WAR VETERANS IN ZIMBABWE ’S LAND OCCUPATIONS : COMPLEXITIES OF A LIBERATION MOVEMENT IN AN AFRICAN POST -COLONIAL SETTLER SOCIETY Wilbert Zvakanyorwa Sadomba Promotor: Prof. dr. P. Richards Hoogleraar Technologie en Agrarische Ontwikkeling Wageningen Universiteit Co-Promotoren: Prof. dr. S. Moyo Director African Institute of Agrarian Studies Dr. ir. K. Jansen Universitair docent, leerstoelgroep Technologie en Agrarische Ontwikkeling Wageningen Universiteit Leescommissie: Prof. dr. ir. D.J.M. Hilhorst Wageningen Universiteit Prof dr. ir. C. Leeuwis Wageningen Universiteit Prof. dr. I. Scoones Institute of Development Studies University of Sussex, United Kingdom Dr. ir. P. de Vries Wageningen Universiteit Dit onderzoek is uitgevoerd binnen de onderzoekschool: CERES –Research School for Resource Studies for Development WAR VETERANS IN ZIMBABWE ’S LAND OCCUPATIONS : COMPLEXITIES OF A LIBERATION MOVEMENT IN AN AFRICAN POST -COLONIAL SETTLER SOCIETY Wilbert Zvakanyorwa Sadomba Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor op gezag van de rector magnificus van Wageningen Universiteit, Prof. Dr. M.J. Kropff, In het openbaar te verdedigen op dinsdag 17 juni 2008 des namiddags te half 2 in de Aula Sadomba, Wilbert Zvakanyorwa (2008) War Veterans in Zimbabwe’s Land Occupations: Complexities of a liberation movement in an African post-colonial settler society Keywords: Post-colonial settlerism, liberation, land, war veterans, politics, agrarian change ISBN: 978-90-8504-917-3 Dedication To my two daughters Tamirirana and Agnes Tapurai: That as mothers remember, will you, The spirit of struggle passed over, ever; That your fecund powers of shall beget, Resistance of Africa’s marginal poor, Yearning still, seeking but in vain, The content of their liberation, Shuttered, destroyed by; top heavy-weights the filthy, rich, few. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS In Manyika customs, as in many other African groups of the region, thanks- giving is a double edged spiritual ritual directed through the ancestors of the thanked person, signifying that the mortal being is encouraged, in the godly act of generosity, by her own ancestors to please ancestors of the thanks-giver. Both spirits are invoked and ultimately praises go to Musikavanhu (the Creator of humans). It is in this spirit that I make these acknowledgements, knowing that: words will fail me and for limited space and time I will inevitably omit some who participated in this work. I therefore begin by collectively and humbly thanking Musikavanhu through my own ancestors to the ancestors of all those (the living and the dead) who contributed in various ways for the successful outcome of this work that this thesis only symbolises. I thank the Manyika people, my extended family, and particularly my mother who nurtured me into a freedom fighter that I became; the ancestors of those I fought with in the liberation struggle, the living and the dead comrades-in- arms, vabereki, vakoma ne hanzvadzi . I thank the communities of Chimanimani where I first fought the war and the people of former Chaminuka and Takawira sectors who looked after me as I traversed the two provinces of Mashonaland Central and East. This story (and others yet to be written), is about your own struggles inspired by Musikavanhu through your ancestors, and I am only here attempting to be a mouth piece. I say to you: Kutenda kwakitsi kuri mumwoyo 1. For me to pursue a successful academic career (for 28 years) after the armed struggle, without assistance from the government, it would have been a futile exercise if I had not been supported by different institutions, individuals and the extended family in this venture. In the sojourn I came across people like Sir Geoffrey Bindman, Willem van Harderwijk, Dr. Daniel Mausezahl, Professors: late Timothy Nyapadi, Allen Isaacman and Terence Ranger. These people were just there at the most opportune moment during my long struggle for education, giving me material and moral support. Outstanding was Professor Niels Roling who spotted my academic potential through my publications and writings and he facilitated me to undertake a MSc without a BSc degree at Wageningen University, which was almost taboo. I thank African Institute of Agrarian Studies for housing me as a research fellow for this PhD research. The Institute always stood by my side to make sure that I remained fincancially viable to complete this work. All the staff of the Institute continued pushing me and helping me in everything to make sure I finish the project. The staff of TAD was wonderful whenever I was in the Netherlands. I felt as part of the family. I also wish to extend particular gratitude to the excellent contribution and commitment of Femke van der Lee who copy-edited this work. I say to you all: kuwanda huuya kwakandowengwa ngewaroyi 2. Wageningen University awarded me a sandwich programme 1 Manyika proverb: ‘The gratitude of a cat is hidden deep in the secret silence of its heart’. 