Journal of Contemporary Education Theory & Research, 2020, Vol. 4, No. 1, pp. 35-41 35 Exploring academic integrity and mental health during COVID-19: Rapid review

Sarah Elaine Eaton University of Calgary, Canada Kristal Louise Turner University of Calgary, Canada

Abstract Purpose: The goal of this study was to understand the relationship between academic integrity and students’ mental health during the COVID-19 crisis. Methods: We employed a rapid review method to identify relevant data sources using our university library search tool, which offers access to 1026 individual databases. We searched for sources relating to the concepts of (a) COVID-19 crisis; (b) academic integrity; and (c) mental health. We delimited our search to sources published between 01 January and 15 May 2020. Results: Our search resulted in a preliminary data set of sources (N=60). Further screening resulted in a total nine (n=9) sources, which were reviewed in detail. Data showed an amplification of students’ anxiety and stress during the pandemic, especially for matters relating to academic integrity. E- proctoring of examinations emerged as point of particular concern, as there were early indications in the literature that such services have proliferated rapidly during the crisis, with little known about the possible impact of electronic remote proctoring on students’ well-being. Implications: Recommendations are made for further research to better understand the impact of e- proctoring of remote examinations on students’ mental health, as well as the connections between academic integrity and student well-being in general.

Keywords: academic integrity, mental health, rapid review, COVID-19, e-proctoring

JEL Classification: I21, I28

Biographical note: Sarah Elaine Eaton ([email protected]) is an Associate Professor and the Educational Leader in Residence for Academic Integrity at the University of Calgary. Her research focuses on educational ethics and academic integrity. Kristal Turner ([email protected]) is a long- time Calgarian and Master of Arts student in the Werklund School of Education, Learning Sciences Specialization. Corresponding author: Sarah Elaine Eaton ([email protected])

1 INTRODUCTION upholding and enacting the values of integrity, rather than focusing only on academic misconduct behaviour such as Academic integrity is a broad term used to address issues cheating and plagiarism, and other cheating behaviours, such relating to student academic (mis)conduct, mainly in as contract cheating (Clarke & Lancaster, 2006) secondary and tertiary education. The term was popularized There has been ample research on how and why students by the late Donald (Don) McCabe, whose large-scale survey engage in cheating. One indicator that has consistently been research through the late twentieth and early twenty-first highlighted in the research is that students can feel high levels century resulted in academic integrity emerging as a field of of anxiety related to academic integrity, ranging from anxiety research, as well as educational administration and policy over not knowing what is expected of them and fear of doing (McCabe, 1992, 2016; McCabe, Butterfield, & Treviño, the wrong thing (Adam, 2016; McCabe, 2016), to stress 2012). McCabe framed his work around a values-based resulting from poor time management and poor planning approach to academic integrity, focusing on courage, skills to complete their work on time (Selemani, Chawinga, fairness, honesty, respect, responsibility and trust & Dube, 2018), to pressure to perform due either to a (International Center for Academic Integrity, 2014). He student’s own obsession to achieve high grades or familial advocated for a pro-active approach that focused on expectations that signal that anything less than high C Copyrigh t © 200 © 2020 Authors. Published by International Hellenic University Some rights reserved. ISSN: 2654-0274. UDC: 658.8+338.48+339.1+640(05) Except otherwise noted, this work is licensed under https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0 http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4256825 Published online: 30 October 2020 www.jcetr.gr © 200 EXPLORING ACADEMIC INTEGRITY AND MENTAL HEALTH DURING COVID-19: RAPID REVIEW 36 achievement is unacceptable (McCabe, 2016; Selemani, results across important outcomes” (Pollock et al., 2020, Chawinga, & Dube, 2018). More recently, researchers have n.p.). Rapid reviews are adapted from the systematic review begun to pay more explicit attention to the links between approach for circumstances where timely information is a academic misconduct and mental health (Tindall & Curtis, matter of some urgency. The rapid review method has been 2020), though this remains an underdeveloped area of employed in previous academic integrity research to identify academic integrity research. emerging and critical topics that merit deeper investigation In this paper, we examine the intersection of academic (Eaton & Dressler, 2019; 2020). integrity and mental health during the COVID-19 crisis. We We understood that “available evidence”, for the purposes of situate ourselves within the discipline of educational our study, would include media reports and other information research, rather than health sciences or psychology. We are found in the public domain. This is due, in part, to the lag in educators and make no claims of having medical expertise. publishing scholarly research. Our intention is for this rapid Instead, the purpose of our inquiry was to explore the review paper to inform further data-driven research over literature that emerged during the pandemic that highlighting time. As such, we focused on publicly available information any connections between stress, academic integrity and available during the Coronavirus crisis itself, with media teaching and learning. To our knowledge, no previous reports and news articles serving as a data sources for our research has examined this topic specifically. The research rapid review. The rationale for the inclusion of news items is question that guided our rapid review was: What does the further addressed in the discussion. available evidence indicate about the relationship, if any, that exists between academic integrity and mental health during 2.1 Search strategy the Coronavirus pandemic? We delimited our search to sources published between January 1 and May 15, 2020. We classified search terms under three broad categories: (a) COVID-19 crisis; (b) 2 THEORETICAL BACKGROUND academic integrity; and (c) mental health.

