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The Ashgate Research Companion to the Politics of Democratization in Europe Concepts and Histories Kari Palonen, Tuija Pulkkinen, José María Rosales

Direct Democracy, Ancient and Modern

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 Mogens Herman Hansen Published online on: 19 Dec 2008

How to cite :- Mogens Herman Hansen. 19 Dec 2008, Direct Democracy, Ancient and Modern from: The Ashgate Research Companion to the Politics of Democratization in Europe, Concepts and Histories Routledge Accessed on: 28 Sep 2021 https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315613635.ch2

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The publisher does not give any warranty express or implied or make any representation that the contents will be complete or accurate or up to date. The publisher shall not be liable for an loss, actions, claims, proceedings, demand or costs or damages whatsoever or howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection with or arising out of the use of this material. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 without furtherqualificationcametomeanrepresentative democracy, anddirect and representationwere seenasopposedformsofgovernment. States were praisedasthe‘mostperfectexampleofdemocracy’. concept ofrepresentation,andin1842–beforetheabolitionslavery –theUnited Tocqueville’s book,theconceptofdemocracybecamerapidlyconnectedwith Theconceptofrepresentative democracyappearsinBlackstone’s 3 Aslateas1848,thenewSwissFederalConstitutiontreateddemocracy and 2 EncyclopædiaBritannica,1stedn.(1771):2,415,s.v. ‘Democracy:thesamewitha 1 community, suchasancient Athens oreighteenth-centuryBasle, democracy was almostinvariably takentobedirectdemocracypracticedinasmall Until Alexis deTocqueville publishedhis the UnitedStatesofNorth America atthepresentday.’ 7th edn(1842),s.v. Democracy:‘themostperfectexampleof democracyisaffordedby la démocratieenAmérique,vols. I–II(Paris 1835–1840),echoed in Rights ofMan(1792[1986]),170.Thathappened inconsequenceof A. deTocqueville, De of representationtobeingraed upontheconceptofdemocracy’;seeThomasPaine, representative democracy lapsedintooblivionandittookalongtime‘forthe concept times bea‘démocratiereprésentative’, butinthe earlynineteenthcentury, theideaof Hamilton of1777(toGouverneur Morris,19May 1777).Intheshort-lived constitution the LawsofEngland(1765–69). Another earlyoccurrenceisinaleerfrom Alexander 54–5). democracy was Andrew Jackson’s DemocraticParty, setupin1828 (seeRoper1989, first reallyimportantpoliticalmovement launched underthebannerof(representative) governed byanelectedKantonsrat,andcantons governed byaLandsgemeinde.The républicaines –représentatives oudémocratiques’. Thedistinctionisbetween cantons 12 Septembre 1848prescribes:‘l’exercise desdroitspolitiquesd’après desformes representation asdirectopposites:the government comesnearertoaristocracythandemocracy’. such were Romeand Athens; butastoourmodernrepublics,Basilonlyexcepted,their popular government, whereinthesupremepower islodgedinthehandsofpeople: of theHelvetic Republicof1798, Article 2proclaimedthatthegovernment shallatall Direct Democracy, Ancient Mogens HermanHansen and Modern De ladémocratieenAmériquein1835–40, Constitution delaconféderationSuissedu Encyclopædia Britannica, 2 2 Inthewake ofde 1 anddemocracy Commentaries on 3 Democracy COMPANION RESEARCH ASHGATE Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 the US(GallagherandUleri1996;Budge1996,84–104), buteven democraticstates referendums arewidelyusedinSwitzerland,Italy andin26ofthestates not existanylongeranywhereasaformofgovernment ofastate. Admiedly, Kellenberger(1965);Carlen(1976).Untilrecently, thecantonalpopularassembly, the 4 1996; Schmidt1993).Theyare: democracy (seeBudge1996;Burnheim1985;Cronin1989;Fishkin1997;Gallagher five basicbeliefsareinvolved, whichIsuggestheretocallthefive pillarsofdirect as justificationsfordirectdemocracy, ancientormodern.Inmyopinion,atleast democracy possible(McLean1989,108–34,171–2). 190–92). Thefourthistheclaimthatmoderntechnologyhasmadeareturntodirect representative democracy, andthusconstitutesmaximumdemocracy(Budge1996, third isthevery plausibleaxiomthatdirectdemocracyismoredemocraticthan democracy equalsoptimum(Barber1984,esp.117–20,131–2,151).The proposition –oenpresentedasacorollaryofthefirstthatmaximum democracy isa‘goodthing’ (Rousseau1762[1964],BookIII,xv).Thesecondisthe combination offourpropositions:Thefirstisthealmostuniversal beliefthat alternative totheprevailing formofrepresentative democracy. generation, however, theconceptofdirectdemocracyhasreappearedasapossible democracy was fromnowonrelegatedtohistoricalfootnotes.Duringthelast Tmj PtqnynhxtkDjrthwfynfyntsnsEzwtuj member statelevel, forexample insomeofthesmallerSwisscantons. village assembliesinBhutan(Vinding 1998).Itisalsoaestedinfederationsat example intheNewEnglandtownmeetings(Sly1932; Mansbridge1980)andin problem isthattoday, directdemocracyisaestedonlyatmunicipallevel, for In theongoingdiscussionofdirectversus representative democracy, amajor . thebeliefthatordinarycitizensarepreparedto 2. thebeliefthatordinary citizensareintelligentpeoplewhocapableof 1. . thebeliefthatrational decision-makingcanbeconductedonanamateurbasis 5. 