they were ics of sport: the analysis of the aesthetic and the results of the events, then the Kupfer thinks that the professionalization judged, not measured, but in sports like elements in sport concentrated almost aesthetics of sport goes unnoticed. The of and growing financial interests in sport running the significance of aesthetics was exclusively on the races and competitions understanding of the aesthetic attitude represent a threat to the play-element. low, almost nonexistent. The different where the spirit of the original sport was has varied; Reid associates the aesthetic In fact, Kupfer observed already in 1983 types of sport are divided into different the truest. The strongest aesthetic quali- attitude with perceiving something in a that “professionalization: league expan- levels, which for one’s part affected the ties (and the possible artistic elements in contemplative way, which is, according sion, salary and prize money escalation, quality of the aesthetics. For example, the sport) were found in elite sports, especial- to him, usually a deliberately adopted media and consumer gluttony” have con- aesthetics of top level Olympic track and ly in the Olympic Games, which repre- position, but can also be activated on taminated the prevailing attitude towards field events must be at a higher level than sented sport in its most authentic form special occasions without any effort.337 sport, thus reducing the playful elements a local amateur event, or the aesthetics of as an amateur achievement and record Witnessing exceptional performances, in sport. According to Kupfer, this profes- the same sports in the context of physical oriented sport.336 The results of sport were achievements, and records are situations sionalization also affects the play-element education. valued more than the experiences. Almost that might act like this. Best admits that in non-professional sport.339 The first theme of the differences in all of the case studies in the early texts almost everything can be considered from the aesthetics of different types of sports focused on elite sport, as if the lower level the aesthetic point of view, but some finds its general taxonomy quite early. or leisurely sports with lesser quality did activities and objects are more open to an Reid already mentions the spectrum of aesthetic consideration than others. For sports, with games at one end, and activ- 334 For example, sport-sociologist Hen- him, most sports have a primary purpose, ities like figure skating, gymnastics, and ning Eichberg emphasizes the continuum of vari- for instance scoring a goal, which is too diving at the other end, where aesthetics ous physical cultures instead of the existence of one practical to allow aesthetic contempla- has a greater significance.340 Some years sport , see Eichberg 2009, 86. tion.338 The contemplative approach that later, Best defines the spectrum by a divi- 335 Kupfer 1983, 118-119. sion into the purposive and the aesthetic 337 Reid 1970, 248. 336 Kuntz 1974, 17. Gaskin Masterson 1974, p.60. 338 Best 1974, 198, 199. 339 Kupfer 1983, 111-112, 114. 340 Reid 1970, 257.

182 183 The Aesthetic Links • 6 sports. In the purposive sports, the aes- excluded from the category. Kupfer’s example of this is the 1950s Czech The qualitative/formal sports are, as thetic aspect is not built into the structure equivalents to Best’s aesthetic sports are distance runner Emil Zátopek, who won David Best defines them, intrinsically of the sport. These sports are measured the qualitative/formal sports. In addi- several Olympic medals in spite of his aesthetic. Unlike quantitative/linear by a stopwatch or yardstick, or they tion to the previous dual categorization very awkward running style. A cleaner sports, the moment of these sports lies in are games with narrow and well speci- with two polarities, Kupfer adds a third style would probably have given him the admiration of the graceful strength fied ends. The central examples of the category to his version of the taxonomy more speed, but if Zátopek would have of the human body. If the quantitative/ purposive sports are the track and field of sport. This group is competitive sports, lost the medals because of adopting an linear sports are characterized by struggle events and games like football. In aesthet- where the significant difference from the effortless running style, he would not against nature, the qualitative/formal ic sports, the aim cannot be specified in two previous groups is an active human have been remembered.344 According to sports are performed in nature.346 Other isolation of the aesthetic. These sports are opponent. Both quantitative/linear and Kupfer, appreciating the aesthetics of pur- aspects that set the qualitative/formal judged by the quality of the performance. qualitative/formal sports show their best posive sports calls for special effort with sports apart from the quantitative/linear Again, figure skating, gymnastics, and in competitions against other athletes, respect to one’s aesthetic attitude, as the ones are the implicit aesthetic norms that diving formed the customary examples of but in both cases the human opponent is recorded numerical results tend to distract establish the framework of all qualitative/ the aesthetic sports.341 When considering not an intrinsic part of the sport. In Kup- the perceiver. Still, he sees that the delight formal sports. A vault over a box means a the spectrum of sports mentioned by fer’s opinion, the human opponent makes of following the quantitative/linear sports very specific kind of movement, not just Reid, Best is able to find only one sport competitive sports the most interesting in is in relation to the human movement getting over the box somehow.347 A spe- that is situated in the middle of the field; the aesthetic sense, as the human factor and the quantitative result. The numbers cially trained skill is needed, but unlike in ski-jumping is both measured and judged extends the amount and degree of variety. reveal the success of the athlete’s struggle quantitative/linear sports the performance for the style of the performance. Best Even though their categorization of sports against nature. The records in quantita- is not measured, it is evaluated by human ends up thinking that there is no spec- varied, the two writers agreed that sports tive/linear sports are more concrete than judges. Best finds these sports to be clos- trum, but rather two polarities of sport, in these categories have a different rela- in any other sports; the only opponents est to art, as their purpose cannot be sepa- as there were hardly any mixed sports.342 tionship to aesthetics, and also produced are the laws of nature, and the records are rated from the manner of achieving it.348 The final refinement in the taxon- different aesthetic qualities. comparable everywhere in the world. The Even though several writers found the omy of the types of sport in their rela- The aesthetics in quantitative/linear aesthetics of these sports are profoundly qualitative/formal sports to be aesthetic, tion to aesthetics was made in 1983 by sports was seen as only partially connect- connected with the efficiency of the per- they do not discuss the aesthetics exten- Joseph Kupfer, in his book Experience as ed to the sporting performance (Kupfer), formance – a beautiful run cannot be aes- sively or analyze their qualities in detail. Art, Aesthetics in Everyday Life. Kupfer or completely extrinsic to it (Best). The thetically pleasing for the spectator if the The reason for omitting further discus- divides sport into three categories in their key to the aesthetic appreciation of these result is poor, and as the previous exam- sion is partially the relatively introductory relation to the aesthetics. Firstly, there sports lies in the relation between the ple of Zátopek illustrated, a performance approach of the articles, and partially the are quantitative/linear sports where a athlete’s movement and her measurable without beauty can produce records. The restricted aesthetics that the traditional practical enterprise is transformed into a result. The most beautiful performance aesthetic “enjoyment” of Zátopek’s races qualitative/formal sports produce. When sport by excluding the practical value and wastes no energy, the simple repetitive emerges from the contrast between his the set of permitted moves is limited, the concentrating on the action of moving movement is fluid and smooth – in Kup- winning and his awkward style. When sport cannot easily produce novel aesthet- against the natural limits of space and fer’s words: “just as the compression of real beauty is found in quantitative/ ic experiences, just more refined presen- time. This category is similar to the Best’s the words make a poem trim and lean”343. linear sports, it is in the smooth, fluid tations of the previous performances. purposive sports, except the games are The weak point in the aesthetics of linear/ motion that suggests effortlessness style Some novelty value has been created by 341 Best 1974, 201-202. quantitative sports comes from the fact and makes the preparatory work invisible, introducing new variations of a sporting that the aesthetic quality (especially for combined with an excellent result.345 event; for instance, diving has introduced 342 Best 1974, 203. In the early 1970s the a spectator) has only a thin connection rules of ski-jump were well balanced between the 346 Kupfer 1983, 116. length of the jump and its style, but today the rules to the quality of the performance. One 344 Best 1974, 204. 347 Best 1974, 202. have been changed and the significance of style is in the minor position. 343 Kupfer 1983, 116. 345 Kupfer 1983, 115-116. 348 Best 1974, 202.

184 185 The Aesthetic Links • 6 synchronized diving, where two divers longer – the history of a team over several categorize themselves as something else.350 and Ossi Naukkarinen have both writ- attempt to perform the sequence in tan- seasons. Nick Hornby’s autobiographical Most of these practices also have a com- ten about the aesthetics of ice-hockey. dem. The synchronization adds one more book Fever Pitch opens up a narrative that petitive side, but their devotees emphasize Naukkarinen’s treatment approaches the element to the evaluation of the perfor- parallels the growth of the author from a the value of the experiences and the social Finnish folk-aesthetics of ice hockey in a mance, but does not change the aesthetics. boy to a man alongside his being a loyal relationships between the participants.351 down-to-earth fashion. He describes the The situation has changed somewhat supporter of the Arsenal Football Club. Consequently, the area of the aesthetics of various characteristics of the players and with the advent of the new qualitative/ In the book, Arsenal’s years with little sport has expanded and developed in new their equipment and the multi-sensory formal sports. Sports like snowboard- success are juxtaposed with the pro- directions. atmosphere of an ice-hockey game, and ing have, for the present, an open set of longed teenage years, full of uncertainty, The debate about the general charac- analyzes the quality of different games as movements, and the athletes’ experimen- that finally end when the team takes the teristics and qualities of the aesthetics of well as the differences between the expe- tation constantly produces new tricks. Championship.349 sport continues, but today the question riences of the spectators and the players; However, the variety of the existing tricks of sport’s relation to art plays a minor how different it is to watch the players forms already an established practice, role – although the question is occasion- tackle each other than it is to imagine which could hinder the future devel- The Contemporary ally treated. The emphasis of the art-sport oneself being the one tackled against the opment of snowboarding style. The Aesthetics of Sport discussion has also changed; art and sport wall of an ice rink by a defender weight- situation is similar to other new physical are not compared because art defines ing 100 kilos or more, or how it feels to practices (skateboarding, parkour, etc.) The state of the contemporary aesthetics the scope of aesthetics, but because the keep the goal when the puck flies towards that have risen to the mainstream during of sport reveals the changes that have comparison can illuminate new aspects you at the speed of a car on a highway. the last decades. They have the potential taken place both in the understanding of sport.352 The change in art practice, Naukkarinen connects these analyses to change the image of qualitative/formal of the role of aesthetics and the role of its evolution from a museum and gal- about the game to everyday life. How the sports, but they can also get stuck and sport, as well as the changes in the com- lery based, materially restricted practice game and the players’ performances are continue to repeat standardized moves, as prehension of art. The expanded role of towards everyday materials and locations, seen affects his own ad hoc –playing at in gymnastics or diving. aesthetics, and increased understanding of has also made drawing parallels between the local ice rink; even though one’s skills The third group of competitive sports the deeper significance of aesthetics, both art and sport more plausible, if not yet are not good enough, one can imagine exists only in Kupfer’s classification. help us to see sport as an inherently aes- unproblematic. doing and even try to accomplish the However, he finds them the most inter- thetic practice. When there is no reason Now, when it is self-evident that there same moves as the professionals. Similar- esting from the aesthetic point of view, to demonstrate the existence of aesthetics are good and justified reasons to watch ly, playing laid-back games affects watch- because they are the most unpredictable in sport, the qualities and features of sports from an aesthetic point of view, it ing a proper game – they give much more of the sports. In an ideal situation, there aesthetics in sport can be discussed more has become possible to deal with the spe- understanding about the professional are several changes of balance and pres- freely. cific aesthetic aspects in individual sports. player’s experiences.353 sure during the game, which maintain Contemporary sport is no longer only For example, in Finland, Max Ryynänen Ryynänen’s perspective on ice-hock- the tension until the last few minutes a competitive practice. In addition to the ey is quite different. Following NHL 350 However, the naming of these prac- of the game or event. In addition to the record-oriented achievement sports, there ice hockey as a media sport, Ryynänen tices reflects the comparison and the dominance presence of the human opponent, games are now variations of traditional sports of traditional sports; the recent sport-like physi- treats the game from a distanced point involve another feature that most other that concentrate on the physical and social cal practices are described, for instance, as post- of view. The players’ careers as narratives, sports lack; the games are played as a part enjoyment of the sport. Furthermore, sports, unofficial sports, extreme sports, alternative the aesthetics of statistics, fights in the of a series that lasts throughout a sum- today there are various physical practices sports, lifestyle sports, new sports, or new games, while rink, or even the play-off beards, are all mer or winter season, wherein the single that seemingly remind sport, but like to the opposite is called modern sport or mainstream worth analyzing. Unlike Naukkarinen, sports. games form a narrative that concludes Ryynänen does not connect the game with one of the teams winning the 351 Wheaton 2004, 2-4. Hänninen 2006, with everyday physical experiences. He championship. The narrative can be even 7.Hoffmann 2007 349 Hornby 2000 (1992). 352 Welsch 2005, Kreft 2012. 353 Naukkarinen 2008, 194-199.

186 187 The Aesthetic Links • 6 is more interested in the world of pro- their studies: highlighting the (aesthetic) The audience sees sport as a staged only with those next to you; it is possible fessional sport and the contemporary experience moves the point of view away performance, but for the athlete the expe- to extend the communication outside the methods of following the game; watching from the cold observation of the practice, rience is a mixture of multisensory obser- venue. It works in reverse as well – all the the games on television does not provide and enables at least a partial understand- vations of the environment and bodily media present at the arena connects the enough entertainment and information, ing of the participant’s experience. A experiences. The audience’s sport expe- spectators with the world outside. The and internet services like YouTube and detailed explanation about the mundane rience is usually related to an organized new technology has removed much of the Google are playing a large role today.354 experience of running around a park and event, and in most cases to major national empty moments when the spectators had When the celebratory aspects of sport through local streets from the athlete’s or international events.357 The big divide to stare at an empty stadium.361 connected to sporting competitions are point view provides at least some clarifi- in an audience’s experience is formed The aesthetics of the media experi- left in the background, aesthetic fea- cation of the experience for a non-runner between sports followed in a live situation ence of sports have evolved along with tures of a new kind come into sight. In reader. The more extreme practices of or through some media – first radio358, the devices used. Even though following addition to dealing with the aesthetics skateboarding and parkour are more diffi- then television, and recently through sports through media enables the ulti- of sport from an external point of view, cult to understand without personal first- the internet, with a variety of devices. mate privacy, the experience is regularly the aesthetic experience of the athlete hand experience, but the written accounts The live stadium events have approached shared, at least with the family, but has also become a frequent point of view. can open up the aesthetic preferences and the qualities of the media experience, as often with a larger party – at home or a Alongside the research concentrating on experiences of the active participants. new technology has been brought into sports bar. Somehow the sharing of the the purely aesthetic aspects of sport, a the stadiums. Until the late twentieth experience intensifies it, which seems at body of texts in the field of social sciences century there were only commentators least partially different from the aesthetic touches on the aesthetic aspects of sports, The Experiences and scoreboards in the sport arenas, but experiences connected to art. Art can be especially if aesthetics is sympathetically of Spectators and over recent decades the video-screens with contemplated and analyzed in company, understood as ”sensuous knowing”355. Athletes instant slow motion replays and multi- but the instant sharing of the experience For instance, Hockey’s and Allen- ple possible points of view have brought is not needed, or even aspired to. Collinson’s experience-based research A notable amount of the discussion about the live sports event much closer to the The sports that attract the most spec- on distance running, as well as Borden’s the aesthetics of sport deals with it from audiovisual TV-experience. If one misses tators are usually the ones with the great- approach to the urban environment the spectator’s point of view, and only an important incident on the field, it will est magnitude in the aesthetic sense. The through skateboarding, and Atkinson’s a minority concentrates on the athlete’s be shown several times from different aesthetic quality is not guaranteed, but study of parkour, all deal with aesthetic experience. Whereas the outsider perspec- angles on the video screens installed in there will be a spectacle. Even in the era experiences in connection with physical tive allows one to view the sport perfor- the stadium, and today smartphones pro- of modern sport, when the entertainment activity.356 The objective of these studies mance or event from at least two different vide access to replays on the internet.359 value was not stressed as it is today, seeing is not to analyze the aesthetic elements angles - as a detached event comparable The contemporary sport experience has top-athletes interested large audiences in physical practices, but to bring the felt to an art performance, or as a lived expe- changed significantly since the early and created the greatest sport experience. idea of sport closer to the reader, in order rience - the athlete’s perspective on her 1980s, when Joseph Kupfer wrote about However, it is hard to compare modern to open up the specific perspective in own performance allows only the latter. a baseball game as a place outside the sport and the sports of today’s consumer Appreciating sport as an external event everyday, where the audience leaves their culture. Today, the spectacle of sport is 360 354 Ryynänen 2006 (Art of Ice Hockey, leads to comparisons between sport and daily worries behind for a few hours. several times larger than during the twen- November 06, 2006: Internet, Google and Com- art events, while concentrating on the Today you do not share the experience tieth century. The logic that the produc- puter Games) internal experience brings sport closer to ers of the sport spectacles follow is: the 355 Naukarinen 2012. everyday life, as well as popular culture, 357 For instance: Gumbrecht 2006, 312. contemporary sport audience is dulled by and their aesthetic perspectives. Choosing all their previous experiences, so produc- 356 Hockey 2004, 2005. Hockey and 358 Mandell 1984, 220. Allen-Collinson 2006 and 2007. Allen-Collinson the point of view affects the comprehen- ing experiences to remember requires 359 Turtiainen 2012, footnote n:o 51 p.17. and Hockey 2007 and 2011. Borden 2001. Atkin- sion of the aesthetic dimension of sport. son 2009. 360 Kupfer 1983, 113. 361 Gumbrecht 1999, 368.

188 189 The Aesthetic Links • 6 that they must always be greater than the in finding the aesthetic aspects in an movements, stretching, or exhaustion everyday actions. previous ones.362 athlete’s experience. There is no need to brings her closer to the experience of the Kupfer attempts to bring the athlete’s stop for contemplating the experience – elite athlete.364 experience closer to the experiences of an the experience is lived through, it is felt Jaana Parviainen has studied the average person by finding equivalencies The Athlete’s Experience immediately and simultaneously with the structures involved in perceiving the between everyday actions and sport, and performance. One can contemplate and bodily experiences of others. She employs thus tries to demonstrate the advantages The athlete’s experience was already analyze the experience, like Kupfer him- the concept of kinaesthetic empathy, based of studying the aesthetics of sport. Kupfer touched upon in some of the earliest self does while writing about the sporting on Edith Stein’s ideas about empathy. finds sports like the 100 meter sprint articles about the aesthetics of sport, but experience, however it takes place in The concept relies on two features in analogous to running for a bus, and the analysis suffered a similar ambiguity retrospect. In the heat of a game or a race our perception of the living body: firstly, the skater’s pirouette to a nimble slip as the debate in general, chiefly because (and to a lesser extent while exercising), the body meets its environment simul- into an overcoat.367 An ordinary person of the tendency to link art and aesthetics the vision, hearing, and the other senses taneously by touching it and by being cannot have experiences similar to an together. Reid, for instance, treats the of the athlete are focused on her own touched by it. Secondly, the average elite athlete’s, but she can enjoy similar athletes’ experience through the idea of performance, or on the team’s collective shape of the human body, as well as a kinaesthetic experiences by combining aesthetic contemplation, and finds it pos- attempts to overcome the opponent. If collection of common experiences, forms her everyday actions and memories of sible for an athlete to have some aesthetic there is an audience it is noticed, but it is a link between people. These features excellence in sport. Kupfer’s approach enjoyment when his performance is suc- not the primary interest. Unlike the spec- make it possible to understand the bodily brings the experiences possible only to cessful, but at the same time thinks that tator (who naturally experiences it too), experiences of other human beings: for top athletes much closer to common the aesthetic aspects cannot be enjoyed the somatic experience dominates the instance, watching somebody accidentally situations, and thus gives special value properly, because the athlete is engaged in whole. It can be the lactic acid burning cutting her hand makes one feeling an for the aesthetic of sport in appreciating the game. According to Reid, the aesthet- in the feet, the pain in one’s body when echo of the pain, which is an effect of the bodily experiences in everyday life. ic experience in sport requires contem- the opponent has punched you, or a more kinaesthetic empathy.365 Already in the early 1980s, Kupfer found plation, like enjoying a work of art, but subtle aspect: the feeling of the body’s Parviainen’s interest has been par- problematic the fact that American’s that contemplation is prevented by the posture when serving the ball in a tennis ticularly in the process of teaching and spend their days sitting, much of it inside practical ends of the sport. Reid somehow game, or keeping the rhythm in a slalom learning modern dance. Dancers must cars and pressing buttons, in a state where wants to parallel the experiencing of the race. Most of the time, the control of the learn to adapt their expression to various comprehensive bodily experiences are totally different aesthetic qualities of art body is automatic; however, long-term postures and bodily expressions. The minimal. His view is that appreciating the and the bodily aesthetic experience in training is needed to embed the right feel- visual information about correct move- aesthetics of sport helps one to appreciate sport. Thomas’ approach in 1974 drew ing into muscle memory. When a spec- ments is not enough; one has to learn everyday bodily experiences. Participating closer to the contemporary view in its tator also has some personal experience to bodily feel the movement in order to in sports, in addition to the mundane attempt to identify the play element, or of the same sport, her appreciation of an employ it further. Moreover, the teacher experiences of rushing to catch the bus special moments and peak experiences athlete’s performance finds new layers: if has to give the feedback to her students or playing with an overcoat, multiplies in sport, through the subjective aesthetic one has run a marathon, one knows how through felt movement, using her kinaes- the understanding of bodily experiences; experience of an athlete.363 hard it is to complete it in just over two thetic sensing.366 In a similar manner, one individual sports turn the body into an Joseph Kupfer approaches the athlete’s hours, even if one cannot do it oneself. can trace or co-live the bodily experiences object of sensory awareness, and social side of sport aesthetics from a pragmatic Similarly, a recreational tennis or foot- of an athlete, especially if the action is sports create continuity between the perspective, and has no problem ball player knows from her own bodily somewhat familiar. Or, one can employ perception of the environment (the team experience how certain elite performances the memories of bodily experiences in mates or the opponent) and bodily reac- rise over the others. Even though one is tions. According to Kupfer, it is some- 364 Kupfer 1983, 137-138. 362 Andrews 2006, 95-96. not at the moment experiencing the same times possible even in competitive sports Kellner 2003, 66. bodily feelings, her memory of similar 365 Parviainen 2003, 152-153, 155. 363 Reid 1970, 248. Thomas 1974. 366 Parviainen 2003, 159. 367 Kupfer 1983, 116, 117.

