A Re-Investigation of the Spearfishing Sub-Sector of Jamaica
A RE-INVESTIGATION OF THE SPEARFISHING SUB-SECTOR OF JAMAICA
Department of Life Sciences
The University of the West Indies
By
Zahra Ennis
Supervisor
Dr. Karl Aiken
2011
i
ABSTRACT
The current status of Jamaica’s reef fisheries is extremely over-exploited. As such, efforts must be made to understand the separate fishing techniques, their value and necessity in order to determine if any alterations in current operations can yield positive effects on the country’s reef fishery. This research aims to accomplish this, by creating a profile for the Spearfishing subsector in Jamaica.
The data was obtained through the administration of questionnaires to a suitably sized sample set of spear-fishers islandwide, over the course of 9 months. This produced statistical data on average daily catch weight, average daily effort in hours, specific gear types being used, the popularity of certain fishing locations, and most common fish species targeted among other relevant information. The effects of the use of various types of breathing apparatus on the weight of an average spear-fishers daily catch were also found to be significant.
The profile created presents spearfishing as a distinct and significant subsector of commercial fishing in Jamaica. An average spearfisher can contribute as much as 4.24 tonnes to the annual marine landings and as many as 10.6% of all fishermen in Jamaica practice Spearfishing.
The recommendations made by the researcher, based on this profile, are geared towards the strict regulation of spearfishing in Jamaica, including a ban on the use of
Hookah apparatus and enforcement of the current ban on Night Diving.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to thank my family for the support and encouragement they have given me throughout the duration of this study. I must also thank Ms. Charlene Thomas from the Fisheries Division of the Ministry of Fisheries and Agriculture as her help in the completion of this study was invaluable.
I am extremely grateful to my supervisor Dr. Karl Aiken, both for giving me the opportunity to work on this project and for his patience and guidance throughout.
Lastly I thank the fishermen that participated in this study, as without their input, this study would not exist.
The product of this study is the result of a team effort and, without the help and participation of the above mentioned, would not have been possible.
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Sample size and number of trips made to each beach at which questionnaires were administered ...... 14
Table 2: List of beaches visited at which the total number of spear-fishers was estimated.
...... 17
Table 3: The spearfishing Locations named by the interviewed Spear-fishers in each parish...... 34
Table 4: Ranking of the Fish Species (Common Names) caught by the spear-fishers interviewed by region...... 52
Table 5: Average Prices at which the three categories of spearfishing catch are sold by the spear-fishers interviewed on the North and South coast...... 58
Table 6: Ranked Reasons given by Spear-fishers on the North Coast for the noticed decline in catch over the last few years...... 62
Table 7: Ranked Reasons given by Spear-fishers on the South Coast for the noticed decline in catch over the last few years...... 63
Table 8: The number of registered fishermen and estimated number of spear-fishers operating from each beach visited...... 70
Table 9: Names and Aliases of All Spear-fishers Interviewed...... 97
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LIST OF PLATES AND FIGURES
Plate 1: Major Banks of Jamaica (Map data from NRCA data unit). Obtained from
CFRAMP, 2000...... 2
Plate 2: Map of Jamaica showing fishing beaches...... 21
Plate 3: A – A commercial speargun (photo taken at Hellshire) .B – A homemade speargun (photo taken at Harveys’ Beach) Photographs by Z. Ennis, 2011 ...... 40
Plate 4: Images of the most popular fish species caught by the spear-fishers interviewed islandwide...... 53
Plate 5: A sample of Spearfishing Catch from Old Harbour Bay ...... 111
Plate 6: A second sample of Spearfishing Catch from Old Habour Bay ...... 111
Plate 7: Sample of Spearfishing catch from Annotto Bay...... 112
Plate 8: A Spearfisher and his catch in Portland ...... 112
Plate 9: An Air Compressor, an integral part of the Hookah apparatus, at Long Acre
Beach...... 113
Plate 10: The hose used in the Hookah Apparatus. Taken at Long Acre...... 113
Plate 11: Compressed Air Cylinders (tanks) at Port Henderson...... 114
Plate 12: A freelung spearfisher and his gear at Old Harbour Bay ...... 114
Plate 13: A freelung spearfisher and his gear in Portland...... 115
Figure 1: Average Age of Spear-fishers interviewed for each beach visited...... 23
Figure 2: Mean ages of all Interviewed Spear-fishers on the North coast, South coast and
Islandwide...... 24
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Figure 3: Average number of years of fishing experience of the spear-fishers interviewed by beach...... 25
Figure 4: Average Number of years of experience of the spear-fishers interviewed by region...... 26
Figure 5: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed along the north coast...... 28
Figure 6: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed along the
South coast ...... 29
Figure 7: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed Islandwide.. 30
Figure 8: A comparison of the proportion of night divers to non-night divers on the
North and South Coasts...... 31
Figure 9: Percentages of Spear-fishers that practice on and off shelf spearfishing. N=148.
...... 33
Figure 10: The Relative Popularity of the Off-Shelf Spearfishing locations listed by the spear-fishers interviewed...... 36
Figure 11: The Frequency of Spearfishing Activities of the Spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches. The error bars show the standard error of the data obtained. N=148...... 37
Figure 12: The Average Number of days per week dedicated to spearfishing by Region.
N= 148...... 38
Figure 13: Breathing Apparatus used by Spear-fishers along the North and South Coast.
N=148...... 42
Figure 14: Average weight (kg) of the daily spearfishing catch of the spear-fishers interviewed by beach...... 43
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Figure 15: Average Daily Catch of Spear-fishers interviewed on the North and South
Coast...... 44
Figure 16: Percentage of Yearly Effort of the Spear-fishers interviewed by beach...... 45
Figure 17: Percentages of Boat Use by the spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches...... 46
Figure 18: Percentages of Spear-fishers that worked groups of varying sizes...... 47
Figure 19: Average daily effort (hrs/day) of spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches.. ... 48
Figure 20: The Average Daily effort (hrs/day) of the spear-fishers interviewed by region..
...... 49
Figure 21: Average depth at which spear-fishers fished at all beaches interviewed...... 50
Figure 22: Average Spearfishing depth of the spear-fishers interviewed by region...... 51
Figure 23: Percentage of Spear-fishers that caught Lobster and Crab Species on the North
Coast...... 54
Figure 24: Percentage of Spear-fishers that caught Lobster and Crab Species on the South
Coast ...... 55
Figure 25: The percentage of spear-fishers that caught octopus on the North and south
Coast...... 56
Figure 26: Percentage of the spear-fishers interviewed on the North and south Coasts that went after “other catch”...... 57
Figure 27: Percentages of opinions of the North Coast spear-fishers interviewed regarding the trends in spearfishing catch over the last few years...... 61
Figure 28: Percentages of opinions of the South Coast spear-fishers interviewed regarding the trends in spearfishing catch over the last few years...... 61
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Figure 29: Future Prospects of all spear-fishers interviewed if spearfishing were to be banned...... 64
Figure 30: Percentage of spear-fishers that see lionfish in their regular fishing locations by region...... 65
Figure 31: Percentage of the responses of the Spear-fishers interviewed as to whether lionfish were shot (by region)...... 66
Figure 32: Average numbers of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by beach..
...... 67
Figure 33: Average Numbers of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by region.
...... 68
Figure 34: Average sizes of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. .... 69
Figure 35: Average Hours per day spent spearfishing using different types of air supply by region...... 76
Figure 36: Average weight of the daily catch of spear-fishers using different types of air supply by region...... 77
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LIST OF APPENDICES
Appendix A: Names and Alias of Spear-fishers Interviewed by Beach…………………97
Appendix B: Selected Photos of Spearfishing Catch…………………………………...111
Appendix C: Selected Photos of Spearfishers and Gear………………………………..113
Appendix D: Kruskal Wallis H Tests…………………………………………………..116
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TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ...... II
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... III
LIST OF TABLES ...... IV
LIST OF PLATES AND FIGURES ...... V
LIST OF APPENDICES ...... IX
INTRODUCTION...... 1
LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 5
WHAT IS SPEARFISHING? ...... 5
HOW SPEARFISHING IS VIEWED IN THE CARIBBEAN REGION...... 6
SPEARFISHING IN JAMAICA ...... 8
MANAGEMENT OF THE SPEARFISHING INDUSTRY IN JAMAICA ...... 10
CONCLUSIONS ...... 10
OBJECTIVES ...... 12
METHODOLOGY ...... 13
RESULTS: ...... 22
NAMES AND ALIAS ...... 22
AGE ANALYSIS ...... 22
EXPERIENCE ...... 24
MAIN FISHING TECHNIQUE ...... 27
The North Coast Beaches...... 27
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The South Coast Beaches ...... 27
All Beaches Visited ...... 29
NIGHT DIVING ...... 31
DO YOU SPEARFISH ON THE ISLAND SHELF? ...... 32
WHERE EXACTLY DO YOU SPEARFISH? ...... 33
HOW OFTEN DO YOU SPEARFISH? ...... 36
a. The number of days per week dedicated to Spearfishing ...... 37
b. The number of trips made to sea per day ...... 38
c. The number of dives or “jumps” made each day...... 38
WHAT FISHING GEAR DO YOU USE WHEN SPEARFISHING?...... 39
Spearguns ...... 39
Basic Gear ...... 40
Light Source ...... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Breathing Apparatus ...... 41
HOW MUCH DOES YOUR SPEARFISHING CATCH WEIGH ON A TYPICAL DAY? ...... 42
DO YOU SPEARFISH THROUGHOUT THE YEAR? ...... 44
DO YOU USE A BOAT WHEN SPEARFISHING? ...... 45
DO YOU SPEARFISH ALONE OR IN A GROUP? IF IN A GROUP, HOW MANY PERSONS ARE
USUALLY IN YOUR GROUP?...... 46
ON AN AVERAGE SPEARFISHING TRIP, HOW MANY HOURS DO YOU SPEND IN THE WATER?
...... 47
SPEARFISHING DEPTH ...... 49
WHAT ARE THE SIX (6) MOST COMMON FISH SPECIES THAT YOU CATCH? ...... 51
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WHICH LOBSTER AND CRAB SPECIES DO YOU CATCH? ...... 53
DO YOU CATCH OCTOPUSES? ...... 55
DO YOU TAKE ANYTHING ELSE REGULARLY, FOR EXAMPLE CONCH OR SQUID? ...... 56
IF YOU SELL YOUR CATCH , HOW MUCH DO YOU SELL IT FOR PER POUND (BY CATEGORY) :
SNAPPER/QUALITY, COMMON, TRASH? ...... 57
WHERE DO YOU SELL YOUR CATCH? ...... 60
WHAT WOULD YOU SAY ABOUT CATCHES OVER THE PAST FEW YEARS? ARE THEY BETTER
NOW, OR WORSE THAN WHEN YOU STARTED SPEARFISHING? ...... 60
WHAT WOULD YOU DO IF SPEARFISHING WAS BANNED? ...... 64
LIONFISH OBSERVATIONS ...... 65
Do you see Lionfish? ...... 65
Do you shoot them? ...... 65
How many lionfish do you see (for example: around one block of coral)? ...... 66
What are their average sizes? ...... 68
CALCULATIONS ...... 70
ESTIMATING THE PERCENTAGE OF COMMERCIAL FISHERMEN IN JAMAICA THAT ARE
SPEAR-FISHERS...... 70
EFFECT OF AIR SUPPLY TYPE ON THE AVERAGE NUMBER OF HOURS SPENT SPEARFISHING
EACH DAY...... 75
EFFECT OF AIR SUPPLY TYPE ON THE AVERAGE WEIGHT OF CATCH OBTAINED BY SPEAR-
FISHERS EACH DAY...... 77
ANNUAL INCOME OF AVERAGE SPEARFISHER (USING AVERAGE COST OF QUALITY
CATCH) ...... 78
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ANNUAL LANDINGS OF EACH SPEARFISHER ...... 78
DISCUSSION ...... 79
CONCLUSIONS ...... 92
REFERENCES ...... 93
APPENDIX A ...... 97
APPENDIX B ...... 111
APPENDIX C ...... 113
APPENDIX D ...... 116
AIR SUPPLY AND DAILY CATCH (KG) ...... 116
AIR SUPPLY AND DAILY EFFORT (HOURS PER DAY) ...... 117
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INTRODUCTION
Jamaica, situated towards the center of the southwestern Caribbean Sea, is the third largest island within the Greater Antilles. As of 2008, the population of Jamaica was estimated at 2.7 million (UN Data, 2011). It has a total land area of 10,990 square kilometers and a total coastline of 1,022 kilometers (Encyclopedia of the Nations, 2011).
Jamaica lies in the path of the northeasterly trade winds and as such speeds exceeding
15m/sec and the associated choppy waters are common. A calmer period generally occurs between the months of October and February annually (Aiken, 1993; Munro, 1983).
Studies have shown that currents in the vicinity of the island are westerly and are from
0.5-1kt for the majority of the year with tidal effects that are range from minimal to none
(Aiken, 1993) however, the currents over Pedro Bank can reverse at ebb tide (Munro,
1983).
The island shelf, as well as a number of offshore banks, constitutes the fishing grounds for the marine fisheries activities of Jamaica, which are almost all artisanal.
These activities produce approximately 7000 tonnes annually and are conducted by at least 15,000 active (but possibly as many as 20,000) fishers (Aiken, 2008). Most of the seafloor on the island shelf is sea-grass and soft corals over sand and limestone bedrock.
Coralline growth is usually concentrated around the edges (Aiken, 1993; Halcrow, 1998).
The southern shelf is much larger than the northern shelf and has been characterized as being relatively wide, with a maximum distance from the mainland of 24 km, and consisting of mostly small patches of corals, gorgonians and seaweeds mixed with sandy patches and large reefs on the eastern side. The north shelf is much narrower; with a
1 maximum distance from the mainland of 1.6 km (Plate 1). Fringing reefs with a few gaps
(which are virtually continuous with the sill reef) characterize the north shelf. The largest banks that are utilized as fishing grounds within Jamaica’s fishing industry are the Pedro
Bank and Morant Bank. These banks rise abruptly from deeper than 500m to form submerged plateaus with depths averaging between 20 – 30 m (CFRAMP, 2000).
Plate 1: Major Banks of Jamaica (Map data from NRCA data unit). Obtained from CFRAMP, 2000. The areas shown are: The island shelf, which consists of the Northern and Southern Shelf, and areas outside or off the island shelf, which are Near Bank, Blossom Bank, Pedro Bank, Walton Bank, Pedro Bank, Mackerel Bank, Morant Bank, Henry Holmes Bank, Grappler Bank, and Formigas Bank.