4. the beliefthatordinarycitizensareinterested inparticipating thebeliefthatordinarycitizenscanbekeptsufficientlyinformedabout 3. These propositionsare,again,basedonanumberofbeliefswhichareinvoked The caseforreplacingrepresentative bydirectdemocracyisbasedona Innerrhoden, and AppenzellAusserrhoden. Innerrhoden, however, thecitizens have voted theirassemblyout ofexistenceinObwalden, Appenzell Appenzell Ausserrhoden, Appenzell Innerrhoden, andGlarus.Duringthelastdecade, Landsgemeinde, existedin five cantonsandhalf-cantons:Obwalden, Nidwalden, making sounddecisionsaboutthemselves andtheirfellowcitizens; choice between formulated alternatives. formulate themeasures,and if onedistinguishesbetween the representatives; political decision-makinginsteadofdelegatingpoliticstoprofessional issues atstake; case ofconflictwiththenationalinterest; common sense 38 expert knowledgerequiredtoprepareand requiredtomakeapolitical disregard theirself-interest 4 Butitdoes in Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 the American DeclarationofIndependence1776andthe American Constitution women andhadslaves is,largely, irrelevant inthiscontext–anobvious parallelis ideological aspectsof Athenian democracy. this morehistoricalviewofdirectdemocracytendto focus ontheinstitutionaland forms (McLean1989;Fishkin1991,1997;Carsonand Martin1999).Proponentsof nevertheless, someofthebasic aspectsofdirectdemocracyarecommontoboth modern directdemocracy, bothintheformofdebateandway the vote istaken; by the Athenians. Thereare,admiedly, majordifferencesbetween ancientand adaptations tonewtechnologyofapoliticalsystemwhich, essentially, was practiced historical example,andthatthemethodstobeusedin moderndirectdemocracyare once was, butrather, theintroductionofsomethingcompletelynew. Gallagher 1996,234).Moderndirectdemocracyisnotareturntosomethingwhich democracy as,infact,adisguisedoligarchy(Budge1996,26–7; Arterton 1987; studying theancientform.Thesetheoristsusuallytakeanegative viewof Athenian democracy. Buttheyaresodifferentthatnexttonothingcanbeenlearnedfrom from modernmodelsofelectronicdemocracy. Admiedly, bothareformsofdirect assessments of Athenian democracyanditsmerits. 1999, 1–2). Among modernchampionsofdirectdemocracy, therearetwo opposed enough toreconstructitspoliticalinstitutionsanddemocraticideology(Hansen which, furthermore,istheonlyhistoricaldemocracyforwhichwe have sources 1274a15–18; 1281b32–4;seeHansen1999,3). representative, thenatleastindirectdemocracy(Aristotle, political decisionswere takenbytheelectedmagistrates.Thisis,ifnotnecessarily choose themagistratesandcallthemtoaccountfortheirconductinoffice,whileall of Greekdemocracyinwhichtheprincipalfunctionpopularassemblywas to from modernindirectorrepresentative democracy. We knowthattherewas atype democracies were alldirect(Meier1990,85,165,218),andinthisrespectdifferent An importantnineteenth-centuryevaluation of Athenian democracycanbefoundin 5 c. 500BCdowntotheendofHellenisticperiod. democracy isthetypeofpracticedinancientGreekcity-statesfrom historical evidence,andtheonlymajorwell-aested historicalexampleofdirect 84–104). to bedebatedandvoted onbythepeople(GallagherandUleri1996;Budge1996, from directdemocracyinwhichevery majorpoliticaldecisionautomaticallyhas which allowsomepoliticaldecisionstobemadebyreferendumarefarremoved Other theorists,however, holdthatthe Athenian exampleisahighlyrelevant According tosometheorists,ancientassemblydemocracyisessentiallydifferent Most Greekdemocracies,however, were direct,andsowas Athenian democracy, Consequently, thefive pillarsofdirectdemocracyhave tobetestedagainst It iscommonly, buterroneously, believed thatthemanyhundred [1958], 53–4). of whichthereisyet anexampleinanyothermassofmen,ancientormodern’ (1861 raised theintellectualstandard ofanaverage Athenian citizenfarbeyond anything social systemandmoralidea of antiquity, thepracticeofdicasteryand theecclesia J.S. Mill, Considerations onRepresentative Government Dnwjhy Djrthwfh~,AshnjsyfsiMtijws 39 5 Thefactthatthe Athenians excluded : ‘Notwithstandingthedefects ofthe Politics , 1318b21–2,28ff.; polis Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 Demosthenes3.15: ‘You have amongyou, Athenians, mencompetenttosaytheright 6 citizens selectedbylotforoneyear). made upofordinarycitizens(selectedbylotforonedayfromapanel6,000 citizen was entitledtospeakandvote) orinlawcourtsandlegislative commiees decisions bemadebyordinarycitizens,eitherintheassembly(inwhichevery ordinary citizen,andtheyputtheirbelieftothetestbyleingallmajorpolitical political system. democracy were explicitlyrecognizedbythe Athenians asfoundationsoftheir conquest of Athens. ThefirstthingtonoteisthatwhatIcallthefive pillarsofdirect and 322BC,whenthisdemocracywas abolishedinconsequenceoftheMacedonian ancient Athens from507BC,whenKleisthenesintroduced or drawbacksconnectedwithdirectdemocracyistostudythepoliticalsystemof and alarge,modern,so-calledterritorialstate,oneimportantway oftestingmerits the pursuitofhappiness. equal, norendowed bytheirCreatorwithinalienablerightssuchaslife,libertyand was alargepopulationofblackslaves whowere heldneithertohave beencreated in spiteofthefactthatUSwomen hadnopoliticalrightsbefore1920,andthatthere of 1787–89.We canappreciatetheideasandidealsadvocated inthesedocuments Tmj PtqnynhxtkDjrthwfynfyntsnsEzwtuj defendant. fortune confiscated,theyalmostalways resistedthetemptationandacquied tempted byirresponsibleprosecutorstohave arichmanconvictedandhis pride instatingthatalthoughthejurorsdemocraticcourtswere sometimes of property. Thatmayhave happenedoccasionally, but Athenian democratstook avail themselves ofanyopportunitytosoaktherich,especiallybyconfiscation claimed thatthepoor, always beinginthemajorityanypoliticalassembly, would Hypereides3.33–4:‘There isnotintheworld asingledemocracyormonarchrace 7 First, the Athenians didbelieve in theintelligenceandsoundjudgmentof Thus, inspiteofalltheimportantdifferencesbetween