DOCSLIB.ORG

Science, Objectivity & Racism

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
Science, Objectivity & Racism THE AMERICAN Editorial BIOLOGYTEACHER Science, Objectivity- & Racism Scientists enjoy a privileged position in society. We're often associated with Editor: Randy Moore, Biology Department, advances such as antibioticsand useful inventions, and attachingthe word "scien- University of Louisville, tific" to a claim attractsattention and adds prestige. This results from our record Louisville, KY 40292, Phone: (502) 852-6490, of enhancingthe qualityof life (antibioticshave saved lives and reduced suffering) E-mail: [email protected] as well as our persistent claims (and the public's widespread acceptance) that Managing Editor: Christine Chantry scientists are "objective."For most things-especially science-relatedissues-this is usually true; we often change our conclusions and viewpoints about a topic Associate Editor: Kris Collum when presented with new compelling evidence. However, such changes are Publisher: Wayne W. Carley usually inconsequentialto us; for example, I'm not especially bothered by chang- Editorial Staff: Kay Acevedo, Carmen ing my ideas about the structure of a protein or the composition of a fungal Altamirano, Cheryl Merrill spore. But what happens when scientists are challenged about something that ABT Production Office: they do hold dear or-more interestingly-that is part of their worldview? What Downloaded from http://online.ucpress.edu/abt/article-pdf/61/4/242/48886/4450664.pdf by guest on 01 October 2021 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, #19, happens when our values are challenged? Do we remain objective, or do we Reston, VA 20190-5202,Phone: (703) 471-1134, rationalizeour beliefs despite evidence to the contrary?We like to think that our objectivity applies to our values; I've seen many scientists and others change Fax: (703) 435-5582, E-mail: [email protected], their views of the world as they learned more about the world. However, in Web site: www.nabt.org many instances,personal values overcome scientificobjectivity; witness the blind faith of young-Earthcreationists despite the overwhelming evidence contradicting their conclusions. The clash between objectivityand values often has significant Account Executive:Kerrie Brooks, consequences. Take, for example, racism. Network Publications, 10155 York Rd. #205, There is a long history of people invoking science to support racist ideas. For Hunt Valley, MD 21030, Phone: (410) 628-0390 example, Stephen Gould points out in EverSince Darwinthat recapitulationwas a leading argument for racists in the late 19th century. When recapitulation E-mail:[email protected] was discarded, some of the racists also discarded their conclusions, but others conveniently found new "scientific data" to maintain their racist beliefs. The sanction of scientificobjectivity was a convenient cloak to select evidence to reach Biology Today: Maura C. Flannery, the a prioriconclusions that the scientists (and others) wanted to hear. Even Louis St. John's University, Jamaica, NY 11439 Agassiz, the leading biologist of the mid-19th century,believed that God created Book Reviews: Rita Hoots, blacks and whites as separate species. Later, similarly flawed arguments (such as those based on "scientific"measurements of skulls) enforced racistbeliefs that Yuba Community College, 41605 Gibson Rd., European whites were a separate and superior species compared to African Woodland, CA 95776 blacks. Since the conclusions were what the people wanted to hear, the flawed Classroom Technology Reviews nature of the arguments was irrelevant. AV Reviews: Rachel Hays, 7020 Pueblo Ave. B., Many scientists have invoked evolutionary biology to support their racist Prescott Valley, AZ 86314 beliefs. For example, one group claimed that blacks were inferior because of ProjectorReviews: Bill Belzer, Clarion Univer- an evolutionary accident involving less challenging environments. Others have sity-Venango Campus, Oil City, PA 16301 rejected evolution and embraced Christianityas having "scientific proof" that blacks are apes, that Genesis prohibits race-mixing,that God destroyed Man in Software Reviews: Richard Duhrkopf, Baylor a worldwide flood because Man had mixed races, and that blacks should serve Waco, TX 76798 University, whites. Innumerablepeople have used creationistclaims of blacks being created separately from whites to justify racism;some have even claimed that evolution 1998, 1996, 1993 is the Satanicbasis for racism and virtually all other societal ills. Many people- 1992, 1990, 1989 1998 scientistsincluded-have been anythingbut objectivewhen searchingfor support Distinguished for their racist ideas. From early eugenicists to TheBell Curve,pseudoscience has Achievement been used repeatedly to support racism in the 20th century. Award Winner Although we would like to think otherwise, science remains tainted by racism. For example, many