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Corruption, Dishonesty and Fraud in Higher Education: an Overview

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Corruption, Dishonesty and Fraud in Higher Education: an Overview Corruption, Dishonesty and Fraud in Higher Education: an overview First Draft for a U4 Issue Paper, 2018 Monica Kirya [email protected] Contents Summary .................................................................................................................................... 2 Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 3 Typologies and Manifestations of Corruption in Higher Education .......................................... 6 Political Corruption in Higher Education ............................................................................... 6 Administrative and Bureaucratic Corruption in Universities ................................................. 8 Accreditation and licensing ................................................................................................ 8 Selection and Admission of Students ................................................................................. 8 Recruitment and Promotion of academic and administrative staff .................................... 9 Finance and procurement fraud risks in higher education ............................................... 10 Sextortion ............................................................................................................................. 11 Academic Dishonesty ........................................................................................................... 12 Plagiarism and Essay Mills .............................................................................................. 12 Falsification of research processes and results ................................................................. 12 Examination Fraud ........................................................................................................... 13 Degree/ Diploma Mills ..................................................................................................... 14 On-going initiatives and possibilities for combatting corruption in higher education ............. 15 Solutions and Strategies ....................................................................................................... 15 Authentification and Verification of Qualifications ......................................................... 15 Vetting international recruitment agencies ...................................................................... 15 Improving admission and assessment processes and safeguarding records ..................... 16 Enacting institution-specific anti-corruption and / or academic integrity policies .......... 17 Centres and resources for integrity in higher education ....................................................... 17 International Centre for Academic Integrity (ICAI) ........................................................ 17 The European Charter for Researchers and the Code of Conduct for the Recruitment of Researchers”, adopted by the EU Commission in 2005. .................................................. 18 The Center for International Higher Education of Boston College.................................. 18 UNESCO International Institute for Education Planning (IIEP) ..................................... 19 US Council for Higher Accreditation (CHEA) ................................................................ 19 Magna Charta Observatory .............................................................................................. 19 Thomas Lancaster’s Blog ................................................................................................. 19 Enabling factors for integrity in higher education ................................................................... 20 University Autonomy ........................................................................................................... 20 Information and Communication Technology ..................................................................... 20 Coalition- building and student involvement ....................................................................... 21 The role of external quality assurance .................................................................................. 22 Conclusion ................................................................................................................................ 23 REFERENCES AND FURTHER READING SUGGESTIONS ............................................. 24 1 Summary 2 Introduction It is difficult to establish with certitude just how widespread corruption in higher education is, especially in developing countries, as there are few comprehensive studies on the extent of the problem. However, it is estimated that fraud in international higher education is a $1.5 billion to $2.5 billion business.1 The lack of information on corruption in higher education may be attributed to the neglect of higher education in national and international development policy until fairly recently. In previous decades, many developing countries were governed under military dictatorships that clamped down on academic freedom and sought to stifle universities, which they regarded as threats to their power.2 Even when the dictatorships were toppled under the “third wave” of democracy,3 higher education was not prioritized in development policy because of the prevalent view in the development community, led by the World Bank, that it did not play a significant role in poverty alleviation; and that primary and secondary education were far more important for development.4 This attitude towards higher education is evidenced by the fact that the bank’s spending on higher education was low, and that many developing country Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers, which form the basis for medium term development planning, did not include higher education as a component of their development strategies.5 The lukewarm attitude towards higher education has now changed, fortunately; and it is now acknowledged that higher education is indispensable to the human capital development necessary for technological catch-up and faster growth.6 The impetus to improve access to higher education in developing countries is however, weakened by corruption problems. Anecdotes from media reports and smaller studies7 suggest that corruption in higher education is a significant problem. The main factor that makes higher education vulnerable to corruption is that a university degree is now, more than ever, a prerequisite for access to good jobs, positions of power and other benefits. Moreover, the most prestigious higher education institutions are very exclusive and only accept a small percentage of the myriad applications they receive.8 The competition extends to faculty as well, as the drive 1Redden, E. 2012. “Catch them if you can,” Inside Higher Ed, at http://www.insidehighered.com/news/2012/09/14/international-educators-discuss-problem- fraud#ixzz26QjwbL1d 2 See Ajayi et al, 1996. The African Experience with Higher Education, Association of African Universities; London : James Currey ; Athens, Ohio : Ohio University Press, Accra. Quoted in http://www.olugbemirojegede.com/keynotes/Quality_of_University_Education_in_Nigeria_Univ_of_Uyo_Conv ocation_Lecture_2017.pdf 3 Huntington, S. 1991. “Democracy’s Third Wave.” Journal of Democracy Vol.2. No.2 Spring 1991 https://www.ned.org/docs/Samuel-P-Huntington-Democracy-Third-Wave.pdf 4 Milton Friedman and Rose Friedman, 19080. Free to Choose: A Personal Statement. New York: Harcourt, Brace and Jovanovich, p. 34. Quoted in Bloom, D. et al, 2006. Higher Education and Economic Development in Africa , http://ent.arp.harvard.edu/AfricaHigherEducation/Reports/BloomAndCanning.pdf , p. 1 5 Between 1985 to 1989, 17 per cent of the World Bank’s worldwide education-sector spending was on higher education. However, between 1995 and 1999, the proportion allotted to higher education declined to just 7 per cent. See Bloom, D. et al, above; p. iii 6 As above. 7 See for example, Mccabe et al, 2008. Academic Dishonesty in the Middle East: Individual and Contextual Factors. Research in Higher Education, Vol. 49, No. 5 pp. 451-467. For more news articles and reports on corruption in higher education, see the ETICO platform, which can be accessed at http://etico.iiep.unesco.org/en 8 See for example, this news article on college acceptance in the US, although similar trends are evident in other developed and developing countries. Perez-pe, R., 2014. “Best, Brightest and Rejected: Elite Colleges Turn 3 to publish, have good rankings and attract research funding offers incentives to fudge numbers or falsify research.9 Corruption in higher education has serious implications for higher education itself and for society as a whole. It ruins the reputation of institutions, blocks access for applicants who do meet the requirements, and wastes money spent on students who are not capable.10 Corrupt practices in higher education break the link between personal effort and anticipation of reward, proliferating “ends justify means” norms that can further erode integrity and cohesion in the wider society. Employees and students come to believe that personal success comes, not through merit and hard work, but through cutting corners.11 Worryingly, a recent survey of 7,000 young people (18-35 years of age) in East Africa found that 60% admired people who used get-rich-quick schemes. More than half believed it does not matter how one makes money while 53% said they would do anything to get money. 37% would take or give a bribe and 35%
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