asmallancientcity-state Second, ancientcriticsof Athenian democracy, inparticularPlatoand Aristotle, Vince). Cf.Euripides, you willatoncebeabletotranslateitintoaction, ifonlyyou doyour duty’ (trans.J.H. thing, andyou arethesharpestofallmentograsp themeaningofwhatissaid,and vote accordingto class interestsandsoaktheminorityofrich(Plato,Republic 565A; 35–6. Platoand Aristotle holdthat,inademocracy, themajorityofpoorwillinevitably award himafih ofthevotes’ (trans.J.O.Burrt).Onemoreexample isadducedat they immediatelydisfranchised themanwhotriedtoslanderaccusedanddidnot was sofarfrom approvingsuchasuggestionorcoveting the property ofothersthat Nausikles sayingthattheyhadmadetheirmoneyfromunregistered mines,thisjury property, andagainlaterpromisedtobringin aninventory oftheestatePhilipand Euthykrates, amountingtomorethansixtytalents,onthe grounds ofitsbeingpublic Let megive aninstance.WhenTisisof Agryle broughtinaninventory oftheestate citizens whoaremalignedbyothers,whethersinglyorinnumbers, butsupportsthem. more magnanimousthanthe Athenian people, and thatitdoesnotforsakethose Ober (1989),158–60.Onthedegreeofparticipationin Athens, seeHansen(1999),313. Aristotle, 7 Politics 1304b20–24;1320a4–6). Orestes 917–22;Plato, 6 40 Protagoras 319b–d,322c–d,323b–c.Seealso demokratia in Athens, Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 Thucydides2.40.2:‘Hereeachindividualisinterested notonlyinhisownaffairsbut 9 8 Aristotle, be readbyanyone whowishes. the formulaisrepeatedthataproposalordecisiontobepublishedsoitcan laws available tothepublicforinspection;andagainininscriptions many citizensaspossible.Itwas ahallmarkofdemocracytohave awrien codeof organs, theywere theforumwheremanymaerswere broughttothenoticeofas publicized, eitherorallyorinwriting:assemblieswere notonlydecision-making publicity toadegreeotherwiseunheardofinpastsocieties.Everything hadtobe political decisions;andthedemocraticgovernment at Athens was accompaniedby institutions madethecitizenssufficientlyknowledgeabletomakewell-informed What the Athenians expectedoftheordinarycitizenwas passive participationonly, by speakingintheassemblyandcouncilbeinganadvocate inthepopularcourts. which includedpreparingproposalsandtakinganactive partinpoliticalargument divided intopassive participation–listeningandvoting –andactive participation, should beforcedtoengageinpoliticalactivityatthetoplevel. Political activitywas part intherunningofdemocraticinstitutions,theyalsoinsistedthatnocitizen and unmatchedinworld history. the citizens’ participationintherunningofpoliticalinstitutions was astonishing procedures likesortition,voting anddebatesinpoliticalassemblies. Accordingly, the Athenians derived actualenjoymentfromtheformal playwithcomplicated its mostbasicwas involvement insocialandpolitical organization.Itseemsthat to Aristotle, manwas a‘politicalanimal’ –thatis,thevery stuffofhumanlifeat just ameanstoself-advancement ortoobtainsomeotheradvantage. According value, andparticipationinthedecision-makingprocessanenditself,not Third, the Athenians believed thatregularparticipationinthepolitical Fih, althoughthe Athenians supposedthatevery citizenwould takeanactive Fourth, formanyGreeksandmost Athenians, politicalactivitywas apositive 1325b16ff), whichisidenticalwithbeingacitizen( 1325b16ff), (Politics willing toruleandberuledwith aviewtoaainingway oflifeaccordingto goodness’ ruled inturn…andunderan idealconstitutiontheymustbethosewhoareableand the commonsenseofthatterm, areallwhoshareinthecivillifeofrulingandbeing life istolive anactive politicallife( to Aristotle, manisa‘politicalanimal’ ( own business;we sayhehasnobusinesshere at all’ (trans.RexWarner). According we donotsaythatamanwhotakesnointerest inpoliticsisamanwhomindshis business areextremelywell-informed ongeneral politics–thisisapeculiarityofours: in theaffairsofstateaswell: even thosewhoaremostlyoccupiedwiththeirown Athenians 43.4;Euripides,Supplices433–4. brought totheaentionofallcitizens: Aeschines 3.25,32; Aristotle, the whole’ (trans.B.Jowe), cf.1282a14–17;Demosthenes 23.109.Political information for someunderstandonepartandanother, andamongthemtheyunderstand and thought.Hencethemanyarebeerjudgesthanasingle manofmusicandpoetry; one manwhohasmanyfeetandhandssenses,sotoowith regardtotheircharacter and practicalwisdom,whentheymeettogether, justastheybecomeinamanner 1283b42–84a2);cf.NicomacheanEthics Politics 1281b3ff:‘Foreachindividualamongthemanyhasashareofexcellence 8 Dnwjhy Djrthwfh~,AshnjsyfsiMtijws 9 bios politikos 41 zoon politikon 1177b4–20. , Nicomachean Ethics1095b18ff; polites) ina , Politics 1253a3).Hispurposein polis, and‘citizensin Constitutionofthe Politics Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 0 Thucydides6.39.1:‘Isay, onthecontrary, firstthattheword 10 and choosebetween theproposalssubmiedbyleaders. – theleadersandthosewhopossessenoughcommonsensetolistenadebate is connectedwiththedistinctionbetween thosewhopossessexpertknowledge between ancient Athenian andmodern representative democracy. And thisdivide divide between leadersandfollowers, andinthisrespectthereisnodistinction have brokendownthereandthen.The Athenians presupposedafundamental making useofhisrighttoaddressfellowcitizens,assemblydemocracywould did notrequireorexpecteveryone todoso.Indeed,ifevery citizenhadinsistedon genuine possibilitytostandupandadvisehisfellowcitizens;butthe Athenians on offer, whereasactive participationwas letothosewhomightfeelcalledit. which demandedenoughcommonsensetochoosewiselybetween theproposals Tmj PtqnynhxtkDjrthwfynfyntsnsEzwtuj political debatestransmiedonTV. issues, andonhowthiscanbedonebyelectronicvoting