Genesis of Carbonate Lakes on Perennial Siliciclastic Floodplains A

Home , Belly River Group, Crevasse splay, Dissolved load

Genesis of Carbonate Lakes on Perennial Siliciclastic Floodplains

A thesis presented to

the faculty of

the College of Arts and Sciences of Ohio University

In partial fulfillment

of the requirements for the degree

Master of Science

Jessie J. Truchan

June 2009

This thesis titled

Genesis of Carbonate Lakes on Perennial Siliciclastic Floodplains

JESSIE J. TRUCHAN

has been approved for

the Department of Geological Sciences

and the College of Arts and Sciences by

Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch

Associate Professor of Geological Sciences

Benjamin M. Ogles

Dean, College of Arts and Sciences 3

ABSTRACT

TRUCHAN, JESSIE J., M.S., June 2009, Geological Sciences

Genesis of Carbonate Lakes on Perennial Siliciclastic Floodplains (112 pp.)

Director of Thesis: Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch

Carbonate lake deposits interbedded with coal seams exist in perennial fluvial

floodplain deposits during the Phanerozoic. Such lakes require that a protected water

body must contemporaneously exist with a minimum of siliciclastic input. Meandering

and braided river systems do not have areas shielded from siliciclastic bedload during

floods, so that lacustrine carbonate or peat accumulation over time in these systems is

interrupted. However, anastomosing river systems have flood basin areas surrounded by

relatively high levees that protect those basins, allowing them to receive mostly suspended and dissolved load during most floods. This protection from siliciclastic input favors enhancement of carbonate precipitation. The water table must remain high to preserve peat for coal formation. This hydraulic control on carbonate and coal sedimentation in a fluvial system is dependent on flooding and groundwater characteristics. The other important control on carbonate and coal sedimentation is provenance. Carbonate accumulation in continental settings is dependent on the influx of ions from the weathered drainage area; sedimentary material, whether bedload,

suspended load, or dissolved load, must come from the basinal source area. Bedrock with

calcium-rich rocks can contribute sufficient quantities of dissolved to suspended load to

allow for bio-mediated precipitation in protected carbonate ponds and lakes in association

with plants. 4

In order to test this hypothesis that indeed carbonate sedimentation on perennial siliciclastic floodplains can primarily occur in anastomosing river environments, a database of over 200 examples mostly of perennial anastomosing and meandering river systems was compiled. Information regarding the fluvial parameters and facies characteristics of each Phanerozoic river deposit, the tectonics of its region, as well as the

provenance was used to recognize carbonate sedimentation patterns through time and space. Difficulties in collecting data on single fluvial systems versus data averaged across successions containing multiple fluvial systems reduced the size of the dataset. Overall,

56 anastomosing river deposits were found to have carbonate floodplain lakes and a carbonate provenance. This means that 46% of all definitively anastomosing river deposits accumulated flood basin carbonates and 100% of these river deposits had a carbonate provenance. 66 anastomosing river systems (54%) did not have carbonates in their provenance nor in their flood basins, and no anastomosing systems had a carbonate provenance without carbonate deposits on their floodplains. No meandering river systems (8) had carbonate deposits, despite the fact that four of the meandering entries had carbonates in their source area. This research contributes sedimentologic criteria helpful to coal exploration and the refinement of fluvial depositional system models.

Approved: ______

Elizabeth H. Gierlowski-Kordesch

Associate Professor of Geological Sciences 5

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to express my genuine gratitude and sincere thanks to Dr. Elizabeth

Gierlowski-Kordesch, my advisor, for her support, guidance, and especially for her laughter. She really helped me out and I feel like a better person from knowing her. I am grateful to Dr. Joseph Shields, Karen Mammone, and Dr. Michael Root for their

inspiration and teachings. I am truly grateful to my committee members, Dr. Gregory

Nadon and Dr. David L. Kidder for their questions and direction. I also wish to thank the

Department of Geological Sciences,ExxonMobil for financial support, my friends, my

sister Jolene Truchan, William Holland, my grandparents and especially my parents,

Wayne and Brenda Truchan, for always being there for me.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Abstract ...... 3