biologists continue to use racially offensive names for many plants (e.g., Niggerhead = Enneapogonnigricans; Nigger-toes = Bertholletiaexcelsa; of Please Change Address: promptly notify Coolie's cap = Holmskioldiasanguina). These names are often excused with dis- us of a change of address. Simply provide your claimers such as, "I didn't name this plant, but I'm bound by scientific integrity old mailing label along with your new mailing address and send to: TheAmerican Biology to report its name." Teacher,11250 Roger Bacon Drive, #19, Reston, It's easy to be objective about things for which we don't care. I don't care all VA 20190-5202. that much that protein X has a new structure;neither does my neighbor, who is a janitor. However, it's much more difficult to be objective about our values, To Submit Articles: All articlesshould be despite the factthat such objectivityis the only kind of objectivitythat reallycounts. sent directly to Editor Randy Moore. Editorial guidelines are available by contacting NABT directly at 11250 Roger Bacon Drive, #19, Randy Moore Reston, VA 20190-5202. Editor .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • A Feminist Epistemological Framework: Preventing Knowledge Distortions in Scientific Inquiry
    Claremont Colleges Scholarship @ Claremont Scripps Senior Theses Scripps Student Scholarship 2019 A Feminist Epistemological Framework: Preventing Knowledge Distortions in Scientific Inquiry Karina Bucciarelli Follow this and additional works at: https://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses Part of the Epistemology Commons, Feminist Philosophy Commons, and the Philosophy of Science Commons Recommended Citation Bucciarelli, Karina, "A Feminist Epistemological Framework: Preventing Knowledge Distortions in Scientific Inquiry" (2019). Scripps Senior Theses. 1365. https://scholarship.claremont.edu/scripps_theses/1365 This Open Access Senior Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Scripps Student Scholarship at Scholarship @ Claremont. It has been accepted for inclusion in Scripps Senior Theses by an authorized administrator of Scholarship @ Claremont. For more information, please contact [email protected]. A FEMINIST EPISTEMOLOGICAL FRAMEWORK: PREVENTING KNOWLEDGE DISTORTIONS IN SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY by KARINA MARTINS BUCCIARELLI SUBMITTED TO SCRIPPS COLLEGE IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS PROFESSOR SUSAN CASTAGNETTO PROFESSOR RIMA BASU APRIL 26, 2019 Bucciarelli 2 Acknowledgements First off, I would like to thank my wonderful family for supporting me every step of the way. Mamãe e Papai, obrigada pelo amor e carinho, mil telefonemas, conversas e risadas. Obrigada por não só proporcionar essa educação incrível, mas também me dar um exemplo de como viver. Rafa, thanks for the jokes, the editing help and the spontaneous phone calls. Bela, thank you for the endless time you give to me, for your patience and for your support (even through WhatsApp audios). To my dear friends, thank you for the late study nights, the wild dance parties, the laughs and the endless support.
    [Show full text]
  • Objectivity in the Feminist Philosophy of Science
    OBJECTIVITY IN THE FEMINIST PHILOSOPHY OF SCIENCE DISSERTATION Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requisites for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate School of The Ohio State University By Karen Cordrick Haely, M.A. ***** The Ohio State University 2003 Dissertation Committee: Approved by Professor Louise M. Antony, Adviser Professor Donald C. Hubin _______________________ Professor George Pappas Adviser Philosophy Graduate Program ABSTRACT According to a familiar though naïve conception, science is a rigorously neutral enterprise, free from social and cultural influence, but more sophisticated philosophical views about science have revealed that cultural and personal interests and values are ubiquitous in scientific practice, and thus ought not be ignored when attempting to understand, describe and prescribe proper behavior for the practice of science. Indeed, many theorists have argued that cultural and personal interests and values must be present in science (and knowledge gathering in general) in order to make sense of the world. The concept of objectivity has been utilized in the philosophy of science (as well as in epistemology) as a way to discuss and explore the various types of social and cultural influence that operate in science. The concept has also served as the focus of debates about just how much neutrality we can or should expect in science. This thesis examines feminist ideas regarding how to revise and enrich the concept of objectivity, and how these suggestions help achieve both feminist and scientific goals. Feminists offer us warnings about “idealized” concepts of objectivity, and suggest that power can play a crucial role in determining which research programs get labeled “objective”.