aerthewatching of focus ontheideathatallpeopletimemustvote onallimportantpolitical ignore Athenian democracy, oreven takeafairlyunfavorable viewofit,tendto modern proponentsofdirectdemocracyusethe Athenian example.Thosewho en faitméritebienqu’illaperde’ élus, ilestesclave, iln’est rien.Danslescourtsmomensdesaliberté,l’usagequ’il fort, ilnel’est quedurantl’élection desmembresdu parlement:sitôtqu’ilssont to sayabouttheBritishParliament: ‘Lepeupleangloispenseêtrelibre;ilsetrompe and today. At thispoint,Ifinditrelevant toquotewhatJean-JacquesRousseauhad fih year. TheBritish HouseofCommonsisanobviousexample,bothhistorically leaders, andthechoiceisofferedtocitizensonlyonceevery thirdorfourth a representative democracy, theonlychoiceleto ordinarycitizensisbetween the choice isbetween theproposals,andhastobemadeevery otherday, whereas,in 2 Thefirstonetosuggest ahighnumberofelectronicallyconductedreferendums was 12 ‘TheEnglishpeople believe theyarefree.Theygrosslymistaken. arefreeonly 11 Democracy consistedinevery citizenhavingtherighttospeak, Moving frombasicideastoinstitutions,thereisanoticeabledifferenceinhow The differencebetween the Athenians andusisthatindirectdemocracy, the Demosthenes 18.308;19.99;10.70–74;22.30; Aeschines 3.233; Euripides,Supplices438–41. democracy’ (trans.R.Crawley). Active participationnot expected ofordinarycitizens: many; andthatallthesetalents,severally and collectively, have theirjustplaceina the rich,andbestcounsellorswise,nonecanhear anddecidesowell asthe the wholestate,oligarchyonlyapart;next,thatifbest guardiansofpropertyare Fuller (1971). A recentchampionofthisformdirect democracy isBudge(1996,188), the usetheymakeofitshows thattheydeserve toloseit.’ the peopleareslaves. Theyarenothing.Duringtheshortmomentsoflibertythey enjoy, on thedaytheyelectmembers ofparliament. As soonasthemembersareelected, 1282a16–23). it isnotthecookbutguestwhodecidesqualityof ameal(Aristotle, build ahouse,butitrequirescommonsensetochoosehouse thatfitsone’s need. And make athing,theotherhowtouseofthing.Itrequires expertknowledgeto Politics A philosophicalformulationofthedifferentlevels ofknowledgeisfoundin Aristotle’s , wherehestatesthattherearetwo formsofknowledge: oneconcernshowto 11 (Rousseau1762[1964],BookIII,xv, 430). 12 Inahistoricalcontext,theproblemsdiscussed 42 demos, orpeople,includes 10 isegoria, the Politics Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 incorporated suchinstitutions: Democracy andItsCritics have recentlybeendrawninto thedebateaboutareturntodirectdemocracy. In active andpassive participationareaspectsofdirect Athenian democracywhich payment tostimulateparticipation,andtheacknowledged distinctionbetween calls ‘statisticaldemocracy’:1989,157–61). and Martin1999,102–14;McLeanuses‘demarchy’ synonymouslywithwhathe ‘democracy’, aterminvented byJohnBurnheim(Burnheim1985,9,156–87;Carson among allcitizens.Thisformofpopularruleisoen called‘demarchy’ insteadof on bydeliberative anddecision-makingopinionpollpanels,selectedbylotfrom preparatory andproblem-formulatinginstitutionswhoseproposalsaretobevoted about thepoliticalissuesathand.Theideais,then,totransformparliamentsinto a debate,atleastbytelecommunication,andthattheycanbesufficientlyinformed panel ofcitizensrandomlyselectedfromallcitizens,butsofewthattheycancarryon contemporary statesandmoderntechnology, theanalogywould betohave asmall today (Elster1989,78–93;CarsonandMartin1999),iftransformedtofit modern jury. selection bylot,forwhichtheonlymodernparalleliscompletelydifferent the SwissLandsgemeinde.Theyfocusinsteadonotheraspects,particularly contemporary institutionstostudy, suchastheNewEnglandtownmeetingor are lessinterestedintheface-to-faceassemblydemocracyforwhichtheyhave was expectedfromtheordinarycitizens(Hansen1999). prepared allbusinessforthepopularassembly, whereasdecisionbyvote was what sometimes even semi-professionalcitizensincollaborationwithacouncilwhich decision, sothatinitiative andpreparationofallbillswas letohighlyactive and citizens toexercisetheirpoliticalrights,and(d)theseparationofinitiative and rotation, (c)paymentforpoliticalparticipationtomakeitpossibleeven poor of office(usuallyayear) combinedwithabanoniterationtoensuremaximum jurors andlegislatorsbythedrawingoflotsinsteadelection;(b)ashortterm democracy. Otherimportantaspectswere: (a)theappointmentofmagistrates, decision-making inapopularassemblywas onlyoneaspectofancient Athenian listened tothedebate(Budge1996,24–33). can replacethedirectvoting byashowofhandstakenamongthosewhohave assembly likethe Athenian, andwhetherelectronicvoting bymillionsofcitizens are whethersuchadebatecanreplaceproperface-to-faceinpublic So sortitioninsteadofelection,rotationtoensure maximumparticipation, The extensive useoftheloeryindemocratic Athens iscompletelyunknown Those whoreallyfindinspirationbystudyingthe Athenian politicalinstitutions These problemsarecertainlyrelevant, butwe mustnotforgetthat direct 240–50. who imaginesatotalofc.50suchreferendumsperyear. SeealsoGallagher(1996), consisting ofperhaps athousandcitizensrandomlyselectedout oftheentire Suppose anadvanceddemocratic countrywere tocreate a‘minipopulus’ , Robert A. Dahlsuggestedonemodeldemocracywhich Dnwjhy Djrthwfh~,AshnjsyfsiMtijws 43 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 representative ofthepeople in thetruesensethatelectedlegislatorshardlyever with millionsofvoters (who hadthesameinformation).Thepanelis,infact, that thepanelwillnormallyarrive atthesamedecisionasthatofareferendum the before theyvote. small panelsofrandomlyselectedcitizenswhocan meetanddebatetheissues