The fishing techniques used in Jamaica’s reef fishery are relatively diverse, with the use of gears such as fish traps, and beach seine, tangle and gill nets being the most prominent, followed by the use of handlines, spearfishing and some use of illegal
2 explosives (Aiken, 2008). The vessels used for fishing are mainly small, open, non- motorized wooden canoes (95% of all vessels), with some use of larger, 27 foot motorized fiberglass open canoes (Aiken, 2008; Sary, 2001). The small non-motorized canoes are usually between 4 m and 18 m, with the smaller ones being wooden dugouts and the larger being vessels that carry many fishers to nearby oceanic banks such as
Pedro Bank. The motorized vessels use larger outboard engines (Aiken, 2008).
According to a Sector Position Paper on Fisheries in Jamaica (Aiken, 2008), the main fisheries resources utilized in Jamaica’s fishing industry can be characterized as follows:
A. Coral Reef Fishes
B. Spiny Lobsters
C. Conch
D. Small Coastal Pelagic Finfish
E. Large Offshore Pelagic Finfish
Within the grouping “Coral Reef Fishes” the species of major importance with respect to
Jamaica’s fishing industry are:
Lutjanidae (snappers)
Serranidae (groupers)
Carangidae (jacks)
Mullidae (goatfishes)
Scaridae (parrotfishes)
Haemulidae (grunts)
Balistidae (triggerfishes)
Acanthuridae (doctorfishes)
3
Holocentridae (squirrelfishes)
Holacanthidae (angelfishes)
The status of fisheries in Jamaica is viewed as overfished (Aiken, 2008). This is evidenced by gradual changes seen in the species composition of fishing catch over the years. There has been a great reduction in the top carnivorous predatory fish such as the higher-valued snappers and jacks. These have been replaced by lesser valued herbivorous and omnivorous reef fish such as parrotfishes and doctorfishes (Aiken, 2008). This shows a direct impact on the biodiversity of the reefs due to overfishing. Other elements that affect that status of fisheries include severe hurricane damage to reefs and the relatively new introduction of the carnivorous lionfish species Pterois, which have no natural predators in this environment, to Caribbean waters.
4
LITERATURE REVIEW
What is Spearfishing?
Spearfishing is one of the many varied techniques used for catching fish, whether recreationally or commercially. Spearfishing has been previously defined as “the sport of hunting fish underwater” (Encyclopedia Americana, 1978). However, spearfishing has grown worldwide into much more than a sport, becoming an occupation and means of income for many commercial spear-fishers. For the purposes of this study, a more pertinent definition of spearfishing is “the catching or taking of a fish through the instrumentality of a hand or mechanically propelled, single or multi-pronged spear or lance, barbed or barbless, operated by a person swimming at or below the surface of the water" (Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, http://myfwc.com/RULESANDREGS/Saltwater_Regulations_spearing.htm). Types of spearfishing include employing the use of free-diving (also known as free-lung), snorkeling or scuba-diving skills.
Spearfishing has been an effective method of fishing for many years, with evidence to support its existence up to 16,000 years ago (Guthrie, 2005). Traditional spearfishing began with the use of regular or specialized spears, such as a trident that has three pointed ends, with long handles to impale the fish. This traditional method was restricted to shallow waters, until the advent of the speargun, which allowed for fishing in deeper waters. A practiced spearfisher can learn to hold their breath between two to four minutes while underwater.
5
Modern spearfishing first came about in the 1920’s, when sport fishing became popular on the Mediterranean coast of France and Italy. At that time, it was done with only the use of watertight swimming goggles. It was then followed by the development of the modern diving mask, swimfin and snorkel. Scuba diving that is being practiced today actually began with the systematic use of rebreathers by Italian sport spear-fishers in the
1930’s. Of note is the fact that this technology had an impact on World War II, as the
“frogman unit” of the Italian Navy was developed as a result of this practice
(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spearfishing , retrieved January 15, 2011).
How spearfishing is viewed in the Caribbean region.
Spearfishing was noted as becoming an increasingly important economic activity in the Caribbean (Munro, 1983). He went on to state that this was as a result of socioeconomic factors related to underemployment and the low capital outlay for equipment. To those with economic concerns, this method of fishing appeared to be most attractive as it offered income earning capacity to otherwise unskilled or impoverished individuals.
According to Munro, spearfishing was also attractive in terms of its effect on the natural resources and the management thereof, as spearfishing activities leaned towards the harvesting of the oldest, largest and least productive members of the fish community, leaving the younger and more productive members and promoting conservation of the stock (Munro, 1983). He gave an example of the benefits of spearfishing with Belize, stating that about 67% of the production of spiny lobsters at that time was derived from
6 spearfishing and that the spearfishing community appeared to be one of the most prosperous sectors of the general population.
Despite Munro’s observations of the benefits of spearfishing in Caribbean countries, some studies have also shown that spearfishing has been implicated in the local extinction of some species. One such example is the Goliath grouper (Epinephelus itajara) on the Caribbean island of Bonaire (Roberts, 2007)
In other Caribbean countries, spearfishing is strictly regulated or banned completely. In the Bahamas, the Hawaiian sling is the only approved spearfishing device.
Gear such as SCUBA gear or air compressors are not allowed when harvesting fish, conch, crawfish or other marine animals. It is further regulated by location whereby spearfishing is not allowed within one mile of the coast of New Providence, within one mile of the south coast of Freeport, Grand Bahamas and within 200 yards of the coast of all the Out Islands. Spearing or taking marine animals by any means is illegal within national sea parks (The Islands of the Bahamas, 2008 - 2011).
In the Grenadines in the eastern Caribbean, spearfishing is one of the two most popular methods of fishing being used (Gill et. al, 2007). According to a study there, spear guns are used extensively and were frequently used by the younger fishers which may be the result of the high amount of risk, effort and fitness required to free/scuba dive as well as the fact that older fishers may not be as familiar with these less traditional forms of fishing. Free diving fishers can go to depths of 60-80 feet and they target conch, lobster and demersals. SCUBA diving fishers in the Grenadines where found to fish much deeper (e.g. 150 feet) which at many times is much deeper than the regulations stipulate for non-commercial divers. Many of these SCUBA divers do not have any
7 formal training in SCUBA diving. The average crew size for spear fishers is 5-6 fishers and fishers use a small wire noose to trap lobsters and short poles to carry fish (Gill et al,
2007).
Spearfishing in Jamaica
Information on the spearfishing activities in Jamaica were found in the report entitled “Jamaica: National Marine Fisheries Atlas” produced by the CARICOM
Fisheries Resource Assessment and Management Program (CFRAMP) in 2000. This report lists “Diving fisheries” as a major fishing gear sector. It states that in Jamaica, diving fisheries are carried out using both “freelung” (in which the diver holds his breath while hunting underwater) and with the aid of a compressed air supply. Divers that use compressed air supplies were found to utilize either SCUBA (Self Contained Underwater
Breathing Apparatus) tanks or hookah rigs (CFRAMP, 2000). The main difference between the hookah rig and the SCUBA tanks is that with a hookah apparatus, the compressed air remains on the boat and is obtained by the diver through a hose. With a
SCUBA tank the compressed air is attached to the diver. Divers using compressed air can hunt underwater for between 1.5 to 2 hours and at depths greater than 25 meters.
Compressed air divers were found to usually catch lobster and conch, through the use of a stick with a hook or wire loop for lobsters or just their hands for conch. The freelung divers were found to be the main users of spears and spearguns, with their targets focused on coral reef finfish and lobster (CFRAMP, 2000).
The first preliminary Jamaican study showed that spearfishing accounts for a major portion of the country’s annual fisheries production (Passley, 2009 & 2010).
8
Focusing on fishermen that were regulars at beaches around the island, the study obtained data on the amount, size and type of fish caught as well as where fishing was most frequently carried out and how much the fishermen depended on their spearfishing activities. As the first such study of its kind with respect to the state of spearfishing in
Jamaica, it is considered a preliminary one, in need of supporting studies to confirm its findings. The results showed however that spearfishing in Jamaica is a much more widely used form of fishing than was first expected, whereby 2% of all fishers were found to be spear-fishers as opposed to the 1% that was previously estimated (Passley et al, 2010).
The artisanal spearfishermen in Jamaica mostly use spearguns, the majority of which are commercial although some were homemade. These spear guns were used in addition to masks and in some cases, snorkel tubes. It was also discovered that fishing effort is very high, with 4 hour trips done 5 days a week and a correspondingly (yet still surprisingly) high average catch of 3,500 kg/spearfisher/yr. (Passley et al, 2010).
Spearfishing has the potential to be environmentally friendly as it is highly selective and has no by-catch. This means that educated individuals can target only the older larger, fish that make less of an impact on the reproductive success of the population. However, in Jamaica, where the reefs are greatly overfished, and the fishermen depend on their catch to support their livelihood, smaller fish are continuously being caught and sold.
The main types of fish and marine life caught were those that had a high sale value, such as parrotfish, snapper and lobster. According to Passley’s report (2009 &
2010), night diving was also discovered to be a fishing activity that was very productive as the sleeping fish presented a stationary target and were easily caught. The report suggested that an immediate ban be placed on that specific activity as the sleeping fish
9 have little to no chance at escape. Passley (et al 2010) also reported that, although most spear-fishers carried out other types of spearfishing, they were decidedly dependent on their spearfishing activities, and that the number of spear-fishers had grown between
1999 and 2004.
Management of the Spearfishing industry in Jamaica
33 percent of spear-fishers interviewed by Passley reported that they had no replacement skills with which to make a living if spearfishing were to be banned. An equal percentage said that they would attempt to find an alternative means of supporting themselves however 10% said that they would then require government assistance. It is thought that the increase in the number of spear-fishers may be due to increases in the cost of gear and maintenance for trap and net fishing as well as the apparent success of spearfishing (Passley et al, 2010).
In 2009, a ban was placed on spearfishing at night, also known as Night Diving, in an attempt to reduce the exploitation of reef fisheries. However, lack of enforcement and even awareness of the ban has somewhat negated its effectiveness.
Conclusions
Both recreational and commercial spearfishing has the potential to be environmentally friendly. When it comes to recreational spearfishing, it is important that the diver is educated in the proper size of fish to be caught, and other regulations that have been put in place by the spearfishing association of the region. With these rules in
10 mind, it is possible for the sport to not just be environmentally friendly but to also make an economic contribution to the country by increasing tourism revenues. In many countries worldwide spearfishing has developed a small market in tourism.
A similar awareness of the proper size of fish to be caught is even more important for commercial spearfishing to be sustained. Commercial spearfishing, especially done with the aid of compressed air, has been banned in many countries, either in an attempt to mitigate or prevent overfishing of the countries resources.
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OBJECTIVES
This research was carried out as a follow-up to a previous report, (Passley, 2009) on commercial spearfishing in Jamaica, to confirm the earlier conclusions made. The purpose of confirming these conclusions is to assist the Fisheries Advisory Board in their recommendations with respect to banning or placing restrictions on and creating regulations for commercial spearfishing in Jamaica.
Through the use of data gathered from this study and from the previous study mentioned, the objectives of this study are as follows:
1. To determine the current status of spearfishing in Jamaica, its commercial value
and its contribution to the annual fisheries production.
2. To compare the current status of commercial spearfishing in Jamaica with the
results obtained from the previous study on this subject, the Passley report (2009).
3. To determine effective steps that may be taken to conserve the resources of
Jamaica’s island shelf, while determining if commercial spearfishing can continue
under regulations.
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METHODOLOGY
1. A preliminary Literature Review was done in regards to Commercial Spearfishing
worldwide and the status of fisheries in Jamaica.
2. The original questionnaire was revised and tested on the first trip into the field.
3. Trips were made to preselected 23 fishing beaches, chosen due to the known
presence of spear-fishers there by the Fisheries Division of the Ministry of
Fishing and Agriculture in Jamaica (Table 1).
The sites were visited over a period of 9- 10 months between January 2011 and
October 2011.
The trips were made using transportation provided by the Fisheries Division of
the Ministry of Agriculture of Jamaica. Each trip was made by the researcher and
a representative member of the Fisheries division that was well known at the
beaches visited.
4. At each site, a questionnaire (revised from the original questionnaire used in the
Passley report) was administered to a specified sample number of spear-fishers.
The questionnaires were administered to the spear-fishers individually. Repeat
trips were made when necessary to achieve the desired sample number.
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5. Pictures were taken of each spear-fisher to which a questionnaire was
administered.
6. Where available, pictures were also taken of samples of spearfishing gear, boats,
and catch at the fishing beach.
7. 50 Additional fishing beaches, where spearfishing was known to take place, were
also visited to obtain an estimate of the number of spear-fishers operating on the
beaches. Questionnaires were not administered at these additional beaches.
Table 1: Sample size and number of trips made to each beach at which questionnaires were administered
Sample Size (No. of
Beach Name, spear-fishers Number of Trips
Parish interviewed) made
North Coast
Salem, St. Ann 6 1
Sailors Hole, St.
Ann 5 1
White River, St.
Ann 4 1
Annotto Bay Beach,
St. Mary 5 1
Robins Bay, St. 5 1
14
Mary
Pagee, St. Mary 5 1
Falmouth,
Trelawney 10 1
Harvey’s Beach, St.
James 5 1
River Bay Beach,
St. James 5 1
Manchioneal,
Portland 9 1
Negril,
Westmoreland 5 2
South Coast
Port Henderson, St
Catherine 12 2
Hellshire,
St. Catherine 5 1
Old Harbour,
St. Catherine 12 2
Rocky Point,
Clarendon 13 2
Rocky Point, St.
Thomas 4 1
15
Lyssons Beach, St.
Thomas 6 2
Alligator Pond,
Manchester 10 1
Black River, St.
Elizabeth 2 1
Long Acre, St.
Elizabeth 5 1
Smithfield,
Westmoreland 5 1
St. Mary’s Beach,
Westmoreland 5 1
Whitehouse,
Westmoreland 5 1
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Table 2: List of beaches visited at which the total number of spear-fishers was estimated.
Parish Beach
Clarendon Salt River /Welcome Beach
Clarendon Barmouth/ Portland Cottage
Hanover Orange Bay
Hanover Green Island
Hanover Lucea Beach
Hanover Sandy Bay Beach
Hanover Hopewell
Kingston & St.