190 191 The Aesthetic Links • 6 to forget the score and enjoy the internal on the feeling of the body as a basis for possibility of viewing sport as art. The Welsch sees that sport has developed rhythms of the game – the play-element top-athletes’ training, and the subjuga- basis of Welsch’s argumentation is that “striking new affinities with aesthetics”375 in sport.368 tion of the body has been replaced by the today’s art practice has moved closer to that are visible in many aspects of con- The bodily experience of physical exer- celebration of the body as the perfection everyday life, and cannot be seen as sim- temporary sport. A major transformation tion is always mixed with environmental of human potential.371 ilar to the detached and lofty practice it in sport has taken place in the relation- experience: even breathing induces a con- was during the period of high modernism ship to the athlete’s body; the previous tact with surrounding air, and standing in the twentieth century. His view is that subjugation of the body has changed presses the ground against ones soles.369 today’s art deliberately seeks possibilities into the celebration of the body. Instead According to Kupfer, the contact with to merge with everyday objects, actions, of treating the body as a machine, and the environment varies according to the Recent and experiences. Welsch outlines the key commanding it by willpower, the athlete activity. In the context of modern sport, tendencies within art practice that have tries to listen to her body and adapt her the typical approach is working against Comparisons caused this shift away from the previous training according to that felt experience. nature. The athlete has to make maximal conception of art, and made it possible There is also an erotic element present in use of her body in order to perform opti- of Art and to see sport as artistic. The first one is contemporary sport, as well as an emanci- mally. On a more comfortable level, the the use of everyday objects as parts of patory emphasis instead of the controlling environmental experience can transform Sport artworks. This had been visible in the aspect of modern sport. Welsch treats the into acting in or within nature; not con- traditions of ready-made and collage change in the context of elite sport, but I centrating only on the performance, but that evolved from the 1920s, and were see it as also taking place in recreational observing the surroundings and acting in The question of the relationship between so advanced by the 1960s that it was diffi- sport; the quest for experiences has taken the environment, using all the senses. The art and sport has its place in the current cult to tell the artworks apart from the over from the struggle for achievement activity can take place in close contact, aesthetics of sport; however, the changes other objects by visual inspection alone.373 throughout the practice of sport.376 even when immersed in the environment. in both art and sport, as well as aesthet- The second tendency is the attempt to For Welsch, sport is a drama without The aesthetic experience of acting in ics, have transformed that relationship: dissolve art practice into everyday life. It a script, where the dramatic emerges from contact with the environment suffers if art has expanded its scope so that sport is best seen in practices where the work of the event itself. Similarly to art, sport there is either an excess or lack of activity; can be used for making art, and on some art, the object, or the process is brought events are detached from the everyday the consequences of struggling too hard occasions it is plausible to temporarily outside the art institutions in such a way world and staged in order to produce are obvious, but avoiding exhaustion and regard sport as art in order to capture cer- that no frame isolates the artwork from dramatic moments. In addition to being simply taking the observer’s position also tain, chiefly artistic, features of sport for everyday life. In addition to these two a celebration of physical excellence, sport weakens the experience.370 closer inspection. Lastly, the changes in major tendencies, the general re-evalua- is a celebration of the contingency: a Wolfgang Welsch covers some aspects aesthetics make drawing parallels between tion of art practice in its relation to the 10 000-meter race can become more of the transformation of the athlete’s art and sport feasible: while in earlier rest of culture, for instance the popular exciting because of the tactical choices of experiences in his article “Sport Viewed times art defined the aesthetic, today art arts, has caused insecurity about the bor- the runners. The rules and the objective Aesthetically and Even as Art?”, where he is only an instance of the aesthetic, or at ders of art practice, as well as the fraying of the race make the space for the dramat- considers the athlete’s disposition towards its best an intensification of the aesthet- of the conception of art, and thus opened ic very narrow, but the right combination her body. His view is that earlier attitudes ic.372 up new possibilities for connecting art of actions during the race can turn an that emphasized the power of will over While making an inquiry about the and sport.374 uneventful run into an interesting one.377 the body have been (at least partially) aesthetic aspects in elite sport, Wolf- replaced by a more gentle attitude based gang Welsch examined the connections between sports and art, and the 373 For instance: Arthur C. Danto about the 368 Kupfer 1983, 137-140. 375 Welsch 2005, 136. Brillo Boxes by Andy Warhol in Danto 1964, 580. 369 Shusterman 2008, 8. 371 Welsch 2005, 137-139. 376 Welsch 2005, 139, 143. 374 Welsch 2005, 140-141. Sepänmaa 2012, 370 Kupfer 2003, 77-79, 81. 372 Welsch 2005, 140. section 2. 377 Welsch 2005, 142, 145-147.

192 193 The Aesthetic Links • 6

The temporal structure of sport also theater. The concept of postdramatic the- rules for the game.381 the sport-game, which at the same time lead Lev Kreft to suggest that the com- ater does not necessitate the formal and Furthermore, Kreft’s view is that the exists in everyday life and is also staged parison between drama and sport would fixed features of institutional art theater dramatic in sport combines the aspects outside it, the player’s role functions on be the most plausible when art and sport in order for a practice to be considered of everyday aesthetics and the special two levels: the players play as themselves, are paralleled. While Welsch’s article is theater. Kreft starts from Paul Woodruff’s theatrical action of playing a sport game. they do not adopt a predetermined fic- limited to elite sports and contemporary open-ended definition of theater: theater This can be seen as corresponding to an tional identity, but at the same time they art practice in general, Kreft’s viewpoint is “the art by which human beings make artistic work process or unfinished per- establish a game identity that is generat- features a wider notion of sport and a human action worth watching, in a mea- formance: sport acts simultaneously on ed by their place in the game and their more confined view of art. In addition, sured time and space”379, which already two levels, it belongs partially to everyday recurrent actions within the game.384 he connects the aesthetics of sport to gives theater the potential to exist outside life but as a staged, performative practice Even though sport incorporates many everyday aesthetics, not art. Kreft begins the modern system of art.380 it can be juxtaposed with other kinds of features required for something to be by considering the qualities of sport Kreft reinforces the connection performances. This view of the aesthetics art in the current postmodern situation, from a definition originally developed by between sport and postdramatic the- of sport advocates the association of sport neither Welsch nor Kreft can see sport Bernard Suits: ”playing a game is the vol- ater by employing Richard Schechner’s with contemporary artistic performance, replacing art as such. Welsch sees that untary attempt to overcome unnecessary theories about contemporary perfor- and in my opinion also with artistic sport fulfills similar functions as art for obstacles”. Even though the definition mance. Schechner just touches on sport work, instead of the previously proposed many people who are not particularly concentrates on games, it is applicable to while outlining the relationships between comparison of (elite) sport and finished interested in art. The plurality of contem- all contemporary sports; the voluntary various types of performance. However, work of art.382 porary culture enables the observing and overcoming of unnecessary obstacles can the outcome of Schechner’s comparison An important component for the aes- enjoying of sport as “one kind of art”, be found in any sport, with or without is that sport can be included among thetic of sport is the play-element. Kupfer whereas art in the usual sense still belongs competition. This approach makes it contemporary forms of theater: most already thought that the play-element to a special category. Kreft, in turn, sees possible to expand the comparison of art of the features of sport are shared with is crucial for the aesthetic enjoyment of the comparison to a wider conception of and sport outside elite sports, to hobbyist theater. There are only two major differ- sport383, but for Kreft the fine balance sport and contemporary art practices as a sports, exercises, and even some non- ences between the features of sport and between play and seriousness imparts the more fruitful approach for promoting the sport physical cultures. The play-attitude theater: sport does not create a symbolic aesthetic, the drama to sport; for a spec- aesthetic and artistic aspect of sport as a is significant in this, and prevents a too reality, which is fundamental to theater, tator sport is not serious, but play, while special part of everyday life.385 serious attitude towards the activity. The and theater is scripted, while sport is not. the participants of sport experience it as In addition to these approaches quality of the attempt, as defined by the Sport consists of complex actions, and serious, however playful. The seriousness investigating the reasons, conditions, rules of the particular sport, forms the its dramatic element lies in the manner of the game for the players emerges from and restrictions in linking art and sport, basis of the dramatic in sport.378 of performing these actions. No spe- the risks they take: playing the game yet another type of relationship between When measuring traditional theater cially constructed staging is needed to always incorporates the chance of losing. sport and art has been proposed that and sport against each other, there are make a sport game dramatic: playing a The role of players in the sport game dif- could provide a real use for art within various differences; the structure of the- sport game creates the stage naturally by fers from those in art-theater. Similarly to sport practice. Tim L. Elcombe’s propos- ater and sport events, as well as the role defining the space, the time limit, and the al suggests that the ontological question of the characters on the stage, differs. In 381 Kreft 2012, 227-228, 230-231. Schech- of the relationship between the two prac- order to avoid these problems in compar- ner 1998, p xii, 12. The features shared between tices should be left aside, and one should ing theater and sport, Kreft’s solution is theater performances and sport are: special order- instead think about art as an ideal met- to compare sport to the postmodern con- ing of time, special value for objects, non-produc- aphor for sport. Elcombe advocates that tive, rules, special place, appeal to other, audience, cept of drama, the postdramatic theater, self-assertive, self-transcendent, completed. instead of the traditional conception of 384 Kreft 2012, 229-230. Also Kupfer 379 Woodruff 2008, 39. 382 Kreft 2012, 228. 1983, 111, 139-140. 378 Kreft 2012, 225. 380 Kreft 2012, 226. 383 Kupfer 1983, 111, 139-140. 385 Welsch 2005, 148-150. Kreft 2012, 232.

194 195 The Aesthetic Links • 6 sport and art should not be compared in directed, purposeful activity, participa- somaesthetic one, the good, warm feeling many ways aesthetic practices with their order to find similarities; there is no need tion in social activity, and the emotional after a run or the feeling of making a own, specific aesthetic rules. For exam- for sport to become art. Instead, art and response to the physical activity, and successful pass to a friend in a local ice- ple, the visual aesthetics of hip hop form artistic practice should be seen as a model generally construct meaning around sport rink, or environmentally inclined, such a significant part of the skateboarding for sport, thus bringing it closer to art. practice. According to Elcombe, the use as running through a forest or feeling practice, and the combination promotes However, there are some preconditions of art as the metaphor for sport would the sun warming you in the middle of a quite different concept of the aestheti- to this notion of art; art and art prac- promote making sport practice an essen- a game. There is also the possibility of cally positive (or even of beauty) than the tice should be understood through the tial part of a good life.387 encountering experiences of beauty that visual practices connected to mainstream Deweyan conception of art. That suggests The hopes that Elcombe places on relate to art. A runner who suddenly art practice or modern sports.391 treating art as a source of an intensive art as a leading metaphor for sport are finds the right rhythm and posture for aesthetic experience, not as special objects already gaining ground in sport, but efficient running can experience beauty in or as a specialized social practice within mainly outside the realm of achievement her exercise, and when two equal teams the limits of the artworld. Art should be sport. I have found at least two categories play ice hockey, the game can achieve the seen as a relationship between humans within current physical practices where artistic features of a drama. A Closer and objects or performances (of any kind) the metaphor of sport as art is evident. Secondly, art as a leading metaphor that can produce a forceful aesthetic Firstly, in the contemporary leisure, for sport is present in post-sports activ- Look: The experience.386 hobbyist sport. Many people doing sport ities, where the physical act of playing The reason for suggesting the idea of for exercise and as a hobby do it for the with the equipment and the chosen Aesthetics art as a metaphor for sport is Elcombe’s experience, not for results alone. The rea- environment were established before the wish to displace the previous metaphor son for undertaking sports like distance idea of competition set in. Post-sports like of Distance of sport as war with sport as art. The running, which are seemingly efficiency snowboarding, skateboarding, surfing, metaphor of sport as war is not com- and health oriented, is at least partially parkour, various frisbee games, climb- Running monly used today, but its usage during based on the experiences gained through ing, and trampoline acrobatics and so the earlier twentieth century affects the practice. One has to endure the tedious on have been transformed from playing comprehension of sport’s objectives even exercises to be able to run a marathon, with physical skills, novel equipment (not The previous overview of the aesthetics of today. Although the war metaphor carries but running a marathon gives you an always needed), and features of the envi- sport provides some general understand- some positive connotations without experience that is usually more import- ronment as they entered into the process ing of the special aspects and topics with- the horrors of real war, such as courage, ant than the actual time you achieve.388 of sportifcation, organizing the activity in in the theme, but without concrete exam- discipline, perseverance, etc., in today’s Correspondingly, playing sport games a competitive model.390 Even today, when ples the issue escapes real understanding. world the negative association is greater, (for instance football and ice hockey) for many of these post-sport practices have For this reason, I would like to explore because using war as a model for sport recreation is mostly done for the experi- been adopted into the category of sport, the development and aspects of the suggests hatred for your opponents, a ence; other benefits follow on the side.389 the attitude of the participants towards aesthetics of distance running. Distance singular focus on efficiency, and using any Even when one does set goals, as in the official competitions differs from that running lacks all the artful flamboyance means necessary in the competition, for competitions for hobbyist sport practices, found in the modern sports. Meeting of sports like gymnastics or pole vaulting, instance. Replacing the metaphor of war the main driving force is the aesthetic colleagues and friends is as important and the obvious social dimension of the with the pragmatist idea of art would, experience, not the measurable achieve- as the competition. It is more about games. However, there are many qualities according to Elcombe, help to leave ment. The experience pursued can be a doing things together than competing in the experience of distance running that behind many of the problems plaguing against each other. Many post-sports have are missing from other sports where the 387 Elcombe 2012, 210-212. contemporary sports, and to promote formed a subculture around the physical performance is over in a brief moment. the meaningful contents of sport, such as 388 Tainio 2012 a. practice, and these subcultures are in The simplicity of the running action 389 For instance: Naukkarinen 2006, 29. 386 Elcombe 2012, 209, 211. Naukkarinen 2008, 197. 390 Atkinson 2009, 173. 391 Wheaton 2004, 11-12.

196 197 The Aesthetic Links • 6 makes it easier to point out the individ- is minimal – even for a runner – plain aesthetic experience is always present. be more in line both with one’s experi- ual features of the practice. The different shorts and tops, and their running shoes Efficient running is felt as aesthetically ence and the environment.398 practices within contemporary distance were not padded sneakers but thin soled, positive, but it does not necessarily need The somaesthetic aspects or enjoy- running have some clearly definable light shoes. The aesthetics was based on to look beautiful. The bodily experience ment of running arises from the contin- aesthetic aspects that can be targeted for the discipline of mind of over the body: comes first. Work still forms the basis for uous steady rhythms of running, steps, deeper analysis; for instance, ultra-mara- the attitude towards the athlete’s body the positive bodily experience, like with and breathing, and the slowly growing thons exceed most sports in duration and was tough; the body was treated as a success in competitive running; one has weariness during a long run. Different magnitude. Additionally, many definable machine. For example, Paavo Nurmi to run the tedious and boring runs to be runs give variation to the experience; aspects of distance running overlap and followed his running with a stopwatch in able to enjoy the bodily feelings of run- sometimes it feels good to test one’s limits form a layered entity that affords a good order to pace his exercises. On the other ning during the best running season.394 and run against nature, and sometimes specimen of the complexity of aesthetics, hand, Nurmi was not totally uninterested Participation in competitions does not the preference can be for running com- even in a simple sport. in the aesthetics of his running; he has change this inclination towards experi- fortably, within nature. A long steady During the period of the dominance written about the search for the most nat- ence. Running an organized marathon run at a slow pace gives a quite different of modern sport, the aesthetic aspects of ural style – although only in order to be is not just an achievement; participating experience from a short test run at a distance running were confined by the more efficient.393 Later, with the scientific also motivates experimentation with “competition” pace. During the first case, expectations of the sport’s principles: training methods, the machine metaphor unusually strenuous experiences that are the somaesthetic experience blends with running was practiced in competitions or became even more accurate. The athletes’ not comfortably possible in solitary run- the environmental experience, and one as training for them. The orientation to movements are recorded and analyzed ning or a free-form running event.395 can run at the same time with nature quantitative results diluted the attention carefully in order to squeeze out the final The environmental aspect of running and in nature. A high speed test run, a given to other features of running. The bit of his capacity. comes out in the search for aesthetical- Cooper test for example, is almost solely a environmental aspects of the aesthetics The growing popularity of distance ly desirable routes, or in traveling for somaesthetic experience. When breathing were limited, as most running took place running at the end of the twentieth new landscapes to run through.396 For is almost too short and lactic acid is burn- on standardized running tracks. The run- century, as well as the first decade of the a competitive runner, the fluency and ing one’s veins, it is impossible to concen- ner’s experience was also an object of lim- twenty-first century, has changed the safety of the route seem to be the primary trate on anything but the track and the ited interest; how one’s running felt had aesthetics of running significantly; the concern, but for the experience-seeking action of running. The somatic experi- little importance when the objective was whole scope of experiences associated hobbyist runner the exercise can be a ences blend with the environmental ones: simply being faster than the other com- with contemporary recreational running way to explore the public artworks in a it is different to breath in cold winter petitors. Even though running was one stands apart from modern achievement city, as Pauli Jokinen has done in Helsin- weather than in the heat of the summer, of central events in the context of mod- running. In recreational running, expe- ki.397 Although running is always about and running through the darkness in an ern sport, it was not a popular form of riences seem to form the chief stimu- challenging oneself against natural forces, October rain produces an experience of exercise until jogging started to become lus for exercising—the level of success a hobbyist runner does not have to fight one kind, while staying home and doing fashionable at the end of the 1960s. If measured in time or distances takes a against nature in order to exercise success- the same exercise on a treadmill creates one takes a look at photographs and films second place. The experiences are mainly fully; one can listen to one’s body and the another.399 from the famous twentieth century run- aesthetic in nature, and the interest lies environment, and adjust the running to Even though the practice of distance ning competitions, one sees stern looking in the bodily, somaesthetic and environ- 398 Koski 2005, 152-154. Kupfer 2003, men392 running around a track made of mental experiences, however running 394 Roos 1995, chapter 3. Also Murakami 2008, 45-46. 77-89. Kupfer deals with the experiential relation- crushed brick or coal. Their equipment in a group of enthusiasts also provides ship with nature, but my opinion is that a simi- 395 Tainio 2012 a. social experiences. The bodily experience lar point of view can be taken in the case of an ath- 392 Distance running was a solely male prac- has a connection with efficiency, but the 396 Murakami 2008, 90-91. Roos 1995, lete’s relationship with her total experience, includ- tice for a long time; for instance, the first women’s chapter 10. ing both bodily and environmental experience. marathon in the Olympic Games took place as late as 1984 in the Los Angeles Summer Games. Inter- 393 Nurmi 2010 (1923) ,45-49. Bale 2004, 397 Hockey and Allen Collison 2006, 77. 399 Kupfer 2003, 77-78. Hockey and national Olympic Committee 2011, 2. 88-89. Mannila 2010. Allen-Collinson 2007, 119-123.

198 199 The Aesthetic Links • 6 running requires minimal equipment, the technology limited the aesthetic that the changes of the surface or terrain and the conception of running within and the basic technique of running is experience in running by excluding the does not affect running, but with mini- achievement sport provided quite limit- natural to most people, there are com- learning of running technique. You only mal shoes the asphalt feels much harder ed experiences, while the contemporary plicated layers in the aesthetic experience needed the shoes and perseverance for than gravel, and even the slightest down- running culture seems to be more open to of running; running is a physical prac- training properly to become a distance hill requires concentration in order to various approaches and aesthetic experi- tice that produces cultural habits. For runner. Prior to the jogging revolution, keep the feet landing right. Removing the ences. instance, since the first wave of jogging’s becoming a runner was also a question cushioning turned running into a practice popularity there has been an ongoing of learning the technique.400 During the that requires careful listening to the body development of running shoes, the most early 2000s, after a few decades of tech- and essentially learning a new skill. significant point of contact between a nological development of the running The differences in the aesthetic expe- runner and her environment. The contact shoes a counter movement began to form, rience between regular contemporary between the foot and the shoe and the as barefoot running attempted to return running and the minimalist style are ground provides a notable somatic expe- running to a natural style. first and foremost somaesthetic. One has rience in running – especially if there is I got interested in the barefoot or to be much more aware of posture and something wrong. minimalistic running movement in strides in order to run comfortably with Modern footwear emerged from 2011, and out of curiosity acquired a minimal shoes. Moreover, while learning 1960s onwards, along with the jogging pair of running shoes completely without the technique, the concentration needed craze, and simultaneously transformed modern cushioning, with only flat and for the style affects all the other aspects the earlier aesthetic experience of the very thin soles. Even though I had looked of the aesthetic experience. Adapting to competitive runners into the novel experi- for information about the technique of the new technique forces one to block out ence of leisure running. At first, some sus- barefoot running, and read other runner’s some parts of the experience, both the pension and damping were added to the experiences with minimal shoes, the first environmental and the social, in order to heels of shoes in order to make running run was a surprise: my competence as a concentrate on the footsteps. The sur- more comfortable. Later, these airbag and runner was completely lost with the min- rounding environment is not noticed so gel suspensions became more efficient, imal shoes. Running on an even surface keenly, because the physical contact with and damping was added under the ball or uphill went quite well, and I was able the ground is amplified. of the foot. The footwear became more to land on the midsole or on the ball of Minimalist running is not necessarily and more segmented, because all types my feet as required without the cush- any more natural than regular contem- of runners needed the exactly right type ioned heel, but running downhill proved porary fitness running or its predecessor, of shoes. When I began running in the extremely difficult; I was hitting my heels running in achievement sport, but it early 2000s, this was the norm. Before hard on the gravel road like I was used to provides an example of the contemporary starting more serious running, I had to with my regular shoes. Running in a “nat- variations in running and exemplifies a find out how I trod and then choose the ural” way obviously took some training, potential within a seemingly simple sport right footwear. The hobbyist running because it felt totally unnatural after the for developing complicated practices and practice had made running dependent on first try. producing various experiences. It also a technology, where the structural flaws in Even when the other features of my models the connection between ideals one’s feet were squared to make distance running habit stayed the same, changing and physical practices. Running as a running possible. The development of to minimal shoes transformed the aesthet- sport transforms as a consequence of the shoe technology advanced the inclusive- ic experience significantly. Standard shoes changing ideals; the running practiced ness of running, it made distance running soften the contact with the ground so within the gymnastic movement in the possible for almost everybody. However, nineteenth century sounds odd today, 400 Sailors 2009, 280-209.