replace, orrathersupplement,theelectedlegislators andtheirgovernment with vote, whichcanbeconducted electronically. Theotheristhedemarchymodel–to their politicalleadersbutalsotodecidealargenumber ofkeyissuesbydirect two models:oneisthereferendum model–toallowallcitizens,notonlyelect have tovote. intended tobeaguidelinefortheelectoratewhen,fewweeks later, allcitizens not envisagethatitisletothepaneldecideissue.Thedeliberative pollis aspects ofdemocracy. first andthesecondvote reveals theimportanceofinformation anddebateaskey Martin 1999,87;foracriticalview, seeMerkle1996).Thedifferencebetween the of viewsinaprolongeddebate(Fishkin1991,81–96;1997,161–228;Carsonand vote ifallcitizenshadaccesstothesameamountofinformationandexchange vote oandwithoutanyinformationandinteractive debate, andhowtheywould experiment indicatesbothhowthepeoplewould decidetheissueiftheyhadto is randomlyselectedandreallyrepresentsacross-sectionofthecitizenry, the that anumberof‘don’t knows’ have madeuptheirmind.Ifthegroupofcitizens some panelistshave changedtheirmindinthecourseofdebates,andespecially, Both beforeandaertheweekend, avote istaken. political leaderstowhomtheycanputquestionsandaskforfurtherinformation. the issue.Duringthissession,theydebatewithoneanotherandlistentoexperts stake, thentheyarebroughttogethertoparticipateinaweekend ofdeliberationon randomly selectedcitizensarefirstprovidedwithinformationabouttheissueat James Fishkin:acoupleofweeks beforeanelectionorareferendum,some300–500 democracy, however, isthedeliberative opinionpollasdeveloped by, especially, By farthemostsophisticatedandbest-testedversion ofthisformdirect 3 Iampreysurethatif Rousseau hadexperiencedthedeliberative polls,hewould say 13 Tmj PtqnynhxtkDjrthwfynfyntsnsEzwtuj In bothcases,thedecisionis‘thevoice ofthepeople’.Ifapanelisenlargedfrom Today, thechampionsofmodern directdemocracyareinfactsplitbetween All experimentssofarconductedinaccordancewiththismethodshowthat c. 500citizensusedinmosttestpollsto ‘la volonté detous’ and‘lavolonté générale’;see Ducontratsocial that thedifferencebetween thevote beforeandaerrepresentsthe differencebetween (Dahl 1989,340) the judgmentofdemos.Itsverdictwouldbedemositself. by telecommunications.…Thejudgmentofaminipopuluswould‘represent’ then toannounceitschoices.Themembersofa‘minipopulus’could‘meet’ demos. Itstaskwouldbetodeliberate,forayearperhaps, onanissueand 13 Bycontrastwithothermodelsofdemarchy, Fishkindoes 44 c. 3000,thereisavery highprobability , BookII,ch.iii. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 ancient Athens, MarcusSchmidt, aDanishuniversity teacher, hasconstructed a Inspired bythe Athenian example, andexplicitlyacknowledginghisdebtto four-digit numberofreferendumsevery year is,Ithink,outofthequestion. of theconstitutionorelectoralsystem.To have athree-digitorperhapseven referendum aboutamaerisanobvioussolutionwhen theissueisamajorreform by theCitizens’ Assembly. Columbia handledthereformandremarkablehigh qualityoftheperformance and politicalcommentatorshave expressedtheiradmirationfortheway British about referendumsrequiresaqualifiedmajorityof60 percent. Almost allexperts a majorityof57percentthevoters, butthatwas notenough,sincethelaw submied toareferendum,whichtookplaceinMay 2005.Thereformobtained which voters rankcandidates inorderofpreference.Theassembly’s proposalwas systems. Intheend,assemblyoptedfora‘singletransferablevoting system’,in reform, itsmembersbecamealmostexpertsinthemeritsanddefectsofelectoral submissions. Inthecourseofyear duringwhichtheassemblyprepared hearings and–inresponsetoitspubliccallitworked throughover 1000public one manandwoman selected bylotfromeachdistrict. leave thewholemaertoa‘Citizens’ Assembly’ composedof160ordinarycitizens, and trulyinnovative was thattheLiberalsdecidedtobypasslegislatureand the reform,astheyhadpromisedtodoifwon theelection.Whatwas unusual ousted inthe2001election,andwinningLiberalParty decidedtoimplement representation instead.Therulingparty–whichwas againstanyreform–was their representatives inthelegislatureandtointroducesomeformofproportional citizens have longwanted togetridofthe‘firstpastpost’ systemforelecting Milner 2005).LikepeopleinothermemberstatesoftheCanadianFederation,many fact beenpracticedinBritishColumbia2004–2005(forashortdescription,see is minimal. process. Even insmallnations,thepossibilityofbeingselectedtoserve onapanel the populationgetsanopportunitytobedirectlyinvolved inthedecision-making rational decision.Thedrawback,ontheotherhand,isthatonlyaminutefractionof meet anddebate,theycandevote thetimeandenergynecessarytoarrive ata of atmost1000citizenscangetaccesstoallthenecessaryinformation,they advantage ofdeliberative opinionpollsover referendumsisthata‘minipopulus’ informed aboutalltheissuesthathave tobedebatedandvoted on.Conversely, the debate amongallcitizens,aswell asthedifficultyinkeepingallcitizenssufficiently can participateinareferendum.Thedrawbacksaretheabsenceofface-to-face qualities andjudgmentarenotboundtovote asconstituentsthink. are, especiallyiftheytaketheviewthathave beenselectedfortheirpersonal I knowofonlyonemodel ofdirectdemocracywhichavoids thedilemma. A combinationofasmallrandomized panelofcitizenswithafull-scale The assemblymetinweekends, was briefedbyexperts,arrangedpublic A possiblecompromiseis,ofcourse,tocombinethetwo procedures, ashasin The advantage ofreferendumsover deliberative opinionpollsisthatallcitizens Dnwjhy Djrthwfh~,AshnjsyfsiMtijws 45 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 4 Schmidt(1993).Marcus SchmidtisLecturerinMarketingattheUniversity ofSouthern 14 mentioned above. very