2 Manyika proverb: ‘Being many, is cherishable, otherwise only witches hate numbers’. i scholarship (2001) and CERES Graduate School awarded me a scholarship (2002) when funds had to be augmented. I heartily thank the dedicated staff of the National Archives of Zimbabwe whom I regard to be symbolic in the work ethics of our nation. I say to them, do not tire. There are specific War Veterans, peasants and farm workers who were directly responsible for the outcome of this PhD research whom I would not mention by names for obvious reasons but who will notice their voices in this thesis, although I accept full responsibility of the work. These people accepted to be interviewed despite the risks, giving me valuable and secret documents, allowing me to attend serious meetings, ceremonies and rituals. Their muffled voices inspired my soul. I humbly thank you all and say, ‘Aluta continua’!3 This work could hardly have reached its level of quality without the personal commitment and incisive comments of Professors: Sam Moyo, Paul Richards, Michael Bourdillon (at the beginning of this work) and Dr Kees Jansen who supervised me. As an organic intellectual in the liberation war and the land occupation movement of Zimbabwe, it was obviously normal to have my own biases but the critical supervision, and able navigation of the supervisory team is evident in this final thesis as a piece of scientific work. I particularly appreciate their patience and note that the maturity of the work is proportionate to the time and energy they invested. Lastly but not least, I finished the study under very difficult problems. I thank sincerely thank, my sister and midwife, Grace Hatiziwani Makanga. 3 Portuguese slogan: ‘The struggle continues!’. ii ABSTRACT In 2000, Zimbabwe’s century old land movement took a swift turn, rupturing into nationwide occupation of mainly White owned commercial farms. The speed with which occupations spread, their organisation, the political and economic context, the historical origins and interaction of the forces, shaped an unprecedented and complex land movement impacting on the region, the continent and beyond. Zimbabwe’s land occupations were unique in two ways. First, the leading role of War Veterans of the 1970s anti-colonial guerrilla war in the land occupations was exceptional. Second, the simultaneous challenge to racial, settler economic dominance and neo-colonialism by marginalised peasants, farm workers, war veterans, urban youth and the unemployed, was a new experience in post-colonial history of Africa’s liberation movements. Zimbabwe’s land occupations were a long continuum of land struggles to resolve the colonial legacy of racial resource distribution but as they occurred, the role played by the state, the contested terrain of the civil society, formidable political opposition and imperialist interventions of western powers clouded the identity of the land movement thereby making it difficult to distinguish the moving current and the identity of forces from the wider political conflicts swirling around it. Who exactly initiated the occupations and for what reasons? This thesis attempts to unpack these intricately locked forces in a bid to understand their origins, interests, strategies, tactics and above all, the alliances between and amongst them, for clearer understanding of the core of the movement. This thesis traces the history of Zimbabwe’s liberation movement as foundation to understanding political reconfigurations that shaped post independence social movements and assesses agrarian technology responses to such a dramatic social change of Africa’s post-colonial settler society. The thesis provokes prognostic thoughts about the role played by social capital of liberation struggles in future economic and cultural emancipation from shackles of neo-colonialism and racial, settler capitalism. iii CONTENTS Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ i Abstract .................................................................................................................................iii Contents ................................................................................................................................iv Acronyms and Abbreviations .......................................................................................vi Chapter 1 ................................................................................................................................ 1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................