200 201 7 • Artification

202 203 Artification • 7

The novel concept of artification refers to situations and processes where something traditionally not regarded as art is seen containing some features of art or the artistic.401 Artification can take place either through a shift in cultural practice or it may be purposefully produced in order to highlight certain features in an originally non-artistic practice. Sometimes artification suggests lasting changes; the status of the situation or the process has moved permanently closer towards the ideals of the artistic – and in rare cases it is transformed into art. However, the situations where the transformation does not produce new art, but something that suggests a new category, an in-between state, something artified, are the most interesting. In my case, it is the relationship between art and sport that is in focus.402 The concept of artification is novel one, and even though the basic foundation has been laid down, there are various opinions about the meaning and function of artification, and even the existence of the whole phenomenon. The diverse perspectives on artification arise from different understandings of art and its relation to surrounding society. Today, it seems that the conception of art in the traditional sense is also shifting, and as a result a wide variety of conceptions of art exist. The constantly changing conceptions of art and the artistic will keep the discussion about artification and other borderline phenomena of art open for a long time.403 For artification to take place, it is, according to Ossi Naukkari- nen, crucial to see art at least somehow separate from other cultural practices. This is the reason why artification is a contemporary phenomenon; in earlier historical periods (and in many cultures outside the western cultural sphere) art did not form a separate category – there were no conceptual tools for distinguishing art from craft or even science. During the modern period, the greater part of the twentieth century, there was also no place for artification; cultural practices were seen as autonomous within their own compartments; they were so clearly defined that crossing the boundaries was rare. In contemporary culture, the demarcation lines between the practices have grown porous and diffuse. The conception of a practice is never clear, but always a subject of negotiation.

401 The neologism artification, in the context I am using it, was first used in the book Taiteistuminen (Artification), edited by Ossi Naukkarinen, Yrjänä Levanto, and Susann Vihma, published in 2005. 402 Naukkarinen and Saito 2012. 403 Shiner 2012.

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The phenomenon of artification is and creativity. Because of this erroneous of the deep-seated aestheticization that not seen only as a neutral fact. It seems conception of art, much of what is classed has transformed our relationship with the The to take place because of a shift in cultural as practical artification is actually merely origins of knowledge. Sepänmaa sees trends; today, art is not seen as indepen- decoration. Instead of drawing ideas from artification as a special case of aesthe- Artification of dent and autonomous to such a degree as contemporary art, current practical arti- tization, it being only a part of a wider it was a few decades ago. The realm of art fication relies on the artistic ideals of the phenomenon, but in addition sees them Sport has become more open, more collabora- art of modernity; there, art is an autono- being in a complex, constantly changing tive with other cultural spheres. In addi- mous realm that can create novel works chiasmatic connection. Naukkarinen tion to the artification occurring due to without significant contact with other admits that a connection between artifica- Contemporary recreational sport has cultural change, there is also the process practices, while contemporary art has tion and aestheticization can be found, moved its emphasis from measurable of active artification; some practices hope moved closer to the mundane world and but also sees that thinking of artification achievement towards (aesthetic) expe- to benefit from adopting some features its practices. The artist is seen as having a as a special case of aestheticization nar- rience. The traditional sports have also of art. Active artification is a conse- special character, being an obsessive cre- rows the concept too much: artification transformed to become more aesthetic, quence of the view that art can be used ator, a genius capable of sudden creation, requires a conception of art and the artis- but the aesthetics of contemporary elite to achieve ends outside art. Naukkarinen a utopian visionary, rather than a com- tic, while aestheticization does not nec- sport seems to be more surface aesthet- mentions education, health-care, and municative professional working together essarily do so. Furthermore, the required ics, focusing on the visual and spectac- business as parts of western culture where with a network of colleagues and other centrality of art and the artistic in the ular aspects than the aesthetics, than in active artification is practiced. The use of professionals. Analogously, the under- concept of artification gives attention to recreational sports.410 When thinking of features of art or the artistic are seen to standing of creativity is narrow; creativity other types of features and values in art art in the traditional sense, the museum give these practices more social or creative is presented as a creation of innovations and the artistic than the aesthetic.408 concept of art, contemporary elite sport capital, which will in turn advance their and novelties, while within the practical Despite its novelty, and some ambi- is closer to art than the hobbyist sports. core operations. The active use of art and work of an artist it can take many other guity about the benefits of the concept of However, hobbyist sport shares more the artistic in practical conditions makes forms.406 Wolfgang Welsch finds the most artification, I have found it a useful tool features with contemporary art, where artification a practical tool, rather than a serious problem with the conception of for probing the outskirts of the current the full art experience often requires purely academic conceptual tool.404 art used; art is often seen only as objects, conception of art. As the emphasis of aes- participation. The aesthetic element in The idea of using art for purpos- museum pieces, while today’s art takes thetics has moved away from art, and art sport is certainly more pronounced than es outside art, and the emergence of a various forms in addition to the physical in turn has de-aesthetized409, artification before and, along with the changes in new profession, artifiers, is not always objects, such as aesthetic interventions, provides a conceptual tool for analyzing the conception of art, some connections welcomed. Yrjö Sepänmaa sees that the strategies, and performances. Neverthe- the effects and use of art outside the between art and sport can be drawn. Can emergence of artification and the growing less, he sees that artification has taken a artworld. any signs of artification be found in sport, activity on the fringes of art is taking over step further than contemporary artists – it and if so what forms can it take? from art proper, by drawing attention has really brought art to life.407 Analogously to other artification from it and its special features. According At least when the aesthetic and artistic taking place in contemporary culture, to Sepänmaa, artification produces an areas are seen as separate concepts, arti- there seems to be two kinds of artifica- art-colored intermediate area that uses the fication deviates from aestheticization. tion in sport; the passive artification that resources of art and possibly marginalizes However, it can be seen as a consequence is a result of cultural changes – sport art.405 Larry Shiner sees the negative effect and other physical cultures developing of the current applications of artification 406 Shiner 2012. to be more experience oriented and art in its flawed conception of art, artist, moving towards the everyday – and the 407 Wolfgang Welsch, “Artification - While Art Is Turning to Aesthetics beyond Art?” Paper active artification that is similar to the 404 Naukkarinen 2012. 408 Sepänmaa 2012. Naukkarinen 2012. presented at Artification Conference, Helsinki 405 Sepänmaa 2012. 17.8.2012. Author’s notes. 409 Sepänmaa 2012. 410 For instance: Welsch 2005.

206 207 Artification • 7 artification of businesses – bringing art for experienced athletes.412 Lydiard’s idea with 12 000 runners.415 In my native with this research, I ran Helsinki on the into the context of sport in order to behind the running exercise was that Finland, the trend of city marathons map. It works as an intervention, and transfer the qualities and features of art to speed was not important – running was. began a couple of years later, in 1980, there is a performative element. For me, sport and sport events. In fact, one should run at a slow pace to when the first Helsinki City Marathon it opened a new way of combining run- Using examples from the develop- build a good foundation for any other was organized. Participants in these runs ning and making art, and today the series ment of running, I attempt to figure out sport by developing the cardiovascular had a different attitude compared with has several parts. However, my running how signs of artification have surfaced system.413 The idea about fitness running, earlier competitive running. Now it was is clearly artistic running, not artified, in contemporary recreational running, or jogging, spread all over the world a not important to win, or defeat as many because of my position as a professional and what changes in running practice few years later, when Bill Bowerman other participants as possible, but to run artist and my intention to present the have occurred to make that development and Waldo Harris published their book together through the city and race against documented runs in public. Similarly feasible. Jogging in 1967.414 one’s own limits. This change of emphasis kanarinka (artist Catherine D’Ignazio), The analytical approach to running The development of jogging towards in the goals of running made it possi- whose work consists of running all the can take various forms. John Bale has the contemporary experience orient- ble to create art related practices within official evacuation routes in Boston, turns used Henning Eichberg’s division of ed running practice took some time. distance running. Today, the mass races her running into art by presenting the running into playful, fitness, and achieve- While the city-marathons with tens of provide a platform for various artistic act of running as recorded breathing.417 ment running, each of which provides a thousands of participants form the most manifestations and interventions. One of My view is that artified running should different experience as well as notion of visible part of running culture today, they the most common ways to express oneself be found closer to regular running, but running. His view is that playful running did not really exist at the beginning of in a running event is to wear a fancy should also include strategies similar to consists only of children’s free frolicking; the 1970s. For instance, the New York costume, a regular convention for many those found in my and kanarinka’s artistic achievement running is serious result- City Marathon, today attracting nearly participants running for charity. When work. oriented running; and fitness running fills 50 000 runners annually, was organized running takes extreme forms, as in today’s In an earlier article418, I have used the rest of the field.411 Children’s playful for the first time in 1970, with only 127 ultra-marathons, the artistic expressions parkour as an example of the possibilities running cannot really be counted as a participants. By 1976 there were already also turn more extreme: Jan Ryerse has for artified running. Parkour is a novel coherent sport, and competitive running 2090 entrants, but still a fraction of made a ceremonial necklace from the lost physical practice where the objective is to has only a narrow existence outside the today’s participants. In Britain, the first and blackened toenails resulting from travel from spot A to spot B in a straight world of organized competitions. This race with mass participation was arranged these races, most of which are his own.416 line, while negotiating incoming obstacles leaves fitness running as the single truly in Gateshead 1977 with around 600 run- These art-related practices are analogous using special techniques and trying to free field where running can develop ners. However, a year after this modest to the traditional comprehension of art, keep the movement as fluent as possible wider meanings, being open to artifica- beginning The Sunday Times organized in that they are clear images or objects, throughout the course. Practicing parkour tion. the National Fun Run in Hyde Park, but are there practices that resemble con- requires a curiosity towards the environ- The fitness running that forms the temporary works of art? Practices that do ment and perseverance in developing the core of all of today’s recreational running not take a directly presentable form, but physical skills of a traceur (a practitioner was first developed in the early 1960s work as aesthetic interventions, strategies, of parkour). One has to learn how to see in New Zealand, where running coach 412 Running had been an important part of and performances. new possibilities when encountering an Arthur Lydiard saw running as applicable physical education in the United Kingdom, and In my first artistic project connected urban space, and to turn the environment basic exercise for almost everyone. Before all pupils had to participate in distance running into a playground, employing it differ- 415 The Great Run. http://www.greatrun. during the lessons, but the ideals of this compul- that, distance running had been a cruel org/News/Article.aspx?nid=241, accessed 2.7.2013. ently from its planned usage, while also sory running were closely related to competitive achievement sport that was suitable only The Guardian, Running Blog: “picture of the day,” achievement sport. See Bale 2004, 18. http://www.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/the-run- 417 “It takes 154,000 breaths to evacuate 413 Latham 2013, 6. ning-blog/picture/2013/jun/19/running-blog-pic- Boston” (2007). http://www.ikatun.org/evacuate- ture-of-the-day-1977-fun-run, accessed 2.7.2013. boston/, accessed 2.7. 2013. 414 Latham 2013, 1-3. Bowerman and Har- 411 Bale 2004, 9-10. ris 1967. 416 Dunlap 2007. 418 Tainio 2012 a.

208 209 Artification • 7 learning to sense the environment in a running can take more mundane forms rebellious demonstration. Similar acting new bodily way and control one’s body in than participating in ultra-marathons; would be impossible in the professional- Artifying Sport co-operation with the environment. The Pauli Jokinen’s marathon training by ized sport of today.422 general attitude towards the environment touring the public artworks in Helsinki My view is that the sport becomes and one’s body is playful, with a “creative/ can be seen a partially artified practice. more open to artification as it moves In addition to passive artification, there artistic sensibility.” The traceur has to be Instead of concentrating only on the away from the ideals of achievement sport is an active tendency to connect art and aware of the environmental possibilities, efficiency of his exercise, he tried to see that have been the prevailing physical sport, to artify sport. The objectives and must at all times be ready to learn the combination of running and city in a culture since the late nineteenth century. of this active artification vary to some about them and adjust to new circum- new light. Abandoning the concept of competition extent. Unlike the artification of busi- stances.419 While some examples of artification and progressive achievement gives room ness, the active artification of sport is not The most significant difference can be found in recreational running, for a more playful and creative attitude in oriented towards innovations, or helping between parkour practice and contem- current competitive running still seems connection with physical activity, which the athletes and supporting professionals porary running culture(s) is that those to steer away from any contacts with art. might be called sport or not. Bernard to better cope with the changing world424, involved in parkour are conscious of the There are obvious reasons for this; the Suit’s definition of playing a game as a but to make sport more attractive, to add creative attitude connected with their confines of modern sport and the profes- voluntary attempt to overcome unneces- a new dimension, magnitude, and even practice, while most of the contemporary sional sports-world prohibit generating sary obstacles423 is applicable to any sport new meanings to the sport experience. fitness running community does not new kinds of practices. There are also – and actively applying its idea transforms Specifically to whom sport is made more employ creative/artistic sensibility in their the rules of competitive running, which sport into a creative practice. attractive depends on the case. The large practice.420 prevent much personal expression from In reality, the manifestations of arti- sporting events use art as a supplementary However, an outside viewer can the athletes. The professionalization of fication in sport are still sporadic, and dis- attraction for visiting tourists, though register instances where running has competitive running additionally narrows cerning them often requires a perceiver. sometimes there are genuine aspirations transformed towards the artistic, creating the personal and creative space of the Especially in the case of distance running, for a natural connection between art and practices that can be seen as containing a athletes. For instance, sponsorship regu- the practices are not consciously artified, sport. The London 2012 Cultural Olym- creative/artistic sensibility. The creative/ lations may inhibit expressions that could but private processes and games that piad is a good example of this type of artistic sensibility in running does not harm the sponsor’s public image. There produce some variation in the monoto- endeavor. Another common reason for produce artwork in a customary sense, can be artified practices in competitive nous routine of running. The best way artifying sport is an attempt to encourage but it affects the processes of running running, but they are even more private to describe those few creative processes more people to exercise. This was the practice. The ritualization of running than in hobbyist running. The practices connected with distance running is to call driving force behind the Kulttuurikuntoi- ultra-marathons seen in Christopher or occurrences of artistic spirit in com- them the seeds of artification. I believe lun keskuspuisto (Central Park of Culture McDougall’s book Born to Run421 is one petitive sports are also more likely to be that the situation is similar in other tra- and Exercise), which was a part of the example. Physical objects – for instance, rebellious in nature than constructive, or ditional sports, especially when the sports program of the European Capital of Cul- the afore mentioned ceremonial toenail work by creating positive experiences, like have a strong recreational significance; ture in Turku, Finland 2011. necklace – can form an extension of the the artified practices in fitness or lifestyle sport practices are moving away from the These examples are different in many ritual practice. The unconscious practic- sports. For instance, in 1991 Finnish ideals of modern sport and starting to ways: the project in Turku was an espe- es that form the artification in distance distance runners enacted the funeral pro- resemble the post-sport physical cultures. cially local one, targeting the citizens cession for Finnish running in connection of Turku and inhabitants elsewhere in 419 More about the parkour practice: Atkin- to national competitions, because they South-West Finland, while the London son 2009. Daskalaki, Stara, and Imas 2008. were unhappy with the recent decision 2012 Cultural Olympiad reached around Wheaton 2004, 14. to terminate the relay events in distance the British Isles and presented distin- 420 Atkinson 2009, 179-180. Bale 2004, running competitions. The enactment guished, internationally known artists. 16-17. was a pure performance, but it was also a 422 Vettenniemi 1994, 63, 64 (image). 421 McDougall 2011. 423 Suits 2005, 54-55. 424 Naukkarinen 2012.

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The budgets were also from different 2012 Cultural Olympiad was designed the creative industries as a key driver for the Olympic and Paralympic movements’ worlds: the budget for the Cultural to give everyone in the UK a chance to economic regeneration426 visions were mentioned in the hopes Olympiad was 79 million pounds (nearly be part of the London 2012 Games, and The list of the values that the Cultural given for the Cultural Olympiad, while 123 million euro), which was twice as to inspire creativity across all forms of Olympiad should follow was also vast: generating sports participation, relishing much as the entire budget for Turku’s culture, especially among young people. -Celebrate London and the whole of the fusion of/synergy between culture and Cultural Capital year. The project included a wide range of the UK welcoming the world – our unique sport, as well as using culture and sport Despite the fact that the projects events, from local projects to large-scale internationalism, cultural diversity, sharing for raising issues of environmental sus- represent totally different magnitudes, I performances across the UK – around 18 and understanding tainability were listed in the values. Only will compare them in order to evaluate million people participated in the events. -Inspire and involve young people the idea of relishing the “fusion of/syn- what kinds of approaches have been used The list of the aims of the Cultural -Generate a positive legacy (e.g. cultural and ergy” between culture and sport required for importing art into the context of Olympiad is long; these are the various sports participation, audience development, a new kind of connection between sport. My view is that the projects share hopes that should have been fulfilled by cultural skills, capacity building, urban culture (art) and sport. More important similar ideas and practices concerning the the project, but very few are in connec- regeneration, tourism and social cohesion, than connecting the two areas of culture connection of art and sport. The main tion with sport: international linkages) seemed to be advertising British culture, difference is in the scale and time-span. -Inspire and involve the widest and most -Relish the fusion of/synergy between culture its uniqueness and excellence. Another While the Central Park of Culture and inclusive range of UK communities, and sport important objective appeared to be pro- Exercise in Turku was a one year project -Generate sustainable long terms benefits to -Encourage audiences towards active partic- viding a platform for various minorities, with permanent results intended for the our cultural life ipation subcultures, and communities to present future use, the Cultural Olympiad in the -Create outstanding moments of creative -Animate and humanise public spaces (e.g. their cultures, as well as generating well- United Kingdom spanned over four years’ excellence which underline London’s and Street theatre, public art, circus skills, live being and a more humane environment. time, also producing some permanent the rest of the UK’s global strength in the big screen sites etc) The Cultural Olympiad acted as an works of art. full range of performing arts and creative -Use culture and sport to raise issues of umbrella for various and diverse projects industries environmental sustainability, health and from local sport projects to huge open air -Offer unique opportunities to connect wellbeing festivals, from visual arts to theater, and London future generations with the UK’s artistic -Honour and share the values of both the from serious artworks to carnivals. Some communities and with their peers around Olympic and Paralympic movements of the events were based solely on volun- The London 2012 Cultural Olympi- the world -Ignite cutting edge collaborations and tary work, while others got some funding ad was the largest cultural celebration in -Help to establish the distinguishing values innovation (between communities and from the Cultural Olympiad and other the history of the modern Olympic and and personality of the 2012 Games cultural sectors) sources,428 and some were paid commis- Paralympic movements. The London -Promote contemporary London as a major -Enhance the learning, skills and personal sions for the London 2012 Festival orga- 2012 Cultural Olympiad was a contem- world city, developing an enlightened policy development of young people by providing nized during the summer of 2012, which porary attempt to continue the tradition of cultural diversity and inclusion access to and from parallel education pro- formed the finale of the whole Cultural of the Art Olympics, which were a part -Offer a platform for the many different grammes.427 Olympiad. While most of the projects car- of the Olympic Games in the first half of communities of the United Kingdom to Even though the Cultural Olympi- ried out through the Cultural Olympiad the twentieth century. After a few decades unite around shared celebrations ad was organized in concordance with program were small scale projects dealing of being relegated to a low profile, the -Embrace the Olympic movement values of the greatest global sport event, neither London 2012 Cultural Olympiad tried Excellence, Respect and Friendship and the the hopes presented nor the values the 428 Arts Council England was the princi- to revive the tradition as a contemporary Paralympic movement vision; to “Empower, project should follow had much to do pal funder together with the Legacy Trust UK and the Olympic Lottery Distributor. Art Council web- arts festival.425 Achieve, Inspire” with sport. Only embracing the values of site: “Cultural Olympiad and London 2012 Festi- Spread over four years, the London -Drive attention to the whole of the UK for val.” http://www.artscouncil.org.uk/what-we-do/ 426 Garcia 2013, 4. tourism and inward investment and use arts-council-initiatives/cultural-olympiad/, accessed 425 Garcia 2002, 6-8. Osborn 2008. 427 Garcia 2013, 4. 4.7.2013.