interestingmodelofmoderndirectdemocracywhichcombinesallthefeatures Tmj PtqnynhxtkDjrthwfynfyntsnsEzwtuj a banoniteration,ensure thatallcitizensforoneyear areactively involved in the traditionalformsofteledemocracy. Rotationandsortition,combinedwith and theresultisamodelwhich,inmyopinion, a muchimproved version of Thus, allthefive mostprominent aspectsof Athenian democracyareinvolved, the parliamentandamateurdecision-makersin ElectronicSecondChamber. rotation, politicalpayandthecooperationbetween professionalpolicy-makersin of thestatebudget(in1993). costs ofsuchapoliticalsystemwould cometo5billionDKrperyear, or2.5percent course oftheyear theyare members oftheElectronicSecondChamber. Thetotal kroner, whichmeansthatthereductioninincometaxcomesto 2000DKr. inthe will obtainareductionindirecttaxationamounting to theequivalent of2Danish some compensationfortheirpoliticalparticipation.Every timetheyvote, they they have tovote; all70,000willbesenttherelevant material,andtheywillreceive will have apaiddayoffevery week tostudyanddebatetheproposalsonwhich Second Chamber. elected politicians,anddecision,sharedbytheparliamentElectronic that therewillbeadivisionbetween initiative andpreparation, letoprofessional to prepareallbillsandwillbeelectedonaparty-politicalbasisjustasbefore,so involving thewholeelectorateof4,000,000persons.Theparliamentwillcontinue and theElectronicSecondChamber, theissuehastobedecidedbyareferendum Chamber. Intherelatively fewcasesofdisagreementbetween theparliament decision presupposesagreementbetween theparliamentandElectronicSecond Chamber, boththosepassedandrejectedbytheparliament.Every political All proposalsdebatedinparliamenthave tobesubmiedtheElectronicSecond risk oftheirvoting differentlyfromwhat4,000,000would have doneisinsignificant. Second Chamber;70,000Daneschosenatrandomissuchalargenumberthatthe political decision-makingprocessforoneyear bybeingamemberoftheElectronic The followingyear, another70,000electorsarechosenbylot,andsoon. 1000 timesayear onallmajorpoliticaldecisionsdebatedintheDanishParliament. Chamber, andusingpush-buonphoneswithPINcodes,theyhave tovote some among allthe4,000,000adultDanes.These70,000constituteanElectronicSecond Now, theideais,on1Januaryevery year, tohave 70,000Danesselectedbylotfrom age at18andtilltheydieat,onaverage, 75;4,000,000dividedby57makes70,000. Danes arefullcitizensfor, onaverage, 57years, namelyfromwhentheycomeof resident populationoffive million,ofwhomfourmillionhave politicalrights. Here, directpopularvote on allmajorissuesiscombinedwithsortition, Of the70,000membersofElectronicSecondChamber, thosewhohave ajob The resultisthatalmostevery Danishcitizenwillbedirectlyinvolved inthe His modeldemocracyisorganizedalongthefollowinglines.Denmarkhasa randomized panelof1500persons (GfKObserva). Denmark, andherunsthelargest Danishopinionpollinstitutionwithacarefully 14 46 Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 intellectually fittomakepoliticaldecisions. justice inademocracy, thenwe cannotupholdtheview thatcitizensatlargearenot judges. Conversely, ifjurycourtsareavaluable aspectoftheadministration where theyexist,andtheadministrationofjusticeshould beletoprofessional governments andparliaments, jurycourtsoughttobeabolishedinthecountries sufficient knowledgetotakeapositiononthepolitical issueswhicharedecidedby an ordinarycitizendoesnotpossesstheintellectual capacityanddoesnothave than theissueswhicharediscussedandvoted oninparliaments.Ifitistruethat opinion areoenvery complicated,andcertainlynotlessthought-demanding court hastounderstandandonwhichthemembersofjuryhave toforman of juriesaredrawnbylotfromamongthecitizens.Theproblemswhichajury have jurycourtsasanessentialelementoftheiradministrationjustice.Members of thoughttestifiestowhatIwould describeas‘doublethink’.Manydemocracies 6 Butthatwas nevertheless theviewtakenbyThomasJefferson inhisleertoDuPont de 16 InGoogle,thereare24,500matchesfor thequotation. 15 against democracyisafive-minute conversation withthe average voter.’ saying ofWinston Churchill’s isrepeatedover andover again: ‘Thebestargument an outspokencriticismoftheintellectualcapacityordinarypeople. An apocryphal people whobelieve indemocracyastheonlyacceptableformofgovernment thereis beginning ofthischapter). ignorance andtheapathyofordinarycitizen(cf.pillars24inlistat to havingamoredirectformofdemocracy, thetwo principalobjectionsarethe take theirobligationsseriously, itwillthwart thewholeideaofreform. 20,000 outofthe70,000membersMarcusSchmidt’s minipopulusareprepared to one ofthepillarscollapses,wholebuildingcollapsestoo.If,forexample,only (e) Political partieswillplayalessprominentroleinpolitics.If,ontheotherhand, confined tothecorridors.(d)Thefocusofpoliticswillbeissues,insteadpersons. corruption. (c)Lobbyismwillhave tocomeoutintheopen,andcannolongerbe citizens, therewillbeincreasedparticipation.(b)Directdemocracycounteract beneficial effects:(a) As aresultoftheincreasedimportance ofthedecisionsleto vulgar push-buondemocracy. a politicaldebate,therebyprecludingdirectdemocracyfromdegeneratinginto politically informed;politicalpayisanextraincitement,anditpossibletohave and nottooexpensive togive 70,000personssufficienttimetokeepthemselves they have todayunderrepresentative democracy. Ontheotherhand,itisfeasible political decision-making.Fortherestoftheirlives, theyhave allthepoliticalrights and valuable aspect ofhumanlife.Thecitizensmust,atleasttosome extent,be a populationofcitizenswhofeelthatpoliticalparticipation isanindispensable my opinion,moreseriousproblem.To have adirectdemocracypresupposes The ignoranceofthecommoncitizenhasbecomeproverbial, andeven among Today, wheninformationtechnology hasbrushedaway thetechnicalobjections If suchakindofdirectdemocracyisworkable, itissupposedtohave thefollowing Apathy andlackofinterestforpoliticalissuesconstitute adifferentbut,in Nemours, 24 April 1816. Dnwjhy Djrthwfh~,AshnjsyfsiMtijws 47 16 15 Thisline c. Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 of representative democracyremainstobeseen.Itpresupposestheveracity ofthe is now, therearefewsignsonlyofsuchadevelopment. as naturalanaspectofademocracyuniversal suffrageistoday. Butastheworld opinion pollsanddecisionsmadeelectronicallybythewholeofpeoplewillbe indispensable aspectofdemocracy. Perhaps inahundredyears’ time,deliberative mid-twentieth century, universal suffragehasbecomeuniversally acceptedasan implemented, andifdisastrousforthestateinquestion.Since nineteenth century, universal suffragewas consideredanutopianideanever tobe do notknowwhattheworld willlooklikeinahundredyears’ time.Intheearly progression andregression,fromthelateeighteenthcenturytopresentday. We civic dutytowhichtheyhadbeenselectedbylot. the ElectronicSecondChamberwould devote therequired timeandenergytothe that themajorityof70,000randomlyselectedDanesduringtheiryear ofservicein zag courseindomesticaswell asinforeignpolicy. decisions willbemadeonthespurofmoment,and thestatewillfollowazig- of policyinastatewhichallmajordecisionsaremade directlybythepeople.Such one negative observation inconnectionwith Athenian directdemocracy. Demosthenes. Ishallroundoffthisinvestigation bydiscussingonepositive and of themeritsordefects Athenian politicalsystem fromKleisthenesto a systemisjustmodel–oneimportantway toassessitsmeritsisaninvestigation on institutionsandprinciplesborrowed fromancient Athens, and–aslongsuch specific contextisthatthisandsimilarmodeldemocracies areindisputablybased five propositionsherecalledthefive pillarsofdirectdemocracy. Whatmaersinthis 8 Thiscritiqueof Athenian directdemocracygoesbackalongway: see,forexample,Lord 18 ThoseinObwalden, Unterwalden and Appenzell Ausserrhoden. 17 Landsgemeinden have voted themselves outofexistence. today allover theWestern world. Sincetheearly1990s,threeoffive Swiss polls were conductedinamuchmoredemocraticatmospherethanwe witness were madedirectlybythewholepeople(Schmidt1993,166). And thoseopinion of allDaneswould vote forademocracyinwhichnumber ofpoliticaldecisions showed someinterestfordirectdemocracy, opinionpollsrevealed thatonlyathird any casepoorlypaid(Knack2000).InDenmarkin1992,whenthegeneralpublic among registeredcitizens,andserviceonajuryisoentime-consumingin conducted someyears ago,thereasonisthatjurymembersareselectedbylotfrom but manymiddle-classcitizensdonotregister, andaccordingtoaninvestigation US, lessthan70percentofcitizensareregisteredasvoters. Notonlypoorcitizens is asmallanddiminishingwillingnesstobeactively engagedinpolitics.Inthe ‘political animals’ inthe Aristotelian sense.ButinmanyWestern democraciesthere Tmj PtqnynhxtkDjrthwfynfyntsnsEzwtuj Sowhetherthisformofdemocracyisinferiororsuperiortotheprevailing form On theotherhand,historyofdemocracyreveals alternatingperiodsof First, itisacommonbeliefthatmustbeimpossibleto conductaconsistentline form ofgovernment comparedwiththeMacedonianmonarchyunderPhilip II;cf. in particularwhorepeatedly complains thatthe Athenian democracyisaninefficient Acton (1877[1986])andBeloch (1884,18–19). Among theorators,itis Demosthenes 48 18 Ifallstateswere democracies, 17 Itissimplyunlikely Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 as a type of state than about democracy Macedon. Butthatsaysmoreaboutthepolisasatypeofstatethandemocracy of Macedonin340–338andthatGreecethefollowingperiodwas dominatedby followed azig-zagcourseintheirforeignpolicy(Harding1995). and inthefourthcenturythereislileevidence,ifanyatall,that Athenians democracy canbeahighlyefficientformofgovernment, andagain,bothinthefih century whenthepoliswas democraticallygoverned (Buckler1980,20).Sodirect 9 AccordingtoHerodotos5.78,democratic freedomofspeech( 19 oligarchic neighbors,thoughtheseneighborswere aspopulous Athens. note thatdemocratic Athens was muchmoreefficientandstrongerthanits the Athenian democracybytheconsistencyandefficacyofitspolicy, we have to centuries thecity-statesexisted.Butthatdidnothappen.Oncontrary, ifwe judge they would have beeneliminatedfromthepoliticalmap inthecourseofmany democracies would soonhave succumbedtotheoligarchies andmonarchies, monarchies ruledbyastrongleader, Greek itfollowsthatthemanyhundredancient and inefficientformofgovernment comparedwitholigarchiesruledbyanelite,or (Hansen andNielsen2004,80–86).Ifitwere truethatadirectdemocracyisanunwise and halfwere democracies,mostofthemdirectdemocraciesthe Athenian type rests withasinglerulerorgovernment. to assertitselfagainstitsmuchmoreefficientlygoverned neighborsinwhichpower direct popularrulemightbefeasible,butademocracywillalways beunable peace theoryholdthat,aerall,Syracusewas notatruedemocracy. war between Athens andSyracusein415–13,someadvocates ofthedemocratic is onlyoneexampleofademocracywaging war againstademocracy, namelythe Greek historyinparticularhasbeenfocus.Itisheld thatintheGreekworld there historical investigations have beenadducedinsupportofthetheory, andancient even todayconstituteaminority oftheclosetotwo hundredstatesintheworld, US neoconservative politicians.SincetheWestern democraciesareyoung and will bepeaceintheworld (Weart 1998).Thetheoryisespeciallypopularamong do notfightdemocracies,andifallstatesintheworld becomedemocracies,there according towhichdemocracywillputanendwars. Itisclaimedthatdemocracies the struggleagainstPhilipofMacedoninmid-fourthcentury. in