    [Show full text]
  • Notes for Our Seminar: Objectivity and Subjectivity
    Notes for our seminar: Objectivity and Subjectivity B.M. December 14, 2019 Contents I A preview and overview of the topics we may cover 2 1 The nature of our seminar-course 3 II Readings and Notes for the sessions of Sept 11, Oct 2, Oct 30, and part of Dec 4 13 2 Readings for the September 11 session 13 2.1 Excerpt from [9] . 14 3 Some notes for Sep 11: Subjectivity, Universal Subjectivity, Objectivity 15 3.1 Objective . 16 4 Readings for October 2: 25 5 Notes for Oct 21 session: Objectivity and Subjectivity in Mathematics 36 5.1 What is the number `A thousand and one'?....................... 37 5.2 Plato ............................................ 38 5.3 `Tower Pound' definition ................................ 39 1 5.4 J.S. Mill .......................................... 39 5.5 Georg Cantor: ...................................... 40 5.6 Gottlob Frege (∼ 1900) ................................ 41 5.7 Foundations::: or Constitutions ............................. 43 5.8 David Hilbert ....................................... 43 5.9 L.E.J. Brouwer ...................................... 46 5.10 The simple phrase \and so on::: "............................ 48 6 Readings for October 30, 2019: (Shades of Objectivity and Subjectivity in Epistemology, Probability, and Physics) 50 7 Notes for October 30, 2019:(Shades of Objectivity and Subjectivity in Epistemology, Probability, and Physics) 51 8 Subjectivity and Objectivity in Statistics: `Educating your beliefs' versus `Test- ing your Hypotheses' 55 8.1 Predesignation versus the self-corrective nature of inductive reasoning . 57 8.2 Priors as `Meta-probabilities' . 59 8.3 Back to our three steps . 61 8.4 A numerical example and a question . 62 9 Issues of Subjectivity and Objectivity in Physics 63 10 Consequentialism of Meaning|notes for part of session of December 4 65 11 Dealing with nonexistent objects 69 2 Part I A preview and overview of the topics we may cover 1 The nature of our seminar-course Phil273O (Objectivity and Subjectivity) will be the fourth seminar- course I've taught with Amartya Sen and Eric Maskin.
    [Show full text]
  • National Conference on Science and the Law Proceedings
    U.S. Department of Justice Office of Justice Programs National Institute of Justice National Conference on Science and the Law Proceedings Research Forum Sponsored by In Collaboration With National Institute of Justice Federal Judicial Center American Academy of Forensic Sciences National Academy of Sciences American Bar Association National Center for State Courts NATIONAL CONFERENCE ON SCIENCE AND THE LAW Proceedings San Diego, California April 15–16, 1999 Sponsored by: National Institute of Justice American Academy of Forensic Sciences American Bar Association National Center for State Courts In Collaboration With: Federal Judicial Center National Academy of Sciences July 2000 NCJ 179630 Julie E. Samuels Acting Director National Institute of Justice David Boyd, Ph.D. Deputy Director National Institute of Justice Richard M. Rau, Ph.D. Project Monitor Opinions or points of view expressed in this document are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the official position of the U.S. Department of Justice. The National Institute of Justice is a component of the Office of Justice Programs, which also includes the Bureau of Justice Assistance, Bureau of Justice Statistics, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention, and Office for Victims of Crime. Preface Preface The intersections of science and law occur from crime scene to crime lab to criminal prosecution and defense. Although detectives, forensic scientists, and attorneys may have different vocabularies and perspectives, from a cognitive perspective, they share a way of thinking that is essential to scientific knowledge. A good detective, a well-trained forensic analyst, and a seasoned attorney all exhibit “what-if” thinking. This kind of thinking in hypotheticals keeps a detective open-minded: it prevents a detective from ignoring or not collecting data that may result in exculpatory evidence.