Andrew Bull Bay (7 miles)
Portland Windsor
Portland Buff Bay
Portland Drapers
Portland Norwich
17
Portland Orange Bay
Portland Hope Bay
Portland Bryans Bay
Portland Prospect Beach
Portland Blue Hole
Portland Fairy Hill
Portland Hectors River Beach
Portland Innes Bay Beach
Portland Long Bay Beach
Portland Priestmans’ River Beach
Portland Boston Beach
St Thomas Yallahs Beach
St Thomas Morant Bay
St Thomas Leith Hall
St Thomas Port Morant
18
St Thomas Old Pera
St Thomas Holland Bay
St Thomas Dalvey Beach
Jail Lane/ St. Ann’s Bay
St. Ann Beach
St. Ann Priory
St. Ann Swallow Hole
St. Ann Pear Tree Bottom
St. Ann Discovery Bay
St. Ann Old Folly
St. Ann Mammee Bay
St. James Whitehouse
St. James Spring Garden
St. James Grange Pen
St. James Success
St. Mary Dover
St. Mary Castle Garden Beach
St. Mary Oracabessa Beach
19
St. Mary Boscobel Beach
St. Mary Breakfast Gap
St. Mary Rio Nuevo
Trelawney Derby/Silver Sands
Trelawney Rio Bueno
Trelawney Braco
20
Plate 2: Map of Jamaica showing fishing beaches. Satellite view of Jamaica courtesy of Google Earth 2012 ©. The beaches visited are as follows: 1. Negril Beach, 2. Orange Bay, Hanover 4. Lucea, 5. Sandy Bay, 6. Hopewell, 7. Spring Garden, 8. Whitehouse Beach, St. James 9. Success, 10. Grange Pen, 11. Falmouth Fishing Village, 12. Braco, 13. Rio Bueno, 14. Old Folly, 15. Discovery Bay, 16. Runaway Bay, 17. Swallow Hole, 18. Salem, 19. Priory, 20. St. Ann’s Bay, 21. Mammee Bay, 22. White River, 23. Oracabessa, 24. Pagee, 25. Robins Bay, 26. Breakfast Gap, 27. Annotto Bay, 28. Castle Garden, 29. Dover, 30. Buff Bay, 31. Orange Bay, 32. Hope Bay, 33. St. Margaret’s Bay, 34. Bryan’s Bay. 35. Norwich, 36. Prospect/Port Antonio, 37. Drapers, 38. Fairy Hill, 39. Blue Hole, 40. Preistman’s River, 41. Boston Beach, 42. Long Bay, 43. Manchioneal, 44. Innes Bay, 45. Hector’s Bay, 46. Holland Bay, 47. Dalvey, 48. Rocky Point, St. Thomas, 49. Port Morant, 50. Leith Hall, 51. Lyssons Beach, 52. Morant Bay, 53. Yallahs, 54. Bull Bay (7 miles), 55. Port Henderson, 56. Hellshire, 57. Old Harbour Bay, 58. Welcome Beach, 59. Barmouth/Portland Cottage, 60. Rocky Point, Clarendon, 61. Alligator Pond, 62. Black River, 63. Long Acre, 64. Whitehouse, Westmoreland, 65. St. Ann’s Beach, 66. Smithfield, 67. St. Mary’s Beach.
21
RESULTS:
During the nine month period of February to October 2011, the researcher went
on 32 trips with Ms. Charlene Thomas from the Ministry of Fisheries and
Agriculture. A total of 75 beaches were visited. Of the 73 beaches, a comprehensive
questionnaire with 24 questions was administered to spear fishers at 23 of them. One
hundred and forty eight (148) spear fishers were interviewed in total. At the
remaining 50 beaches, discussions were had with the commercial fishermen there to
determine an estimate of the number of spear fishers operating from each beach.
Names and alias All interviewed spear-fishers were asked their names and the alias they
were also known by. A complete list of these names and the beaches to which
they are attached can be found in Appendix A.
Age Analysis
Eachspearfisher interviewed was asked their age and the number of years
they had been fishing commercially. The results of the age analysis are shown in
Figure 1.
The divers interviewed were of a wide range of ages. The oldest divers were
found at Salem beach (average age was 44.8 years) while the youngest divers
were found at Lyssons beach (average age was 21 years).
22
60
50
40
30 Age (yrs) Age 20
10 Mean Age of Spearfishers
0
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
BlackRiver
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Hole Sailors
White River White
Whitehouse
Annotto Bay Annotto
Negril Beach Negril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point,S Rocky
Alligator Pond Alligator
RockyPoint, C
LyssonsBeach
Harveys Beach Harveys
Port Port Henderson
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
Old Harbour Bay Harbour Old Falmouth fishing Village fishing Falmouth Beach
Figure 1: Average Age of Spear-fishers interviewed for each beach visited. The first 11 beaches listed (reading left to right) are those on the north coast, and the remaining 12 are located on the south coast. The Error Bars show the Standard Error of the values obtained. N=148.
The average age of the spear-fishers interviewed on the North Coast was
38 ± 0.5 yrs., while the average age of the spear-fishers interviewed on the South
coast was 35 ± 0.7 yrs. The average age of all spear-fishers interviewed was 36 ±
0.4 yrs. (Fig 2).
23
39
38
37
36
35 Mean Age
Average Age (years) Age Average 34
33
32 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Region
Figure 2: Mean ages of all Interviewed Spear-fishers on the North coast, South coast and Island wide. The Error bars represent the Standard Error of the values obtained. N=148.
Experience The spear-fishers were asked how many years prior to the interview they
had been fishing commercially. The answers corresponded with the age of the
spearfisher, as most responded that they began fishing from a young age i.e. 12-14
yrs. As such, the data obtained shows that the spear fishers with the most
experience in the fishing industry were generally the oldest ones. As shown in
section 2, the beaches that have the oldest divers i.e. Salem, River Bay Beach and
Black River also have the divers with the most experience in the fishing industry
(Fig 3).
24
45
40
35
30
25
20
Number of yearsofNumber 15 Mean Number 10 of Years of Experience 5
0
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
BlackRiver
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Sailors Hole
White River White
Whitehouse
Annotto Bay Annotto
Negril Beach Negril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point,S Rocky
Alligator Pond Alligator
Rocky Point,C Rocky
Lyssons Beach Lyssons
Harveys Beach Harveys
Port Port Henderson
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
Old Harbour Bay Harbour Old Falmouth fishing Village fishing Falmouth Beach
Figure 3: Average number of years of fishing experience of the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. The first 11 beaches (left to right) consist of the North coast beaches, while the remainder constitutes the South coast beaches visited. The standard error in the number of years of experience is shown by the error bars. N = 148.
The standard error bars in the figure above also show that the ages
recorded varied greatly for most locations, with some having as little as 2 years of
experience while older spear-fishers have as many as 40 years of experience.
25
25
20
15
Mean Number of Years 10
Number of Years ofNumber of Experience
5
0 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Region
Figure 4: Average Number of years of experience of the spear-fishers interviewed by region. The error bars show the Standard Error of the values obtained. N=148.
Spear-fishers on the North Coast were shown to have on average more years of
experience than those on the South Coast. On the North Coast, spear-fishers had an
average of 19.6 ± 0.63 years of experience while spear-fishers on the South Coast had
an average of 17 ± 0.61 years of experience. Overall, the spear-fishers interviewed
had an average of 18 ± 0.44 years of experience working in the fishing industry (Fig.
4).
26
Main Fishing Technique
The interviewed spear-fishers were asked what their main type of fishing
was and whether or not they did other types as well. The results showed that the
majority of the spear-fishers interviewed used this technique as their main form of
fishing. Other forms of fishing were done to in addition to spearfishing such as
hook and line, net, and pot fishing.
The North Coast Beaches
Along the north coast, “Spearfishing Only” was the largest category (32%
of the interviewees) followed by fishermen that practiced mainly spearfishing and
employed net fishing techniques secondarily. The minorities included spear-
fishers that practiced other techniques as their main type such as Trawling and
Net fishing and those that practiced more than two types of fishing with a
secondary or equal amount of effort (Fig 5).
The South Coast Beaches
Along the south coast, results of the questionnaires also showed that the
majority (63%) of the spear-fishers interviewed were strictly spear fishers and
practiced no other form of fishing (Fig 6), even more so than along the north
coast. The results were generally similar to those obtained on the north coast with
the category of fishers that practiced “Spearfishing Only” followed by those that
did Spearfishing mainly and Net fishing as a secondary source of income. The
27
minority consisted again of those that practiced a technique other than
spearfishing as their main form and spearfishing secondarily, as well as those that
practiced more than two techniques with equal effort.
Spearfishing Only Spearfishing mainly, Net fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line Secondary Spearfishing, Net and Pot fishing equally Spearfishing mainly, Line, Net and Pot secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line and Net secondary Spearfishing mainly, Trawling secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot and Net fishing secondary Net fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary Spearfishing, Line fishing equally Spearfishing, Line and Net fishing equally Spearfishing, Net fishing equally Spearfishing mainly, Pot fishing secondary spearfishing mainly, Line and Pot fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot, Trawl and Net secondary Trawling mainly, Net and Spearfishing secondary 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 2% 3% 3% 32% 3%
5%
5%
5%
12% 19%
Figure 5: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed along the north coast. N=64.
28
Spearfishing Only Spearfishing mainly, Net fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line Secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot and Net fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line, Net and Pot secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line and Net secondary Spearfishing, Net fishing equally Net fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary Spearfishing, Line and Net fishing equally Net fishing mainly, Pot, Line and Spearfishing secondary Pot fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary
1% 1% 1% 1%
2% 2% 2%
5%
6%
6%
10% 63%
Figure 6: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed along the South coast. N=84.
All Beaches Visited In combining the results obtained for the North and South coast, an
idea of how the sampled group of spear-fishers allocated their time spent
fishing by technique is obtained (Fig 7). This reflects the trends seen in
both North and South coast results, with the category of Spear-fishers that
did Spearfishing Only constituting a little more than half the total number
of spear-fishers interviewed (51%).
29
Spearfishing Only Spearfishing mainly, Net fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Line Secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot and Net fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Pot fishing secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line, Net and Pot secondary Spearfishing mainly, Line and Net secondary Spearfishing, Net and Pot fishing equally
Net fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary Spearfishing, Net fishing equally Spearfishing mainly, Trawling secondary Spearfishing, Line and Net fishing equally Spearfishing, Line fishing equally spearfishing mainly, Line and Pot fishing secondary
Spearfishing mainly, Pot, Trawl and Net secondary Trawling mainly, Net and Spearfishing secondary Net fishing mainly, Pot, Line and Spearfishing secondary Pot fishing mainly, spearfishing secondary 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 1% 2% 2% 2%
3%
3%
4%
4% 51%
8%
14%
Figure 7: The Main Fishing Techniques used by Spear-fishers interviewed Islandwide. N=148.
30
Night Diving
The Spear-fishers interviewed were asked if they currently practiced night diving,
the answers showed that in both regions more divers did not practice night diving. Fewer
divers were interviewed on the north coast than on the south coast, but the results also
show that the ratios of non-night divers to night divers in both regions are similar (Fig 8),
whereby 74% and 71% of spear-fishers on the North and South Coast respectively did not
practice night diving.
North Coast South Coast
Non-Night Diver Night Diver Non-Night Diver Night Diver
26% 29%
74% 71%
Figure 8: A comparison of the proportion of night divers to non-night divers on the North and South Coasts.
31
Do you spearfish on the island shelf?
In response to this question the majority of the spear-fishers interviewed
said yes, expounding and saying that they fished along the coast of their
respective parish or only a few miles out to sea from the coast.
North Coast
Of the spear-fishers interviewed along the north coast, 81% of them
spearfished mainly on the island shelf. The remaining 19% stated that they
spearfished mainly at locations that were not on the island shelf, henceforth called
“off-shelf” locations. These off-shelf locations are discussed later.
South Coast
A similar ratio of “onshelf-offshelf” fishing was obtained for the South
Coast. 82% of spear-fishers along the south coast stated that they fished on the
island shelf, while the remaining 18% stated that they spearfished mostly at
offshore locations. A direct comparison of the percentages obtained for each
region is shown in Figure 9.
32
90% 83% 81% 82% 80%
70%
60%
50%
Onshelf Fishing 40%
Percentage (%) Percentage Offshelf Fishing 30%
19% 20% 17% 18%
10%
0% south coast north coast overall Region
Figure 9: Percentages of Spear-fishers that practice on and off shelf spearfishing. N=148.
Where exactly do you spearfish?
In response to this question, the answers confirmed that the majority of the
spear-fishers interviewed fished along the coast or within a few miles of the coast
of their respective parish. The one exception was a spearfisher registered to
Sailors Hole, St. Ann (North Jamaica), who stated that he most frequently
spearfished about 7 miles from the coast of Clarendon, which is on the south
coast. The spear-fishers who had previously stated that they mainly spearfished
offshore listed locations such as Pedro Bank, Morant Bank and Formigas Bank
33
among smaller, less well known offshore locations. A complete listing of the
spearfishing locations identified by spear-fishers interviewed within each parish is
shown in Table 3.
Table 3: The spearfishing Locations named by the interviewed Spear-fishers in each parish.
Parish On-Shelf Spearfishing Locations Off-shelf Spearfishing Locations
North Coast
Portland All divers interviewed practiced offshore Morant Cay, Formigas Bank, Pedro
spearfishing Bank, Grappler Cay
St. Ann Dunn’s River, Dolphin Cove area, None
Mammee Bay, Tower Isle, Big River,
Rolling River, Ant Reef, Twin Cay, Port
Maria, White River, Boscobel area,
Runaway Bay, Annotto Bay, discovery
Bay, Reggae Beach, Ryanova, Salem
Beach, Pear Tree Bottom
St. James Montego Bay, Hopewell, various beaches Pedro Bank, Walters Bank
along the coast of St. James (unnamed)
St. Mary Buff Bay, Port Maria, Iter Boreale, Long None
Beach, Robins bay, Annotto Bay,
Strawberry Fields (coast), Pagee, Little
Bay, Mahoe Bay
34
Trelawney Falmouth, Discovery Bay, Salem, Silver Pedro Bank, Columbia
Sands, Flanca, Salt Marsh, Broad Beach
South Coast
Clarendon Portland Point, Portland Rock, Jackson Pedro Bank
Bay, Southwest Rock, Jaguar, Mendes
Manchester Alligator Pond Reef, Big Rock, Middle None
Rock
St. Catherine Alligator Pond Bay, Hellshire, Old Pedro Bank, Morant Cay
Harbour Bay, Lime Cay, Wreck Reef,
Portland Point, Manatee Bay, Pigeon
Island, Half-moon Cay, Leeward Bank,
Pelican Cay, Needles, Salt River,
Windward Bank, Macka Elbow, Eastern
Cay, Horseshoe, Bomb, Hotchkyn
Patches (Atkin Patches), Bare Bush Cay
St. Elizabeth Alice Shoal, Parottee Shoal, Whitehouse, Pedro Bank, Bassanova Bank
Ravian Reef, Front Hill, (Columbia),
St. Thomas Rocky Point, Allen Bay, Prospect Cay, Last Morant Cay, Pedro Bank, Bassanova
Reef, Red Belly, Foodie, Broad Reef Nova (Columbia)
Westmoreland Whitehouse, Smithfield Pedro Bank, Bassanova Bank
(Columbia),
In section 5, it was observed that approximately 82% of all the spear-
fishers interviewed fished mainly on the island shelf. This statistic includes spear-
35
fishers that fish off the island shelf as well, however, not regularly. As such,
approximately 34% of all the spear-fishers interviewed stated that they
spearfished at off-shelf locations at one point or another. Among the locations
listed, Pedro Bank was the one mentioned most often, followed by Morant Cay.