212 213 Artification • 7 with sport or culture, and not explicitly bounce around in. Even though this work of people recently moved to Britain and social groups to applied art, cultural exercise art, the London 2012 Festival mainly con- is carnivalesque, a light-hearted piece of having an immigrant background. The routes, kayaking and rowing, events and a centrated on large scale events in various, art presenting Britain’s national heritage, spruce trees felled to make space for Dream Park. “ partly overlapping, categories. Altogether it shows something about the possibilities the pitch were used to create the goal- And: there were approximately 500 events held of combining presence, physical activity, posts, benches, and a changing room. In “Promoting the physical, mental and throughout the United Kingdom. and visual art. addition, the teams wore football strips social well-being of residents and visitors, As the hopes and values assigned to The closest connection between art designed by Scottish school children. The the project leaves a lasting mark on Turku’s the Cultural Olympiad predicted, most and sport was created in projects where audience was transported to the site by urban culture and image.” of the projects realized did not build any the work or event was created by using special coaches. After the matches were The program was realized through five new or special connections between art some means of sport. Speed of Light, an played, on August 25th 2012, native project categories: Cultural exercise routes, and sport. They were purely cultural, art, event organized by the Glasgow-based trees were planted along the markings, Functional works of art, Outdoor events, or sport projects and events. However, company NVA, is an example of this creating an evolving, living sculpture that The Dream Park,and River Aura - pad- there were several art projects that at least third category. The massive happening will hold the memories of the event. The dling and rowing.429 included sport or physical activity as a took place on several evenings in August site will be freely accessible to the public Analogous to the London 2012 subject or general framework, and that 2012, at the Arthur’s Seat mountain in for up to 60 years. Cultural Olympiad, many of the projects were somewhat promising in the context Edinburgh. Hundreds of runners wear- Coulthard’s work fulfilled several of were connected solely to cultural or sport of artifying sport. ing specially designed light suits took to the conditions for the intentional arti- events, but there were also some similarly At the very least, the imagery of the the intricate path networks on the slopes fying of sport. There was clearly a work successful combinations. For instance, works created within such a project pic- of the mountain. The walking audience of art, both as an event and as an object, cultural exercise routes produced a tured sport, or the works were created at became a part of the work, carrying and most probably as an experience too. combination of having a brisk walk and sport sites. Environmental artist Richard portable light sources set against the dark There was real sport, even though the exploring the public artworks in Turku. Long’s: Box Hill Road River is one of features of the hill. Every time the perfor- athletes were amateurs – in the origi- In the context of artifying sport, the these. This work is a giant, 100m long, mance was held it had a different look, nal meaning of the word. On the other functional works of art formed the most painting that snakes along the spectacular as it was created by the collective action hand, the event, like all the other projects promising project. The project consisted Olympic cycling race route. The work of the runners and the audience, the presented, stayed safely in the category of of three public artworks with an inten- takes its inspiration from the traditional landscape, and the weather. Even though art. Although sport was involved in the tion to attract people to exercise. Art was road graffiti created by fans during the the volunteer runners and the audience project, there was no in-between state applied for external purposes, which cor- Tour de France, where the cycling fans were part of the performance, it was best that is expected for artification. responds to the idea of artification. Two leave chalk messages on the road for spe- seen from outside the area, appearing as a of the works were located by a popular cific teams and cyclists. Long’s work will giant art installation. riverside path where passing walkers, run- remain as a permanent memory of the Another work of art, Forest Pitch Turku ners, and cyclists are able to enjoy them. 2012 Olympic Games. by Craig Coulthard, took the potential However, the connection to sport or exer- More ambitious combinations of art in combining art and sport, as well as Central Park of Culture and Exercise was cise is rather thin: the first work, Sakari and sport combined physical activity with mixing the maker’s and spectator’s roles, designed to transform the surroundings an art event, or alternatively experiencing even further. Forest Pitch was realized of River Aura, which flows through the 429 Turku 2011 website: “Central Park of the work in a proper way required the near Selkirk, at the Scottish Borders, and city of Turku, into a more vibrant, func- Culture and Exercise.” http://www.turku2011.fi/ spectator’s activity. Jeremy Deller’s Sacri- was based on building a full-size football tional, and pleasant setting through cul- en/ohjelmahanke/499/info, accessed 9.8.2012. lege presents a more hands-on approach field in a pristine forest. The main event ture. The objectives of the project were: Not all of the projects were created for the Euro- pean Capital of Culture; some were organized in in combining art and physical experienc- consisted of two football matches played “Along the banks of River Aura and in connection with the general facelift of rundown es. His work is basically a life-sized, air- on the field. The matches were played the city space, the Central Park of Culture sites (the Dream Park) or were already initiated filled replica of Stonehenge for people to during one day, between teams compiled and Exercise treats people of all ages and projects (cultural exercise routes and River Aura – paddling and rowing).

214 215 Artification • 7

Peltola’s sculpture A Pen and a Tough Because some of the statues are very hard Bone430 is a stone sculpture representing a to find, GPS-coordinates are also given. doghouse and a giant bone. The sculpture This work takes the connection between is connected with exercising by allowing art and exercise to a new level; the statues its use for climbing, and as a support for really motivate one to explore the streets stretching. The other work on the same from a different point of view.433 Nev- path is Eero Merimaa’s sculpture Some ertheless, the work does not really artify Technoflowers431, which reacts to move- sport, if sport is seen as more demand- ment by turning on LED lights inside the ing physical activity than just a leisurely flowers when somebody passes the work. walk in the city. However, it does lead to Merimaa’s sculpture has a somewhat extended activity, because after one starts stronger connection to exercise and sport, the search there is a desire to find all the but it also has its problems. Without the statues, an enterprise that can take quite a lights the work is just a sculpture, which while. Analogous to the projects realized means that during spring, summer, and as part of the Cultural Olympiad, the much of the autumn it is not functioning functional artworks in Turku are clear- as it should, and during winter the num- ly art, even though there are hopes for ber of the passers-by declines. other kinds of activation and promoting The third work, Hide and Seek432 by well-being. Oona Tikkaoja, is located on the streets Both of the projects in London and of Turku. It consists of thirty miniature Turku attempted to connect art and sport bronze statues made by local children. in a way that could be called the inten- Tikkaoja held workshops where children tional artifying of sport but, in my opin- had the chance to realize small statues in ion, both fell short. Despite the successful soft wax. The resulting statues were then and novel combinations of art and sport, cast in bronze, and finally hidden on the art remained art and sport remained streets according to the childrens’ plans. sport. Both of the projects were able to The only way to see the works is to take a bring art closer to sport, but proper sport walk, following a map with instructions never moved closer to art. revealing the locations of the statues.

430 Turku 2011 website: ”Venyttele veistoksen avulla.” http://www.turku2011.fi/uutiset/ venyttele-veistoksen-avulla_fi, accessed 9.8.2012. 431 Turku 2011 website: “Teknokukka- set tuovat valoa ja väriä jokirantaan.” http:// www.turku2011.fi/uutiset/clone-of-teknokukka- set-tuovat-valoa-ja-varia-jokirantaan_fi, accessed 9.8.2012. 432 Turku 2011 website: ”Pienoisveistokset piilottelevat jokirannassa.” http://www.turku2011. fi/uutiset/pienoisveistokset-piilottelevat-jokiran- nassa_fi-0, accessed 9.8.2012. 433 Tainio 2012 b.

216 217 8 • What I Think When I Think About Running

218 219 Attempt to Run...

220 221 London (2011) Lisboa (2009)

222 223 Turku (2008) Helsinki (2008)

224 225 Berlin (2010) Vaasa (2008)

226 227 Finland Runs (details)

228 229 Artistic Running in Central Turku (stills from video)

230 231 A Runner’s Career

232 233 ******* 2000 ***** 2001-2007

******* 2000 ****** 2007-2008 234 235 **** 2008- **** 2010-

***** 2009- ******* 2011- 236 237 A False Memory

238 239 What I Think When I Think About Running • 8

A False Memory (details)

240 241 What I Think When I Think About Running • 8

The first two art projects I conducted as part of my research brought sport into the sphere of art. In them, sport was mainly a subject of art, and a tool for artistic thinking. The exhibitions presented deliberations about the conditions of contemporary sport and art. The third exhibition took place outside the realm of traditional art institutions. It brought art closer to the field of sport by presenting the results of the art project in the Sports Museum of Finland, located in the Helsinki Olympic Stadium. Changing the context had additional and unforeseen consequences. Exhibiting artworks in a new context produced new readings and parallels between the artworks and sport; now situated deep in the field of sports, the works of art produced different thoughts than in the safe context of the artworld. In the contemporary artworld, employing sport as a source for artistic work is just choosing one subject among the many possible; it does not change the practices of today’s art. Although bringing contemporary art into the context of sport is not a completely new idea, the location of the third exhibition provided me with a change of perspective. Working in the context of a sports museum is somewhat different from many other approaches to combining art and sport; exhibiting art in a sports museum can be compared with presenting artworks in a cultural or historical museum. The permanent exhibition in the Sports Museum of Finland exhibits the cultural history of Finnish sports, Finnish sport heroes throughout time, and in addition has a large section about the Helsinki 1952 Olympic Games. The objects in the permanent exhibition consist of historical sport equipment and memorabilia contextualized with accompanying texts, photographs, and videos. The story of the historical development of sport in Finland is told through separate objects presented in showcases, which are contextualized through the use of audiovisual material. The audiovisual material concentrates on the festive moments of sport: the competitions, the records, the winners. The everyday moments are visible in the form of training logs and other similar items. In addition to competitive sport, the development of sport as an everyman’s exercise is also part of the permanent exhibition. Moreover, the dark moments of Finnish sport are not avoided; for instance, the doping scandal in Finnish cross-country skiing at the Lahti 2001 World Championships is exhibited as a part of the history. The museum organizes a few shorter exhibitions every year. Sometimes they are in connection with a special sport event, and sometimes

242 243 What I Think When I Think About Running • 8 the exhibition is aimed at schoolchil- My research period was tapering phenomena that I had been following in inevitably the physical presentation next dren, and some of them present a less towards its end, so I wanted to return to contemporary running. Murakami’s book to the “hall of fame” of Finnish sport well-known athlete. In addition to these my questions about running for a second also provided the name for the exhibi- constituted a strong link between sport- regular sports related exhibitions, there time and attempt to see how explor- tion. Under the title What I Think When ing history and my artistic work. Howev- have been some art exhibitions before ing sport through research had affected I Think About Running, I took a fresh er, the unintended parallels between the mine. These art exhibitions have had a my understanding of it and its artistic look at various aspects of contemporary permanent collection did not produce solid connection to sport. possibilities. Even though I was return- recreational distance running. hindrances to the exhibition as a whole The particular context of the exhi- ing to a previous subject, my intent was Naturally, my vision of the signifi- – it just brought a new level to the works bition made this project significantly not to create a final diagnosis about the cance and position of running in today’s and my original intentions. different from the previous ones from the relations between art and sport, but to culture had matured since I started my outset. Firstly, the space was not regularly investigate my changing understanding. research, but reworking some themes that used for art exhibitions, and the museum Furthermore, I wanted to explore my had been treated in the first exhibition visitors were more interested in sport than own current thoughts about making art took the last project in a circular pattern art. Although I did not want to com- and practicing the sport of distance run- of thought. When I started the first art The Artworks promise my art because of the different ning. The project did not result in a final project, I did not have much knowledge audience, I decided to take the difference vision of art and sport, but an interme- about the field that I was about to study, into consideration and open up the ideas diate stopping point in the continuously and now I would explore the same theme behind the works for the museum visitors changing relationship between the two. through more knowledgeable eyes. Attempt to Run... more clearly than I usually would. In the In the search for material about con- The context of the resulting exhibi- previous exhibitions, I had had only a temporary running culture, I had read tion also shifted the emphasis somewhat Running Helsinki from the first exhibition short artist’s statements and a list of the Haruki Murakami’s memoir What I Talk from my original ideas. The juxtaposition produced such interesting results that I titles of the works, but this time I decided About When I am Talking About Running, between the main collection of the sports continued to run cities on a map. The to write somewhat longer texts to accom- where the author tells the history of his museum and my exhibition in the side concept of the Attempt to Run Helsinki pany the artworks. running habit and how it has shaped his room was strong, and transformed the grew gradually into a series of several In addition, my works were going to lifestyle.434 Contemplating the features reading of the artworks. My artworks, works located in different cities in Fin- be presented next to the most important that make Murakami’s running habit a relating to contemporary running prac- land as well as abroad. In the exhibition, Finnish sport memorabilia – including personal one contributed to formulating tice, were automatically paralleled with six runs from six cities were presented; Matti Nykänen’s medals from various the foundation of the art project and the achievements of the great Finnish Helsinki, Turku, and Vaasa in Finland, Olympic Games and World Champion- the exhibition. Thinking over Muraka- runners Paavo Nurmi, Lasse Virén, and and Lisbon, Berlin, and London abroad. ship games, Paavo Nurmi’s medals and mi’s account, I tried to figure out which others. Furthermore, the Sports Muse- There are several possible approaches personal belongings, and Jari Kurri’s Stan- patterns in my running separated it from um of Finland is situated at the Helsinki to perceiving the work; the first one I ley Cup ring. The permanent exhibition the general western or Finnish practice, Olympic Stadium, the most iconic sport had when starting the project in 2008, would compete for the visitors’ interest and how I should present them in the venue in Finland, which gave the exhibi- an artistic variation of the Finnish sport against my exhibition. Furthermore, my artworks. tion another layer of possible meanings. legend, is only one of them. Later, I have argumentation about sport, presented I focused on the recreational running The obvious comparison between the considered the runs as interventions in in the form of artworks, would be seen practice as I saw it taking place in my exhibited artworks and the museum col- a public space, as my routes had taken against the history of (Finnish) compet- own life, as well as the current running lection was not my intention, as only one me places where a runner is not a com- itive sport. There would be competition practice in Finland as I saw it at the time. of the works had a direct connection with mon sight. I had run through some run between my art, unknown to most of the Basically, I explored the development the permanent collection and the others down areas in Lisbon, crossed the former visitors, and these famous athletes and of my own running habit and those were designed to work independently Checkpoint Charlie in Berlin, and along glorious sporting moments. from the special exhibition context, but Oxford Street in rush hour in London. 434 Murakami 2008.

244 245 What I Think When I Think About Running • 8

Negotiating one’s way through a city takes place while planning the route, their own unknown reasons. My attempt A Runner’s Career using a predefined and, if compared to and during the process of plotting the was to allow all the different runners to logical traveling in a city, arbitrary route GPS-data on a map and constructing the run together, and show that there is now For a reason unknown even to myself, I leads one to see the city from unexpected look of the artwork.435 one model for the contemporary sport have kept all of my running shoes since angles. Even familiar places look new hero. This run has no winner, just brief the start of my current practice. I decided when they are approached from unusual encounters on a run. to illustrate the development of my run- directions. Despite the effort of running Finland Runs The real time video installation Fin- ning pursuit by photographing the shoes and keeping on the course, I enjoyed land Runs (Suomi Juoksee) consists of in a similar style as footwear is presented finding unexpected places. Naturally, The idea of this video installation was four screens stretched across the exhibi- in catalogues and advertisements. They many times my route has taken me to bring the variety of today’s Finnish tion hall. Pairs of runners run through are my shoes, with their personal scuff into nondescript places, dull banking runners together in one place. The work the screens, arbitrarily running together marks, but at the same time they are also quarters and anonymous housing areas, is an update of the video installation or passing each other. After a few rounds anonymous footwear that any contempo- but I think of these parts of the run as Runners in the first exhibition. In that through the screens one or both of the rary runner can identify with. a contrast to the interesting places and previous work I had presented a series runners change, and a new pair starts landscapes. of portraits of Finnish runners, but only chasing each other. The runners’ move- Even though the artwork is presented standing still. Later, I had played with ment are slowed down moderately in A False Memory as a printed two-dimensional figure that an idea about a work where the runners order to extend their appearances on the is distanced from the original act, run- would be running around the exhibition screens. Years before I planned to have this exhi- ning the route and recording it accurately space through various screens. The initial bition, I visited the Sport Museum. After forms a fundamental part of the work. idea evolved into the four screen video the visit, I clearly recalled seeing a gilded The person watching the artwork can installation Finland Runs, where arbitrari- Artistic Running in Central Turku pair of Lasse Virén’s spikes in the muse- hopefully relate the line on the map to ly chosen runners parade in pairs across um’s showcase. The pair of spikes that I the physical strain that is needed to run the room. This video returns to the practice of remembered seeing were the same one the line in the real city. Without the act Distance running as an exercise has scribbling texts over urban areas, from the Virén had worn when he won the 5000 of running the course, the conceptual never been as popular as it is now. If you series Attempt to Run. Instead of marking meters at the 1972 Munich Olympic structure of the work would change look around the popular running routes, the route on a map, the work exposes Games, and the same pair he had waved totally. The performative act would turn you will see runners of all sizes and the maker’s point of view, combining the in the air afterwards, causing disapproval into an imaginative play, a proposal. shapes. Distance running, and partici- artist’s and runner’s experiences. A literal and consequently some comments about However, the act of running did not feel pating in half and full marathons, is no combination of art and running exposes his professionalism. In spite of my clear only like artistic work. It was more like a longer reserved for athletic people. The the practical reality of artistic running. memory, there are no gilded Virén spikes regular run in an unfamiliar city. Staying video installation let the visitor observe The video shows the meaninglessness of in the museum, but instead one of Paavo on a predetermined course makes it more in how many different ways the practice my typographic running routes. Even Nurmi’s spikes. This was told to me when difficult to enjoy the flow of running, but of running can be implemented; some of though there is a reason for running the I visited the museum for the first time in a strange environment running would running styles are effective and graceful, particular route in the form of the word in connection with my exhibition. I was not be easy anyway. Despite the fact that some of them less so, but still propelling ART, it is not visible while actually run- so disappointed to learn the truth; Paavo running and staying on the course form the runner towards her goal in all kinds of ning through it. Nurmi, because of his surly personality, is the uppermost level of experience, there is weather, from the heat of the summer to my least favorite of the Finnish runners, a private performative level; even though the freezing winter. The work brings forth and Lasse Virén was a childhood hero, the act of making art is not visible for the other runners that pursue their sport whose runs I can still remember somehow other people in the streets, I know what I in a similar manner as mine, but all for even though in those days I was just in am doing. However, the real artistic work kindergarten. 435 Tainio 2012 a.

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I decided to turn this false memory first end of a rope in order to untangle to my benefit, and to realize the missing Artistic it, and the second one balancing in the spikes in the museum. I was allowed to middle of it, the last exhibition can be use one of the museum showcases in Transitions seen as making a knot in order to keep my exhibition, so making a counterfeit my intellectual coil together. exhibit was possible. I obtained a pair of While the two first exhibitions were second hand spikes, and reconstructed The third exhibition ended my artistic forward-looking experiments in connect- Virén’s spikes from photographs using work in connection with this research, ing art and sport, What I Think When various materials. The result had the and it also closed the circle with the same Think About Running looked both back shape and feel of the 1970s spikes, and theme as the first exhibition. Despite the and forward. I was collecting important was finalized by “gilding” with fake leaf seemingly same subject – contemporary artistic findings along my expedition, gold. In addition to the faked spikes in recreational running – the exhibitions fitting them together with my accumulat- the showcase, the work had a back lit are not the same. The first exhibition ed theoretical knowledge, and developing text – in a similar shape as the museum’s supplied a starting point for the whole the final outcome of the research. Taking accompanying texts – that explained my research process. At the time, I did not a look at the series of exhibitions in ret- false memory.436 know which direction my research would rospect, they form a defined continuity; take, and I did not have a proper idea the ends come together nicely, as does the about the historical background, current middle exhibition, as exploring the field 436 English translation of the original text : condition, and future direction of either in between art and sport finds its place. What I remember about Lasse Viren art or sport. When I started working The last exhibition does not deliver a final My recollections about Lasse Viren are rather thin: on the exhibition What I Think When I I do remember that he won. Twice. In two judgment or resolution, but connects the Olympics. Altogether four Olympic gold medals. Viren Think About Running, I had done most beginning and the end. It attempts to use was exceptional, because his heart was larger than of my theoretical background work and the material collected during the journey others. Or so they said to young boys. Once he fell dur- was formulating the first versions of the to provide some potential outsets for the ing the race and still became the Olympic Champion. conclusions of the research. Pursuing the common future of art and sport. For his luck, it was still a long way to the finishing final and still transient viewpoint about line. the connection between art and sport in Another time, when he won, he went to the lap of honor bare footed and waved his sneakers in the the context of this research was the most air. It was widely disapproved. Today it would be just important task of the last art project. normal behavior. There are sponsors and everything What is the relationship between modern else. I have probably seen this happening on television, sport and today’s wider idea of physical because I was already in school in 1976. culture? What is the relationship between Or the memory has attached to my mind somewhere on the way from childhood to today. The the original ideas of achievement and memory is so weak that I couldn’t remember did it trying one’s best, measuring and records happen in Munich or Montreal. I had to check it. and the contemporary ideas about the Montreal it was. And the competition was 10 kilom- omnipresence of aesthetics and the idea eters race. Especially well I recalled that those running of sport – or physical culture – as the care shoes were displayed in the Sports Museum – gilded. It of the body? How do the disappearing was also a false memory. The only gilded running shoe was Paavo Nurmi’s. borders between cultural practices, in I repair my memory about Lasse Viren’s my case art and sport, affect their future? shoes and bring them into the museum While the first exhibition was seeking the - at least for a moment.