    [Show full text]
  • Practical Objectivity: Keeping Natural Science Natural Alan G
    Luther Seminary Digital Commons @ Luther Seminary Faculty Publications Faculty & Staff choS larship 2012 Practical Objectivity: Keeping Natural Science Natural Alan G. Padgett Luther Seminary, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: https://digitalcommons.luthersem.edu/faculty_articles Part of the Christianity Commons, Philosophy of Science Commons, and the Religious Thought, Theology and Philosophy of Religion Commons Recommended Citation Padgett, Alan G., "Practical Objectivity: Keeping Natural Science Natural" (2012). Faculty Publications. 309. https://digitalcommons.luthersem.edu/faculty_articles/309 Published Citation Padgett, Alan G. “Practical Objectivity: Keeping Natural Science Natural.” In The Blackwell Companion to Science and Christianity, edited by J. B. Stump, 93–102. Chichester, West Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the Faculty & Staff choS larship at Digital Commons @ Luther Seminary. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Publications by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ Luther Seminary. For more information, please contact [email protected], [email protected]. st, NY: Human- 9 sily Press. Press. ress. the Science and Practical Objectivity dbnok of Religion Keeping Natural Science Natural a Feminist Cos­ · ckwick Publica- ALAN G. PADGETT dt!dge. A good Should natural science go natural (so to speak) or is there room in a properly natural science ieces by Code, for kinds of explanation other than natural ones? Is there room in a properly natural science for appeal to intelligent agency, for example?' This is the key question of our chapter, . Elmsford, NY: and it will take us some way into the philosophy of science and the relationship between d how biology science and Christian faith.
    [Show full text]
  • Objectivity in Science and Law a Shared Rescue Strategy
    View metadata, citation and similar papers at core.ac.uk brought to you by CORE provided by University of Essex Research Repository International Journal of Law and Psychiatry 64 (2019) 60–70 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect International Journal of Law and Psychiatry journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/ijlawpsy Objectivity in science and law: A shared rescue strategy T ⁎ Matthew Burcha, , Katherine Furmanb a University of Essex, School of Philosophy and Art History, Wivenhoe Park, Colchester CO4 3SQ, United Kingdom b University College Cork, Department of Philosophy, College Road, Cork, Ireland ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: The ideal of objectivity is in crisis in science and the law, and yet it continues to do important work in both Objectivity practices. This article describes that crisis and develops a shared rescue strategy for objectivity in both domains. Science In a recent article, Inkeri Koskinen (2018) attempts to bring unity to the fragmented discourse on objectivity in Law the philosophy of science with a risk account of objectivity. To put it simply, she argues that we call practi- Psychiatry tioners, processes, and products of science objective when they identify and manage certain important epistemic Epistemic risk risks. We endorse this view and attempt to tailor Koskinen's strategy to the problem of objectivity in the legal Phronetic risk context. To do so, we develop a novel notion of phronetic risk, and argue that we call practitioners, processes, and products of law objective when they identify and manage certain important epistemic and/or phronetic risks. Our attempt to rescue objectivity is especially important for work at the intersection of law and psychiatry.
    [Show full text]
  • Resolving the Problem of Induction July 24, 2010
    Resolving the Problem of Induction July 24, 2010 July 24, 2010 Summer Seminar 1 July 24, 2010 Summer Seminar 2 Resolving the Problem of Induction Problem of Induction If this problem cannot be solved or resolved, Milo Schield then objectivity is impossible If truth is non-objective, then Conceptual Literacy Project • science is non-objective Summer Seminar If values are non-objective, then Chicago Illinois RIF July 24, 2010 • Ideology is non-objective • Religion is non-objective www.StatLit.org/pdf/2010Schield3Seminar6up.pdf This is the biggest problem since Hume (1748) July 24, 2010 Summer Seminar 3 July 24, 2010 Summer Seminar 4 Problem of Induction Hume: Wikipedia The Problem of Induction the philosophical question of whether inductive In general, it is not necessary that causal relation in the future reasoning leads to knowledge. That is, what is the resemble causal relations in the past, as it is always conceivable justification for either: otherwise. • generalizing about the properties of a class of objects The uniformity principle cannot be demonstrated, as it is based on some number of observations of particular "consistent and conceivable" that nature might stop being regular. instances of that class? [All swans are white] “even after the observation of the frequent or constant conjunction • presupposing that a sequence of events in the future of objects, we have no reason to draw any inference concerning will occur as it always has in the past? For example, any object beyond those of which we have had experience” for presupposing that the laws of physics will hold as Note the presence of “may”, “possible,” “conceivable” and “no they have always been observed to hold.