Banks such as Walters Bank and Grapplers Bank were mentioned by the least
number of spear-fishers (Fig 10). Oceanic banks claimed by other countries such
as Bassanova Bank (connected to Columbia) were also named.
2.0% 2.0%
7.8%
Pedro Bank 15.7% Morant Cay 47.1% Formigas Bank Columbian Areas Grappler Bank Walters Bank 25.5%
Figure 10: The Relative Popularity of the Off-Shelf Spearfishing locations listed by the spear-fishers interviewed.
How often do you spearfish?
The responses to this question were given in three forms: a) the number of
days they spearfished per week; b) the number of trips to sea they made per day
and c) the number of dives or “jumps” they made each day.
36
a. The number of days per week dedicated to Spearfishing
7
6
5
4
3 Days/week 2 Average No. of 1 Days per week
0
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
BlackRiver
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Sailors Hole
White River White
Whitehouse
AnnottoBay
Negril BeachNegril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point, S Point, Rocky
Alligator Pond Alligator
Rocky Point,C Rocky
Lyssons Beach Lyssons
Harveys Beach Harveys
Port Port Henderson
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
Old Harbour Bay Harbour Old Falmouth fishing Village fishing Falmouth Beach
Figure 11: The Frequency of Spearfishing Activities of the Spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches. The error bars show the standard error of the data obtained. N=148.
The responses obtained showed that the spear-fishers interviewed
spearfished between 3 and 7 days each week (Fig.11). Along the north coast, the
spear-fishers at Falmouth Fishing Village averaged the most days per week (6 ±
0.5) while on the south coast, spear-fishers at Port Henderson averaged the most
days per week ( 5± 0.5).
A wider look at the weekly fishing effort shows that spear-fishers along
the North Coast had a greater weekly effort than those on the South Coast (Fig.
12). Spear-fishers along the North coast averaged 4.6 ± 0.1 days per week while
37
spear-fishers along the South Coast averaged 4.2 ±0.05 days per week. Island
wide, the sampled group of spear-fishers dedicated 4.4 ± 0.05 days per week to
spearfishing.
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.3 Mean days per week Days per week per Days 4.2
4.1
4
3.9 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Axis Title
Figure 12: The Average Number of days per week dedicated to spearfishing by Region. N= 148.
b. The number of trips made to sea per day
The response to this question was almost unanimous, with 97% of the
spear-fishers interviewed stating that they made 1 trip to sea for the day. The
remaining 3% consists of 4 exceptions, one of which goes to sea twice a day
(once during the daylight hours and once at night), while the other two go to
sea 3 and 4 times a day while spending a week or more on Pedro Cay.
c. The number of dives or “jumps” made each day.
This can be broadly defined as the number of times they submerge
themselves and become dependent on a particular air supply (whether
38
Freelung, Hookah or SCUBA) during a spearfishing session. As can be
expected of Freelung divers, who depend only on their own lung capacity,
they make many one minute or less dives. Hookah and SCUBA users have a
much larger air supply and therefore were found to make between 1 and 8
dives per session, with 4 dives being the most popular answer (the mode). The
time spent on each dive varied with each spearfisher, as some felt more
comfortable staying submerged longer, while others would do an increased
number of shorter dives. For example, in the case of two spear-fishers, both
using a Hookah apparatus, one may decide to do only 2 dives at 2 hours each,
while the other may decide to do 4 dives at 1 hour each.
What fishing gear do you use when spearfishing?
Spearguns The spear-fishers were asked whether the speargun they used was
commercially bought or had been homemade (Plate 3).
Once again the proportions were similar for the North and South coast.
Along the North coast 75% of the spear-fishers used a commercial speargun and
the remaining 25% used a homemade speargun. Along the South Coast 78% of
the spear-fishers interviewed used a commercial speargun while the remaining
22% used a homemade speargun.
39
Plate 3: A – A commercial speargun (photo taken at Hellshire) .B – A homemade speargun (photo taken at Harveys’ Beach) Photographs by Z. Ennis, 2011
Basic Gear For the purposes of this report, “Basic Gear” consists of a Diving Mask,
Fins and a snorkel tube. In the case of spear-fishers that use a hookah apparatus or
SCUBA, basic gear did not include the snorkel tube. Every spearfisher
interviewed stated that they used this basic gear when spearfishing.
Light Source A light source was used by all spear-fishers that practiced night diving.
Therefore approximately 34.5% of the total number of spear-fishers interviewed
use an underwater light source.
40
Breathing Apparatus
Three possible answers were given to the question of which breathing
apparatus was currently being used by the spearfisher being interviewed: 1) a
Hookah apparatus 2) SCUBA (Self-contained underwater breathing apparatus) or
3) No compressed air or “Freelung”.
North Coast
The answers obtained showed that Freelung was the most popular form of
Spearfishing along the North coast (76%), followed by the use of a Hookah
apparatus (15%) and then by SCUBA (8%) (Fig.13).
South Coast
Similar results were obtained for the spear-fishers interviewed along the
south coast, with Freelung being the most popular form (58%), followed by
Hookah (25%) and SCUBA (15%) respectively.
41
90%
80% 76%
70% 58%
60%
fishers (%) fishers - 50% Freelung 40% Hookah SCUBA 30% 25%
Percentage of Spearof Percentage 20% 15% 17% 8% 10%
0% North Coast South Coast Region
Figure 13: Breathing Apparatus used by Spear-fishers along the North and South Coast. N=148.
How much does your spearfishing catch weigh on a typical day?
The answers received to this question consisted of the weights of each
individual spear-fishers total catch for a typical day. For example, if a spearfisher
typically caught both fish and lobster, or went to sea more twice per day, the total
weight of everything caught on both trips was given.
North Coast
Along the North Coast spear-fishers were generally found to catch less
fish than those on the South Coast. The clear exception to this was the catch
weight reported at Manchioneal Beach in Portland, which was the greatest daily
catch of all the beaches interviewed (87.9 ± 13.8 kg/day). As shown in Figure 14,
the majority of beaches reported an average daily catch weight of less than 20
42
kg/day. Also, along the South Coast, the beach that reported the largest daily
catch was Rocky Point, Clarendon (61.1 ± 9.3 kg).
120.00
100.00 87.9
80.00
61.1 60.00 52.1 Mean Catch
Weight (kg) Weight weight 40.00 34.6 (kg) 22.3 17.9 20.0 20.00 13.9 10.7 11.312.2 7.3 7.4 8.3 9.4 3.7 4.2 4.6 5.0 5.2 5.4 6.4 5.6
0.00
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
Black River Black
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Sailors Hole
White River White
Whitehouse
Annotto Bay Annotto
Negril Beach Negril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point,Rocky S
Alligator Pond Alligator
Rocky Point,C Rocky
Lyssons Beach Lyssons
Harveys BeachHarveys
Port Port Henderson
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
Old Harbour Bay Harbour Old Falmouth fishing… Falmouth Beach
Figure 14: Average weight (kg) of the daily spearfishing catch of the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. The error bars represent the standard error from the mean. N =148.
When looking at the data by region, the average daily catch for divers
along the North Coast is 14.6 ± 3.1kg while that of the South Coast is 21.4 ±2.0
43
kg. The average daily catch for spear-fishers at all sites visited was calculated to
be 18.1 ± 1.8 kg (Fig. 15).
25 21.35
20 18.12
14.58 15
Weight (kg)
10 Average Daily Catch (kg)
5
0 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Region
Figure 15: Average Daily Catch of Spear-fishers interviewed on the North and South Coast. The error bars represent the standard error from the mean. N = 148.
Do you spearfish throughout the year?
The answers in response to this question showed that at most beaches (17 out
of the 23 interviewed beaches) 100% of the spear-fishers interviewed spearfished
throughout the year, regardless of season. At locations where some spear-fishers
only dived at particular times of the year, this was found to be 25% or less of all
the spear-fishers interviewed at that beach (Fig. 16).
44
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% Do Not 50% Spearfish All 40% Year Percentage(%) 30% Spearfish All 20% Year 10% 0%
Beach
Figure 16: Percentage of Yearly Effort of the Spear-fishers interviewed by beach. N=148.
Do you use a boat when spearfishing?
The boat use of the spear-fishers along the North Coast was found to be
less than that of the spear-fishers on the South Coast. At certain North Coast
beaches, none of the spear-fishers interviewed used boats (eg: White River). Boat
use is much more popular along the South Coast where at 10 out of the 12 south
coast beaches interviewed, 100% of the spear-fishers interviewed used boats (Fig.
17).
45
100% 90% 80% 70% 60% 50% 40% Non-Boat Percentage(%) 30% Users 20% Boat Users 10%
0%
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
BlackRiver
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Sailors Hole
White River White
Whitehouse
Annotto Bay Annotto
Negril Beach Negril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point,S Rocky
Alligator Pond Alligator
RockyPoint, C
LyssonsBeach
Harveys Beach Harveys
Port Port Henderson
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
Old Harbour Bay Harbour Old Falmouth fishing Village fishing Falmouth Beach
Figure 17: Percentages of Boat Use by the spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches. The first 11 beaches (left to right) are those on the north coast, while the remaining 12 are those on the south coast. N=148
Do you spearfish alone or in a group? If in a group, how many persons are usually in your group?
In response to this question, most spear-fishers stated that they spearfished
in small groups. Along both coasts, the most popular category was in groups of 1
to 2 spear-fishers (Fig. 18). Smaller groups were found to be more common on the
south coast than on the north i.e. 51% vs. 34% of spear-fishers worked in groups
of 1 to 2 along the south and north coast respectively.
Some of the spear-fishers interviewed worked in groups as large as 9 or
more spear-fishers, however this was a much less common occurrence, and such
large groups were only found on the North coast.
46
60%
51% 50%
40% 37% 34% 1 to 2 30% 28% 3 to 4 24% 5 to 6 Percentage (%) Percentage 20% 7 to 8 10% 9 or more 8% 10% 4% 3% 0% 0% North Coast South Coast Region
Figure 18: Percentages of Spear-fishers that worked groups of varying sizes. N=148
On an average spearfishing trip, how many hours do you spend in the water?
The average daily effort of the spear-fishers interviewed was found to be
between 2.5 to 8 hours per day. Along the North Coast, spear-fishers at
Manchioneal Beach, Portland were found put the greatest daily effort into
spearfishing, with an average of 7.3 ± 0.7 hours per day. Along the South Coast,
spear-fishers at St. Mary’s Beach, Westmoreland were found to dedicate the most
hours to spearfishing each day, with an average of 6 ± 1 hours per day (Figure
19).
47
9 8 7 6 5 4 3 Mean Time 2 (hrs/day) Time Spent (hrs/day) Spent Time 1
0
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
BlackRiver
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Sailors Hole
White River White
Whitehouse
Annotto Bay Annotto
Negril Beach Negril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point,S Rocky
Alligator Pond Alligator
Rocky Point,C Rocky
Lyssons Beach Lyssons
Harveys Beach Harveys
Port Port Henderson
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
OldHarbour Bay Falmouth fishing… Falmouth
Beach
Figure 19: Average daily effort (hrs. /day) of spear-fishers interviewed at all beaches. The first 11 beaches (left to right) are those interviewed on the north coast, while the remaining beaches are those on the south coast. The Error bars show the standard error of the data obtained. N=148.
When comparing the average daily effort of the spear-fishers by region, spear-
fishers along the North coast were found to have a greater average daily effort (4.6 ±
0.14 hours per day) than those on the south coast (4.5 ± 0.11 hours per day). Overall,
the spear-fishers interviewed put an average daily effort of 4.53 ± 0.09 hrs. per day
into spearfishing (Fig. 20)
48
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
Time (hours/day) Time Mean Time 4.3 (hrs/day)
4.2
4.1 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Region
Figure 20: The Average Daily effort (hrs. /day) of the spear-fishers interviewed by region. The error bars represent the standard error of the values obtained. N=148.
Spearfishing Depth
The spear-fishers interviewed were found to dive a wide range of average
depths, from as little as 3 meters to as deep as 25 meters. On the North Coast the
deepest divers operated from Manchioneal and Negril Beach and fished at an
average depth of 19.4 ± 1.0 m and 20.5 ± 3.4m respectively. On the South Coast,
the greatest average depth was similar to that on the North coast (20.4 ± 4.3 m)
and was done by divers that operated from Whitehouse, Westmoreland (Fig. 21).
49
30
25
20
15 Depth (m) Depth 10
5 Mean Depth (m)
0
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
BlackRiver
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Sailors Hole
White River White
Whitehouse
Annotto Bay Annotto
Negril Beach Negril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point,S Rocky
Alligator Pond Alligator
Rocky Point,C Rocky
Lyssons Beach Lyssons
Harveys Beach Harveys
Port Port Henderson
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
Old Harbour Bay Harbour Old Falmouth fishing Village fishing Falmouth
Beach
Figure 21: Average depth at which spear-fishers fished at all beaches interviewed. The first 11 beaches (left to right) are situated on the north coast, while the remaining 13 beaches are those interviewed on the south coast. The error bars represent the standard error of the data obtained. N= 148.
When comparing the North and South Coast, spear-fishers along the North
coast spearfished at shallower depths than those on the south coasts, with
averages depths of 12.2 ± 0.6 m and 12.7 ± 0.6 m respectively. Overall, the spear-
fishers interviewed worked at an average depth of 12.5 ± 0.4 m (Fig. 22).
50
13.5
13
12.5
12
Depth (m) Depth Mean Depth (m)
11.5
11
10.5 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Region
Figure 22: Average Spearfishing depth of the spear-fishers interviewed by region. The error bars represent the standard error of the data obtained. N= 148.
What are the six (6) most common fish species that you catch?
In response to this question, the spear-fishers listed the fish they were
most likely to catch from a day of spearfishing in order of popularity. As shown in
Table 4, the answers obtained show that, from the interviewed sample, the most
popular fish among spearfishing catch on the North Coast is the Stoplight
Parrotfish, while on the South Coast, the most popular fish species was the
Redtail Parrotfish. The less popular fish species included Snappers, Queen
Triggerfish and the Black Doctorfish.
51
Table 4: Ranking of the Fish Species (Common Names) caught by the spear-fishers interviewed by region.