248 249 9 • Sport in Art – Art as Sport

250 251 Sport in Art – Art as Sport • 9

Sport has been a subject of artworks since the advent of early modern art, using the images of either the athletes or the sport events: from the beginning of modern sport, artists have used sport as one possible subject and a source of inspiration, together with other subjects drawn from modern and urban life. During the period of modern art, there were two ways to combine sport and art: the first practice of combining sport into art was more traditional; the greatest sport heroes were immortalized in public artworks, usually as statues. For example, the Paavo Nurmi statue was commissioned from the then foremost Finnish sculptor Wäinö Aaltonen 1924. The habit of memorializing famous athletes with statues has continued into the present; however, the general artistic quality of the statues has declined since the early twentieth century. Another way to include sport in art was to picture the practice as an integral part of the modern world, as a new and exciting phenomenon: runners and cyclists were seen as representations of the future world, similar to airplanes and cars. This viewpoint can be found in the works of the avant-garde artists.437 Today’s art does not treat sport only as a subject that is pictorial, but as one that provides various perspectives either to raise questions about sport and the practices and structures related to it, or using connotations drawn from sport to open up issues outside both sport and art. Sport is still a subject of art, but often from a different perspective: instead of just portraying athletes and illustrating sport events, art is presenting criticism of some aspects of sport, transforming sport, creating imagined sports, and using sport in art for external purposes as well as employing sport as a medium of artistic work. The connection between art and sport may emphasize the visual and identifiable elements of sport as a part of the artwork, or the more conceptual elements when the connection with sport is more open. However, art that attempts to develop a connection with sport but is presented without an instant connection to sport usually needs to provide some background information about its association to sport. Besides, the visual or conceptual connection between sport and art is not the only way of incorporating sport into art. In the context of artifying sport, many artworks are simply brought into the context of sport and thus do not necessarily have any apparent connection to sport except the location or timing of the work.

437 For instance: Les Coureurs (The Runners) 1924 by Robert Delaunay, Cyclist 1913 by Natalia Goncharova, and Dynamism of a Cyclist 1913 and Dyna- mism of a Football Player 1913 by Umberto Boccioni.

252 253 Sport in Art – Art as Sport • 9

sports: behind the winners there are many 1270 meters, in the Olympic pool. In that parallels Finnish baseball442 with Sport in disappointed athletes who never get into addition, Gabie tested his own endurance preparing for war and running marathons the spotlights. when trying to sit in every seat in the to the ultimate sacrifice, death. These Contemporary A prolonged artistic work with sport Olympic Stadium. Spending 69 hours historical views mix with personal mem- as the theme can produce works where on the project Every seat in the stadium, ories about physical education in school: Art sport only works as a frame. While work- he managed to sit on only about 40000 during the baseball games one of the ing as an artist in residence at the Olym- seats, just half of the stadium’s capacity. artist’s (their recollections are anony- pic park in London between September Gabie’s work as the artist in residence is a mous) always missed the three strikes 2010 – January 2012, Neville Gabie project where art and sport are combined on his turn at bat and was ”burned”, Picturing It explored the coming Olympic Games in a balanced way. The artworks do not dismissed from the game for the rest of from various angles. During his residen- try to surpass the spectacle of sport, but the inning. When their team was playing When contemporary artists use sport cy, Gabie had access to the sites under highlight the background, and wonder at in the field, trying to catch the ball, the as a subject for their art, their perspec- construction, and the ability to contact the aspects that are usually seen as obvi- storyteller was hiding in the back of the tive on sport differs from the art works the people working in the background ous and thus overlooked.440 field and usually missed catching the ball portraying sport heroes, and most often of the future Olympics. Throughout the if it ever came near him, thus completing the glorifying attitude towards the ath- two-week period of the Olympic Games the failure. letes that has been prevalent in earlier the focus is on the athletes, but there is Criticism Of Not only is the organization of art is missing. Tracey Moffat’s images of a large group of people whose work has modern sport a subject of criticism. Eva athletes in her series Fourth are the images made the event possible. The scale of the While both Moffat and Gabie are some- and Franco Mattes have also presented of disappointment, the images of fail- background work and the construction what critical towards the world of com- contemporary sport business in a critical ure; the athletes in Moffat’s photographs of the arenas are hard to understand. petitive sport, they are not totally against light. Their project Nikeplatz (2003) in have just noticed that they are the first Many of Gabie’s works deal with the modern sport culture. Finnish artists Visa Vienna, Austria, faked a Nike advertise- ones not getting medals in the Olym- combination of sports and the magnitude Suonpää and Patrik Söderlund, working ment campaign. The artists proposed that pic Games in Sydney.438 Monumental of the Olympic project, as well as the together as group IC-98, see the organi- the Karlsplatz, one of Vienna’s central works presenting sport also try to find transformation of a former industrial area zation of sport only as power play where squares, should be named Nikeplatz with novel perspectives. Juhana Blomstedt’s into the Olympic arena. Sport is mostly the sport fanatics rule over those who do a giant Nike-logo, the Swoosh, erected on Vapaaheitto (Free Throw) (2010) turns a implicit in Gabie’s works; it works as glue not care for sports. Their publication Run the lawn in the middle of the square. The moment for a local basketball team into that connects the locations, the people, and Die441 combines Finnish sport history work consisted of an installation, repre- an abstraction – the only thing visualized and the excessive transformation of the and personal memories, forming a bleak senting the Nikeplatz information center, is the arc from the player’s hands to the site into a united series of artworks. The image of Finnish sport enthusiasm and a website,443 and an accompanying per- hoop.439 While Blomstedt’s artwork has a short film 9.58 has a duration of 9.58 its consequences. IC-98 builds a narrative formance, where three fake Nike workers generally positive attitude towards sport, seconds, the same as Usain Bolt’s world presented the plan to the local residents. Moffat’s photographs articulate criti- record time for the 100 meters, and is 440 Neville Gabie’s internet pages: “Olym- Even though that the artists do not admit cism against the brutality of competitive fashioned from a combination of 239 pic Park Artist in Residence,” http://www.nev- still images of the workers building the illegabie.com/works/olympic-park-artist-in-res- 438 Guggenheim New York website: “Tracey idence/, accessed 12.9.2013. Greatlengths2012 Olympic Stadium. Twelve Seventy is a Moffatt.” . http://www.guggenheim.org/new-york/ website: “Neville Gabie, artist in residence on collections/collection-online/artists/bios/5094, documentary film about the daily life of the olympic park.” http://greatlengths2012.org. accessed 25.11.2013. an Olympic bus driver and keen long dis- uk, accessed 12.9.2013. “London 2012 Olym- 442 A national sport that resembles and is tance swimmer, Semra Yusuf. As a part of pic Park artist-in-residence appointed.” BBC News, developed from American baseball. 439 Helsinki City Artmuseum website: “Free 14.10.2010. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-en- Throw,” http://www.taidemuseo.fi/english/veisto/ the documentary, Yusuf swims the exact 443 “Nikeground.com – Rethinking space,” gland-london-11752625, accessed 12.9.2013. veistossivu.html?id=557&sortby=statue, accessed distance of the bus route she is driving, http://0100101110101101.org/home/nikeground/ 25.11.2013. 441 Söderlund and Suonpää 2004. website/index.html, accessed 4.9.2013

254 255 Sport in Art – Art as Sport • 9 that the work is especially sport related, it gardens. If compared with the two first that are performed in specially built that could be easily accepted, as there is plausible to think that Nike’s visible artworks, Terrain de foot à la française also machines.447 The arbitrary nature of sport are many aspects that are familiar from position in the sport business was one of challenges the cultural origins of sport, events and their rules is utilized elsewhere already existing sports, but the sport also the reasons for using their brand in the rather than simply representing sport as a as well: the Swedish cultural journal requires a new kind of skill that has never work.444 ridiculous activity.445 Glänta published a special issue about before existed in sport.450 Transforming sport can take a more sport in 2009. In addition to dealing Usually, the invented sports remain as analytical form: Thomas Westphal’s exhi- with the cultural aspects of traditional suggestions or have limited usage, like the Transforming bition Playontology (2004) was an ambi- (American football, golf, boxing, shack, events in International King of Sports451, tious exploration of the materiality of tennis, for example) and contemporary but there is one that has developed from The serious attitude within the sport- sports equipment. Westphal, for instance, sports (bouldering, kite surfing, parkour, an imaginary setting to a real sport. Chess world can be a subject of ridicule in presented the construction of various skateboarding), a few authors were asked boxing made its first appearance in a contemporary art: a common artistic balls used in sport by meticulously dis- to invent new sports. The results were south London boxing club in the late approach to sport is viewing sport mantling them into the smallest possible varied, often poetic, sometimes extremely 1970s, but became known worldwide through irony. Artworks belonging to this parts, and then presenting the dissected difficult to realize or even harmful to the since appearing in the comic book Froid category employ various methods. One balls in taxonomical order. In addition, participant’s health, but also the result Équateur by French artist Enki Bilal in of the most common is ”bending” sport he exhibited a fake archeological scene of a well-balanced reflection about the 1992. It is a hybrid sport, combining equipment or sports grounds, either using by using the protective gear used in ice requirements of a new sport and the qual- chess and boxing in alternating rounds. real objects or creating images of such hockey and American football to present ities needed for its success. The first real life chess boxing event was situations. Several examples of employing bodies in a burial chamber.446 Briljard, a mash-up of billiards and organized in artistic settings by Dutch this approach were shown in the exhi- briljera (in Swedish to shine, to show off) artist Iepe Rubingh in 2003. The game bition Sportivement vôtre (2004): Ange is an extremely complex verbal game that has enjoyed a growing popularity, and Leccia’s Nou Camp presents two football Imagined Sports requires a deep understanding of cultur- events have been organized in various goals pushed together in a way that pre- al history and trends as well as brilliant places around the world. Today, chess vents making any goals and removes any The bending of sports equipment has a verbal skills.448 Rüggböj is probably the boxing has a proper organization and also point of playing. Philippe Ramette’s Plon- close relationship with the practice of most harmful sport ever invented; the a world championship event, first orga- geoir is a diving board mounted inaccessi- inventing new sports , a practice that idea is to lift objects using your back in nized in 2003.452 bly high over a grass field. More complex has been used quite widely in artistic order to reach the objective of the sport – The previous examples of bending applications of transformed sport were adaptations of sport as well as outside backache.449 On the other hand, Stegring sport in the name of art (and enter- also presented: Marie Denis’s Terrain de art. Hungarian artist Antal Lakner makes sounds like a possible competitive sport; tainment) have been somewhat simple, foot à la française looks like the chalked the arbitrary nature of sport visible by the participants are competing against and have hardly reached more than the borders of a football field, but there are turning mundane physical work into each other in a regular running track. surface of sport practice. However, seeing extra elements that transform the sport exercises, for instance the practical tasks However, not in trying to run as fast as the humorous connotations of sport and field into a blueprint of a baroque garden. of painting walls and pushing wheelbar- possible, but in accelerating their speed at the same time revealing more about In addition, the work is situated in front rows have been remodeled into exercises for as long a time as possible. The sport of the palace in the Domaine départe- requires physical strength, one must be 450 Halberg 2009, 53-56. 445 Centre national des arts plastiques web- mental de Chamarande, following the a good runner and also have the somaes- site, Domaine départemental de Chamarande: 451 “International King of Sports” was baroque fashion in the placement of “Sportivement vôtre,” http://www.cnap.fr/sportive- thetic sensitivity to feel the slight changes a yearly multi-sport competition produced by in speed and acceleration. It is a concept 444 Culture Jamming - Media Action- ment-votre,accessed 9.9.2013. Exporevue website: TV-company Endemol. Smith 2004. White 2004. “L’art et le sport, un dimanche à Chamarande,“ ism In The 21st Century website: “Interview of 447 Drühl 2004, 75-77. 452 World Chessboxing Association web- http://www.exporevue.com/magazine/fr/chama- Eva and Franco Mattes aka 01.org,” http://www. site: “FAQ,” http://worldchessboxing.com/contact/ rande_sport.html, accessed 9.9.2013. 448 M.A.T. 2009, 50-51. culture-jamming.de/interviewIIe.html, accessed wcba-chessboxing-faq/, accessed 22.4.2014. Ell- 4.9.2013. 446 Westphal 2004. 449 Rinne 2009, 47-48. wood 2013.

256 257 Sport in Art – Art as Sport • 9 the relations between art and sport is For External Purposes music, and street dance – this time the As a Medium of Making Art possible. Florian Slotawa constructed a sports were drawn from various water- thought-provoking combination of art Sometimes sport is used in art for ref- sports (swimming, synchronized swim- In addition to the previous approaches to and sport in his series of runs through erences to issues outside sport practice; ming, diving, and water polo) instead of combining art and sport, contemporary nine German museums453. Slotawa’s sport is employed to make other topics boxing. Although sport and its aesthetics artists use a sport practice as a personal project involved running the shortest visible. The practice is somewhat related were central in Vélez’s works, presenting it medium for making art. In this approach, route through museum collections as fast to “bending” sport, but sport practice was not the central objective, but rath- sport is not examined from the outside, as possible, and documenting the runs or equipment is not at the center of er to use the spectacle of sport to draw and its cultural role does not have to be in an authentic sport broadcast manner. the works. Sport provides a contrasting attention to social issues; in the case of emphasized, especially when it is used The task was taken seriously: in order to setting for the main subject, which quite The Fight the target was the gap between to create an artwork. The artist is usu- achieve the best possible results, Slotawa often seems to be a political one. the high culture presented in TATE Mod- ally the active participant in the sport; went through a training program before Sebastián Errázuriz’s project The Tree ern and the poor conditions of the young the activity is experienced by the artist performing the runs. The result of the (2006) consisted of planting a 10 meter people in the nearby areas, and in the case himself. Doing sport for art detaches project was presented in the form of doc- high magnolia tree in the middle of the of Le Plongeon to illuminate the young the artwork from presenting sport or umentary videos, where all the runs were national stadium in Santiago. The tree people’s culture in Paris. In his combina- using sport in making art – sport is no edited to resemble a regular sport broad- was planted in the stadium because it tions of art and sport, Veléz promotes a longer the subject of art but the means cast: several cameras had been placed had served as a prison during the coup holistic view of the possibilities of sport for making art. Sport becomes an integral along the routes to follow Slotawa’s of dictator Augusto Pinochet in 1973. in contemporary art, if one turns to look part of the artwork, however it is not sprint, and a digital stop watch displayed Thousands of political prisoners were for them outside of the European tradi- necessarily visible in the finished work. the elapsed time in the lower corner of imprisoned, tortured, and killed in the tion.456 The sport activity can be done either as the screen. In addition to bringing a stadium. For most of the one week period Per Hüttner’s Jogging in Exotic Cities a live performance, or it can be recorded sport event out of its normal settings, the stadium was empty and open to the (1999-2003) was a photographic proj- using various methods and presented as Slotawa’s work questions the customary public, but at the end of the project a ect in which the artist has been photo- documentation. The spectators can also habit of hurrying through exhibitions football match was played in front of graphed in various exotic cities wearing participate in the physical action, either – catching a glimpse of everything and 20 000 people while the tree was still in a clean white outfit. The cities Hüttner individually or together with the artist. seeing nothing properly.454 place.455 has been running in are not places where From the perspective of my research, Humberto Vélez’s usage of sport in exercising on the streets is a common using sport as a medium for artistic work the context of art resembles a gesture; his sight. The white-clad runner stands out is the most fruitful approach to combin- works do not adapt a sport in order to from the normal traffic on the streets like ing art and sport. turn it into art, sport is just a part of the an exclamation mark, clearly showing The first specimens of artworks 453 Florian Slotawa: Museum Sprints 2000- event. His project La pelea (The Fight) that western (body)culture is not the where physical sport-like action was used 2001. The work included following runs: -Kun- (2007) brought amateur boxing into norm everywhere. The runner himself for making art can be found in the late sthalle Mannheim (time 1.07.49 minutes), TATE Modern as a component of an is transformed into an exotic sight by 1960s and early 1970s, when conceptual Museum Friedricianum, Kassel (1:02.07 minutes), event that combined displays of boxing breaking the local code of clothing and artists experimented with diverse ways of Kunstsammlung NRW, Düsseldorf (0:45.13 min- skills, music, and a street dance chore- behavior.457 documenting an activity in order to turn utes), Hamburger Kunsthalle (1:46.48 minutes), ography. Le Plongeon (The Dive) (2010), it into art. A common approach was to Lenbachhaus, München (1:16.82 minutes), Alte 456 Humberto Vélez’s website: La Pelea, Pinakothek, München (1:13.26 minutes), Diöz- organized in Paris for the Pompidou Cen- http://humbertovelez.com/projects/london/. Le undertake a seemingly meaningless task esanmuseum Freising (1:20.77minutes), MMK, tre, was a similar combination of sport, Plongeon, http://humbertovelez.com/projects/ and record the results of it. However, the Frankfurt (1:18.52 minutes), Museum Abteiberg, paris/, accessed 9.9.2013. presented documentation of the results 455 Sebastián Errázuriz’s internet pages: The Mönchengladbach (1:15.67 minutes). Tree Memorial of a Concentration Camp, http:// 457 Per Hüttner’s website: Jogging in Exotic was not the central aspect of the work; 454 Jari-Pekka Vanhala, email message to www.meetsebastian.com/78905/710850/pub- Cities, http://www.perhuttner.com/projects/jog- the novel idea was to draw attention to author 5.2.2008. Drühl 2004 , 68-71. lic-art/tree, accessed 10.9.2013. Ashdown 2010. ging-in-exotic-cities/, accessed 18.9.2013.

258 259 Sport in Art – Art as Sport • 9 the physical practice used for making his “pieces” consisted of living one year artworks also has a wider tonal range than Test Site (2006) consisted of two huge art, literally turning the artistic work under extremely tight regulations: for the pioneering works; utter seriousness is tubular slides that wound down sever- into artworks.458 An early example of this instance being confined in a wooden cage not the only possible attitude. Even if the al floors in the Turbine Gallery of Tate approach is Richard Long’s A Line Made and not talking, reading, writing, listen- work addresses serious issues, there can be Modern. The audience could slide down by Walking (1967), which connects phys- ing to the radio, or watching television playful elements, spectacle, and humor. the tubes, suspended in mid-air, through ical action and the mark it makes on the (Cage Piece, 1978-1979), punching a Several artworks falling into this the five-stories tall foyer. People entered earth. Although Long’s walking is not time clock every hour (Time Clock Piece, category have been presented in this and the slides on the third and fifth floors, exactly sport, his compulsive act of walk- 1980-1981), or not entering any building earlier chapters. For instance, Florian and ended their journey at the ground ing back and forth on grass is close to the or shelter (Outdoor Piece, 1981-1982).461 Slotawa’s Museum Sprints, as well as Per floor. Although the sculptural object the regulated forms of physical activity.459 A common feature shared by many of Hüttner’s Jogging in Exotic Cities, trans- slides formed in the hall was important Another pioneer in combining physical the early artworks experimenting with form a sport practice into a personal itself, the artist’s central interest was in exertion with art was Vito Acconci, the connection between physical actions medium of making art, even though the creating a special experience while sliding whose Step Piece (1970) combined a and art is their concentration on endur- images of the sport action form a central down. In Höller’s own words: ”The state performative act and its documentation ance and the absence of enjoyment in the part of the work. It takes 154,000 breaths of mind that you enter when sliding, in a similar manner to Long’s Line, but physical effort. to evacuate Boston (2007-2008), by of simultaneous delight, madness and Acconci’s work draws closer to sport Non-functional tasks or physical expe- kanarinka, uses sport in a more detached ‘voluptuous panic’, can’t simply disappear both in the form of the action and the riences have also been provided for the manner; the only part of the actual without trace afterwards.”464 Although method of primary documentation. The audience. Bodyspacemotionthings (1971) running that is present in the work is Höller’s Test Site puts the emphasis on performative action in the artwork was was an installation by Robert Morris that her breathing during the runs. The artist physical experience, it stays quite far from Acconci’s daily task of stepping on and consisted of various wooden structures considered the runs as a series of perfor- dealing with physical activity, because off a stool at the rate of thirty steps per that were meant for climbing, swinging, mances in public space, but the main sliding down the tubular slides does not minute, continuing the workout as long sliding and crawling over, under, and documentation of the work is the sound. require a real effort. as possible. Unlike Long’s walking, which through. During its time it was consid- However, realizing the work required the The interactive installation Run Moth- was a private activity, Acconci’s Step Piece ered as the first truly physically interactive artist to run all of the evacuation routes erfucker Run (2001/2004) by Marnix de was open to public view – in his kitchen. art exhibition. The exhibition in Tate in Boston.463 Nijs prepared a platform for the specta- The work was documented by photo- Gallery was received with great enthusi- Various works in this category call for tor’s physical activity and curiosity. In the graphic samples of the action and, more asm, so great that it was closed just four spectator participation. This participation installation, the spectators could one by importantly, keeping an account of the days after the opening.462 can take place during the preparatory one step on a giant treadmill that inter- progress made over the period that the Many of the contemporary artistic work, with the result of the participation acts with the video screen in the front. action was performed.460 Tehching (Sam) approaches to combining art and phys- being presented later, or the participa- The pace of running affects the speed of Hsieh’s various one year long performanc- ical actions continue the performative tion can create the artwork, or it can be one’s progression through the world in es between 1978 and 1986 brought the tradition from the 1960s, but today required in order to properly experience the video, as well as the brightness of the personal commitment to physical – and there is a wider variation of applications, the work. screen. If there is nobody running, there mental – exertion to the extreme. Each of including those employing a specific sport Test Site by Carsten Höller, exhibited is nothing to see. However, the naviga- practice. The mood of the contemporary at Tate Modern, brought the spectator’s tion through the nocturnal city is not 458 Moleswort 2003, 101. physical experience to the center of the controlled by the runner. The runner’s 461 Tehching Hsieh’s website, http://tehch- 459 Richard Long Official Website: A Line inghsieh.com/, accessed 28.11.2013. Bryan-Wilson artwork in a similar manner to Robert movement affects the navigation, but the Made by Walking, http://www.richardlong.org/ 2003, 142-143. Morris’s Bodyspacemotionthings. Höller’s Sculptures/2011sculptures/linewalking.html, 462 Tate Gallery website: Bodyspacemotion- 463 kanarinka’s internet pages, It takes accessed 22.4.2014 things, http://www.tate.org.uk/whats-on/tate-mod- 154,000 breaths to evacuate Boston, http://www. 460 Molesworth 2003 b, 106-108. Also ern/exhibition/robert-morris-bodyspacemotion- ikatun.org/kanarinka/it-takes-154000-breaths-to- Hopkins 2000, 192. things, accessed 16.9.2013 evacuate-boston/, accessed 16.9.3013. 464 Honoré 2006.