Acknowledgments...... 5

List of Tables ...... 8

List of Figures ...... 9

Chapter 1: River Systems and floodplains ...... 10

Meandering Rivers: Definition and Facies Model ...... 14

Anastomosing Rivers: Definition and Facies Model ...... 20

Floodplains ...... 25

Chapter 2: Carbonate Lakes/Floodplain Lakes ...... 28

Previous Models ...... 28

Isolation ...... 28

Groundwater Springs ...... 29

Dry Climate ...... 32

Metamorphic Provenance ...... 32

Carbonate Lake Formation on Siliciclastic Floodplains ...... 33

Provenance ...... 36

Carbonates Interbedded with Coal ...... 37

Chapter 3: Database ...... 38

Hypothesis ...... 38

Methodology ...... 38 7

Results ...... 43

Discussion ...... 47

Conclusions ...... 50

Future Work and Significance ...... 52

References ...... 53

Appendix A: Database of Ancient River Systems ...... 67

Appendix B: Anastomosing Entries from Appendix A ...... 81

Appendix C: Meandering Entries from Appendix A ...... 87

Appendix D: Entries with No CHANNEL Width/Thickness Ratios ...... 88

Appendix E: References for Appendix D ...... 90

Appendix F: References for Appendix A, B, and C ...... 93

Appendix G: Quaternary References for Table 2 in Chapter 3 ...... 111

LIST OF TABLES

Page

Table 1. List of Abbreviations used in the Database ...... 39

Table 2. List of Quaternary River Systems with Anastomosing Reaches ...... 42

Table 3: Results ...... 46

Table 4. River Systems ...... 67

Table 5. Anastomosing Entries ...... 81

Table 6. Meandering Entries from Appendix A ...... 87

Table 7. Entries with No Width/Thickness Ratios ...... 88

LIST OF FIGURES

Page

Figure 1. A block diagram from Walker and Cant (1984) describing important

morphologic features of a meandering river system...... 14

Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic column and formation mechanism of a lateral

accretion deposit on the inside of a meander bend (Bernard et al., 1962; modified after

Allen, 1963; modified after Visher, 1965)...... 16

Figure 3. A diagram of how oxbow lakes form and the stratigraphic columns associated with the two types, chute cut-off and neck cut-off (Walker and Cant, 1984)...... 19

Figure 4. Block diagram from Smith and Smith (1980) showing geometries and textural

properties of an anastomosing river...... 21

Figure 5. An anastomosed fluvial facies block diagram from Nadon (1994)...... 23

Figure 6. Groundwater influx theory for the genesis of floodplain limestones from

Bowen and Bloch (2002)...... 31

CHAPTER 1: RIVER SYSTEMS AND FLOODPLAINS

In a marine setting, carbonate deposition commonly occurs in clear water because carbonate ions are abundant and siliciclastic input is limited. Precipitation of calcite or aragonite is controlled by temperature, degree of agitation, organic activity, and the amount of light received at the Earth’s surface (Prothero and Schwab, 2004). Although precipitation of carbonates via inorganic processes can occur in normal-salinity seawater and saline and freshwater lacustrine environments, carbonate deposition occurs more commonly via organic processes (Pedley et al., 1996; Arp et al., 2001; Ordóñez et al.,

2005; Boggs, 2006; Rasbury et al., 2006). In nonmarine settings, the factors that affect the accumulation of carbonate deposits are slightly different (Gierlowski-Kordesch,

1998) than those that affect carbonate deposition in marine areas (Smith, 1994; Bailey,

1998; Léonide et al., 2007). Freshwaters derive their highly variable chemistry directly from their watershed in contrast to the well-defined chemistry of marine waters, and calcium ions are only present if they are drained from a watershed with calcium-rich rocks, such as carbonates and marbles. Once calcium-rich waters reach a continental basin, precipitation occurs in areas protected from siliciclastic input (no agitation needed). Such protected areas can be determined by considering the hydrodynamic properties of continental depositional environments.

Continental lakes formed in association with fluvial systems are commonly found around alluvial fans associated with groundwater discharge, on floodplains, and within abandoned channels as part of surface water flux (Nickel, 1985; Cohen, 2003; Archer,

2005). Lake deposits on perennial fluvial floodplains are commonly interbedded with 11

coal seams (Ostrom, 1970; Rust and Legun, 1983; Melvin, 1987; Shuster and Steidtmann,

1987; Warwick and Stanton, 1988; Johnson and Pierce, 1990, Mangano et al., 1994,

Zaleha et al., 2001, Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004). The hydrodynamics of three major

fluvial styles (braided, meandering, and anastomosing/anabranching) will be examined,

including the variable granulometry ranges associated with each system and the

identification of potential areas for lake deposition. Straight river systems (Rust, 1978)

are rare and transitional and will not be examined in this paper.