Because academic integrity research has been Table 1: Rapid review search terms interdisciplinary, a variety of theoretical approaches have been used including the theory of planned behaviour Category 1 Category 2 Category 3 (Harding et al., 2007); literary theory (Sutherland-Smith, COVID-19 academic integrity mental health 2008); cultural theory (Mahmud, Bretag, & Foltýnek, 2019; Leask, 2006); organizational theory (Bertram Gallant & Coronavirus academic dishonesty anxiety Drinan, 2006) or critical theory, drawing specifically on academic misconduct stress power discourses in educational contexts (Adam et al, 2017; Howard, 1995; Sutherland-Smith, 2008). There is no single exam cheating theoretical approach that dominates academic integrity plagiarism research. More common has been a conceptual framing approach, which might be a better fit, due to the inherently practical nature of applied ethics in educational contexts. In order to be included in our rapid review, a source had to One conceptual approach proposes that educational integrity include a minimum of one term from all three categories. research can be framed through a policy, moralistic or Exact matches for search terms were conducted using the educational lens (Adam, 2016; Kaposi, & Dell, 2012). Boolean operator “and” between category words (e.g., Although moralistic approaches were common in the “COVID-19” AND “academic integrity” AND “mental twentieth century, today scholars advocate against health”). We used our university library search tool, which positioning academic integrity in terms of moral binaries or offers access to 1026 individual databases. Unlike Google ethical dichotomies and instead favour educational Scholar, the university database is agnostic in its searches, approaches that take a teaching and learning approach meaning it does not customize results based on location or (Bertram Gallant, 2008). However, policy continues to play previous searches, resulting in less bias and more rigour in a role as a means to address violations of academic integrity the results. We delimited our sources to those published in (Bretag, Mahmud, East, et al. 2011). English. Citations were retrieved from the university library databases and imported into the reference management software 3 METHOD Endnote (v. 9). Full-texts of sources, when available, were retrieved and imported into Endnote at the same time. We We employed a rapid review method for our project, which performed manual cross-checks the bibliographic data of involves the rapid collection of sources with the goal of each individual entry to ensure all the relevant details had synthesizing the breadth of existing evidence on a given topic been imported into Endnote accurately, making corrections in quickly (Dobbins, 2017; Hartling et al., 2017). This and additions as needed to ensure records were as complete method is considered to be a modified version of the as possible. systematic review method, which uses “explicit and systematic methods to search for and identify multiple systematic reviews on related research questions in the same topic area for the purpose of extracting and analysing their 37 Sarah Elaine Eaton & Kristal Louise Turner

4 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS Table 2: Critical appraisal overview using modified JBI approach for text/opinion sources Our search resulted in a total of sixty sources (N=60). Of Author(s) Type of Source Logic Audience these, thirty-three were duplicates. Among the remaining evidence evident twenty-seven, full texts were not available for five, leaving Harwell, D. (2020) Newspaper Washington Post Yes us with twenty-two sources to review. We classified thirteen article (USA) Public of these as being on topics not related to education or being Erickson, A. (2020) Newspaper TCA Regional Yes article News (USA) Public too superficial in nature to be included (e.g. “tips and tricks”). González-González, That left us with a total of nine sources, which we critically C., Infante-Moro, A., Journal Sustainability Yes & Infante-Moro, J. Article (Switzerland) Academi appraised (see Figure 1). (2020) c