260 261 Sport in Art – Art as Sport • 9 activity gives no real control over it.465 especially with the incorporation of per- projects, I have been able to focus on the Forest Pitch (2012)466 by Greg Coul- The Broad sonal experience. questions I have found interesting at the thart employed all three methods of My art projects suggest connections time. My acquaintance with the special audience participation. Schoolchildren Field of to several of the approaches presented, combination of art and sport has gone designed the team’s outfits, and the teams however I feel the closest affinity to the further than most artists, because of my of volunteers trained together before their Artistic approach of using sport as a tool for constant work with the subject for several matches. Both the teams and the partici- making art. The main reason for this is years. pating spectators created the performative Opportunities my own relationship with contemporary My explorations within art and sport part of the artwork, and experiencing art practice – I have tried to find artistic have been developing in unison. While Forest Pitch would have been incomplete modes of working that would expose the my comprehension of the recent develop- if the audience would have behaved like The preceding account of diverse new aspects of today’s sport, and I have ments in sport has been growing, I have they were in an art museum, and not approaches to sport by other contem- chosen the tools – artistic mediums – that learned to look for new kind of approach- participated in the work as real spectators porary artists makes it clear that the I have considered the most appropriate es towards sport in art. The result has at a football game. Coulthart’s Forest Pitch interest in sport within the artworld has ones for the task. The themes of my been a wider perspective, wherein the thus puts the audience in the middle of been around for some time, and that the art projects, and for the most part the original idea of modern sport has expand- the work. The artist works as a director methods of combining sport and art have direction of my research, have caused ed into a broad concept where the vol- and organizer, who prepares the circum- developed further since the heroic statues me to play with sport in a certain man- untary attempt to overcome unnecessary stances for the action to take place. The of early twentieth century modernism. As ner: to present sports using the means obstacles is more determining than the actual narrative takes place in the given an artist, I have found it illuminating to of art, looking for novel perspectives on limits of certain sports, and analogously circumstances, but it is not completely study other artist’s solutions to combining sport, or making a homage to a famous the diversity of art dealing with sport and defined in advance. Coulthart’s project art and sport. Despite that focusing on athlete, but also for those ordinary men physical activities has multiplied. provides only a starting point for the sport is a fairly rare tendency in art, the and women who engage in sport at their My own artistic projects dealing with happening. variety of artworks that have some kind leisure. I have pursued a relevant way to sport, together with the works of other of relation to sport has been surprisingly use sport in the making of my art – and contemporary artists presented in this great. When I made my first investi- at least partially succeeded. chapter, demonstrate that there exists a gations into possible artworks in this Even though many of the contem- link between contemporary visual arts genre, I found mostly kitschy statues and porary artists presented in this chapter and sport – and if the recent transforma- paintings presenting athletes, and only a have been employing sport in their art in tions in the aesthetic views of sport, as few artworks, exhibitions, and projects a similar manner as I have done, I think well as the artification processes in sport, where a more thoughtful approach was that my first-hand work with the art are taken into account, the contact sur- visible. Fortunately, my first impression of projects has brought a new perspective face between art and sport has only been the artworks employing sport was utterly to the research as a whole. Using other growing wider over the last decades thus unrepresentative, and I have been able to artists’ work as examples would not have making the link between art and sport find a good collection of works and proj- provided a similar understanding of the firmer than before. ects that connect art with sport and other relationship between art and sport. In physical exertions in various ways. The addition, my concentration on distance general taxonomy of the approaches used running has made it possible to explore 465 Marnix de Nijs’s internet pages: Run by other artists and myself has broadened the general features of today’s sport more Motherfucker Run, http://www.marnixdenijs.nl/ my perspective during the course of the deeply than could have been done by an run-motherfucker-run.htm, accessed 16.9.2013. research, as I have found artists dealing external study of diverse artworks about 466 Forest Pitch internet pages: Forest Pitch, with sport and other physical tasks, and a variety of sports. Through the artistic http://forestpitch.org/.

262 263 10 • The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport

264 265 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10

Before the systems of art and sport practices reached their current state, they still had to go through a number of transformations from the matured modern state they reached in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Both practices had reached the condition and organization familiar to us during the first decades of the twentieth century. The common, everyday conception of art, artworks, artists, and their working methods, as well as the notion of sport in general, sport events, and athletes still comes down to us from those days. This common conception is still prevailing, however, a closer look reveals that both art and sport have changed significantly during the second half of the twentieth century, and the transformation of the practices has continued in the early twenty-first century – probably at an accelerated pace. The contemporary practices of art and sport differ from their modernist variants as well as from their original models. Some of the changes affect only either art or sport, but there are shifts that affect both. The latter ones are those which can be seen to be bringing art and sport closer to each other.

266 267 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10

of the 1960s.468 While modernism had participatory approach, the attempt to artistic work. The changes in materials The Expanding encouraged a consistent idea of art, the bring the spectators into physical interac- and mediums had already remodeled art new art emerged on several fronts and tion with the artwork, and later to even in the 1960s; Andy Warhol’s thoroughly Fields within various new art forms and their participate in the making of the work. As analyzed Brillo Boxes can be seen as a combinations, often challenging the all of these transformations combined, landmark of this tendency. Brillo Boxes limits of art. Pluralism, which was later the consequence was that the conceptions simulated the commercial packages so The first break with the modern system of defined as one of the central features of of art, and the role of art as well as artist, closely that it was hard to tell the dif- art happened already during the 1910s, the postmodern, became the connective were significantly different at the end of ference through visual inspection alone, and since the Second World War the feature of art. Both artworks and artistic the 1960s than they were ten years earlier. although something, at least in the man- departures from tradition have become labor had changed for good.469 Art practice had transformed from a tra- ner of the presentation, set the artwork more frequent, but the decisive turning The development away from the ditional artist’s craft to producing aesthet- apart from the everyday object.473 point in art practice can be situated in modernist tradition is best visible in ic experiences.471 The borders between art and the the 1960s. In a few years’ time, a signifi- the emergence and advance of the new In the context of bridging the prac- everyday have faded even more since cant portion of new art made a departure mediums and materials of art, but this is tices of art and sport, an important trend Warhol’s work, as the importance of the from the previous modernist tradition a rather superficial change. More funda- was the move from making objects to art object has diminished and artistic and started a development that led to the mental is the shift that has taken place making actions. As artists were already activity has taken more immaterial forms. current understanding of contemporary in the artistic work process, the physical looking into the artistic process rather According to Lucy R. Lippard’s account, art.467 These changes in art took place artwork. While the modern system of art than the results of the traditional artis- artworks had already turned to imma- within various art movements and under emphasized the physical outcome of artistic mediums of painting, sculpting or terial forms during the late 1960s.474 various titles, but they all shared some key tic work, the new art emerging during drawing, they had turned themselves into Today, the most significant difference aspects that reveal the fracture between the 1960s brought the process to the fore, organizers and producers of experiences. between an artwork and everyday things modernist artistic practice and the either in a weak form, as background When turning art work into an action, can be found in the artist’s intention and ensuing, novel practice: art transformed information on the artwork, or strongly an artist’s work consists of giving oneself the institutional setting of the activity. from the inward looking mindset of late underlining it, by presenting the process a task, completing it, and documenting Distinguishing the difference becomes modernism to a communicative practice. or the documentation themselves as the the process, or alternatively preparing more confusing or even irrelevant when Instead of reflecting the characteristics of artwork. While focusing on the process an assignment for others, usually the the artwork functions partially in the field an artwork’s medium, the new works of formed the central element of the move audience, to fulfill – and consequently to of some other practice. For instance, the art took a stance in observing, question- away from the modern conception of art, finish the artwork. If manual work was Danish group Superflex has carried out ing, and communicating with the world. other features were significant too. The needed, it would not be skilled craft like a project called Supergas, a biogas unit, As a consequence of this development, new art sought methods for lowering the traditional artistic work, but basic manual which employs locally produced organic the traditional confines established by the borderline between art and the everyday: or physical tasks turned into futile activ- materials for producing gas for cooking mediums of art began to disappear. While the border was crossed by using everyday ity, like stepping up and down on a stool and lightening, thus reducing the need the apex of late modern art had been materials for making artworks, or even as in Vito Acconci’s Step Piece.472 for firewood. The project was presented abstract painting, more varying approach- artworks as such, as well as bringing art Another important shift in art practice in an art related context, but also func- es to making art now emerged and out of its dedicated spaces.470 The third was the narrowing of the gap between art tions as a prototype for a project helping became a frequent practice. The objec- important feature of art’s shift was the and the everyday. This took place both developing countries struggling with tives of modernism that Clement Green- in the material and technical choices of berg had outlined during its last decades 468 Greenberg 2005 a (1940). Greenberg the artworks, as well as the practice of 2005 b (1960). Danto 1997, 92-93. were not valid anymore at the beginning 469 Lippard 1997 (1973). 471 Molesworth 2003 a, 28-31. Lippard 1997 (1973). 473 Danto 1964, 580-581. 467 Shiner 2001, 291. Also Lippard 1997 470 Hopkins 2000, 172-173. Kwon 2004, (1973). 13-18. 472 Molesworth 2003 a, 39-43. 474 Lippard 1997 (1973).

268 269 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10 energy problems.475 Gormley’s project allows the participants same time as the change in art. However, like new games481 and skateboarding, The third shift in art practice that I to make whatever they like, and the pro- the change in sport took more time than surfaced to the common awareness. would like to emphasize is the emerging cess of making surpasses the need for an in art. The sport system had been subject While jogging could still be counted communal and processual nature of many obvious result. to some changes since the Second World as a sport, the new physical activities contemporary art practices. Asking the Today’s communal practices can take War, but these changes have taken place emerged from play, and challenged many spectators to interact physically with the the action of involving audience even within the prevailing system of achieve- ideals of modern sport. Actions that were artwork already shares the completion further. Artists like Lea and Pekka Kan- ment sport. The main changes in sport earlier considered just children’s play and of the artwork that is initially set up tonen work together with various com- before the end of the 1960s had been the fooling around with diverse gadgets were by the artist. Bodyspacemotionthings by munities in order to enhance their lives. globalization and politicization of the transformed into more serious physical Robert Morris is an early example of this Their work with the community does not sport system. While modern sport had activities. A good and well documented approach. However, it is still the artist have to produce anything artistic, there is been a predominantly western practice example is the development of skate- who makes the proposal for the activity no performance, however the process is during the first half of the century, now boarding. The development of skate- and outlines the limits of where the activ- documented and presented in an art con- it began to spread to all the other parts of boarding practice is inseparable from the ity takes place. The limits can be strict, text. The work of art takes the form of a the world as well. This development can technological progress of the equipment: when a participating member of the audi- “constructed situation”.478 With this kind be easily seen by looking at the coun- the contemporary skateboard descends ence must follow the artist’s instructions, of working method it is hard to see the tries attending the summer Olympics. from children’s scooters that were used for or the situation can be open, when the art in the traditional sense, because there The pre-World War II Olympic Games playing outside; usually for taking short audience is allowed to play rather freely is no particular art object and the process were attended mainly by countries from rides on the sidewalks and streets. Various within the setting. does not remind one of traditional artistic Europe and North and South America, technical elements in the skateboard A good example of the first situation is processes.479 but after the war the Asian and African developed until, in the early 1970s, the Erwin Wurm’s series One Minute Sculp- In the new collaborative art practices, nations joined the Olympic Family. board was equipped with polyurethane tures, where the artist gives drawn instruc- the artist acts as a catalyst: her objective The Soviet Union joined the Olympic wheels and mechanically adequate trucks, tions about how to perform a simple is to facilitate in creating situations that countries in the 1952 Helsinki Olym- which made it possible for the practice action with everyday objects,476 and of allow processes to take place. The work pic Games. Politics had entered sports to grow into its current widespread and the latter Anthony Gormley’s project Clay is often motivated by an activist attitude, already at the 1936 Olympics in Berlin, culturally multifaceted form.482 and the Collective Body at the 2009 Ihme and the situations and processes generat- but during the second half of the cen- Another more didactic approach to Contemporary Art Festival, where he ed are socially engaged, aimed to promote tury political tension as well as various physical activity, which also grew from invited people to make something from a change in the participants’ real-life political acts became a regular part of the play, was the movement that promoted clay.477 While Wurm’s project requires circumstances. However, the destination games. the so-called new games. The idea of new the participants to follow his instructions of the processes is often vague, and the The actual beginning of the change games was to offer a counterpoise to the in order to achieve a predefined setup, situations usually remain open-ended: in sport takes place in the late 1960s competitive ideals of sport. Instead of there is no predefined objective that the and early 70s, when new practices playing and competing against each other, 475 Superflex’s website: Supergas 1996-, participants should strive for, there is emerged parallel to the dominant ideas of the participants would play together still http://superflex.net/tools/supergas, accessed 483 6.12.2013 and Supergas website, http://www. just the process and its final incomplete- achievement and regulated competition. utilizing skills used in modern sport. 480 supergas.dk/, accessed 6.12.2013. ness. Moreover, new attitudes towards tradi- Neither jogging, skateboarding, or new The outset of the recent transforma- tional competitive sports, like jogging for games broke with the existing system of 476 GalleryXavier Hufkens’s website: “Erwin Wurm,” http://www.xavierhufkens.com/artists/ tion of sport can be located roughly at the exercise instead running in competitions, sport in a similar way as happened in erwin-wurm, accessed 2.10.2013, Queensland Art expanded the idea of sport. Completely art. Instead, they extended the notion of 478 Bourriaud 2002, 85. Gallery & Gallery of Modern Art website, Blog: new physical activities that emphasized 481 Turner 2006. “Become a Sculpture,” http://blog.qag.qld.gov.au/ 479 Kantonen 1999, chapter 4. the experience over competitive attitude, become-a-sculpture/, accessed 2.10. 2013. 482 Borden 2001, 14-18. 480 Kester 1999, 19-20. Haapalainen 2006, 477 Taidesäätiö Pro Arte 2009. 163-164. 483 Turner 2006. Pearce et. al. 2007, 262.

270 271 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10 modern physical culture by doing it from of the activity is playing around, not using sport when defining the character- labeled as lifestyle sports. The approach inside sport (jogging) as well as outside it obvious exercising as in sport. The hobby- istics of the practice. On the other hand, to physical activity in alternative sports (skateboarding and new games). ist adaptations of popular modern sports in the field of contemporary sport there differs from modern sports: the import- Simultaneous with the emergence of have adopted the playful and experience is an inclination to appropriate all kinds ant aspects separating them from modern these new physical activities, competitive seeking attitude from the novel post-sport of physical activities as sports. Outside sport are the sub-cultural identity, the modern sport also began to transform. physical practices. In addition, traditional traditional sport, there is both resistance emphasis on “grass roots” participation, Over a few decades, it developed from a non-European body cultures are adopt- to this conversion to sport (sportifica- the consumption of new objects, a par- display of nations to a part of the global ed as part of current physical practices; tion), and a certain appeal to turning the ticipatory ideology where fun, hedonism, entertainment industry.484 While there the popularity of yoga today shows how practice into a “real sport”. The con- and involvement are important, and an have been professional sports since the perennial practices can be adapted as part tradictory views in defining sport or in individualistic attitude.488 introduction of modern sport, it had of mainstream physical culture, and even taking a stance in relation to sport make The difference from modern sport been shut out from central international developed further within it. A distinct the current boundary between sport and focuses on a couple of developing trends: events, most importantly the Olympic feature of the post-sport stage is practic- other physical practices unclear.487 the division between the participants and Games. Now the idea of amateurism ing a wide variety of physical activities The development towards a plurali- the spectators has become blurred, and began to break down, and sport started to as an internal part of everyday life, not a ty in sport is similar to that in the arts. the experiential dimension is emphasized. change into a professional activity.485 The separated segment like modern sport.486 Today, there are various ways to engage Being involved in a practice together transformation of sport continued until Now the physical activity that one is in physical activity. Some of the con- with other enthusiasts generates a sub- the early 1990s, when the acceptance of engaged in shows in ones preferences in temporary modes of physical activity cultural identity, especially when the professional athletes into the Olympic music, clothing, nutrition etc. Watching are clear descendants of modern sport, practice is conceived of as dangerous, or Games finally ended the period of mod- sport is still a popular pastime, but it is while others promote new perspectives at least reckless, by the general public. ern sport. Today, the Olympic Games now also an indispensable part of the on physical culture and exercise. The first The new equipment allows a new kind are a carefully protected trademark with entertainment industry. Altogether, the physical activities with objectives different of connection with the environment great global value rather than an idealistic hegemony of modern sport is beginning from the modern conception of sport and novel expressions of individuality.489 movement. to come to an end, and the landscape were established in the early 1970s, at the The dimension of fun and hedonism in Today it can be said that we have of contemporary physical cultures is as latest. During the 1980s, an attempt to alternative sports can be found in con- entered the post-sport era; even though frayed as that of contemporary art. make a radical change in physical culture densed form in a statement by Karina modern sport is still an influential Sport is no longer an attractive cate- took place by a movement promoting Hollekim, a professional BASE jumper, practice, a new layer of physical activi- gory for all physical practices. There has new games that stood for a softer, less who describes her passion to parachute ties that do not totally conform to the been a tendency to define new physical competitive attitude towards physical off ledges as a call for twenty seconds of ideas of sport has emerged. These new practices as being outside sport, or as activity. These new games brought play to joy. 490 physical practices require athletic skills, alternatives to sport, though “sport” the center of physical activity, in place of The nature of alternative sports is for but are less oriented towards regulated is often still visible in the terms used: achievement and winning as in modern the most part non-aggressive and play- competitions. For the majority of the post-sports, unofficial sports, extreme sport. The new games movement never ful. The social element of the activity is participants, they form a lifestyle that sports, alternative sports, lifestyle sports, became a great success, and faded away by important: even in the competitive forms penetrates into other cultural practices new sports, or new games all define their the end of the 1980s, but the spirit is visi- of alternative sports, meeting the other outside the physical one. An important position in a relation to sport. Including ble in many sports under the current label participants is as substantial a part of part of these practices is the play element, “sport” in the names of the practices post-sports or alternative sports. These which is apparent when the activities are illustrates certain values, because practices contemporary physical cultures have compared with the modern sport. Much like yoga, capoeira, or parkour refrain emerged in the mainstream awareness 488 Wheaton 2004, 12-13. over the past few decades, and are often 484 Kellner 2003, 69. 489 Hänninen 2004, 77. 486 Hänninen 2004, 76-77, 83. 485 Eichberg 1995 a, 5. Dickey 1999. 487 Wheaton 2004, 12-14. 490 Hoffmann 2007.

272 273 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10 the practice as the competition.491 The development of three popular practices, considered as an official sport. The third boxing, football, ice hockey, and base- relationship with the environment is also presented below, provides a great example practice, parkour, was developed in the ball) there had been professional leagues dissimilar from modern sport: the “spaces of the relationship between alternative late 1980s by David Belle and Sébas- for long time, and in some countries the of consumption” in alternative sports and modern sports. tien Foucan. The practice of parkour is top athletes have been employed by the differs from the clearly defined spaces Modern snowboarding developed related to gymnastics and French mili- state, i.e. paid for training and interna- in modern sport. While modern sport during the 1960s, emerged into main- tary training, however it shows similar tional sport success. However, the general spaces are confined by the predetermined stream knowledge in the 1980s, was experimental relationship with the envi- principle was to separate the real athletes, limits defined by the rules, the preferred adopted from the International Snow- ronment as are present in skateboarding the amateurs, from the professionals. spaces for alternative sports are usually board Federation (founded 1990) under and snowboarding; the practitioners are After that constraint was removed, sport suitable, but not specially planned, out- the auspices of the International Ski always looking for new ways to connect ceased to be pastime practice, where the door spaces.492 In addition to the distant Federation in 1994, and finally accepted with their physical environment. Unlike reward was merely honor: it turned into areas or wilderness in which alternative to the Nagano 1998 Winter Olympics.494 the other two practices, parkour has a profession with the potential for great sports are practiced, their use of public In less than decade snowboarding has always stayed clear of competitive activity. financial benefits. However, professional areas in cities redefines the use of urban transformed from an alternative activ- Utilizing specially constructed training athletes can also be sold and bought like space. For instance, a skateboarder looks ity to an internationally acknowledged areas and obstacle courses has moved the any merchandise. at the stairs, fences, and benches in a sport. Skateboarding became mainstream parkour slightly toward sport, or sporti- In parallel to the shift in the athlete’s different manner than the city planner or as a competitive practice slightly earlier, fied it, but it is still furthest from sport status from amateur to professional, sport common pedestrian. According to Bor- during the 1960s, and enjoyed growing of these three practices.496 Sometimes the itself also changed, and became a part den, all structures are seen as possibilities popularity from the 1970s. Competitive relationship to sport varies depending on of the entertainment industry. In the for a new trick, and chances to experience skateboarding has flourished all that time the context: for instance, snowboarding service of the entertainment industry, the the environment from a novel angle. The outside the official sport world, under in the Olympic Games and the World professional athlete has to entertain in practice of post-sport physical cultures various organizations.495 Even though Championship Games is definitely a order to earn money. This change favors seeks to define their space according to there were negotiations about including sport, but the same tricks performed on events that create a spectacle and draw the participant’s interests; there is no one skateboarding in the Olympic program in concrete structures in suburban Helsinki a large audience. While the amateur space that is correct, but various spaces the London 2012 Olympics, it is not yet steps outside the modern conception of had been the archetypal athlete since that can bring something new to the sport. the nineteenth century, at the turn of practice at the moment.493 494 “Snowboard Equipment and His- The development of sport towards a the millennium the greatest hero was Even though the new physical prac- tory,” Olympic.org, Official Website of the Olym- postmodern state incorporates one aspect the best-paid sportsman. In today’s elite tices provided an alternative to modern pic Movement, http://www.olympic.org/snow- that differs entirely form art. The status sports the achievement is twofold; there board-equipment-and-history?tab=history, accessed sport, they exist under the influence of of amateurism in sport changed totally is the sport achievement and the financial 22.4.2014. FIS/International Ski Federation web- sport and have adopted various features site: “Snowboard, World Cup History,” http:// in the early 1990s, when professional one – and both are valued alike. Today’s of sport. The degree of the effect var- www.fis-ski.com/snowboard/extra/worldcup-his- athletes were allowed to participate in media reports in a similar way about the ies; some practices had become totally tory.html, accessed 3.12.2013. the Olympic Games. Since the 1992 sport records and the record incomes of 497 sportified, transformed into a sport, 495 In 2013 there are four organizations rep- Olympics in Barcelona, elite sports the athletes. while others have stayed clearly outside resenting skateboarding as a sport: the Interna- have become a thoroughly professional the confines of sport, while a third group tional Skateboarding Federation (ISF), the Inter- enterprise. In some sports (for instance, have stayed in the middle ground. The national Association of Skateboard Companies (IASC), the International Federation of Roller 496 Parkour International website: ”Défi- 491 Klockars 2010. Sports (FIRS), and the International Cycling nition du Parkour,” http://www.parkourinter- Union (UCI). Xgames website, http://xgames. national.org/le-parkour/definition-du-parkour/, 492 Wheaton 2004, 12. espn.go.com/skateboarding/article/8253956/skate- accessed 22.4.2014. Parkour facilities at Tap- 493 Borden 2001, 232-233. Eichberg 1998, boarding-unlikely-become-olympic-sport, accessed ahtumapuisto, Jyväskylä, Finland, http://www. 497 Andrews 2006, 95-98. 145-146. 3.12.2013. jyvaskyla.fi/puistot/parkour, accessed 3.12.2013. Kellner 2003, 70.