    [Show full text]
  • Reexamining the Problem of Demarcating Science and Pseudoscience by Evan Westre B.A., Vancouver Island University, 2010 a Thesis
    Reexamining the Problem of Demarcating Science and Pseudoscience By Evan Westre B.A., Vancouver Island University, 2010 A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of MASTER OF ARTS ©Evan Westre, 2014 All Rights Reserved. This thesis may not be reproduced in whole or in part, by photocopy or other means, without the permission of the author. Supervisory Committee Reexamining the Problem of Demarcating Science and Pseudoscience By Evan Westre B.A., Vancouver Island University, 2010 Dr. Audrey Yap: Supervisor (Department of Philosophy) Dr. Jeffrey Foss: Departmental Member (Department of Philosophy) ii Abstract Supervisory Committee Dr. Audrey Yap: Supervisor (Department of Philosophy) Dr. Jeffrey Foss: Departmental Member (Department of Philosophy) The demarcation problem aims to articulate the boundary between science and pseudoscience. Solutions to the problem have been notably raised by the logical positivists (verificationism), Karl Popper (falsificationism), and Imre Lakatos (methodology of research programmes). Due, largely, to the conclusions drawn by Larry Laudan, in a pivotal 1981 paper which dismissed the problem of demarcation as a “pseudo-problem”, the issue was brushed aside for years. Recently, however, there has been a revival of attempts to reexamine the demarcation problem and synthesize new solutions. My aim is to survey two of the contemporary attempts and to assess these approaches over and against the broader historical trajectory of the demarcation problem. These are the efforts of Nicholas Maxwell (aim-oriented empiricism), and Paul Hoyningen-Huene (systematicity). I suggest that the main virtue of the new attempts is that they promote a self-reflexive character within the sciences.
    [Show full text]
  • 1 Phil. 4400 Notes #1: the Problem of Induction I. Basic Concepts
    Phil. 4400 Notes #1: The problem of induction I. Basic concepts: The problem of induction: • Philosophical problem concerning the justification of induction. • Due to David Hume (1748). Induction: A form of reasoning in which a) the premises say something about a certain group of objects (typically, observed objects) b) the conclusion generalizes from the premises: says the same thing about a wider class of objects, or about further objects of the same kind (typically, the unobserved objects of the same kind). • Examples: All observed ravens so far have been The sun has risen every day for the last 300 black. years. So (probably) all ravens are black. So (probably) the sun will rise tomorrow. Non-demonstrative (non-deductive) reasoning: • Reasoning that is not deductive. • A form of reasoning in which the premises are supposed to render the conclusion more probable (but not to entail the conclusion). Cogent vs. Valid & Confirm vs. Entail : ‘Cogent’ arguments have premises that confirm (render probable) their conclusions. ‘Valid’ arguments have premises that entail their conclusions. The importance of induction: • All scientific knowledge, and almost all knowledge depends on induction. • The problem had a great influence on Popper and other philosophers of science. Inductive skepticism: Philosophical thesis that induction provides no justification for ( no reason to believe) its conclusions. II. An argument for inductive skepticism 1. There are (at most) 3 kinds of knowledge/justified belief: a. Observations b. A priori knowledge c. Conclusions based on induction 2. All inductive reasoning presupposes the “Inductive Principle” (a.k.a. the “uniformity principle”): “The course of nature is uniform”, “The future will resemble the past”, “Unobserved objects will probably be similar to observed objects” 3.