Rank North Coast South Coast Island-wide 1 Stoplight Parrot Redtail Parrot Redtail Parrot 2 Stoplight Parrot Stoplight Parrot Stoplight Parrot Bluetang 3 Doctorfish White Grunt Stoplight Parrot Bluetang Bluestripe 4 Doctorfish Bluestripe Grunt Grunt Bluestripe 5 Bluestripe Grunt Bluestripe Grunt Grunt Mutton 6 Mutton Snapper Queen Triggerfish Snapper 7 Dog Snapper Black Doctorfish Doctorfish 8 Bluestripe Grunt Hog Snapper Hog Snapper
The following photos are images of the most popular fish species among
the catch of the spear-fishers interviewed with their scientific and common names
(Plate 4).
52
Plate 4: Images of the most popular fish species caught by the spear-fishers interviewed islandwide. A – Stoplight Parrotfish (Sparisoma viride), Courtesy of Gary Rinaldi, 2006, B - White Grunt (Haemulon plumieri), Courtesy of Matthew Hoelscher, 2009, C - Mutton Snapper (Lutjanus analis), Courtesy of Alfonso Gonzalez, 2007, D - Redtail Parrotfish (Sparisoma chrysopterum), Courtesy of Greg Grimes, 2009, E – Blue-Striped Grunt (Haemulon sciurus), Courtesy of Brian Gratwicke, 2009, F – Queen Triggerfish (Balistes vetula), Courtesy of “lowjumpingfrog”, 2010, G - Bluetang Doctorfish (Acanthurus coeruleus), Courtesy of Pat Hawkes, 2010, H - Hog Snapper (Bodianus rufus), Courtesy of Brian Gratwicke, 2010. All Photos used under the Creative Commons License.
Which Lobster and Crab Species do you catch?
On the North coast, the majority of the spear-fishers interviewed answered
that they caught lobsters and crabs. Only 19% of the North Coast spear-fishers
53
interviewed stated that they did not catch lobsters or crabs at all. The answers
varied in regards to which species they caught. The Caribbean Spiny Lobster
(Panulirus argus) was the most popular species caught and 37% of the spear-
fishers interviewed caught only this species. Other species were mentioned and
caught in varying combinations i.e. some spear-fishers caught any species of
lobster and crab that they saw (17%) while others only went after specific species
(Fig 23).
2% 2% Caribbean Spiny Lobster
3% 5% Do Not Catch Lobsters or Crab
7% Slipper Lobster, Spotted lobster, 37% Caribbean Spiny Lobster, Crab Spotted Lobster, Caribbean Spiny 8% Lobster, Slipper Lobster Crab, Caribbean Spiny Lobster
Spotted Lobster, Caribbean Spiny Lobster, Crab 17% Spotted Lobster, Caribbean Spiny Lobster 19% Caribbean Spiny Lobster, Slipper Lobster Slipper Lobster, Spotted lobster, Caribbean Spiny Lobster
Figure 23: Percentage of Spear-fishers that caught Lobster and Crab Species on the North Coast. N=64.
On the South coast, a similar percentage of spear-fishers caught no
lobsters or crabs (14%). A much larger percentage of the South coast spear-fishers
only caught the Caribbean Spiny Lobster (65%).
54
In both regions, the Spotted Lobster (Panulirus guttatus) and Slipper
Lobster (Scyllarides squammosus) species were not focus species, and only
caught in conjunction with the Caribbean Spiny Lobster and or the Red Channel
Crab (Mithrax spinosissimus).
Caribbean Spiny Lobster
1% 2% 2% Do Not Catch Lobsters or Crab 7%
Crab, Caribbean Spiny 9% Lobster
Spotted Lobster, Caribbean Spiny Lobster 14% Spotted Lobster, Caribbean 65% Spiny Lobster, Crab
Slipper Lobster, Spotted lobster, Caribbean Spiny Lobster, Crab Spotted Lobster, Caribbean Spiny Lobster, Slipper Lobster
Figure 24: Percentage of Spear-fishers that caught Lobster and Crab Species on the South Coast. N=84
Do you catch octopuses?
In response to this question, the majority of the spear-fishers interviewed
stated that they caught octopus but that it was not a part of their regular catch, and
they generally caught it to keep for themselves or to give away, as opposed to
55
catching them for commercial purposes. A similar percentage of spear-fishers on
both the North and South coasts did not catch octopuses at all (17% and 20%
respectively).
More divers on the South coast than on the North stated that they did not catch
octopuses often (Fig: 25)
70%
60% 60%
50%
40% 42% 41% Not Often Yes 30% No
20% 20% 20% 17% 10%
0% north south
Figure 25: The percentage of spear-fishers that caught octopus on the North and south Coast. N = 148.
Do you take anything else regularly, for example Conch or Squid?
On both the North and South coasts, the majority of spear-fishers
interviewed stated that they regularly caught “other catch”, which, in this
instance, represents Conch, Squid, and any other marine organism caught for
commercial purposes. A higher percentage of spear-fishers on the South coast
than on the North coast only focused on the species mentioned earlier in this
56
report and did not catch other species at all; 26% on the South coast and 16% on
the North (Fig. 26).
60%
55% 50%
40% 38% 36% 30% Yes 30% Not Often 26% Percentage (%) Percentage 20% No
16% 10%
0% north south Region
Figure 26: Percentage of the spear-fishers interviewed on the North and south Coasts that went after “other catch”. N=148.
If you sell your catch, how much do you sell it for per pound (by category): Snapper/Quality, Common, Trash?
The prices at which spearfishing catch was sold varied from beach to
beach, but overall, the prices obtained from spear-fishers on the North coast were
higher than those of spear-fishers on the South coast (Table 5). The overall
average selling prices are also shown in the table below.
57
Table 5: Average Prices at which the three categories of spearfishing catch are sold by the spear-fishers interviewed on the North and South coast.
Mean Quality Mean Common Mean Trash catch Catch Selling Catch selling price selling price Beach Price JA$/kg JA$/kg JA$/kg
North Coast River Bay Beach $ 771.62 $ 661.39 $ 523.60
Sailors Hole $ 760.59 $ 578.71 $ 496.04
Falmouth fishing Village $ 738.55 $ 630.52 $ 502.16
Negril Beach $ 712.09 $ 595.25 $ 468.48
Salem $ 679.76 $ 440.92 $ 385.81
Harveys Beach $ 672.41 N/A $ 507.06
White River $ 661.39 $ 551.16 $ 440.92
Annotto Bay $ 661.39 $ 440.92 $ 462.97
Pagee $ 639.34 $ 440.92 $ 440.92
Robins Bay $ 617.29 N/A $ 440.92
Manchioneal $ 502.16 $ 349.59 $ 269.45 Mean Selling Price/kg (North Coast) $ 674.24 $ 521.04 $ 448.94 Mean Selling Price/kg (North Coast) US$ $ 7.76 $ 6.00 $ 5.17
58
South Coast Hellshire $ 661.39 N/A $ 413.37
Port Henderson $ 654.59 $ 573.20 $ 496.04
Lyssons Beach $ 642.10 N/A $ 543.81
Old Harbour Bay $ 586.06 $ 413.37 $ 356.41
Smithfield $ 573.20 $ 440.92 $ 303.14
Alligator Pond $ 562.18 $ 440.92 $ 327.94
Black River $ 529.11 N/A N/A
St. Mary's Beach $ 518.09 $ 440.92 $ 319.67
Rocky Point, S $ 485.02 N/A $ 352.74
Rocky Point, C $ 470.99 N/A $ 305.64
Long Acre $ 449.74 N/A $ 330.69
Whitehouse $ 440.92 $ 330.69 $ 319.67 Mean Selling price/kg (South Coast) $ 547.78 $ 440.01 $ 369.92 Mean Selling Price/kg (South Coast) US$ $ 6.31 $ 5.07 $ 4.26 Islandwide Mean Selling Price/kg $ 611.01 $ 480.52 $ 409.43 Islandwide Mean Selling Price/kg US$ $ 7.04 $ 5.53 $ 4.71
59
Where do you sell your catch?
Of the 51 spear-fishers that dive on off-shelf locations, 11 (approx. 22%)
of them stated that they sold their catch on the associated cay. The cays on which
they sold their catch were Pedro Cay and Morant Cay. Most (9 out of 11) of
spear-fishers that sold their catch on off shelf locations also sold their catch within
their respective communities. Only 1% of all spear-fishers interviewed sold their
catch exclusively on off-shelf locations.
The most popular locations for selling their catch proved to be within their
respective communities, either at the beach from which they head out to sea, or in
the nearby market. This was the response of 96% of the spear-fishers interviewed
to the question of where they sold their spearfishing catch.
Very few of the spear-fishers interviewed, 3%, stated that they sold their
catch at locations other than their respective communities. Such locations
included other parishes and, in the case of two spear-fishers, directly to the owner
of the vessel on which they travelled to sea.
What would you say about catches over the past few years? Are they better now, or worse than when you started spearfishing?
Similar percentages were obtained in terms of the opinions of spear-fishers
regarding trends in fish catch over the last few years. The majority of the spear-
fishers on both coasts believe that there has been a decline in their spearfishing
catches over the last few years. A very small percentage (6% and 7% on the North
and South coast respectively) believe that their fish catch has actually increased in
60
the last few years, while the remaining percentage of each group believe that there
has been no change in their fish catch (Fig. 27 and 28).
No change in 30% catch Better Catch
Decline in Catch 64% 6%
Figure 27: Percentages of opinions of the North Coast spear-fishers interviewed regarding the trends in spearfishing catch over the last few years. N=64.
29% No change in catch Better Catch Decline in Catch 64% 7%
Figure 28: Percentages of opinions of the South Coast spear-fishers interviewed regarding the trends in spearfishing catch over the last few years. N=84.
Various reasons for the noticed decline in spearfishing catch were given
by the spear-fishers. Some reasons were mentioned more frequently than others,
61
allowing for a ranking of the reasons to be obtained. On the North Coast, the
primary cause of fish decline is believed (by the spear-fishers interviewed) to be
pollution (Table 6).
Table 6: Ranked Reasons given by Spear-fishers on the North Coast for the noticed decline in catch over the last few years.
Major Reasons given by North coast spear-fishers Rank for decline in catch Explanation
Spear-fishers believe that pollution, (in the form of sewage) from the hotels nearby in particular, as well as from nearby communities, is causing a decline in their catch. Also listed was pollution from gullies, garages (oil runoff) and nearby construction. sewage and waste from nearby 1. Pollution hotels, communities, garages, nearby construction Overfishing by compressor (hookah) divers, new 2. Overfishing divers, pot fishers with fine mesh, and night divers. Since the appearance of the lionfish on their fishing grounds, spear-fishers have noticed a Lionfish (Pterois decline in reef fish and believe the predation of 3. volitans) lionfish on juvenile reef fish to be responsible. Damage done to the reef by yearly hurricanes and Hurricane or Storm storms is believed to be the cause of the decline in 4. damage catch. Spear-fishers have noticed a decline in catch but 5. Unknown are unsure of the reasons. Dredging done in the area is believed to disturb 6. Dredging the fishing grounds and result in a decline in catch. Spear-fishers believe that the decline in catch is due to the natural migration of fish throughout 7. Natural Migrations the year. Spear-fishers listed increasing bad weather over the years as a reason for the noticed decline in 8. Bad Weather catch.
62
On the south Coast, the primary reason given by the spear-fishers
interviewed was Hurricane or Storm Damage (Table 7).
Many other reasons were mentioned and they are explained in Tables 6
and 7. Among them are overfishing, increasing bad weather periods and the
destructive effects of dynamite use.
Table 7: Ranked Reasons given by Spear-fishers on the South Coast for the noticed decline in catch over the last few years.
Major Reasons given by South coast spear-fishers Rank for decline in catch Explanation
Damage done to the reef by yearly hurricanes and Hurricane or Storm storms is believed to be the cause of the decline in 1. Damage catch.
Overfishing by compressor (hookah) divers, new 2. Overfishing divers, pot fishers with fine mesh, and night divers.
Pollution in the form of sewage from coastal communities, via harbours, as well as from roadside runoff is believed to contribute to the 3. Pollution decline in catch.
Spear-fishers believe that the decline in catch is due to the natural migration of fish throughout the 4. Natural Migrations year. Spear-fishers listed increasing bad weather over the years as a reason for the noticed decline in 5. Bad Weather catch. Since the appearance of the lionfish on their fishing grounds, spear-fishers have noticed a Lionfish (Pterois decline in reef fish and believe the predation of 6. volitans) lionfish on juvenile reef fish to be responsible.
63
Spear-fishers believe the use of dynamite for fishing destroys the reef and juvenile fish, resulting in the gradual decrease in fish population and 7. Dynamite Use therefore, fish catch. Spear-fishers have noticed a decline in catch but 8. Unknown are unsure of the reasons. Anchors of Ships that travel through fishing 9. Anchor Damage grounds are damaging the reefs.
What would you do if spearfishing was banned?
Island-wide, the responses to this question showed that the majority of the
spear-fishers interviewed would have no alternate form of income if spearfishing
were to be banned. 58% of the spear-fishers interviewed stated that they would
become unemployed (Fig. 29). The next most popular option was to practice
another fishing technique in order to make a living (24%). 7% stated that they
would be forced to find work outside of fishing. The other options foreseen by the
spear-fishers consist of a mixture of those previously mentioned.
1% 3% Unemployment 7% Other Fishing Technique 7%
Unemployment or other fishing technique Work outside of fishing 24% 58% Unemployment or Work outside of fishing Work outside of fishing or other form of fishing
Figure 29: Future Prospects of all spear-fishers interviewed if spearfishing were to be banned. N=148.
64
Lionfish Observations Do you see Lionfish?
All spear-fishers interviewed reported seeing lionfish (Pterois viridis) at
their regular spearfishing locations, with the only discrepancy being whether they
saw the all the time or only sometimes. Overall, 94% of the spear-fishers
interviewed stated that they saw lionfish all the time, while the remaining 6% saw
them sometimes (Fig. 30).
120%
100%
80%
60% Always 97% 94% Percetage (%) Percetage 90% Sometimes 40%
20%
3% 10% 6% 0% North Coast South Coast Overall Region
Figure 30: Percentage of spear-fishers that see lionfish in their regular fishing locations by region. N=148.
Do you shoot them?
Most of the spear-fishers interviewed stated that they shot lionfish while
spearfishing, either regularly or only sometimes (61% and 16% respectively). The
65
results also showed that more of the spear-fishers interviewed on the South Coast
(31%) than on the North Coast (14%) did not shoot lionfish at all (Fig. 31).
70%
66% 60% 61% 57% 50%
40% No 30% Yes 31% Percentage (%) Percentage Sometimes 20% 23% 20% 16% 10% 14% 12%
0% North Coast South Coast Overall Region
Figure 31: Percentage of the responses of the Spear-fishers interviewed as to whether lionfish were shot (by region). N=148.
How many lionfish do you see (for example: around one block of coral)?
The spear-fishers replied with varying estimates for the numbers of
lionfish seen. The range of numbers averaged between 3 and 22 lionfish (Fig. 32).
