The Planting Design Handbook Second Edition To my parents, Arthur and Margaret Robinson The Planting Design Handbook Second Edition Nick Robinson Illustrations by Jia-Hua Wu © N. H. Robinson 2004 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. Nick Robinson has asserted his moral right under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act, 1988, to be identified as the author of this work. Published by Ashgate Publishing Limited Gower House Croft Road Aldershot Hants GU11 3HR England Ashgate Publishing Company Suite 420 101 Cherry Street Burlington, VT 05401–4405 USA Ashgate website: http://www.ashgate.com British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Robinson, Nick, 1954– The planting design handbook. – 2nd ed. 1.Planting design 2.Landscape architecture I.Title 715 ISBN 0754630358 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Robinson, Nick, 1954– The planting design handbook / Nick Robinson -- 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references. ISBN 0-7546-3035-8 1. Planting design. 2. Landscape design. I. Title. SB472.45.R64 2003 712’.6--dc21 2003045231 ISBN 0 7546 3035 8 Typeset by Bournemouth Colour Press, Parkstone, Poole, UK. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd., Guildford and Kings Lynn. Contents Figures xi Plates xvii Tables xxxv Acknowledgements xxxvii Preface to the Second Edition xxxix Introduction xli PART 1: PRINCIPLES 1 Why Design? 3 Planting Design – an Expression of Function 4 Planting Design as Management of Natural Vegetation Processes 6 Planting Design for Aesthetic Pleasure 8 What is Successful Planting Design? 8 2 Plants as a Medium for Design 10 Plants as Living Materials 10 Environmental Factors 11 Cycles of Plant Growth and Development 12 Aftercare 13 The Landscape Designer’s View of Plants 16 Plants as Spatial Elements 16 Plants as Ornament 19 Plant Selection 21 Functional and Aesthetic Considerations in Design 26 3 Spatial Characteristics of Plants 28 Spatial Functions of Plants in the Human Landscape 28 Ground-level Planting (Carpeting Plants) 28 Shrubs and Herbaceous Plants Below Knee Height (Low Planting) 30 Knee to Eye Level Planting (Medium Height Planting) 33 Planting Above Eye Level (Tall Shrub/Small Tree Planting) 33 Tree Planting 36 4 Creating Spaces with Plants 43 The Experience of Space 43 The Use of Spaces 44 vi Contents The Elements of Spatial Composition 45 Enclosure 45 Degree of Enclosure 46 Permeability of Enclosure 48 Dynamics 49 Shape 51 Vertical Proportion 56 Slope 56 Focus 58 Symmetric Focus 58 Asymmetric Focus 60 Focus on the Boundary 60 External Focus 62 5 Composite Landscape 65 Spatial Organizations 66 Linear Organizations 67 Clustered Organizations 67 Contained Organizations 70 Hierarchy of Spaces 73 Hierarchy According to Function 73 Transitions 78 Transitions between Abutting Spaces 80 Transitions between Interlocking Spaces 80 Transitional Spaces 80 Entrance Zones 80 6 Visual Properties of Plants 84 Subjective and Objective Responses to Plants 84 The Analysis of Visual Characteristics 86 Form 86 Prostrate and Carpeting Forms 87 Hummock, Dome and Tussock Forms 88 Erect or Ascending Form 90 Arching Form 91 Palm Form 92 Succulents and Sculptural Form 92 Oval Upright Form 93 Conical Form 94 Fastigiate and Columnar Forms 94 Tabulate and Level Spreading Form 96 Open Irregular Form 96 Trained Form 97 Line and Pattern 98 Ascending Line 99 Pendulous Line 100 Horizontal Line 100 Diagonal Line 101 The Quality of Line 101 Texture 103 Fine Texture 103 Coarse Texture 104 Medium Texture 105 Contents vii Colour 105 Hue 105 Value 106 Saturation 107 Colour Perception 107 Colour Effects 108 Visual Energy 109 Combining Plants 109 7 Principles of Visual Composition 110 Five Principles of Visual Composition 110 Harmony and Contrast 110 Balance 113 Emphasis and Accent 113 Sequence 117 Scale 118 Movement and Viewing Angles 119 Unity and Diversity in Planting Design 121 Planting Ideas 121 Inspiration 129 8 Plant Assemblages 131 Plant Communities 131 Forest Structures 131 Two Principles 133 Designing with Canopy Layers 134 Some Typical Canopy Structures 135 Deciduous Cool Temperate Communities (Europe and North America) 136 Three-layer Canopy Structures 136 Two-layer Canopy Structures 140 Single-layer Canopy Structures 142 Evergreen Temperate Communities (New Zealand) 145 Emergent Trees/Tree Canopy/Sub-canopy/Shrub Layer/Herb Layer 145 Tree Canopy/Shrub and Sapling Layer/Herb Layer 145 Bush Canopy/(Shrub and Sapling Layer)/(Field Layer) 145 Low Tree Canopy/Shrub and Sapling Layer/Field Layer 147 Shrubland Communities 147 Herb-dominated Communities 147 Design Interpretation 148 Horticultural Factors in Plant Associations 149 Growth Requirements 150 Relative Competitiveness 150 Mode of Spread 151 Increase by Seed 151 Vegetative Increase 151 Habit 153 Longevity and Life Cycles 153 Plant Knowledge 154 viii Contents PART 2: PROCESS 9 A Method for Planting Design 159 Inception 160 Initial Contact With the Client 160 Brief 161 Understanding: Gathering and Organizing Information 162 Survey 162 The Landscape Assessment 165 Synthesis – Generating and Organizing Ideas 168 Planting Policies 168 Design Concept 168 Schematic Planting Design 170 Masterplan 170 Sketch Planting Proposals 170 Detailed Planting Design 180 Working Drawings 186 Specifications 193 Realization 193 Planting 193 Establishment 196 Management 197 Learning Through the Design Process 198 PART 3: PRACTICE 10 Structure Planting 201 Introduction 201 Forest and Woodland 201 Designing Forest and Woodland 203 What Functions will the Forest or Woodland Perform? 