Kim, Y. (2020) Newspaper TCA Regional News Yes Public Figure 1: Flow diagram of rapid review selection criteria article (USA)

MacNamee, D., & Newspaper UWire (Ireland) Yes Public Fogarty, S. (2020) article

Newspaper TCA Regional News Yes Public May, C. (2020) article (USA)

Newspaper Washington Post Yes Public Strauss, V. (2020a) article (USA)

Newspaper Washington Post Yes Public Strauss, V. (2020b) article (USA)

Williamson, B., Scholarly Teaching in Higher Bayne, S., & Shay, S. Editorial Education Yes Academic (2020) (Routledge)

E-proctoring involves the systematic remote visual (and sometimes auditory) monitoring of students in real time using web cameras to conduct of students as they take their examinations (González-González et al, 2020). Such services are often offered by third party vendors (González-González et al, 2020). Invigilation can either occur live, with another person watching via web cam from a different location, or by an artificial intelligence using facial recognition and eye- tracking software (Harwell, 2020). Students might be taking their examinations in one country, such as the United States, 4.1 Critical Appraisal while live proctors watch in real time from off-shore Our initial review of sources showed that many of them were locations such as India, Jamaica, Panama, and the Philippines journalistic in nature (n=7). For that reason, we selected the (Harwell, 2020). The vendor collects data such as “test- Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical appraisal tool for text takers' browsing history, searches and online interactions and opinion papers as the instrument to evaluate our sources with a group of website analytics providers” (Harwell, 2020, (Joanna Briggs Institute, 2019). Because the JBI tools are n.p.) Certain behaviours, such as looking off screen for more intended for systematic, rather than rapid reviews, and are than a few seconds, leaving the room or having another designed principally for use in health-related fields, we used person enter the camera frame can trigger alerts indicating a modified version of the JBI tool for our rapid review, which possible breaches of academic integrity (Harwell, 2020). This had an educational focus. (See Table 2). has been highlighted as being concerning to students, as they Two of the sources (González-González et al, 2020; worry even innocent actions might cause them to fail, adding Williamson, B., 2020) were scholarly in nature. Of these, anxiety to an already stressful situation. only one was empirical research (González-González et al, Students’ reactions while being e-proctored included being 2020). Upon closer inspection of the article, we noted that it uncomfortable with the practice (Harwell, 2020; Kim, 2020); was received by the journal on 16 March 2020 and published anger (Harwell, 2020); anxiety (Strauss, 2020b), crying on 24 April, meaning that the life cycle of the article from (Harwell, 2020), nausea (Harwell, 2020), stress (MacNamee submission to publication occurred during the Coronavirus & Fogarty, 2020; Strauss 2020a), and vomiting into crisis. The topic of the article was on electronic proctoring (e- wastepaper bins on camera during the exam because they proctoring), also called online proctoring (Harwell, 2020) of were not permitted to leave the room during the exam remote exams. The topics of e-proctoring specifically or (Harwell, 2020). The financial stress of having to buy examinations generally, as they related to mental health, computers or web cams in order for e-proctoring to take place anxiety and stress were also addressed in seven additional emerged as a secondary issue that might possibly be related sources (Erickson, 2020; Harwell, 2020; Kim, 2020; to elevated levels of anxiety (Strauss, 2020a, 2020b), though MacNamee, & Fogarty, 2020; May, 2020; Strauss, 2020a, the link between mental health and financial stress due to e- 2020b). EXPLORING ACADEMIC INTEGRITY AND MENTAL HEALTH DURING COVID-19: RAPID REVIEW 38 proctoring services was not strongly established in this rapid sources identified through our rapid review, we note that the review. topic of e-proctoring of examinations has been prevalent in Finally, questions for students with disabilities requiring the news in 2020, with more than one reporter alluding to academic accommodations was noted (Strauss 2020a). The Orwellian-type surveillance of students (Flaherty, 2020; link between mental health and increased stress for students Hubler, 2020). The links between privacy infringement of e- with disabilities was noted as a possible issue for future proctoring and mental health were not directly established in study, though it was noted that students with underlying this rapid review but could point to a possible area for future health conditions might be disproportionately affected by the research. COVID-19 pandemic (Strauss, 2020a, b). 