Braided river systems transport coarse sediments and have variable discharge

(Bridge and Lunt, 2006). The floodplains of braided river systems are not normally flooded and vegetation patterns are controlled by the frequency of flooding events

(Bridge and Lunt, 2006). The floodplains are not well organized and too permeable to form lakes (Nanson and Croke, 1992). Sedimentologically, braided river usually form wide sheet-like channel deposits with very high width/thickness ratios (Gibling, 2006).

Coarse-grained material displays trough cross-stratification usually associated with migrating dunes (Smith et al., 2005).

Meandering river systems have sediments that range from coarse- to fine-grained with approximately 10% of the sediments being finer than sand-sized particles (Miall,

1996). Typically, one active channel exists along with scattered bars and islands (Miall,

1996). In meandering river systems, the floodplains are incised by channel migration and the sediments have limited cohesion (Miall, 1996; Nanson and Croke, 1992). The facies model of a meandering river system includes epsilon cross-bedding within channel sandstones confirming that lateral accretion is the main mechanism of traction-load 12

deposition in a meandering river system (Miall, 1996). The ubiquitous flooding patterns

of meandering river systems differentially destroy vegetation (Bendix and Hupp, 2000).

Dunagan and Driese (1999) suggest plants protect areas and enhance carbonate

precipitation but frequent flooding inhibits the sustainability of vegetation in the floodplain (Hupp, 2000), clearly making “protected” carbonate precipitation and preservation difficult.

Anastomosing and humid anabranching river systems are described as low- gradient systems with a predominantly suspended load that is composed of two or more interconnected channels that enclose flood basins (Makaske, 2001). Anastomosis results where a system has a large amount of water and a modest sediment load that needs to be moved across an interior basin that is nearly flat-lying (Gibling et al., 1998). This

movement results in avulsions that form new channels contemporaneously (Makaske,

2001). These river deposits have lenticular sandstone channels, which are partitioned by

mudstones, all characterized by short periods of accelerated vertical aggradation (Nadon,

1994). Characteristic ribbon sandstones surrounded by fine-grained floodplain sediments

distinguish these deposits from other river systems (Nadon, 1994).

With anastomosing river systems, the flood basins are large and stable and

protected by high levees (Miall, 1996; Makaske, 2001). The flood basins create an

environment conducive to the accumulation of coals and limestones (Flores, 1981; Flores

and Hanley, 1984; Gibling et al., 1998; Makaske, 2001; Makaske et al., 2002; İnci, 2002)

because they are protected from siliciclastic input by only receiving dissolved and 13 suspended load during flooding events. Bedload deposition only occurs in the flood basin areas during the breaching of levees and the formation of crevasse splays.

In this paper, the state of knowledge concerning perennial anastomosing and meandering rivers is evaluated to establish the exact processes involved in carbonate deposition on siliciclastic floodplains. Braided river systems are not a focus because sediment accumulation does not occur outside the channels during most flooding events.

It is important to understand the working river style that was employed during deposition for insight on spatial configuration of depositional areas and their potential grain size distribution (North et al., 2007). Examples from ancient deposits as well as modern deposits are examined and information regarding over 200 different examples of anastomosing and meandering rivers is included. Two dominant questions to be addressed here are: (1) where will carbonate lakes form and (2) do they more commonly form in association with anastomosing or meandering rivers?

Firstly, a description of all of the pertinent background information to this study is given in Chapters 1 and 2. Secondly, Chapter 3 contains a methodology section, which explains the processes involved in the creation of a database containing over 200 examples of perennial anastomosing and meandering river systems. Results follow and finally the patterns of carbonate lake deposition on perennial siliciclastic floodplains will be evaluated in the discussion and conclusion sections.

Meandering Rivers: Definition and Facies Model

Using the depositional models of Sundborg (1956), Harms et al. (1963),

McGowen and Garner (1970), and Jackson (1976), Walker and Cant (1984) derived the

first sedimentologic model for meandering river systems. A block diagram is presented

in Figure 1.

Figure 1. A block diagram from Walker and Cant (1984) describing important morphologic features of a meandering river system.

Figure 1 highlights the main features and processes occurring in a perennial meandering river system. Coarse- to fine-grained sediments with roughly 10% of these sediments being finer than sand-sized particles are carried from upstream channel banks downstream on a sinuous path (Miall, 1996). Sinuosity in the system is the result of low 15 velocities, gentle slopes, and lateral migration of the system as it travels across a large floodplain area. The channels are usually narrow and isolated, but due to lateral migration of the channel, the width/depth ratios of meandering systems are usually larger than any other river system. Meandering channels do no get very deep, but their deposits can be very wide leading to channel width/thickness ratios commonly greater than 60

(Miall, 1996; Gibling, 2006). Channels can be up to 38 m thick and less than 15 km wide, with most less than 3 km wide. The accepted range used in this paper is from 60-

250 (Gibling, 2006).