The beaches at which the highest estimates of lionfish were reported included
Harveys Beach on the North coast (19 ± 8 lionfish) and Black River on the South
coast (22 ± 14 lionfish).
66
40
35
30
25
20 Numbers 15
Average 10 Numbers of Lionfish Seen 5
0
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
BlackRiver
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Sailors Hole
White River White
Whitehouse
Annotto Bay Annotto
Negril Beach Negril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point,S Rocky
Alligator Pond Alligator
Rocky Point,C Rocky
Lyssons Beach Lyssons
Harveys Beach Harveys
Port Port Henderson
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
Old Harbour Bay Harbour Old Falmouth fishing Village fishing Falmouth Beach
Figure 32: Average numbers of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. The first 11 beaches (left to right) are situated on the north coast, while the remaining 13 beaches are those interviewed on the south coast. The error bars represent the standard error of the data obtained. N= 148.
However, as shown in Figure 32, large values of standard error were
obtained for the average numbers of lionfish seen by beach. The averages
obtained by region give a more precise estimate of the lionfish averages. Island-
wide, approximately 10 lionfish were seen in one area at any one point in time by
the spear-fishers interviewed (Fig.33).
67
11.5
11
10.5
10
9.5 Average
Numbers Seen Numbers of Lionfish Lionfish Seen of Numbers
9
8.5 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Region
Figure 33: Average Numbers of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by region. N = 148.
What are their average sizes?
When asked to estimate the average sizes of the lionfish they saw, the
average responses ranged between 0.2 kg and 0.8 kg. The largest sizes were given
by spear-fishers from Manchioneal Beach on the North coast (0.5 ± 0.2 kg) and
Whitehouse Beach on the South coast (0.8 ± 0.1 kg). Larger lionfish were
reported on the south coast than on the North coast (Fig. 34).
68
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
Estimated (kg) Size Estimated 0.4 Average Lionfish sizes seen 0.2 (kg)
0
Pagee
Salem
Hellshire
Smithfield
Long Long Acre
BlackRiver
Robins Bay Robins
Sailors Sailors Hole
White River White
Whitehouse
Annotto Bay Annotto
Negril Beach Negril
Manchioneal
Rocky Point,S Rocky
Alligator Pond Alligator
Rocky Point,C Rocky
Lyssons Beach Lyssons
Harveys Beach Harveys
Port Henderson Port
River Bay Beach BayRiver
St. Mary's Beach St. Mary's
Old Harbour Bay Harbour Old Falmouth fishing Village fishing Falmouth Beach
Figure 34: Average sizes of lionfish seen by the spear-fishers interviewed by beach. The first 11 beaches (left to right) are situated on the north coast, while the remaining 13 beaches are those interviewed on the south coast. The error bars represent the standard error of the data obtained. N= 148.
69
CALCULATIONS
Estimating the percentage of commercial fishermen in Jamaica that are spear- fishers. Through direct conversation with the spear-fishers at each beach visited,
estimates of the total number of spear-fishers at the particular beach were
obtained. These estimates included the newer, younger divers that were not yet
registered to a particular beach, more experienced spear-fishers that had never
been registered, and registered fishermen that practiced spearfishing, This resulted
in some of the figures obtained for the estimated number of spear-fishers at a
particular beach being larger than the registered number of fishermen as not all
fishermen are registered, as is the case with Breakfast Gap, St. Mary (Table 8).
Table 8: The number of registered fishermen and estimated number of spear-fishers operating from each beach visited. The number of fishermen registered to each beach was obtained from the Fisheries Division, 2012.
Number Estimated of number of registered spear- Beach Parish Fishermen fishers
Rocky Point Clarendon 1397 240
Salt River /Welcome Beach Clarendon 197 80 Barmouth/ Portland Cottage Clarendon 241 25
Orange Bay Hanover 91 5
Green Island Hanover 99 20
70
Lucea Beach Hanover 236 15
Sandy Bay Beach Hanover 95 30
Hopewell Hanover 71 20 Alligator Pond Manchester 459 30 Manchioneal Portland 369 40 Buff Bay Portland 77 14 Drapers Portland 44 15
Norwich Portland 48 15
Orange Bay Portland 63 15
Hope Bay Portland 116 20
Bryans Bay Portland 203 6 St. Margarets Bay Portland 76 0 Prospect Beach Portland 155 6
Blue Hole Portland 32 3
Fairy Hill Portland 13 5 Hectors River Beach Portland 16 3
Innes Bay Beach Portland 2 10 Long Bay Beach Portland 52 30 Priestmans River Beach Portland 17 10 Boston Beach Portland 16 15
Sailors Hole St. Ann 266 25
White River St. Ann 198 30
71
Salem St. Ann 103 20 Jail Lane (St. Ann’s Bay) St. Ann 132 26
Priory St. Ann 58 8 Swallow Hole (Runaway Bay) and Pear Tree Bottom St. Ann 92 43 Discovery Bay St. Ann 127 12
Old Folly St. Ann 41 10 Mammee Bay St. Ann 63 40 Port Henderson St. Catherine 592 102
Hellshire St. Catherine 424 25 Old Harbour Bay St. Catherine 1431 55 Long Acre St. Elizabeth 105 25
Black River St. Elizabeth 356 43 Harveys Beach St. James 37 25 River Bay Beach and railway lane St. James 473 15 Whitehouse and white sand St. James 231 10 Spring Garden St. James 33 9 Grange Pen St. James 59 15
Success St. James 37 15
Annotto Bay St. Mary 167 15
Robins Bay St. Mary 110 8
72
Pagee St. Mary 341 45 Dover and Windsor St. Mary 36 52 Castle Garden Beach St. Mary 13 50 Oracabessa Beach St. Mary 196 20 Boscobel Beach St. Mary 77 7 Breakfast Gap St. Mary 3 15 Rio Nuevo St. Mary 142 12 Rocky Point St. Thomas 173 30 Lyssons Beach St. Thomas 125 25 Falmouth fishing Village Trelawney 224 80 Derby Trelawney 23 7 Silver Sands Trelawney 24 8 Rio Bueno Trelawney 81 3
Braco Trelawney 31 15
Whitehouse Westmoreland 924 20
Smithfield Westmoreland 78 40 St. Mary's Beach Westmoreland 132 30
Negril Beach Westmoreland 380 30
Yallahs Beach St Thomas 219 15
Morant Bay St Thomas 245 10
Leith Hall St Thomas 83 12 Port Morant St Thomas 176 10 Old Pera St Thomas 32 25 Holland Bay St Thomas 56 30 Dalvey Beach St Thomas 69 27 Bull Bay (7 miles and 9 Kingston & St. miles) Andrew 212 25
73
TOTAL 13415 1891
Supported Facts:
Number of Registered Fishermen in Jamaica (Nr) = 15,000
Number of Fishermen registered to all beaches visited (Rs) = 13,415
Estimations:
Number of Spearfishermen estimated to be operating
from the beaches visited, (ESs) = 1,891
Estimated number of Fishermen (both registered and unregistered) operating in
Jamaica (Ea) = 20,000
Ratio (r) of Estimated number of Fishermen in
Jamaica (Ea) to Number of Registered Fishermen in Jamaica (Nr)
= Ea/Nr
= 20000/15000
= 1.33
Therefore,
Estimated number of Fishermen (both registered and unregistered)
operating from the beaches visited (Es) = r * Rs
= 1.33 * 13,415
= 17,887 fishermen
74
Estimated proportion of fishermen that are
spear-fishers operating from the beaches visited (p) = ESs / Es
= 1,891 / 17,887
= 0.106
Standard Error of the Estimated proportion “p”
= √ [p (1-p)] / √ Es
= √ [0.106 (1-0.106)] / √ 17,887
= 0.002
Therefore,
The estimated percentage of all fishermen that are spear-fishers is 10.6 ± 0.2%.
And
Approximately 2,120 of the estimated 20,000 fishermen in Jamaica are spear- fishers.
Effect of Air Supply type on the average number of hours spent Spearfishing each day. Calculations were done in an effort to determine whether or not the type of
air supply being used by spear-fishers had a significant effect on the amount of
time they put into spearfishing each day. The data obtained (Fig. 35) allowed for
the nonparametric Kruskal Wallis H Test to be carried out to determine if there
was a significant difference in the average time spent spearfishing using different
forms of air supply.
75
8.0
7.0 6.8
6.0 5.7
4.8 5.0 4.6 4.4 4.6
4.0 Hookah (Compressor) 3.5 3.4 3.5 Freelung
Hours per Day per Hours 3.0 SCUBA
2.0
1.0
0.0 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Region
Figure 35: Average Hours per day spent spearfishing using different types of air supply by region. N= 148.
Overall, spear-fishers that used a hookah/compressor apparatus while
spearfishing were found to spend more time (5.7 hours) spearfishing each day
than those who practiced freelung spearfishing or SCUBA spearfishing (4.6 and
3.5 hours respectively).
The Kruskal Wallis H Test done on the entire data set produced an "α
value" of less than 0.05, proving that the differences in time spent are significant
and not due to chanc
76
Effect of Air Supply type on the average weight of catch obtained by spear-fishers each day.
Testing was also done to determine if there was a significant difference in
the weight of the spear-fishers daily catch with respect to the different types of air
supply used. The data obtained showed that the overall averages of daily
catch(kg) were greatest for the users of the hookah apparatus by a large amount,
while the weight of the daily catch of SCUBA and freelung spear-fishers were
more similar to each other and much lower than that of hookah users (Fig 36).
100.0
90.0 87.9
80.0 72.9 70.0
60.0 57.9
50.0 Hookah SCUBA 40.0 Freelung
Weight of Daily Catch (kg) Catch Daily of Weight 30.0
20.0 16.3 14.7 15.5 11.6 8.9 10.0 6.2
0.0 North Coast South Coast Islandwide Region
Figure 36: Average weight of the daily catch of spear-fishers using different types of air supply by region. N= 148.
77
The results of the Kruskal Wallis H test done on the entire data set (values
obtained from all spear-fishers) produced an "α value" of less than 0.05, proving that
the differences in daily catch are significant and not due to chance.
Annual Income of Average Spearfisher (using average cost of quality catch)
JA$661.01/kg*18.12kg/day*4.4days/week*52 weeks/year =
JA$2,740,452.27/year
US Exchange Rate = 86.84:1 (according to the Bank of Jamaica, Jan 2012)
Therefore,
Annual Income of Average Jamaican Spearfisher = US$ (2740452.27/86.84)
= US$ 31,557.49
Annual Landings of Each Spearfisher
18.12kg/day*4.5days/week*52 weeks/year = 4,240.08 kg/year or 4.24 tonnes/yr.
78
DISCUSSION
The information gathered from this research was done in an effort to create a profile for spearfishing subsector of Jamaica’s fishing industry. The results obtained allow for such a profile to be presented and for conclusions to be drawn based on supported scientific data.
One hundred and forty eight (148) spear-fishers were interviewed island-wide. An attempt was made to sample 10-15 spear-fishers on the larger beaches and at least 5 spear-fishers on the smaller beaches. As such, 84 spear-fishers from selected beaches along the south coast were interviewed and 64 spear-fishers from the beaches visited along the north coast were interviewed. Interviews were done at more of the larger beaches on the south coast than on the north coast.
The selection of beaches was made based on the knowledge of active members of the Fisheries Division that spear-fishers operated from these beaches.
The average age of the spear-fishers interviewed was found to be 36 years. Spearfishing is a physically strenuous form of fishing, and the average age obtained supports the theory that persons who spearfish regularly are mostly able-bodied men. The standard error values obtained for the data were relatively small, allowing for an assumption of the overall accuracy of the averages.
The age analysis of the spear-fishers interviewed also suggests that the average spearfisher, aged 36, may continue to spearfish at least for the next 9 years, until age 45
(the upper limit of average ages obtained), and possibly longer. The ages of the younger spear-fishers lend support to the theory of spearfishing as a distinct and stable sector as they have the potential to continue spearfishing for at least the next 24 years.
79
The number of years of experience in the fishing industry of the average spearfisher was 18 ± 0.4 years. This, combined with the average age of the spear-fishers interviewed, suggests that the fishers start fishing for commercial purposes from about 18 years old. Data obtained from this question also showed that the spear-fishers on the
North coast had, on average, two more years of experience in the fishing industry, than those on the South coast.
Overall, the a little over half of the spear-fishers interviewed (51%) stated that they practiced “spearfishing only” as their main fishing technique, while the remaining interviewees practiced spearfishing in conjunction with other forms. What this means is that the majority of spear-fishers rely completely on spearfishing for their income from the fishing industry. More spear-fishers on the south coast than on the north coast practiced spearfishing only (63% vs. 32%), suggesting that spearfishing is currently more popular on the south coast than on the north coast. A possible reason for this may be the fact that the island shelf on the south coast extends much further than that on the north coast, which allows the spear-fishers on the south coast to have a greater area in which to hunt reef fish. The north island shelf is limited in this respect, extending only 1.6 km from the mainland.
Other techniques used in conjunction with spearfishing included Net Fishing,
Line Fishing, and Pot Fishing. These techniques were mainly used secondarily to spearfishing.
Night Diving, which is defined here as the act of spearfishing at night through the use of regular spearfishing gear and a waterproof light source, has been shown to not be a significant activity among the majority of spear-fishers, with approximately 73% of all
80 the spear-fishers interviewed stating that they did not practice night diving. This result may have been influenced by the fact that at the time of this research, a ban on night diving was in place, however, many of the spear-fishers interviewed seemed unaware of this ban. Very similar percentages of the sampled spear-fishers on the North and South coast replied that they did practice night diving (26% and 29% respectively). This suggests that, while it may not be met amiably by 100% of spear-fishers, enforcement of the current ban on night diving may prove to be both feasible and efficient.
The ban on night diving was put in place in an attempt to reduce the over- exploitation of Jamaica’s reef fisheries. During the night, the fish are in a resting state, and are much more vulnerable and easily caught than during the daytime when they have an opportunity to see their predators and attempt to swim away. Without this opportunity, the night diving spear-fishers are able to completely deplete an area of resting reef fish and therefore contribute even more greatly to the overfished state of the reef fisheries.
Spearfishing was found to be done mainly on the island shelf by 82% of all the spear-fishers interviewed. This is not to say that they did not also spearfish at “off-shelf” locations, only that off-shelf spearfishing was not their regular practice. These “onshelf” locations were generally within a few miles of the coast of their respective parishes. The specific locations mentioned by the spear-fishers in each parish are highlighted in Table
4. Some of the names of the on-shelf locations that were supplied by the sampled group are believed to be more provincial names, and not the official names of the areas.
A ranking of the popularity of the mentioned off-shelf locations was done, yielding the result that Pedro Cay was the most popular location for off-shelf spearfishing for the sampled group.