274 275 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10

pursue different objectives, but they where no center can be detected. These expertise, complex equipment, and a Experiences share the use of art or art-like elements urban social formations deviate from deep knowledge of technology. Many of in promoting their ends.499 The use of traditional subcultures in their state of the projects within the maker movement and Processes art-related practices in the context of flux, where new kinds of connections, include modern technology, writing health care has particularly been seen as experimentation, and engagement in code, and building electronic devices, a fruitful combination. For instance, the activity can take place. Organized groups but projects that include baking and All of the shifts in art practice that Finnish Cultural Foundation, one of the can exist that represent a certain activity, home improvements also exist. The main occurred during recent decades are main patrons of art, has recently provided but the activity is not identified with objective of the movement is to show that linked, only the ratio of the components special grants for artistic work within the that group. Instead of solidifying into a anybody can improve their daily environ- in the instances of art varies; emphasizing health care system.500 discernible subculture, the new urban ment by getting their hands dirty. Much the processes often takes art closer to the While the use art as a means to an social formations remain as open areas for of the activity is on the internet, but tem- artist’s personal everyday, and the process- end outside the art practice is already an collaboration. This new kind of organi- porary fairs and permanent hackerspaces es that reach out for interaction are again established practice in institutionalized zation is visible in various contemporary form venues for live meetings.504 entangled with the everyday of other settings, recently practices that use similar practices, from graffiti to parkour and Koulu (School) is a peer-learning event people. The community and interactive methods have also emerged outside regu- flash-mobbing.503 or festival located in Helsinki. The idea art is constructed around the process- lar institutions. Different free-form prac- The amount of these activities has of School is that everyone has knowl- es, and the finished outcome is often tices and events, which combine com- been growing rapidly during the last edge or skills that somebody else needs, secondary to the experience of working munal working methods and a creative couple of years. Their rise is largely a con- and the purpose of Koulu is to assist in together. Collectively, these changes in art attitude, might promote a variety of ends, sequence of social media on the internet: organizing the possibility to teach and practice have lowered the border between however they all share the idea of working new and interesting practices spread at learn. It provides the venues for classes, art and the other parts of today’s culture. together in a creative manner in order to an enormous speed on Facebook and as well as publicity for the event. The two Furthermore, the line between art and benefit the everyday lives of a larger group similar websites, and improvements to festivals arranged to date have included other parts of culture is becoming more of people. These activities can have clearly existing ones are shared through the same classes dealing with diverse subjects from and more blurred: where before there was articulated artified features, though they channels. Although the major events constructing a solar cooker to the basics a border that was hard to cross, there is are not necessary a conscious part of the usually have a named organizer, there is a of flamenco to mathematics and Socratic now a broader field where experimental practice: the participants might not con- great difference between artified meth- dialogues.505 new practices arise.498 nect the activity to anything artistic, but ods used in an institutional setting and Even the Restaurant Day506 that was It is not only art practice that has for an external perceiver the creative and these free-form approaches: the free-form initiated in Helsinki, but soon spread all been active at the borderline; Pauline artistic attitude is clearly visible.501 practices are open and scalable – they can over Finland and abroad, can be includ- von Bonsdorff describes various practices One feature that connects most free- be initiated nearly anywhere and their ed in the group of new communal and in contemporary culture that use art-like form communal activities is their rhi- ideas can be adapted according to local creative practices. The idea of the Restau- strategies and draw themselves closer to zomatic structure.502 Maria Daskalaki and circumstances. rant Day is to open a pop-up restaurant art – become artified – even though they Oli Mould see that the new urban and For example, the maker movement has for one day and make and sell food to the are not (yet) crossing the border of art. unorganized activities form a rhizome, existed for some time. It gathers together For instance, various communal activities numerous DIY-activities that focus on 504 Wark 2013, 296-297. Fox 2012, 220. focus on processes similar to community 499 von Bonsdorff 2012, section 5. Nauk- developing and making all kinds of appa- karinen 2012, section 2. 505 Koulu in various websites: Demos Hel- art, while not attempting to become art ratus and other creations. Some of the sinki, http://www.demoshelsinki.fi/projektit/ 500 Finnish Cultural Foundation website: proper. These include various approaches projects are useful, while others are made koulu-2012/, Koulu 2012 website, http://2012. ”Taidetta hoitolaitoksiin,” https://www.skr.fi/fi/ to health care, social work, and art educa- for fun, and the level of the projects range kouluschool.org/in-english/, Koulu 2013 blog, taidetta-hoitolaitoksiin, accessed 4.11.2014. tion, as well as business. These approaches from everyday skills to one’s needing http://kouluschool.wordpress.com/. 501 von Bonsdorff 2012, section 5. 506 Restaurant Day website, http://www. 498 von Bonsdorff 2012, section 5. 502 Daskalaki and Mould 2013, 7-12. 503 Daskalaki and Mould 2013, 2. restaurantday.org/en/.

276 277 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10 customers, who have found the restau- from murals and graffiti to latter ones of art, which relies on art as a special physical practices, however I can see it as rant from the Restaurant Day website, or which can be executed in various mate- practice operating in the limited field. part of many practices where the aim is Facebook, or who just happen to show rials, including knitting. Although most However, I can see contemporary artistic find new kind of contact with the envi- up. While the maker movement and Koulu street art are paintings of at least two practice continuing as a part of the new ronment. Many of the new sport related concentrate on long term benefits to dimensional art, there are also sculptural system, albeit as a less marginal part of physical practices belong to this group. people’s everyday lives, Restaurant Day works, as well as works employing new the practice. The last project, the project regarding self, has a more hedonistic nature. However, media. Unlike communal practices, street While the objective of modern sport is the most obscure. It is connected to the it brings forth individual creativity that is art plays consciously with the concept is the achievement, getting better and attempt to develop oneself as a human shared in a novel manner. of art. The works of street art remind testing one’s abilities in competitions, the being, including even spiritual develop- All of these practices and events one of “real” artworks visually, but their basis of contemporary hobbyist sport and ment, through physical exercises. Klemola include both professional and ama- institutional status is different. However, physical practices seems quite different. associates it with yoga and other similar teur participants, who are involved in street art can form a bridge to art proper; Suit’s characterization of sport, a volun- physical traditions, where the philosoph- these activities because they desire to the British artist using the alias Banksy tary attempt to overcome unnecessary ical quest for self is explicit. The project do something with others, to share the became recognized for his political and obstacles, covers both modern sport and of self is also applicable to Western sports products of their creativity as well as the humorous wall paintings, and was adopt- contemporary post-sport physical activ- as an implicit potential within them. In skills needed, to basically find a commu- ed into the artworld. In spite of the new ities. However, outlining the difference order to employ the project of self in nity that shares the same interests. Some status of his works, Banksy has continued between the previous system of sport western sports, the sport practice should of these activities function in connec- working anonymously, presenting only and the current arrangement is made take an orientation towards special/par- tion with activist movements trying to his works. The person behind artworks easier by observing the physical practices ticular experiences that call for personal enhance traditional practices, or to raise tries to stay a mystery.508 through theoretical categorizations that commitment. While contemporary public awareness of some injustice. These The new cultural practices, such as concentrate on the reasons to undertake sportified yoga practice can be just done practices include, for instance, bicycle the maker movement and Restaurant Day them. Timo Klemola has developed a for health, deep dedication to ”extreme” activism and guerrilla gardening, which among others, situated in the intermedi- four-category system that gives guidance sports can provide a platform for a project promote alternative urban lifestyles.507 ate field, can be very art-like, which can on the evaluation of the ends of a physical regarding the self, although it is possible However, the connecting layer in between be seen as a threat to art proper, because practice. Klemola’s system concentrates to strive through less lethal undertak- these diverse practices is to promote new they are easier to approach as art and on the intent of an activity, which sets ings.511 ways of doing things together and alter- because the new non-art/artified practic- the essence of the activity. The possible Henning Eichberg divides the relation native approaches for good life. es put art in a new kind of competitive intents, the orientations of an activity, are of sport and body cultures into three dif- A more traditionally art-like prac- situation.509 In addition, the new non-art called projects in Klemola’s system. These ferent approaches: the hegemonic model tice is street art, the practice of making practices affect art proper by provid- projects are: winning, health, expression, is modern achievement sport, where the painting and installations in public spaces ing new models for artistic processes, and the project regarding self. Modern body movement is translated into records without the proper permissions. Street approaching contemporary audiences and competitive sport naturally belongs to and the athletes are arranged into a art can be seen as contemporary outsider thus expand the area of art even further. the project of winning, and the project of sequence according to their achievements: art, an unschooled artists’ practice for The new models open a possibility for health has been an inherent part of vari- the productive features of sport are channeling their creativity. Contemporary art to become a practice operating in a ous physical traditions, including gym- dominating. The second model is found street art can take various forms, ranging wider area than today’s contemporary nastics and modern sport. Health forms in contemporary fitness sports, where the artistic practice, creating a new shift that an important reason for everyday exercis- measurable achievement is suppressed 507 For instance: Critical Mass bicycling will change art’s substance. This kind of es, but is less important in practices like and a personal experience is the central event : Social Issues Research Centre, http://www. expansion would end the second system skateboarding.510 Klemola connects the sirc.org/articles/critical_mass.shtml, accessed 10.12.3013. Guerrilla Gardening: http://www. project of expression to dance and similar 511 Klemola 1998 A, 143-144. About proj- 508 Adams 2009. guerrillagardening.org/ or http://www.dodo.org/ ect regarding self, see for instance: Borden 2001, ryhmat/kaupunkiviljely, accessed 10.12.3013. 509 Sepänmaa 2012. 510 Borden 2001, 140, 214. 125 and Mullen 2012.

278 279 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10 aspect. The dominating feature is the felt flourish in all cultural practices. Sport distance running as an everyman’s hobby does not produce desired results, the body body. The third model is related to the does not need to be confined within the does not provoke any acclaim.514 can be improved by cosmetic surgery, festive mode of movement, present in ideas of achievement and health. There It seems that competitive sport is for instance using implants that imitate dance and play. Achievement and con- are possibilities to emphasize the creative turning into a profession and a marginal well-defined muscles.516 centration on the self are replaced by the and the expressive possibilities in sport, as hobby, while the new kind of post-sport If the novel and popular physical prac- celebration of movement. John Bale has well as the possibility of personal develop- activities or novel adaptations of tradi- tices are compared with modern sport, used a somewhat simplified version of ment through sport. Like art proper, the tional sports are more attractive for the they emphasize more the experience and Eichberg’s division in the case of run- modern idea of achievement sport will majority of people. The competitive possibility for playful experimentation, ning and running cultures. He connects not disappear, but it will change; if the approach in current hobbyist sports is dif- as well as a communal attitude, instead achievement and fitness running to the experienced achievement is underlined ferent from competing in modern sport. of discipline and achievement inside pre- accumulation of cultural, social, and instead of the measurable achievement, In distance running, for example, com- defined rules measured by the stopwatch (possibly) financial capital, while running sport would still fulfill the idea of a vol- peting is mostly testing the participant’s or yardstick. The previous examples of for fun is aproductive. However, Bale sees untary attempt to overcome unnecessary own abilities, not competing against skateboarding, snowboarding, and park- that these three approaches to running obstacles. others, and participating in competitive our conform to all these expectations, (or any other sport) are not mutually Physical exercises are more popular marathons has other experiential dimen- but they are also visible in contemporary exclusive. They can exist together, but today than ever before, and the variety of sions in addition to the results of the adaptations of traditional sports. Distance their importance and weight in an indi- the practices is also greater than in earlier competition.515 running used to be a sport that required vidual practice varies. 512 times. Current sport practice is frayed, While the struggle against one’s discipline and striving for achievement. The significance of these theoretical so that the official form of sport is only own abilities is in connection with the Today’s hobbyist practice of distance categorizations lies in the approach that a fraction of today’s sport. Eichberg has experiential mode of somaesthetics, the running has expanded by adopting brings forth the aspects of sport that are listed more than ten unofficial variations achievement in contemporary sports different approaches to sport, in a similar not emphasized in the current discussion of football. They all resemble the official and exercise has taken novel forms that manner as football has done through the about the meaning of sport. Sport is version of the game, but are not con- are linked to the representational and various unofficial types of football found usually seen as a practice that produces cordant with it.513 Many of the physical performative modes of somaesthetics: in Eichberg’s investigation. The new national honor, individual success, and activities that formed the core of sport in an important form of achievement is an approaches to running have transformed common health, but the categorizations the twentieth century have lost their pop- outlook that reflects the athletic lifestyle. a part of the practice into something by Eichberg, Klemola, and Bale show that ularity to new forms of physical activity, The demands set on the personal aesthet- comparable to post-sports. However, there are many other dimensions to sport a change that has caused much distress in ics are so central in the contemporary distance running still calls for discipline, and other physical practices. The modern the field of sport. For instance, Finland culture that various training programs and the idea of achievement is present in concept of sport narrows sport only to has been very successful in track and field have been developed for improving spe- the form of personal development; how- the physiological dimension, and reduces competitions since the early twentieth cific body parts. Moreover, if the training ever, the central reason for contemporary the possibilities for personal expression century, but now the only chance for running is the experience. Practicing and feeling to next to nothing, but in the higher ranking is in the javelin throw. The 514 Anttila 2011. distance running opens up experiences background there are alternative ways of national sport organizations worry the 515 While editing my text in the autumn that are difficult to obtain otherwise in practicing sport and physical activities. current standard of Finnish sport, but do 2014, Helsingin Sanomat newspaper reported contemporary life. Committing to a sim- The perspective of modern sport can be not value the success of sport at the hob- that physical education curriculum in Finland ple practice that does not require exact paralleled to the museum conception of byist level. The future of Finnish distance will make a turn away from the ideals of modern timetables, special spaces, or complicated art, which Dewey criticized as confining running is worrying, as there are no new sport. Instead of concentrating on sports only the technology provides a contrast to the time pupils will be introduced alternative physical prac- art in museums instead of allowing it to Paavo Nurmis or Lasse Viréns in sight, sitting indoors and pushing buttons that tices in order to transform physical education from while simultaneously the enthusiasm for sport oriented practice to one that emphasizes the 512 Eichberg 1995 a, 10-12. Eichberg 2009, delight of physical activity and encourages to an 516 Kinnunen 2008, 141-143, 212-213, 89. Bale 2004, 9-10. 513 Eichberg 2010, 58-59. active life-style. Kylmänen 2014 a and 2014 b. 216, 205.

280 281 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10 comprises much of our daily life. The tiny social media, discussion forums, Face- audience.521 Cross country skiing has utilized for snowboarding stunts.524 It is difference between competitive sport and book, and various social applications519. been developed into a sprint event, where not only the use of environmental pos- contemporary sport practice shows the Modern sport restricted the envi- all the action is instant and visible to the sibilities that evolves; the actual physical effect of the inclination towards experi- ronment of sport to artificial, specially audience, unlike in traditional cross coun- activity also develops. The early tricks ence; while elite athletes seldom continue constructed spaces, where the dimensions try skiing where the participants spend wear out and the new ones become more their sport after their competition career of the track or field were carefully defined most of their time en route through the fashionable. Rodney Mullen speaks about is over, hobbyist runners continue in spite in order to provide equal opportunity to forest and the results are timed, instead the contextual creativity in skateboarding, of their declining results.517 win. The post-sports have a more relaxed of a struggle at the finish line. Safety has referring to the connection between new The experimentation inside run- relationship with the environment, which been advanced, for instance, in boxing, environments and novel ways to use your ning practice becomes visible in various is visible in the curiosity to try new kinds where head guards became mandatory in skateboard. The personal contextual cre- ways, however the playfulness of the of surroundings for the practice. One part the 1980s. In addition to the refinement ativity remodels the practice, and makes experimentation is more or less implic- of the post-sports also has an additional of old sports, new competitive sport it possible to mold the practice according it; experimentation can become visible element in its relation to the environ- events are developed purposefully, often to one’s identity. This is seen as a normal in extending the running distances ment. The athletes involved in practices with commercial success and spectacle in part of practices like skateboarding. In from jogging around the neighborhood that require large open spaces or moun- mind: downhill skating, hosted today by traditional sports, the situation is the to doing marathons and beyond, and tains, generally a wilderness, often cite the the energy drink brand Red Bull, is one opposite; introducing new moves is much alternative experiments can take the form experience of the nature as an important of these novelties that tries to exceed the more difficult. For instance, events like of combining traveling and running, for part of their practice. The descriptions of magnitude of previous sport spectacles.522 gymnastics and figure skating restrict the instance running marathons in various their encounters with the wilderness often While there are fixed actions in the creativity of the participants. In addition, travel destinations,518 or focus on refining refer to an experience of the sublime, sim- post-sports, for instance the standard the creativity in new physical practices ones running style, for instance the search ilar to the landscape tourists during the moves in skateboarding (ollie, various has a special feature which is also found for a natural running style through bare- eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. 520 grips and slides), and standard spaces for in the art-like creative practices with foot running. The play element is hidden Today, the development of physi- the activity in both skateboarding and rhizomatic structure. The new creations, in the attitude of the experiments; they cal practices takes place in the field of snowboarding (half and quarter pipes, the new ways to do things, are shared are not done only for efficiency’s sake, but post-sports. The development of the core rails and various elements in skate and with the community, and the quality of to increase the enjoyment of running, or areas of modern sport is saturated. The board parks), these do not confine further contribution earns one respect from the just for variety. The communal side of changes in traditional sport are a minus- exploration of the practice. The core of others involved in the practice.525 contemporary running demonstrates this cule reformulating of the rules in order streetstyle skateboarding is the search Both art and sport have been used for more clearly; when the other runners are to attract audiences, or to make the event for new ways of contacting the environ- creating cultural distinctions, however the no longer regarded as competitors, they more suitable for television, or to improve ment – producing the world by physical mechanism of making the difference has become companions. Running a mara- the participant’s safety. Examples can be activity523 as Iain Borden describes it. changed. The interest in art that formed a thon is a communal experience, the only found on many occasions: in the Europe- Snowboarders explore new environ- novel way of making social distinctions in real competitor is oneself, and the other an Cup of track and field an elimination ments too, and during recent years urban nineteenth century culture focused on the runners are partners who share the expe- rule was added to the steeplechase race snowboarding has become a trend. Even consumption of cultural products. The rience of this particular marathon. Even in order to make the competition more though there are no large rideable hills consumption of sport also concentrated though running is a solitary activity while exiting and thus more attractive for the in urban areas, there are plenty of walls, on spectatorship for most of the twen- training, the experience can be shared in bridges, stairs, and handrails that can be tieth century. In contemporary culture, running events, and additionally through 519 In 2013, for instance Sports Tracker, being a member of the audience does not 521 European Athletics 2009. Endomondo, and HeiaHeia are popular sports 517 Murakami 2008, 173-174. Roos 1995, tracking applications. 522 See: Red Bull Crashed Ice. 524 For instance: Radshot (blog) , chapter 19. http://www.redbullcrashedice.com http://www.radshot.com. 520 Bale 2004, 40. Borden 2001, 191. 518 Roos 1995, chapter 6. Klockars 2010. Hoffmann 2007. 523 Borden 2001, 9. 525 Mullen 2012.