The process of lateral migration is the dominant force that governs a meandering river system by differentially distributing the erosive powers of the river in only one channel (Prothero and Schwab, 2004). The channel is concomitantly eroding on its inner bank while sediments are deposited on the outer portion of the channel (Prothero and

Schwab, 2004). These areas are defined as cut banks and point bars, respectively.

Because of the meandering flow of the river during channel migration, cut banks erode material in the channel wall where the channel bends or alters direction. In addition, flow then gets diverted away from the eroded bank and obliquely passes across to the other side of the river, forming a helical overturn pattern (Miall, 1992). This forces sediments from the cut bank to flow up the point bars areas on the sides of the channels that slope convex-upwards (Galloway, 1985).

The point bars areas accumulate the eroded sediment from the cut banks and these deposits are called a lateral accretion deposit or a point bar deposit (See Figure 2). They are characterized by an overall fining-upwards succession with the sorting of sediments 16

controlled by grain size, decreasing depth, and varying velocities through time

(Galloway, 1985). The coarse-grained material at the base of the point bar succession is

typically made up of a lag deposit comprised of collapsed channel bank material, plant

matter that is water-saturated, and calcrete pebbles and cobbles (Miall, 1992). Epsilon

cross-beds are associated with these coarser-grained sediments because they are situated

transverse to the channel and move laterally to flow.

The medium-sized sediments in the middle part of the fining-upwards succession

of point bar deposits move at higher velocities than the coarse material and medium-to-

large trough cross-stratification forms (Galloway, 1985). The finer traction-load

sediments that are deposited on top of this display climbing-ripple cross-lamination as

well as tabular and planar stratification (Galloway, 1985). The finest-grained sediments

that cap the succession are from suspension settle-out and vertical accretion that occurs

after channel migration has halted and flooding takes over (Miall, 1992).

Figure 2. Generalized stratigraphic column and formation mechanism of a lateral accretion deposit on the inside of a meander bend (Bernard et al., 1962; modified after Allen, 1963; modified after Visher, 1965).

Crevasse splays develop when the water levels in the river channel become high

enough that the levees of the river channel are breached. This breach alters the flow of

traction-load sediments in the river and they flow out in a lobate fashion perpendicular to the channel wall, dispersing river sediments. This process occurs in meandering river

systems during flooding events. The crevasse splays that are found in meandering river

systems are usually not as well developed as those found in association with

anastomosing river systems. These deposits are commonly ripple cross-laminated and

rarely, parallel lamination is found if the splay is deposited under conditions of high

water velocities (Walker and Cant, 1984). These deposits are silty and have been

described as resembling a turbidite (Walker and Cant, 1984). These deposits may not be

preserved well because during a subsequent flooding event, the floodwaters engulf the

entire floodplain and easily erode and re-transport these deposits. In addition, the

channels of meandering river systems are not stable and as lateral migration occurs, these deposits can be erased. Due to this limited preservation potential, the parameters of crevasse splays associated with meandering river systems are not fully described in published literature.

The floodplains of meandering river systems have sediments that are not strongly cemented and can be incised by channel migration (Nanson and Croke, 1992; Miall,

1996). Flooding patterns of meandering river systems differentially destroy vegetation

(Bendix and Hupp, 2000). Dunagan and Driese (1999) suggest plants protect areas and enhance carbonate precipitation but frequent flooding inhibits the sustainability of vegetation in the floodplain (Hupp, 2000). ). In fact, large vegetated areas can slow down 18 the velocity of floodwaters, but by doing this, they induce mostly siliciclastic sedimentation instead (Rodriguez-Iturbe and Porporato, 2004), clearly making carbonate precipitation and preservation difficult in association with meandering river systems.

The only lakes to form in association with meandering rivers are oxbow lakes.

These lacustrine deposits are formed when meander channel loops are abandoned in either a gradual (chute cut-off) or sudden (neck cut-off) manner (see Figure 3). When gradual abandonment occurs, the river fills in an area where the channel used to flow and this allows the flow of the river to be directed away from the main channel. As this new area is in-filled, the main channel becomes isolated and an oxbow lake forms (Walker and Cant, 1984). The sediments found in ancient deposits of chute cut-off oxbow lakes are comprised of a fining-upwards sequence that is made up of coarse-grained, ripple cross-laminated sediment at the base. Finer-grained material is found above this and very fine-grained materials, such as silts and muds, overlie them.