    [Show full text]
  • Realism and the Epistemic Objectivity of Science
    Realism and the Epistemic Objectivity of Science Howard Sankey Abstract The paper presents a realist account of the epistemic objectivity of science. Epistemic objectivity is distinguished from ontological objectivity and the objectivity of truth. As background, T.S. Kuhn's idea that scientific theory-choice is based on shared sci- entific values with a role for both objective and subjective factors is discussed. Kuhn's values are epistemologically ungrounded, hence provide a minimal sense of objectivity. A robust account of epistemic objectivity on which methodological norms are reliable means of arriving at the truth is presented. The problem remains that deliberative judgement is required to determine the relevance and relative significance of a range of methodological norms. A role is sketched for cognitive virtues which may be exercised in the course of the deliberative judgement. Keywords: scientific realism, objectivity, theory-choice, values, method 1 Introduction In this paper, I propose a realist account of the epistemic objectivity of science. Baldly stated, epistemic objectivity arises from the adoption of norms which promote truth about the objective world. Epistemic objec- tivity is explained in reliabilist terms as compliance with truth-conducive epistemic norms. To the extent that the scientist must deliberate on the application of competing epistemic norms, the account draws on the re- sources of virtue epistemology. The aim of the paper is not to defend a realist account of objectivity against anti-realist accounts of objectivity. The aim of the paper is to develop an account of epistemic objectivity that is suited to a realist conception of scientific inquiry. It is not my intention to argue for scientific realism here.
    [Show full text]
  • Objectivity and the Values and Science Debate Sean Boivin A
    The Likelihood Principle: Objectivity and the Values and Science Debate Sean Boivin A Major Research Paper in the Department of Philosophy Under the supervision of Dr. Matthew J. Barker Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts (Philosophy) at Concordia University Montreal, Quebec, Canada February 2018 © Sean Boivin ABSTRACT The Likelihood Principle: Objectivity and the Values and Science Debate Sean Boivin This paper focuses on the debate of underdetermination in science, and asks the descriptive question: is objectivity possible in science? I introduce the problem of underdetermination in science and articulate a related argument presented by philosopher Helen Longino against the possibility for objectivity (traditionally understood) in science. In opposition to Longino, I aim to salvage the possibility of important objectivity. I begin from Likelihoodism – a normative view about the form that evidential reasoning should take. After presenting different defenses of that view, I show how it implies a descriptive claim – the Likelihood Principle – that opposes Longino’s cynicism about the descriptive possibility of objectivity in science. The Likelihood Principle compares the likelihoods of two hypotheses in relation to a body of evidence and says which hypothesis (if any) is consequently favored. I argue that “favours” be interpreted as “objectively favours”, implying it is possible for some evidence to objectively favour one hypothesis over another without appeal to values. In addition to arguing that we should then infer a descriptive objectivism from this, I interpret a case-study using the Likelihood Principle to illustrate how applications of it can be objective. I discuss what follows for the debate in the values and science literature, including what follows with respect to Longino’s views.
    [Show full text]
  • Defining Objectivity Within Journalism an Overview
    10.1515/nor-2017-0255 Defining Objectivity within Journalism An Overview CHARLOTTE WIEN Abstract The article seeks the roots of the journalistic concept of objectivity in various theoreti- cal schools. It argues that the concept of objectivity in journalism originates in the positivistic tradition and, furthermore, that it is strongly related to tan earlier theoretical school within historiography. Journalism has made several attempts have been made by journalism to break free of the positivistic objectivity paradigm, none of them very suc- cessful, however. The paper discusses each of these attempts. Finally, using the concept of objectivity as a prism, the paper sketches out what might be termed a landscape of jour- nalism theory. Key Words: objectivity, positivism, journalism, history Introduction Journalism derives a great deal of its legitimacy from the postulate that it is able to present true pictures of reality. No one would have use for journalism if the journalists themselves asserted that the dissemination of news consisted of false pictures of unre- ality. Concepts such as ‘truth’ and ‘reality’ cannot be separated from the concept of objectivity. Hence, if one can speak of a paradigm within journalism, we might see such a paradigm in the requirement for objectivity in disseminating news. But it is one thing to operate with objectivity as a beacon, and something else to operationalise objectiv- ity in the everyday task of journalism. Within journalism, there exist several schools which have attempted to operationalise the concept of objectivity: e.g. Mainstream Journalism, Scientific Journalism, New Journalism and Precision Journalism (including Computer-Assisted Reporting). To operationalise concepts demands either that one thinks for oneself or that one borrows the ideas of others.
    [Show full text]