81
Other off-shelf locations at which spearfishing was done included Morant Cay,
Grappler Cay, Walters Bank and Formigas Bank. This is in accordance with the profile of
Jamaica’s fishing grounds, whereby the majority of fishing by artisanal commercial fishers is done within the island shelf and Pedro Cay is the most popular off-shelf location for fishing. Pedro Cay, well known as an off shore fishing location for Jamaican fishermen, has been under continuous fishing pressure for many years. Organisations such as The Nature Conservancy are currently working with the Jamaican government to establish a Fish Sanctuary on Pedro Bank to relieve some of this pressure (Meggs, 2011).
The effort put into spearfishing by the sampled group was found to be very high.
The interviewed spear-fishers fished an average of 4.4 days per week, making one trip to sea per day. They were asked how many times they went under to spearfish in a day. As can be expected, the freelung spear-fishers made many short dives, while those who used
SCUBA or a hookah apparatus made far fewer dives.
The number of dives made by hookah users was dependent on how proficient the spearfisher was, the availability of fish at a chosen location, and how comfortable he was staying underwater for long periods of time. Air Supply was not a major limiting factor.
In the case of SCUBA users, they dived as many times as the availability of compressed air tanks would allow. They most often went out with one or two tanks each, and used one tank of compressed air per dive. Limiting factors for the users of SCUBA gear include the cost of refilling and renting air tanks, as well as the time and depth at which they can spearfish safely.
All spear-fishers interviewed employed the use of a speargun, whether homemade or commercially bought. Overall, most of the sampled spear-fishers (77%) used
82 commercial spearguns. As a device that allows for specific targeting, the speargun allows spear-fishers to have complete control of what they catch and, if used appropriately, will result in no by-catch. This is an important note when comparing this fishing gear type to others (for example, seine nets) for which the catch is not controlled and by-catch may include pregnant, juvenile, and otherwise environmentally unsuitable catch.
The use of basic gear (mask, fins and, in the case of freelung spear-fishers, a snorkel tube) by all the spear-fishers interviewed suggests a minimum expense in terms of equipment needed to seriously spearfish commercially.
The majority of all spear-fishers interviewed (67%) practiced freelung spearfishing. This technique was found to be more popular on the North coast than on the
South coast, which may also be due to the narrow northern shelf and the increased danger in using hookah or SCUBA apparatus at the deeper areas beyond the northern island shelf.
The use of hookah apparatus was observed to be the next most popular gear used in terms of breathing apparatus. This may be due to its relatively simple use and maintenance and the advantages of not running out of air and diving as deep as the hose being used will allow. However, many of the spear-fishers appear to have learned the hard way about the dangers of being underwater (with an increased ambient pressure) for extended periods of time, and the researcher made notes of many reports of spear-fishers developing decompression sickness (“the bends”), potentially fatal embolisms, and even deaths resulting from the detachment of the hookah hose from the compressor and subsequent loss of air supply. This highlights the importance of ensuring that spear-
83 fishers using compressed air have an understanding of what it is they are doing and the associated risks.
SCUBA users were found to be the minority of the sampled group, and are somewhat more limited. Limiting factors for the users of SCUBA gear include the cost of refilling and renting air tanks and gear, as well as the time and depth at which they can spearfish.
The average daily catch of the spear-fishers interviewed was 18.1 ± 1.8 kg.
Beaches along the South Coast had a larger daily catch than those on the North, with the exception of Manchioneal Beach, Portland (at which all spear-fishers interviewed dived at Pedro Cay). This may be due to the greater availability of reef fish, due to the larger portion of island shelf on the south coast, or due to the fact that a higher percentage of south coast spear-fishers use a hookah apparatus than the spear-fishers interviewed on the north coast. Testing for the statistical significance of changes in weight of daily catch with gear usage was done and is discussed later in this report.
When looking at the yearly effort of the spear-fishers interviewed, the results were also found to be unexpectedly high. The interviewees at 17 out of the 23 beaches visited stated that they spearfished all year round, whenever good weather gave them an opportunity. Therefore, thus far, the effort of the spear-fishers interviewed consists of an average of 4.4 days per week and approximately 48 weeks per year (excluding holidays and margining for illness).
Boats were found to be used consistently by almost every spearfisher interviewed on the South Coast, as opposed to the North Coast, where boat use was not as common.
Approximately half of the North coast spear-fishers interviewed did not use boats while
84 spearfishing. This supports the earlier data of Hookah being less popular on the North coast than on the south as a boat is required for the usage of a hookah apparatus. It also suggests another point at which the costs of spearfishing is reduced for freelung spearfishers as they may not have boat associated expenses for example gas, boat rental and /or boatman (pilot).
Freelung spear-fishers, unencumbered by heavy equipment, are able to swim out to their (on-shelf) fishing sites.
Very few spear-fishers reported that they spearfished alone. The greatest category of grouping was found to be “1-2” with an emphasis on “2” spear-fishers in each group.
Larger groupings were also reported, with as many as 9 spear-fishers working together at a time. Although it may or may not be intentional, this is a safe practice for any form of diving, as the presence of others reduces the risks (drowning, mismanagement of air supply, diving too deep) of diving. This also speaks to the high effort being put into spearfishing by the spear-fishers interviewed.
Spearfishing is a physically taxing task, and as such, the values obtained for daily effort, in terms of hours per day, were once again higher than expected. Maximums of an average of 8 hours per day were obtained. Overall, the average time spent spearfishing each day by the sampled spear-fishers was found to be 4.53 ± 0.09 hours. The time spent spearfishing each day is limited by the stamina of the spearfisher, the availability of compressed air (for SCUBA users), and the availability of fish in the selected area.
The depth at which the interviewees fished varied widely, ranging from 3m to
25m. Overall, the sampled group was found to dive an average depth of 12.5 ± 0.4 m.
The fishing depth is affected by many variables, including the expertise level of the
85 spearfisher, the lung capacity of freelung spear-fishers, the location at which spearfishing is done (shallow vs. deep, on-shelf vs. off-shelf), and in the case of SCUBA users, the availability of air within their tanks.
The species of fish mainly targeted by spear-fishers are in accordance with the commercially popular fish species of the Caribbean region. Parrotfish (the Sparisoma family) was found to be the most targeted species followed by Grunts (Haemulon family) and Doctorfish (Acanthurus family). This ranking deviates from the study done by
Clemetson in 1994, where it was observed that the Lutjanidae family was the most targeted species. This is likely due to the decrease in Lutjanidae population reported by the spear-fishers interviewed and therefore availability as a result of the over-exploitation of Jamaica’s reef fisheries. This population shift may be an indicator of the fate of the
Sparisoma family, as they have currently replaced the Lutjanidae family in terms of popular demand.
The majority of the spear-fishers interviewed islandwide (83.5%) stated that they caught lobsters and crabs regularly, more so, on the south coast than on the north coast.
They also stated that they only caught the lobsters during the lobster season, and did their best to not catch juveniles or pregnant individuals and focused mainly on the Caribbean
Spiny Lobster. This, along with the daily weight of their catch which includes the lobster and crab species caught, may suggest that spear-fishers make a certain contribution to
Jamaica’s Lobster and Crab fisheries.
Octopus is also caught by the spear-fishers, although the majority of interviewees stated that they did not catch them often. They are not generally caught for commercial purposes, and are usually kept by the spear-fishers or given away at no cost.
86
When asked if they caught anything else on a regular basis, the majority of spear- fishers on the north coast (55%) responded that they did, while fewer (but still the majority) spear-fishers on the south coast focused on other catch regularly. Other catch included Conch, Squid and any other commercially valuable marine organisms. This may suggest that the spear-fishers of Jamaica also contribute in a significant way to the Conch
Fisheries of the country. Also, by way of diving, and not necessarily shooting, spear- fishers may also be major contributors to what appears to be a growing Sea Cucumber
Fishery in Jamaica.
The prices at which the spear-fishers catch is sold varied minutely within each coast, but a clear distinction was observed between the North Coast prices and the South
Coast prices. North Coast prices averaged JA$674.24/kg, JA$521.04 and JA$448.94/kg for Quality, Common and Trash species respectively, while the South Coast prices averaged JA$547.78/kg, $440.01/kg and JA$369.02/kg. The difference between these figures averages approximately $JA60. This is likely due to the tourism centered state of the North Coast, and a general increase in the cost of living in a tourism area in comparison to a non-tourism area. Many of the spear-fishers interviewed stated they only caught Quality species, consisting mainly of Parrotfish, Grunts, and, intermittently,
Snappers.
The fish catch of the spear-fishers interviewed were sold either on their registered beach, a nearby market, within the nearest community or on the off-shelf cay at which the spearfishing was done. The catch was mainly sold to the most available market, the fish vendors that provide continuous business for the spear-fishers. As most spear-fishers
87 lived within the community near to the beach from which they operate, selling to customers within this area proves to be feasible and cost effective for them.
The opinions of the sampled spear-fishers on both the North and South coast reflected that the majority of them (64%) believe that there has been a significant decline in fish catch over the last few years, for a number of reasons. These reasons have been ranked in tables 6 and 7, which highlight that major reasons include Pollution,
Overfishing, and Hurricane Damage to Reefs.
Sources of pollution included major hotels and runoff from nearby gullies. This opinion is supported by many scientific studies stating that the pollution of Jamaica’s coastal waters is a major concern towards both conservation and the fishing industry. A recent example of this is a study done on the effects of sewage pollution on the coral reef macroalgae, showing an increase in sewage nitrogen pollution between 1998 and 2002, following decades of intensive development as a major tourism destination (LaPointe et al, 2011). The pollution of Jamaica’s marine resources is, as stated, a major concern, and
Jamaica is currently party to conventions (for example, the Cartagena Convention) as well as has many acts and policies in place to protect the marine environment and fishing industry. However progress in this area has been somewhat restricted as, according to an interview with Dr. Karl Aiken, Lecturer in Fisheries Biology and Member of the
Fisheries Advisory Board, "They (successive administrations) have been consistently giving less to the fishing industry, leaving it resource-less to carry out its functions of monitoring and managing the industry." (Manning, 2008).
Very few of the spear-fishers interviewed (6.5%) believe that their fish catch has gotten better. Due to the minority of this opinion, a possible reason for this belief may be
88 the increase in efficiency of the individual spear-fishers or the discovery of a relatively unexploited area by the particular interviewee. Approximately one third of the spear- fishers interviewed have observed no change in the last few years.
If spearfishing were to be banned, the majority of the spear-fishers interviewed
(58%) stated that they would no longer have a way to make a living and would become unemployed. Approximately one quarter of the sample stated that they would earn a living through another fishing technique. The large proportions of those that believe they would become unemployed suggest the dependency of the spear-fishers on the technique, and predict negative socio-economic repercussions of a complete ban on spearfishing.
The final section of the questionnaire was dedicated to lionfish and the observations of the sampled spear-fishers regarding them. What was learned is that
Lionfish (Pterois viridis) are seen on every spearfishing occasion by at least 94 % of the spear-fishers interviewed, in groups averaging 10 individuals and approximately 0.3 kg in size each. This data supports what is currently known of the invasion of the lionfish species, that they are widespread and numerous. Without serious mitigation action, these populations will continue to grow. Approximately 76% of the spear-fishers interviewed stated that they shot lionfish, either always or sometimes, while others, wary of its toxic spines, prefer to keep their distance from the fish.
Other Notes
Of note is the fact that all the spear-fishers interviewed at Manchioneal, Portland reported that they only fished at “off-shelf” locations. Manchioneal Beach also stands out as an outlier in terms of the weight of daily catch and the number of hours spent
89 spearfishing each day. Both values were found to be the greatest of those obtained on overall. Also, all spear-fishers interviewed at Manchioneal used a hookah apparatus when diving. These findings, along with the calculations done (to be discussed later in this report), lend support to the suggestion that a ban on the use of Hookah apparatus may prove effective in mitigating the impact of spearfishing on Jamaica’s reef fishery.
Among the observations made is the interesting development of a technique in which spear-fishers simultaneously using spearfishing gear and nets to drive the fish towards the net, pen them and then shoot desired fish that do not strike the net.
Calculations
Using the data gathered from the records of the Fisheries Division and the estimates given by the spear-fishers spoken to, the estimated number of spear-fishers in
Jamaica was calculated. The estimates of the number of spear-fishers at each beach did not differentiate registered from unregistered spearfishermen. As such, it had to be used as a proportion of the estimated number of spear-fishers at each beach visited (including registered and unregistered fishermen). This figure was extrapolated from the estimated total number of fishermen in Jamaica (20,000 fishermen).
It was therefore calculated that 10.6% of all fishermen, approximately 2,120, out of the estimated total of 20,000 fishermen in Jamaica, practice spearfishing.
This figure is much larger than that obtained from the previous report (2%) on spearfishing in Jamaica, however, due to the greatly increased sample size and further detail of this study, this is believed to be the most accurate figure.
The Kruskal Wallis H Test was done to test two hypotheses:
90
1. That the average time spent spearfishing is equal for all types of air supply
2. That the average weight of daily catch is equal for all types of air supply
The results of the tests rejected both these hypotheses, producing alpha values of
0.000 and 0.001 respectively (Appendix D). This means that the differences in these variables are not occurring by chance and are the result of the effect of the different types of air supply.
The Kruskal Wallis H Test was chosen as it allows for the significance of nonparametric data, such as is presented in this report, to be measured.
The annual income of the average spearfisher was calculated to be
US$31,557.49/year, and the annual landing of each spearfisher was calculated to be 4.24 tonnes/year. These values put the contribution of spear-fishers to the Jamaican Fishing industry into perspective as the current annual landing of the country is 7000 tonnes/year.
This means that each spearfisher potentially contributes as much as 0.06% of the annual marine landings.
Sources and Margins of Error
The standard error bars seen throughout the results section of this report work to give the reader an idea of the accuracy of the data. The majority of the standard error values were relatively small, allowing for an assumption of accuracy of the data to be made. In some instance where the error bars where more noticeable, a larger sample size for the particular beach may have been needed to reduce the chances of inaccuracy.
91
Conclusions The results of this report establish spearfishing as a distinct subsector of Jamaica’s fishing industry. It is currently unregulated, and due to the extremely overexploited condition of Jamaica’s reef fishery, this is a factor that needs to be dealt with as soon as possible. A complete ban on spearfishing would not be well received due to the large percentage of spear-fishers that rely on it completely to support themselves and their families, however, regulations may be better received. Also, spear-fishers may play a key role in the control of the invasive Lionfish species. The researcher has made the following recommendations towards the management of the spearfishing subsector:
1. The dangers of spearfishing need to be publicized in order to reduce the risk of
illness and death as a result of a lack of knowledge. This may also result in a
decrease in the number of new spear-fishers as the public becomes more aware of
the risks.