An oxbow lake forms fairly rapidly where two meanders flow very close to one another and a breach in the walls of the channel connect the two meanders, thus isolating the area where the old meander swept out (Walker and Cant, 1984) (See Figure 3). The area where the meander was cut off is plugged rapidly and the fining-upwards sequence of a neck cut-off oxbow lake is similar to that of a chute cut-off oxbow lake. The main difference between oxbow lake deposits created by chute cut-off and neck cut-off is the amount of fine-grained sediments. Since neck cut-off is much more abrupt, the gradual infilling of coarse- and medium-grained material will not take place. This leaves only a thin deposit of coarser-grained material at the base of the succession. As a flooding event 19

occurs, mostly suspended sediments are transported into the neck cut-off oxbow lake and

a greater portion of its fining-upwards succession is dominated by fine-grained, flood-

derived sediments (Walker and Cant, 1984). As flooding events become more frequent

and violent, higher rates of sedimentation occur depositing coarse- and fine-grained

sediments in these lakes (Wren et al., 2008) that essentially inhibit the potential for

carbonate precipitation in these temporarily isolated areas.

Figure 3. A diagram of how oxbow lakes form and the stratigraphic columns associated with the two types, chute cut-off and neck cut-off (Walker and Cant, 1984).

Since lake deposits associated with meandering river systems are not protected from the surrounding floodplain, carbonate deposition is unlikely to occur in this setting.

Even if isolation and protection occur in an oxbow lake, the period of time needed for carbonate precipitation to occur is longer than the short-lived protection that is available.

Overbank flooding events occur frequently in meandering systems and oxbow lakes will eventually be in-filled with siliciclastic sediment from floodwaters (Wren et al., 2008).

Isolation and protection of the oxbow lake cannot occur for a long enough period of time to allow the precipitation and preservation of thick carbonates. Anastomosing river systems are examined next to determine if they enhance carbonate deposition on a perennial siliciclastic floodplain.

Anastomosing Rivers: Definition and Facies Model

Smith and Smith (1980) used facies models to elaborately describe how anastomosing deposits look in the ancient record and defined the gradient of these rivers as between 0.09 and 0.012 m/km. The width/depth ratios they inferred range from 13 to

140. The models that Smith and Smith (1980) developed are displayed in Figure 4. It was suggested that vegetation and cohesive, fine-grained sediments could form stable banks that would limit channel migration thus establishing an anastomosed pattern

(Smith, 1976; Rust, 1981). However, anastomosing rivers from sheet flooding occur in arid climates as well (Gibling et al., 1998). 21

Presently, an accepted definition of anastomosing rivers comes from Makaske

(2001), who stated that anastomosing rivers are composed of two or more interconnected channels that enclose flood basins. They are described as low-gradient systems with a predominantly suspended load. Anastomosing deposits have a high preservation potential in the rock record and they are economically important due to links to coal seam formation. Anastomosing rivers occur in montane, foreland, and intracratonic basins and in coastal environments (Makaske, 2001).

Figure 4. Block diagram from Smith and Smith (1980) showing geometries and textural properties of an anastomosing river.

The multiple active channels in an anastomosing river system can have low to

high sinuosity and these channels are usually stable in position unlike channels found

associated with meandering and braided rivers (Miall, 1992). Even though lateral 22

accretion does occur in anastomosing river deposits, lateral scour is limited in

comparison to vertical aggradation and remains an insignificant mechanism in the

depositional system (Nadon, 1994). The point bar deposits found in ancient

anastomosing river systems are formed by slow migration and the deposits are not as extensive as those found in meandering river systems (Smith and Smith, 1980). Channel

deposits of anastomosing river systems are commonly 1-3 m thick and can be up to 1 km wide (Makaske, 2001). The channel width/thickness ratios that are given by Makaske

(2001) range from 5-100 with most examples limited to the range from 5-50. Commonly,

the ratio is less than 10, which is much lower than those in meandering river systems.