5.3 Considerations for the commodification of higher education through academic integrity products and services 5 DISCUSSION On a broader level, the proliferation not only of surveillance, but of surveillance capitalism (Williamson et al., 2020, A number of items merit deeper exploration, with the most Zuboff, 2019), the gathering of human data for profit (Zuboff, prominent being the possible links between e-proctoring and 2019), in educational contexts was an underlying theme in mental health concerns for students, as well as the role some sources. In one source we reviewed, a particular journalism plays in acting as an early alert system for company reportedly estimated their business would increase academic integrity research topics by four to five times in 2020 alone (Harwell, 2020), resulting in what was noted to be “explosive growth” (Harwell, 2020, 5.1 The link between e-proctoring and mental health n.p.) of the industry. The size of the online proctoring We note that none of the eight sources that specifically industry remains unknown, though one industry report addressed the topic of student mental health with remote projected that it could be up to $10 Billion USD by 2026 exams and e-proctoring included empirical data, we speculate (Learning Light, 2019). that the reason this could be because empirical studies have The full impact of surveillance in educational contexts is not yet to be conducted on this subject. The fact that eight of nine yet known. However, we might look to the case of text- sources mentioned exams and/or online proctoring as a point matching software (TMS) (also known as plagiarism of concern is noteworthy, pointing to an urgent need to detection software) for clues. TMS began to proliferate at the rigorously explore what relationship, if any, exists between turn of the millennium (Groark, Oblinger & Choa, 2001). Its e-proctoring services and students’ mental health. The use has been contested on the grounds that the products may proliferation of e-proctoring services has escalated rapidly on not always work as marketed and start with an assumption of a worldwide scale during the COVID-19 crisis, with little student guilt (Howard, 2013; Williams, 2007), and may serve empirical evidence about what impact such services, and in to propagate outdated moralistic approaches that modern particular, the phenomenon of remote surveillance under scholars and advocates advise against. testing conditions, might be having on students emotional or Others have pointed out that such services may infringe upon physical well-being. students’ intellectual property rights (Foster, 2002). The We acknowledge that stress during examinations is normal, infringement upon intellectual property rights became the but it seems there may be emerging evidence that e- central issue in a legal case in Canada when a student, Jesse proctoring exacerbates stress levels far beyond what might be Rosenfeld, took McGill University to court over the use of normally experienced during a face-to-face exam. It is not Turnitin, objecting to the university’s requirement that his known to what extent the stress from e-proctoring or taking academic work be scanned by the product. The courts found exams during the coronavirus crisis might differ from stress in favour of the student (Charbonneau, 2004; Strawczynski, under normal examination conditions, though available 2004) and the university dropped their license for the product evidence points to the need for deeper investigation to better following the lawsuit. Although the use of text-matching understand the impacts of e-proctoring on students’ mental software has become ubiquitous in other countries, its use in health. Another point that is not addressed in the literature we Canada remains much more limited as a result, in part, of the reviewed is the contextual factor of the student-teacher legal precedent that was set by this case. This example connection. It has been established in the literature that demonstrates how cases of students’ rights with regards to the academic misconduct is less likely to occur when students use of academic integrity products and might ultimately be believe their instructors care about them (McCabe, overlooked unless students themselves take the issue outside 1992,1993). It is not known what effect outsourcing of the university to the courts. If the court finds in favour of examination invigilation to a third party, effectively the student it might change the trajectory of how academic removing it as an instructional responsibility, could have on integrity products are implemented in a particular students’ perceptions that their instructors care about them. jurisdiction. Many questions remain about the effect of e-proctoring services on students’ well-being. 