203 What Canopy Structure is Ultimately Required? 203 What are the Soil and Climatic Conditions? 203 What Forest Species Already Grow Successfully Nearby? 204 How Will the Forest or Woodland be Perpetuated? 204 Planting Mixes 205 High Forest/High Canopy Woodland 206 Approaches 206 Layer Components 208 Nurse Crops 209 Developing a Planting Mix 210 Constituents of the Mix 211 Mix Proportions 214 Spacing and Setting Out 215 Subsidiary Mixes 222 Low Forest/Low Woodland 222 Shrub Thicket 226 Woodland Scrub 229 High Scrub 229 Edges 229 Tall Edge 233 Low Edge 234 Outlying Groups 234 Contents ix Clumps and Copses 235 Woodland and Forest Belts 236 Hedges and Hedgerows 237 Hedges 238 Hedgerows 241 Urban and Garden Hedges 242 Perimeter Hedging 246 Avenues 247 Avenue Species 248 Setting Out and Spacing 250 Trained Trees and Vines 252 11 Ornamental Planting 254 General Planting Areas 254 Layout of Planting Areas 255 Planting Arrangement 257 Canopy Layers 257 Successional Growth 260 Composition and Scale 260 Accents 261 Accent Groups 263 Planting Patterns 264 Ecological Ornamental Planting 266 Plant Spacing 267 Setting Out 271 Raised Planting and Container Planting 272 Walls, Pergolas, Trellis and other Vine Supports 274 Ornamental Planting in Specialized Habitats 277 12 Conclusion 279 References and Further Reading 280 Index 284 This page intentionally left blank Figures All drawings are by Jia-Hua Wu, Head of the Environmental Art Department, Zhejiang Academy of Fine Arts, Hangzhou, China, except where otherwise indicated. 2.1 Mature tree form. 13 2.2 Tree form development. 13 2.3 Stages of development of tree, shrub and groundcover planting. 14 2.4 Stages of development of woodland planting. 15 2.5 Trees: form and space. 17 2.6a Large-scale structure planting of woodland belts creates a framework for various land uses. 19 2.6b Small-scale structure planting of trees, shrubs and hedges creates spaces for various people and uses. 19 2.7 This axonometric vividly illustrates how tree planting will form the green spatial structure to a new community. (Design and drawing, Landscape Design Associates) 22 2.8 Planting can create the floor, walls and ceiling of intimate outdoor rooms. 23 2.9 The function complex (after Papanek, 1985). 26 3.1 Ground-level planting (carpeting plants). 29 3.2a Planting below knee height (low planting). 31 3.2b Knee to eye level planting. 32 3.3a, b Medium shrub planting. 34–5 3.4a, b Tall shrub planting. 37–8 3.5a, b, c Trees. 39–41 4.1 Degrees of enclosure. 49 4.2 Permeability of enclosure. 50 4.3 Static spaces and motive spaces. 53 4.4 Static and motive spaces may be combined. 54 4.5 Linear motive spaces. 55 4.6 Height to width ratio of static and linear spaces. 57 4.7 Slope can create an inward or an outward orientation. 59 4.8 A focus or landmark. 59 4.9 A symmetric focus. 60 4.10 An asymmetric focus. 61 4.11a The focus may be located on the boundary. 62 xii Figures 4.11b The focus may be beyond the space. 62 4.12 The character of any space is a product of its enclosure, dynamics and focus. 63 5.1 Linear progression of spaces. (Drawing: Nick Robinson) 66 5.2 Studley Royal, North Yorkshire. A linear progression of spaces formed by tree avenues and woodland clearings along the valley of the River Skell, culminating in the ruins of Fountains Abbey. (Drawing: Nick Robinson) 68 5.3 Clustered spaces related by proximity. 70 5.4 Circulation in clustered spaces. 70 5.5 Neath Hill, Milton Keynes. Residential, park and garden spaces cluster around a central open space. (Design and drawing: Nick Robinson) 71 5.6 Hidcote Manor, Gloucestershire. A complex of spaces clustered around the Theatre Lawn and organized about two major axes at right angles. (Drawing: Nick Robinson) 72 5.7 Types of contained spatial organization. 73 5.8 Dartington Hall, Devon. The Tilt Yard is the focal space contained within enveloping woodland. (Drawing: Nick Robinson) 74 5.9 Contained spaces. 76 5.10 Garden at Newport Rhode Island by Christopher Tunnard, 1949. The lawn, enclosed by clipped hedges, is contained within the boundary wall and tree planting. (Drawing: Nick Robinson) 76 5.11 Spatial hierarchy.