2. A complete ban on spearfishing is not recommended, rather strict regulations
should be put in place including one or more of the following:
a. Enforcement of the complete ban on Night Diving. Heavy fining is
suggested.
b. A ban on the use or importation of Hookah apparatus (proven to allow for
a significantly greater daily catch weight than SCUBA and Freelung).
c. Size regulations for the targeted fish.
d. All fishermen that spearfish should be registered as such.
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(Jamaica), Sector Position Paper on Fisheries
Aiken, K.A. 1993. Jamaica, in Marine Fishery Resources of the Antilles: Lesser
Antilles Puerto Rico, Cuba, Jamaica and Hispaniola. FAO. Fish. Tech. Pap. 326,
Rome: 1160-1180
Australian Underwater Federation, 2004, http://www.auf-spearfishing.com.au/,
retrieved on January 23rd, 2011
CFRAMP 2000. Jamaica National Marine Fisheries Atlas. CARICOM Fishery Report
No. 4 Kingston: 53 p
Clemetson, A.O., 1994, An investigation of the Jamaican South Shelf Coral Reef
Fisheries using catch and effort data, Unpublished M.Phil. Thesis, UWI, Zoology
Dept., Mona: 136pp
Encyclopedia Americana, The, (Volume 25, p. 461), 1978, Connecticut: Americana
Corporation
Encyclopedia of the Nations,
http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Americas/Jamaica.html, retrieved on
July 11th, 2011
Gill D., McConney P., Mahon R., 2007, “A socio-economic profile of fisheries in the
Grenadine Islands” CERMES Technical Report No. 11 69pp
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Guthrie, Dale (2005) the Nature of Paleolithic Art. Page 298. University of Chicago
Press. ISBN 0226311260
Halcrow, Sir William & Partners Ltd., 1998. South Coast Sustainable Development
Study: Phase 1, Prepared for the Government of Jamaica. Tech. Rept. 2, (of 14 vols),
Marine Resources, Kingston
LaPointe B.E., Thacker K., Hanson C., Getten L., 2011, Sewage pollution in Negril,
Jamaica: effects on nutrition and ecology of coral reef macroalgae, Chinese Journal of
Oceanology and Limnology, Vol. 29 No. 4, P. 00-00, DOI: 10.1007/s00343-011-
0000-0
Manning G., 2008, March 16, Hotel pollution drives fish away - UWI scientist downplays impact of climate change, The Jamaica Gleaner, retrieved from www.jamaica-gleaner.com.
Meggs, L., 2011, The Establishing of Jamaica’s First Offshore Protected Area –The
Pedro Cays Fish Sanctuary ,Conference Proceedings of the JIEP's 5th Conference on the Environment: Balancing National Development and Environmental Protection
Munro J.L , 1983 “Caribbean Coral Reef Fishery Resources”, Page 3, .,ICLARMP
Special Publications No. 7, Manila, Philippines, 245pp
MyFWC.com, 2011, The Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission, http://myfwc.com/RULESANDREGS/Saltwater_Regulations_spearing.htm, retrieved on January 23, 2011
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Ocean Hunter Ltd, 2010, http://www.oceanhunter.co.nz/EDUCATION/Spearfishing/Types+of+Spearfishing.ht ml, retrieved on Jan 18, 201
Passley D, Aiken K., Perry G., 2010, Characterization of Jamaican Spearfishing
Activities.
Passley, D., 2009, Characterization of Jamaican Spearfishing Activities
Roberts, Callum. The Unnatural History of the Sea, Island Press, 2007, p. 238
Sary, Zsolt, 2001, ‘The Small Scale Reef Fishery on the Central North Coast of
Jamaica in 2000-2001: A Biological and Socio-Economic Survey”, ICLARM, p.1
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25th, 2011
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APPENDIX A
Table 9: Names and Aliases of All Spear-fishers Interviewed.
Beach Parish Name Alias
Rocky Clarendon Kenroy Kenroy
Point, C Grant
Rocky Clarendon Steve 90 Pound
Point, C Powell
Rocky Clarendon Joseph Joseph
Point, C Crawford
Rocky Clarendon Laurel Silverman
Point, C Richmond
Rocky Clarendon Winston Bredda
Point, C Bissiney
Rocky Clarendon Garth Garth
Point, C Ferguson
Rocky Clarendon Uton Fuller Car
Point, C
Rocky Clarendon Vincent Fiberman
Point, C Richmond
Rocky Clarendon Kemthon Rotten Box
Point, C Jones
Rocky Clarendon Joseph Breadfruit Head
Point, C Williams
97
Rocky Clarendon Assalovan Artist
Point, C Scott
Rocky Clarendon Albert Breezy
Point, C Mckenzie
Rocky Clarendon Ricardo Floodboy
Point, C Crawford
Alligator Manchester Lloyd Lloyd
Pond Robinson
Alligator Manchester Basil Boon
Pond Powell
Alligator Manchester Roxroy Down
Pond Powell
Alligator Manchester Leon Leon
Pond Wilson
Alligator Manchester Mark Marky
Pond Wilson
Alligator Manchester Comar Bulla
Pond Sinclair
Alligator Manchester Randal Randall
Pond Ford
Alligator Manchester Leon Muta
Pond McDonald
Alligator Manchester Peter Ford Antony
98
Pond
Alligator Manchester Sefton Sefton
Pond Bromfield
Manchioneal Portland Gary Bull
McKenzie
Manchioneal Portland Michael Eddie White
Davis
Manchioneal Portland Roger John Joe
Brown
Manchioneal Portland Patrick Kayda
Kenton
Manchioneal Portland Dwayne Bagga
Bailey
Manchioneal Portland Mansel Bye
Gordon
Manchioneal Portland Roger Roger
Rodney
Manchioneal Portland Omar Boongsy
Coulson
Manchioneal Portland Romain Face
McDonald
Sailors Hole St. Ann Richard Richie
Morris
99
Sailors Hole St. Ann Bruce Lee Come-a-shop
Morris
Sailors Hole St. Ann Kirkland Old School
Henry
Sailors Hole St. Ann Syvan Captain
Sexton
Sailors Hole St. Ann Raymond Waterbird
Taylor
White River St. Ann Curtis Ninja
Simpson
White River St. Ann Sheldon Thicka
Clarke
White River St. Ann Antony Cowskin
Allen
White River St. Ann Stilford Jack-I
Blundy
Salem St. Ann Rorie Lobban Boy
Bennett
Salem St. Ann Carlisle Mac
McFarlane
Salem St. Ann George Spragga
Bailey
Salem St. Ann George Juicy
100
Henry
Salem St. Ann Norris Chuck Norris
Henry
Salem St. Ann Michael Dog
Francis
Port St. Catherine Dicky Matural
Henderson Wallace
Hellshire St. Catherine Everton Pickney
Smith
Hellshire St. Catherine Moses Pitt Pitt
Hellshire St. Catherine Karhounda Monday
White
Hellshire St. Catherine Cleveland Lawyer
Taylor
Hellshire St. Catherine George Turbo
Powell
Old Harbour St. Catherine Andrew Prezy
Bay Simpson
Old Harbour St. Catherine Jermaine Frassy, Rasta
Bay Clark
Old Harbour St. Catherine Herman Diver
Bay Coley
Old Harbour St. Catherine Herbert Yellow
101
Bay Fannel
Old Harbour St. Catherine Carlton Yellow
Bay Rodney
Old Harbour St. Catherine Davian Daddy Biggs
Bay Davis
Old Harbour St. Catherine Anthony Shoot First
Bay Hibbert
Old Harbour St. Catherine Christopher Bigga
Bay Willis
Old Harbour St. Catherine Andrew Zeddy
Bay Nemhard
Old Harbour St. Catherine Leroy Barry
Bay Abdul
Old Harbour St. Catherine Vincent Vash
Bay Jordan
Old Harbour St. Catherine George George
Bay Facey
Port St. Catherine Deron Foodie
Henderson Leckie
Port St. Catherine Rohan Papa
Henderson McCarty
Port St. Catherine Ricardo Boogie
Henderson Wright
102
Port St. Catherine Donovan Cookie
Henderson Scott Lee
Port St. Catherine Michael Rainbow
Henderson Green
Port St. Catherine Carlos Captain
Henderson Chatrie
Port St. Catherine Granville Granville
Henderson Black
Port St. Catherine Michael Mikey
Henderson Williams
Port St. Catherine Augustus Jughead
Henderson Williams
Port St. Catherine Steve Steve
Henderson McQueen
Hall
Port St. Catherine Vincent Joshee
Henderson Brown
Long Acre St. Elizabeth O'Brian Lumber
Lyons
Long Acre St. Elizabeth Kenrick Hero
Bowes
Long Acre St. Elizabeth Robert Robert
Honeyghan
103
Long Acre St. Elizabeth Oneil Poochee
Henry
Long Acre St. Elizabeth Sheldon Billy
Ducalley
Black River St. Elizabeth Oneil Mawga
Daley
Black River St. Elizabeth Neville Mutty
Ebanks
Harveys St. James Rylon Lepre (chaun)
Beach Johnson
Harveys St. James Conroy Weedy
Beach Brown
Harveys St. James Isaac Zack
Beach Taylor
Harveys St. James Kenyouth Hammer
Beach Haughton
Harveys St. James Donovan Crawb-up
Beach Rose
River Bay St. James Ferdival Ferdi
Beach McMahon
River Bay St. James Spence Raggy
Beach Cornelius
River Bay St. James Nicolas Nicky
104
Beach Collins
River Bay St. James Dalton Taylor
Beach Grey
River Bay St. James Ian Overdose
Beach Beswick
Annotto Bay St. Mary Ricardo Tucku
Cameron
Annotto Bay St. Mary Favian Tommy
Molar
Annotto Bay St. Mary Lionel Mug
Downer
Annotto Bay St. Mary Everald Tantan
Williams
Annotto Bay St. Mary Everton Cisco
watson
Robins Bay St. Mary Linton Grismo/ LuhLuh
McFarlane
Robins Bay St. Mary Marlon Marlon
Simpson
Robins Bay St. Mary Collin Mutty
Saunders
Robins Bay St. Mary Patrick Pancho
Smith
105
Robins Bay St. Mary Shavon Shavy
Saunders
Pagee St. Mary Leon Wiggles
Mordecai
Pagee St. Mary Steven Cali
Ashman
Pagee St. Mary Oral Jacko
Davidson
Pagee St. Mary Donovan Shooter
Francis
Pagee St. Mary Donovan Babba
Green
Rocky St. Thomas Gilmore Nish
Point, S Sterling
Rocky St. Thomas Rohan Leggy
Point, S Fagan
Rocky St. Thomas Kenneth Bama
Point, S Davidson
Rocky St. Thomas Franklyn Guy
Point, S Nelson
Lyssons St. Thomas Kyle Kyle
Beach Kilburn
Lyssons St. Thomas Steve Pickey
106
Beach Ricketts
Lyssons St. Thomas Antoneil Neily
Beach Wilkinson
Lyssons St. Thomas Ronald Batchelor
Beach Thompson
Lyssons St. Thomas Dene Medium
Beach Andre
Boothe
Lyssons St. Thomas Julian Diego
Beach Alford
Falmouth Trelawney Marvin Cakesoap Jackson fishing samuels
Village
Falmouth Trelawney Courey Ziggy fishing Brown
Village
Falmouth Trelawney Robert Doc fishing Robinson
Village
Falmouth Trelawney Christopher Bad Blood fishing Reynolds
Village
107
Falmouth Trelawney Andre Scooter fishing Foster
Village
Falmouth Trelawney Richard Richkid fishing Green
Village
Falmouth Trelawney Vernon O'niel fishing Blackwood,
Village Jr.
Falmouth Trelawney Osbourne Paragon fishing Mowatt
Village
Falmouth Trelawney Dennis Humpty fishing Edwards
Village
Falmouth Trelawney Gerald Remo fishing Spence
Village
Whitehouse Westmoreland Jaffeth Leatherman/Crawny
Robinson
Whitehouse Westmoreland Howard Wire Dog
McDonald
Whitehouse Westmoreland Vincent Night Diver
108
Johnson
Whitehouse Westmoreland Junior Junior
Stewart
Whitehouse Westmoreland Oshane Oshane
Daley
Smithfield Westmoreland Uriah Parrot
Dillion
Smithfield Westmoreland Osbourne Ozzie
Morales
Smithfield Westmoreland Alfred Cox
Brown
Smithfield Westmoreland Antony Blackbird
Morales
Smithfield Westmoreland Delroy Chineyman
Russel
St. Mary's Westmoreland Mark Blacka
Beach Taylor
St. Mary's Westmoreland Harry Junior
Beach Owen
St. Mary's Westmoreland Sherlock Biscuit
Beach Vassel
St. Mary's Westmoreland Trevor Ranks
Beach Blair
109
St. Mary's Westmoreland Carlton Colour
Beach Taylor
Negril Westmoreland Daniel Killa
Beach Daley
Negril Westmoreland Floyd Mega
Beach Forrester
Negril Westmoreland Antonio Tony
Beach Scott
Negril Westmoreland Dennis Beggaman
Beach Brown
Negril Westmoreland Dennis John
Beach Evans
110
APPENDIX B
Samples of Spearfishing Catch from Various Beaches Visited
All Photographs taken by Z. Ennis, 2011
Plate 5: A sample of Spearfishing Catch from Old Harbour Bay
Plate 6: A second sample of Spearfishing Catch from Old Harbour Bay
111
Plate 7: Sample of Spearfishing catch from Annotto Bay.
Plate 8: A Spearfisher and his catch in Portland
112
APPENDIX C
Selected photos of Spear-fishers and Gear
Plate 9: An Air Compressor, an integral part of the Hookah apparatus, at Long Acre Beach
Plate 10: The hose used in conjunction with the compressor in the Hookah Apparatus. Taken at Long Acre.
113
Plate 11: Compressed Air Cylinders (tanks) at Port Henderson.
Plate 12: A freelung spearfisher and his gear at Old Harbour Bay
114
Plate 13: A freelung spearfisher and his gear in Portland.
115
APPENDIX D
Kruskal Wallis H Tests
Air Supply and Daily Catch (kg)
Ranks
Air Supply N Mean Rank Compressed Air Cylinder 20 91.13
Freelung 97 55.29 Daily Catch (kg) Hookah 31 123.89 Total 148
Test Statisticsa,b
Daily Catch (kg) Chi-Square 63.879 df 2 Asymp. Sig. .000
a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Air Supply
116
Air Supply and Daily Effort (hours per day)
Ranks
Air Supply N Mean Rank Compressed Air Cylinder 20 44.15 Freelung 97 75.36 Daily Effort (Hours per Day) Hookah 31 91.39 Total 148
Test Statisticsa,b
Daily Effort (Hours per Day)
Chi-Square 15.063 df 2 Asymp. Sig. .001
a. Kruskal Wallis Test b. Grouping Variable: Air Supply
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