5.4 Journalism as an early alert in academic integrity research areas 5.2 Concerns about privacy and data collection and storage We anticipated that some of the available evidence at this We noted that data collection and storage, as well as privacy point would be through media stories, rather than scholarly infringement were mentioned in multiple sources (González- ones. Typically, in a rapid review, news items might be González et al., 2020; Harwell, 2020; Strauss 2020b; eliminated, as they are not scientific in nature. However, in Williamson, Bayne, & Shay, (2020). In addition to the the field of academic integrity, news stories have previously 39 Sarah Elaine Eaton & Kristal Louise Turner not only preceded deeper research into a topic but have 5.5 Limitations prompted it. One example is the issue of contract cheating. The amount of time available to conduct a rapid review The practice of commercial academic outsourcing can be impacts the extent to which a comprehensive search for all traced back to at least the 1970s when the first lawsuits were available evidence is possible (Dobbin, 2017). This rapid launched against term paper mills in the United States review was conducted between May 5 and May 24, 2020 and (McCormick & Whaley, 2014). The term “contract cheating” prepared specifically for this special issue. Although we have was first coined in 2006 as an umbrella term to describe all made every effort to ensure a thorough and rigorous review, types of academic outsourcing, including computer coding we acknowledge that our search results are not exhaustive. assignments, for example (Clarke & Lancaster, 2006). We noted that even after we concluded our collection of Journalists media uncovered large-scale online contract sources, news stories about academic misconduct and mental cheating among thousands of students in Australia, facilitated health during the coronavirus crisis, and e-proctoring in by a company called MyMaster (McNeilage & Visentin, particular, continued to emerge (see for example, 2014; Visentin, 2015). The scale of the problem was reported Chrysanthos, 2020). As such, we offer our results not as extensively in the media. Subsequent to the awareness raised conclusive, but rather as a point of departure for discussion by the press, the topic of contract cheating became an issue and future research. of national concern, leading to the development of a research An additional limitation of our study was that it was agenda in that country that has resulted in a robust body of conducted in English. We acknowledge the relevance and published research. Numerous studies received funded by the importance of diverse perspectives on a given topic in a Australian government, as evidenced in the authors’ variety of languages. We call upon educational research acknowledgements in their publications (Bretag, Harper, colleagues in diverse language contexts to expand on our Burton, Ellis, et al. 2019a, 2019b; Ellis, van Haeringen, research to better understand how or if evidence might differ Harper, Bretag, 2019; Harper, Bretag, & Rundle; 2020). in other regions. Similarly in the UK, it was after contract cheating was identified by the press as occurring among tens of thousands of students there (Dean, 2016; Mostrous & Kenber, 2016), 5 CONCLUSION with journalists estimating the size of the industry to be worth around £100 Million at the time (Dean, 2016), that policy Our rapid review of literature linking mental health, makers began paying closer attention. This led to the academic integrity and the coronavirus crisis has surfaced the involvement of the national Quality Assurance Agency topic of e-proctoring as an area about which little is known in (QAA), which has gone on to raise awareness, provide terms of its impact not only on students integrity, but also on support to educators and provide guidance to the government their well-being. We conclude with a call to action for on the topic (QAA, 2016; 2017). We are not suggesting that researchers with expertise in mental health and educational researchers take their cues from journalists, but rather that ethics to undertake collaborative research to better researchers be attentive to concerns identified by the press understand the impact of e-proctoring on students. More that might indicate the need for rigorous scholarly inquiry to broadly, we urge educators, administrators and health care better understand underlying complexities from a scientific professionals to examine broader issues relating to mental perspective. health and academic integrity, as the connections have yet to Receiving government funding not only supports research, it be fully explored and understood. Finally, the impact on legitimizes it and this has certainly been the case with students’ overall well-being of attempting to complete their academic integrity research (Eaton & Edino, 2018). studies during a global pandemic will not be known for some Similarly, when national quality assurance bodies become time yet, but it is a subject of utmost importance, particularly involved, the topic gains further credibility and attention on in terms of long-term effects that may affect students even a larger scale. Academic integrity remains an after they have completed their studies. underdeveloped area of educational research when compared with other topics, such as assessment (Macfarlane, Zhang, & Pun, 2014). If that is so, then the links between student mental REFERENCES health and academic integrity remain even less developed. Adam, L. (2016). Student perspectives on plagiarism. In T. 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