thewar againstthePersian Empireintheearlyfihcentury, butitlostthedrawin oligarchies ordemocracies(Hansen2000b).TheHelleniccity-statecultureprevailed and thathasbeenthecaseirrespective ofwhetherthecity-stateswere monarchies, city-state culturetoholdoutagainstastrongandaggressive neighboringmacro-state, democracies, andwas, firstofall,analliance as aformofstate.TheallianceformedagainstPhilipconsistedoligarchieswell as Athens, Thebeswas strongest,infactthestrongestcity-stateHellas,fourth It istruethattheallianceofGreekpoleisledby Athens lostthewar againstPhilip In classicalHellas,abouthalfthecity-stateswere monarchiesoroligarchies, My secondobservation concernswhatiscalled ‘thedemocraticpeacetheory’, much strongerthanshehadbeen underthetyrants. (1983). Demosthenes 2.23,3.14,8.32–4, 18.235.ThebestanalysisofthisissueisstillMontgomery Dnwjhy Djrthwfh~,AshnjsyfsiMtijws 49 poleis. Ithasalways beendifficultfora isegoria) hadmade Athens 19 Like Like Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 And inEuripides’s Supplices,thisfactisformulatedasageneraltruth: which thewar hasbeendecidedandlaterupheld bythemajorityofpeople. Thucydides andXenophontherearenumerousaccounts ofpopularassembliesin 2 InNovember 1914,thepacifistprogressivistWalter Weyl wrotethat‘ifanything is 22 This viewgoesbacktoImmanuelKant’s 1795essayZumewigenFrieden,2ndsection, 21 Hansen andNielsen(2004),no.47(Syracuse);71(Taras) andno.74(Thourioi); 20 Tmj PtqnynhxtkDjrthwfynfyntsnsEzwtuj le tothemmakethedecision. find iteasiertosendthecitizenswar thanthecitizensthemselves ifithadbeen peace, andthatrepresentative democraciestendtobecomegoverned byeliteswho new formofparticipatorydemocracyhave arguedthatthemajorityofpeoplewant neoconservative hawks,butalsobydirectdemocraticdoves. Championsofthis over theworld. proposition ismoreinplace:thatpeacetheworld maypromotedemocracyall democratization oftheworld willentailpeaceintheworld. Perhaps theconverse see HansenandNielsen2004,85n.59;Robinson2001,593–608).First,like Athens, and thisinspiteofthefactthatpeoplewillhave tofightintheranks. and bentonwar asarulingeliteormonarch(Samons2004,100,131andpassim), Other examplescanbefound,andtheyshowthatawholepeopleasmilitant indicates that,ineachcase,thewar hadbeenvoted forbythepeopleinassembly. upheld either. The century, Taras, thenademocratic examples ofwars between democraticcity-states.Inthesecondhalf of thefih careful examinationofthehistoricalrecordreveals thatthereareinfactnumerous aacked thedemocraticallygoverned polisofHerakleiaPontica. In373democratic with ademocraticconstitutionallegedlywrienbyProtagoras.In424, Athens Tarantines commemoratedavictoryover Thourioi,colonized in444–43andissued Syracuse Thebes conqueredanddestroyed democraticPlataiai.Inthe360s, Athens made and Rhodoswere democraciesandonlyChioshadanoligarchicconstitution. Athenian Naval League:Byzantion,Chios,KosandRhodos.Ofthese Social War was foughtin357–55between Athens andfourmembersoftheSecond several aemptstore-conquer Amphipolis, probablyademocracyatthetime.The The connectionbetween peaceanddemocracyhasbeenclaimednotonlyby Thus, onthebasisofargumentfromhistory, itisnottobeexpectedthat The theorydoesnotstanduptoscrutiny(Russeand Antholis 1993,43–71; The above examples,however, showthatthisversion ofthetheorycannotbe 102, thequotesareonp.98. looks asifthepeoplewere forcingareluctantgovernment’; seeThompson (1987),92– Italy joinedthewar in1915,anotherprogressivist,CharlesEdward Russel,wrote:‘it certain aboutthewar of1914,itisthattheimpulsecamefrompeoples’, andwhen 2nd article. democratic 1000 (Rhodos).Demosthenes15.17mentionsnumerouswars foughtby Athens against 715 (HerakleiaPontica); no.674(Byzantion),840(Chios),497(Kos) andno. a democracy in the second half of the fih century BC. Second, a more was ademocracyinthesecondhalfoffihcenturyBC.Second,more poleis. poleis inquestionwere probablydirectdemocracies,which , had a dedication sent to Delphi in which the polis, hadadedicationsenttoDelphiinwhichthe 21 50 20 22 In Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 02:04 28 Sep 2021; For: 9781315613635, chapter2, 10.4324/9781315613635.ch2 Carson, L.andMartin,B.(1999), Carlen, L.(1976),DieLandsgemeindeinderSchweiz(Sigmaringen:Thorbecke). Burnheim, J.(1985),IsDemocracyPossible? Modern’, inP. McKechnie(ed.)(2002), live in(Layne1994). – representative aswell asdirect–willmakeourplanet amorepeacefulplaceto no politicalrights.Historicalexamplesdonotsupporttheviewthatdemocracies kept itselfoutoftheSecondWorld War was Switzerland,inwhichwomen had Budge, I.(1996), Buckler, J.(1980),TheThebanHegemony, 371–62B.C.(Cambridge,MA:Harvard Blackstone, W. (1765–69[1979]), Beloch, K.J.(1884),DieaischePolitikseitPerikles Barber, B.R.(1984),Strong Democracy:ParticipatoryPoliticsforaNewAge and GeneralHistoryforJohnCrook onHisEightiethBirthday 4 Theseviewswere advanced by, amongothers, Jane Addams, whoin1915foundedThe 24 23 Euripides, Acton, J.E.E.D.(1877[1986]),‘TheHistoryofFreedomin Antiquity’, in References This chapterisarevisedversion ofM.H.Hansen,‘DirectDemocracy, Ancient and Acknowledgments the onewe have justbeenthrough. it was said.Whenwomen obtaintherighttovote, therewillbenomajorwars like in theyears aertheFirstWorld War. War is rooted inmasculineaggressiveness, In thiscontext,itispertinenttomentionthatasomewhatsimilarhopewas crushed Arterton, F.C. (1987),Teledemocracy Praeger). University Press). IL: University ofChicagoPress). CA: University ofCaliforniaPress). Writings ofLordActon,ed.J.R.Fears,vol. I(Indianapolis,IN:LibertyClassics). 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