282 283 The Contemporary Cultures in Art and Sport • 10 suffice for social distinction: it emphasizes proper or real sport. Finding the correct activities that are art from one perspec- participation as the expressive order. This definition is however not necessary; the tive and just art-like from another. The active engagement into processes that conception will change according to the people involved in the practices often do produce aesthetic experiences connects context and one’s personal point of view. not think about the difference between today’s artistic and physical practices with Furthermore, the field of new activities is art and non-art. Similarly, today’s sport the production of cultural distinction. neither stable nor coherent; there are gaps includes a broader range of physical The current practices within both art between practices, leaks from one practice practices, and especially attitudes towards and sport show a greater similarity than to another, as well as various ambiguities these activities, than the modern sport before, especially in their border areas. concerning the positions of the practic- of the twentieth century. Some practices There seems to be a couple of reasons es. A similar activity can be placed on stay clearly outside sport ideology and for this: the current postmodern stage of either side of a boundary, and be seen organization, and some would like to culture endorses the novel combinations as strengthening the prevalent practice be acknowledged as sports, while others of cultural practices. The logic is that (of art or sport) or as disrupting it as an do not really care. In both art and sport, these combinations benefit the operation alien influence. Thirdly, the views about there is so much activity on the fringes of the practices. For instance, in the case art and sport as cultural practices have that their edges are fraying. The art and of artification, art is seen to bring a new suffered from the narcistic perception of sport of tomorrow will be different from kind of creativity into business opera- their history; their development and cul- today’s ideas, but they will carry traces of tions, and including artistic activity in a tural position have been treated without yesterday’s conceptions. business environment provides new work a real consideration of the assimilation opportunities for artists as well as a novel between various practices, and without a platform to develop art projects.526 In wider view of the development of Euro- sport, there is no similar active tendency pean culture, not to mention global cir- to use sport to benefit other practices, but cumstances. This narrow view has enabled the manner in which sport has become the perception of both art and sport as an integral part of contemporary life- eternal practices, as old as human culture, style brings it in contact with all kinds even though their modern forms emerged of cultural practices. Secondly, the praxis in concert with modern society, and their of combining, linking together diverse current forms are postmodern develop- cultural practices, has lowered the bound- ments of the early modern ones and still aries between them and generated a new in flux. Understanding the wider context field of art-like and sport-like activities in of the emergence and development of art the margins of the established (modern) and sport exposes their resemblance in practices. Many of these new activities historical perspective. are organized as a rhizome as they do not The expanding notion of art and have clear centers or appointed represen- sport does not propose that the modern tatives. The boundaries between practices understanding of these practices is totally have become so porous that is often diffi- outdated, but that it is not extensive cult to determine which activities are art enough to encompass the current situation. Today’s idea of art incorporates a 526 Naukkarinen 2012. Pilvi Takala artwork The Trainee (2008) for financial concultation com- wider variety of practices than the mod- pany Deloitte. http://www.pilvitakala.com/thet- ern one, and in addition there are various rainee01.html, accessed 14.12.2013.

284 285 The Final Stretch The Final Stretch

The observation of art and sport as systems and categories has made it possible to see their novelty in modern culture, even though there have been individual practices that are reminiscent of artistic practices or sport events and games. In addition, the concentration on the structural level of art and sport reveals how the practices have been transforming within their modern systems during the twentieth century. The change has taken place to such a degree that it is possible to claim that both art and sport have moved forward from the starting point of their modern systems. When aesthetics is understood as sensuous knowing, the aesthetic experience forms the basis of our contact with the world. When art is understood according to John Dewey’s aesthetics, it is not confined to operate within certain practices, but connected with the greatest aesthetic experiences. These two points of view make it plausible to connect art and sport through aesthetic experience. Even though there is no reason to directly link art and sport, emphasizing artistic features in sport will provide new perspectives on sport. Artification builds one more bridge between art and sport. The use of artistic features in sport can be coincidental, taking place through a general cultural change, or it can be advanced purposefully. In either case, artification promotes new ways of enjoying sport. Sport can be made meaningful through a creative attitude and personal adaptations of sport, not only through the ideals of achievement and the quest for records. Sport has appeared as a subject of art since the beginnings of the practice. Today, sport is employed by art in various ways. In addition to simply presenting sport in images, or commenting on sport-related issues, contemporary art utilizes sport to refer to other subjects, in the role of a go-between as well as a personal artistic tool. However, using sport in art is still a minor trend. Various intertwined features of today’s art and sport separate contemporary practices from the previous, modern conception of them. The importance of the art object has declined; instead, the artistic processes and produced experiences have drawn nearer to the center. The central concepts of modern sport, achievement and records, have been remodeled: in today’s recreational sport

286 287 The Final Stretch

ones rival is no longer another participant, but oneself. Today’s took in making them. The artworks could reveal some aspects of recreational athlete competes – if she feels the need – against her sport (or art) I have not realized before, but when the process of own results, not the other participants. Both art and sport have making the artworks is finished their importance to me, as well as moved towards everyday experiences. In the field of art, this is to the research, is exhausted. The role of art seems to be somewhat visible in both the artworks and the artistic processes: artworks do paradoxical: the artistic work was carried out for my sake and for not necessarily differ from everyday objects, and artistic work can the sake of advancing the research, whereas the artworks them- assume forms that benefit other fields of life outside the artworld. selves were for the audience. In both cases, the institutional settings still separate art from other The most significant part of the artistic process has been the practices. thinking, planning and execution of the artworks. This process The shift towards the everyday in sport has a different form: provided me with a different perspective on the subject of my the expansion of sport has taken place in recreational sports, where research. I was not confined by the boundaries of academic think- the physical activity is in close contact with people’s everyday life. ing, which sometimes set limits on fresh associations and ideas. If The spectacle in competitive sport has become larger and more the academic work resembled a steady climb towards the summit, detached from the everyday; however, it represents just a fraction the artistic work was the daring leap of a freeclimber in the direc- of contemporary physical activities. The new sport-related physical tion of the next grip or footing. The preceding theoretical work activities, alternative or post-sports, do not necessarily consider provided the first footing, and gave some direction to the work, sport to be an attractive paradigm, and voluntarily stand apart but when the artistic process was started it became quite indepen- from its objectives and values. Another aspect separating today’s dent. Regardless of the independence of the artistic work, however, art and sport from their modern precursors is the growing signifi- it cannot take a random direction, as the goals of the artistic and cance of participation. However, the mechanisms of participation the academic work are the same. diverge. In art, the participation is conducted, at least in some While art and sport have been related through their connection degree, by the artists; sometimes it is carefully instructed, some- in the emergence of modern European culture, currently there times the instructions open a sphere of activity for the participants are even more reasons to see them as parallel practices. Today, to play in. Participation in sport is related to the grass-roots level the autonomy of cultural spheres, including art and sport, has of recreational sport, where all the people involved are partici- weakened. Instead of being self-contained practices, they continue pants, and in alternative sports, where the borderline between the their existence in flux. The understanding about art and sport is “real athletes” and the others is significantly lower than in modern based on a constantly moving point of view. It is impossible to sports. obtain a complete understanding of them; in all perspectives there While this change is visible in the actual practices, it is more are always gaps, leaks, and ambiguities. The new and ambiguous apparent on the fringes of the practices: in creative art-like practic- construction of these practices, and their frayed borderlines, makes es and alternative approaches to physical activity. These activities possible a new area of activity where art-like and sport-related borrow features from the primary practices, but adapt them, and activities can flourish. This is the sphere where the fresh connec- accommodate them to their own ends that deviate from the ideals tions between art and sport, as well as other cultural practices, of the contemporary practices of art and sport. Often the event of can arise. doing things together, the experience of communal activity, over- powers the other goals of the practice. The three art projects included in the research enabled the gen- eration of alternative views on sport, and formulating nonverbal questions and claims about both sport and art. Already in the early phase of the research, I found that it was not the finished artworks that were really relevant to this objective, but rather the routes I

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304 305 The similarities in the social structure of art and sport practices Abstract are examined. Both practices have a special place within modern culture: they have formed their own systems, semi-independent worlds, inside the modern culture. These worlds have established This research maps the relationships between art and sport their own internal rules that are not perfectly accordant with the through various perspectives using a multidisciplinary approach. rules of ordinary life. Furthermore, the division into the protago- In addition, three artistic projects have been included in the nists, artists and athletes, and the audience who follows the action research. The research produces a reasoned proposition why art as well as the rituals that emphasize the roles connects art and and sport should be seen similar practices in contemporary culture sport practices. and why this perspective is beneficial. The aesthetic link between art and sport is established two In everyday view art and sport seem opposite cultural practices, ways. Firstly, they are connected by the concept of aesthetic expe- but by adopting an appropriate view similarities can be detected. rience and secondly, the contemporary understanding of aesthetics In order to eliminate these superficial differences the research as the sensuous knowing instead of the philosophy of art of makes examines art and sport as cultural practices. The cultural practices possible to apply aesthetic consideration all kinds of phenomena. of art and sport are analyzed from various points of view including The key ideas about the aesthetics and its relevance in sport are cultural history, social structure and philosophical aesthetics. The outlined and the recent arguments about the relationship of sport special focus is on artist’s and athlete’s viewpoints to the practices. and art within the field of aesthetics are analyzed. In addition, The artistic projects provide an additional perspective to the rela- prospects of artification in sport are explored. tionship of art and sport. The art projects that form a part of the research continue the When cultural practices are examined from today’s point of established tradition of artistic research by exploring and com- view, our current understanding of them has an effect on our view menting on the subject of the study using artistic methods. In my of their historical forms and they appear existing in a similar form study, the works of art had lesser importance for the study, whereas and carrying similar concepts through history. However, a closer the artistic work preceding the public exhibitions provided possi- look exposes that most cultural practices, including art and sport bilities to ruminate the relationship between art and sport without as we understand them, have not existed as distinct realms before the burden of academic rigor as the artistic work has different the emergence of modern European culture. criteria for quality. In addition to the artistic work, I employed my Employing the idea of the historical formation of cultural prac- hobbyist distance running practice for providing understanding tices, the development of art and sport towards their current forms about athletic experiences. is traced. Historical practices, where the end-results have resembled After the exploration of links between art and sport, their artworks or athletic performances, have existed, but that at the current relationship is analyzed. Various intertwined features of level of practices they have been noticeably different form modern today’s art and sport separate the understanding of the contem- concepts of art and sport. Also the meanings these practices carried porary practices from the previous, modern conception of them. were different from modern art and sport. The practices of art The importance of the art object has declined; instead the artistic and sport organized into their modern forms between the early processes and produced experiences have drawn nearer the center. eighteenth century and the end of the nineteenth century. The The central concepts of the competitive sport, achievement and central concepts of art and sport: artist and athlete, work of art and record, have been remodeled: in today’s recreational sport the rival regulated and fair competition, the key concepts of aesthetics as is no more another participant, but oneself. Today’s recreational well as comparable records found their current meanings over that athlete competes – if she feels for it – against her own results, not time. Our contemporary understanding of art and sport is based the other participants. on this development, even though further change has taken place, Furthermore, both art and sport have moved towards everyday especially during the latter half of the twentieth century. experiences. In the field of art, this is visible in both the artworks and the artistic processes: artworks do not necessarily differ from

306 307 everyday objects and the artistic work can take forms that benefit other fields of life outside the artworld. The shift towards everyday in sport has a different form: the recent expansion of sport has taken place in the recreational sport in close contact with people’s everyday life. Additional aspect separating today’s art and sport from their modern precursors is the growing significance of participation. However, the mechanisms of participation diverge. In art, the participation is conducted, at least in some degree, by the artists; sometimes it is carefully instructed, and sometimes the instructions open a sphere of activity for participants to play. The participation in sport is related to the grass-root level of recreational sport where all the people involved are participants and in alternative sports where the borderline between the “real athletes” and the others is significantly lower than in modern competitive sports. While these changes are somewhat visible in the actual practices of art and sport, they are more apparent in the fringes of the practices: on the creative art-like practices and alternative approaches to the physical activity. These activities borrow features from the primary practices, but adapt them, accommodate them for their own ends that deviate from the ideals present in the contemporary practices of art and sport. The recent transformation of both practices has lead into a situation where there are wider ties between art and sport than before. Even though similarities between art and sport have existed since the emergence of their modern forms, the recent development of art and sport has generated a situation where there are more com- pelling reasons to see their connections and promote adopting new perspectives to them. The current cultural atmosphere promotes the cross-fertilization of cultural practices as well as utilization of the new perspectives for benefit the further development of practices into novel areas. The ambiguous construction of today’s practices as well as their frayed borderlines creates a new area of activity where art-like and sport-related activities can flourish. This is the sphere where the fresh connections between art and sport, as well as other cultural practices, can arise.

308 309 taidekritiikin avainkäsitteet muotoutuivat ja vakiintuivat 1700- Abstrakti luvun alusta 1800-luvun puoleenväliin kestäneen jakson aikana. Samaan aikaan sijoittuu myös urheilun keskeisten käytäntöjen synty: vakiintuneet säännöt, tarkasti määritellyt kilpailut, käsi- Tutkimus kartoittaa taiteen ja urheilun yhteyksiä useista näkökul- tykset reilusta kilpailusta ja ennätyksistä sekä urheiluareenat ja mista käyttäen monitieteistä lähestymistapaa. Perinteisen tutki- urheilun tukijärjestelmät saivat muotonsa 1800-luvun loppuun musosuuden lisäksi siihen liittyy kolme taideprojektia. Tutkimuk- mennessä. Meidän käsityksemme taiteesta ja urheilusta perustuu sen tuloksena esitetään perusteltu näkemys taiteen ja urheilun tähän kehitykseen, vaikka molemmat käytännöt ovat muuttuneet samankaltaisesta roolista nykykulttuurissa sekä syitä tämän noista ajoista, erityisesti 1900-luvun loppupuolella. näkemyksen etuihin. Historiallisten yhtymäkohtien lisäksi taiteen ja urheilun sosiaa- Arkisessa katsannossa taide ja kulttuuri näyttävät toisilleen linen rakenne on samankaltainen: molemmat järjestelmät muo- vastakkaisilta kulttuurisilta käytännöiltä, mutta valitsemalla sopiva dostavat oman, osittain itsenäisen, maailmansa muun kulttuurin näkökulma voidaan taiteen ja urheilun yhtenäisyyksiä tarkastella. sisällä. Taiteen ja urheilun maailmoissa on kehittynyt oma sisäinen Pinnallisten erilaisuuksien eliminoimiseksi taidetta ja urheilua säännöstö, joka ei ole yhteneväinen arkielämää ohjaavien sääntöjen tarkastellaan tutkimuksessa kulttuuristen käytäntöjen tasolla. Tai- kanssa. Tämän lisäksi käytäntöjä yhdistää samanlainen roolijako: teen ja urheilun käytäntöjä tarkastellaan monesta suunnasta mm. toiminnan keskiössä ovat taiteilijat ja urheilijat, joiden teoksia ja kulttuurihistorian, sosiaalisen rakenteen ja estetiikan tarjoamien esityksiä yleisö seuraa. Taiteen ja urheilun sisäiset käytännöt ja näkökulmien kautta. Erityisen tarkastelun kohteena on taitei rituaalit vahvistavat tätä jakoa. lijan ja urheilijan subjektiivinen näkökulma taiteen ja urheilun Esteettinen linkki taiteen ja urheilun välille löytyy kahdesta käytäntöihin. Taideprojektit tarjoavat vielä uudenlaisen näkökul- suunnasta. Ensinnäkin olen yhdistänyt ne esteettisen kokemuk- man taiteen ja urheilun suhteeseen. sen käsitettä käyttäen ja toiseksi nykyinen käsitys estetiikasta Kun kulttuurisia käytäntöjä tai järjestelmiä tarkastellaan tämän yleensä aistimelliseen havaitsemiseen liittyvänä tutkimustraditiona päivän näkökulmasta nykyinen käsityksemme niistä vaikuttaa puhtaan taidefilosofian sijasta mahdollistaa esteettisen ajattelun käsitykseemme niiden historiallisesta olemuksesta, jolloin käytän- kohdistamisen kaikenlaisille elämänalueille. Lisäksi tarkastelen nöt näyttävät esiintyvän samankaltaisina ja kantavan samankaltai- urheilun estetiikan keskeisiä kysymyksiä, kuten myös viimeaikaisia sia merkityksiä kautta historian. Tarkempi selvitys osoittaa, että ajatuksia yhteyksistä taiteen ja urheilun välillä. nykyiset kulttuuriset käytännöt, meidän käsityksemme mukaiset Tutkimukseen liittyvät taideprojektit liittyvät jo vakiintunee- taide ja urheilu mukaan lukien, ovat löytäneet muotonsa vasta seen taiteellisen tutkimuksen traditioon, tarkastelemalla ja kom- modernin eurooppalaisen kulttuurin kehityksen myötä. mentoimalla tutkimuksen aihetta taiteen keinoin. Varsinaisten Tutkimuksen perusta luodaan soveltamalla kulttuurisen käytän- taideteosten merkitys tutkimukselle on pieni, taideprojektien nön käsitettä taiteen ja urheilun historialliseen kehitykseen kohti merkitys tutkimukselle on tullut projektien julkista esittämistä niiden nykyaikaista olomuotoa. Historiallinen analyysi näyttää, edeltävästä taiteellisesta työstä ja sen tarjoamasta mahdollisuudesta että on ollut varhaisia käytäntöjä, joiden tulokset ovat muistut- pohtia taiteen ja urheilun yhteyksiä ilman akateemiselle tutkimuk- taneet taideteoksia tai urheilusuorituksia, mutta jotka käytäntöjen selle ominaista kurinalaisuutta seuraten taiteellisen työn toisen- ja järjestelmien tasolla ovat poikenneet huomattavasti meidän laisia laatuvaatimuksia. Taiteellisen työn lisäksi olen käyttänyt taide- ja urheilukäsityksistämme. Myös käytäntöihin liitetyt mer kestävyysjuoksuharrastustani apuna urheilukokemusten luonteen kitykset ovat poikenneet nykyisistä taiteeseen ja urheiluun liite jäsentämiseen. tyistä merkityksistä. Taiteen ja urheilun nykyiset käytännöt saivat Taidetta ja urheilua yhdistävien linkkien analyysin jälkeen, muotonsa modernin eurooppalaisen kulttuurin hahmottuessa. niiden nykyistä suhdetta tarkastellaan. Useat toisiinsa kietoutuneet Taide ja sen keskeiset käsitteet: idea erillisestä taideteoksesta sekä muutokset erottavat nykyisen näkemyksen taiteesta ja urheilusta erityisestä, käsityöläisestä poikkeavasta, taiteilijasta, estetiikan ja aikaisemmasta leimallisen modernista käsityksestä. Tämän päivän

310 311 taiteessa fyysinen taideteos ei ole samalla tavalla merkityksel kehityksestä, viimeaikainen kehitys on johtanut tilanteeseen, linen kuin muutama vuosikymmen sitten. Taiteen painopiste on jossa syyt luoda uusia yhteyksiä taiteen ja urheilun välille ovat siirtynyt esineiden tuottamisesta taiteellisiin prosesseihin ja niiden painavammat kuin aikaisemmin. Nykykulttuuri suosii toisistaan tuottamiin kokemuksiin. Myös urheilu on muuttunut: aiemmin poikkeavien kulttuuristen käytäntöjen sekoittamista ja kannustaa kilpailukeskeisen urheilun keskeiset käsitteet, mitattavat saavutuk- hyödyntämään uusien yhdistelmien avaamia näkökulmia alku- set ja kirjattavat ennätykset, ovat saaneet uuden muodon. Nykyi peräisten käytäntöjen kehittämiseen. Aikaisemmin selkeärajaiset nen valtavirran harrastajaurheilija on kiinnostunut enemmän taiteen ja urheilun käytännöt ovat nyt jatkuvassa liikkeessä. Kult- kilpailusta itsensä kanssa, omien ennätystensä rikkomisesta kuin tuuristen käytäntöjen uusi ja monitulkintainen tilanne epäselviksi kanssaurheilijan voittamisesta. muuttuneine rajoineen luo uuden aktiivisen kentän, missä taiteen Lisäksi, sekä taide että urheilu ovat siirtyneet lähemmäksi arjen kaltaiset ja urheilusta johdetut uudet aktiviteetit voivat kehittyä. kokemuksia. Taiteessa tämä on näkyvissä sekä taideteoksissa että taiteellisissa prosesseissa: taideteokset eivät välttämättä poikkea arkiesineistä ja taiteellinen työ on etsinyt muotoja, joissa toiminta tapahtuu taiteen ulkopuolisessa maailmassa. Urheilun siirtymä kohti arkea on tapahtunut hieman erilaisessa muodossa: urheilun kentän laajeneminen on tapahtunut kilpaurheilun ulkopuolisella vapaa-ajan liikunnan alueella, jolloin urheilun painopiste on siirtynyt kilpakentiltä lähemmäs arkielämää. Myös osallistumisen painottaminen erottaa tämän päivän taiteen ja urheilun niiden alkuperäisistä käytännöistä. Tässäkin taiteen ja urheilun muutokset poikkeavat hieman toisistaan. Taiteessa yleisön osallistuminen on useimmiten riippuvaista taiteen ammat- tilaisen valinnoista. Toisinaan yleisön osallistumien teokseen on hyvinkin ohjattua ja toisinaan teos muodostaa kokeilulle avoimen pelikentän. Urheilussa osallistuminen tapahtuu pääosin ruohon- juuritason harrasteurheilun kautta, jolloin kukaan osallistujista ei ole ammattilainen. Lisäksi monissa uusissa nuorisokulttuurin liepeillä syntyneissä urheilulajeissa raja “oikeiden urheilijoiden” ja harrastajien välillä on huomattavasti vähäisempi kuin perinteisessä kilpaurheilussa. Muutos urheilun ja taiteen käytännöissä on jossain määrin näkyvissä vakiintuneiden käytäntöjen sisällä, mutta suurimmat muutokset tapahtuvat käytäntöjen raja-alueilla: taidetta lähes- tyvissä luovissa käytännöissä ja vaihtoehtoisissa ruumiillisissa aktiviteeteissa. Nämä raja-alueiden käytännöt lainaavat piirteitä vakiintuneilta taiteen ja urheilun käytännöiltä ja muokkaavat niitä omien päämääriensä käyttöön. Viimeaikainen kehitys taiteen ja urheilun käytännöissä on johtanut tilanteeseen, jossa yhteydet ja kohtaamisen mahdollisuu- det taiteen ja urheilun välillä ovat suuremmat kuin aikaisemmin. Vaikka yhteyksiä voidaan löytää taiteen ja urheilun historiallisesta

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