Anastomosis results when a system has a large amount of water with a modest

sediment load that needs to be moved across an interior basin that is nearly flat lying

(Gibling et al., 1998). This movement results in avulsions that form new channels

contemporaneously in varying fashions (Makaske, 2001; Smith et al., 1989). Avulsion is

a common process that occurs in nature, but its mechanism is poorly understood. A

recent definition of avulsion states that the diversion of flow from an existing channel

onto the floodplain will eventually result in a new channel belt (Makaske, 2001). As a result of avulsion, anastomosing channels form when a bypass forms but the old bypass channel remains active or by the diversion of an avulsive flow that allows two contemporaneous channels to remain active on the floodplain (Makaske, 2001).

Geometrically, the sandstone bodies that are associated with anastomosing river

deposits are either ribbon or tabular (Makaske, 2001) (See Figure 5). The ribbon sandstones are interpreted as channel-fill and their bases are sharp, scoured, and concave, 23

while the top of the ribbons are gradational or sharp and flat. They can be up to a couple

of meters thick and are ten to a hundred meters wide (Makaske, 2001). The lithology

fines upwards or is homogeneous internally and is made up of coarse- to fine-grained

sand (Makaske, 2001).

Tabular bodies are interpreted as crevasse splays or levee deposits and the bases

are flat and non-erosive with sharp or gradational contacts. They are commonly less than

1 m thick but they can be hundreds to thousands meters wide. Vertically, they can fine

upwards, coarsen upwards, coarsen then fine upwards, or have no variations vertically

(Makaske, 2001). Sedimentary structures in these bodies include climbing ripple cross-

lamination and parallel lamination. Small-scale trough cross-bedding and wave ripple

cross-lamination are rarely present (Nadon, 1994). The tabular bodies are usually found

attached as wing structures attached to the sides of the ribbon sand bodies.

Figure 5. An anastomosed fluvial facies block diagram from Nadon (1994). 24

Sand sheets that are connected to the channel deposits may represent crevasse splays and channel mouth bars which range from 0.5 to 2 m thick (Makaske, 2001).

These deposits are very commonly associated with anastomosing river systems and are much wider than those in meandering river systems. One of the distinguishing features of anastomosing river systems is the quantity of crevasse splays. These deposits are easily eroded in meandering river systems, but since anastomosing rivers form from low velocity systems with very gentle slopes, these deposits can develop and spread across the floodplain without getting eroded by subsequent flooding events. Their preservation is based on lateral mobility of the river channel, the density of the channel, and floodplain aggradation rate (Makaske, 2001). The stable channels of anastomosing rivers limit erosion laterally and also enhance preservation of these deposits (Makaske, 2001). Two other types of deposits, lacustrine and peat/coal, are also found in association with anastomosing rivers (Makaske, 2001), but they are usually absent in arid ephemeral conditions.

Lakes that form in association with anastomosing river systems are found in flood basin areas between channels. They are protected and isolated due to the convex- upwards nature of these areas. During overbank flooding events, they only receive suspended and dissolved load (Filgueira-Rivera et al., 2007). These areas are large and stable because they are protected by high levees (Miall, 1996; Makaske, 2001; Filgueira-

Rivera et al., 2007) and create a potential environment for the deposition of coals and limestones (Flores, 1981; Flores and Hanley, 1984; Weedman, 1989, 1994; Makaske,

2001; Makaske et al., 2002; İnci, 2002). Carbonate lake deposition is possible in 25 anastomosing river flood basins unlike in oxbow lakes formed on unstable floodplains of meandering river systems.

Anabranching river systems are defined as, “a low-energy multiple-channel system(s) with resistant banks in which stable or slowly migrating anabranches are separated by irregular islands of approximately floodplain height that are large with respect to the width of the channels” (North et al., 2007). These types of anastomosing rivers are characteristic of more arid climates and thus drain ephemerally (North et al.,

2007). Some examples of ephemeral deposits include those found in the Seilao Member of the Purilactis Formation in northern Chile (Hartley, 1993), the Esplugafreda Formation in northern Spain (Dreyer, 1993), and the Caspe Formation in Spain (Friend et al., 1979).

Each of these deposits formed during sheet flooding events that were the direct result of large amounts of episodic precipitation and the brevity of their existence limited their ability to form stable carbonate lakes. Since they are not perennial river systems, anabranching rivers are not included in this research study.

Floodplains

The characteristics of floodplains must be examined to understand the mechanism controlling carbonate lake deposition. By definition, floodplains are flat-lying areas forming adjacent to fluvial channels; floodplain sediments are transported by the river and are deposited during flooding events, exhibiting horizontal bedding (Nanson and

Croke, 1992). Even though they are adjacent to channel deposits, floodplain sediments are separated by relatively high banks and levee deposits. Levees are important features 26

that control flooding events and dictate where avulsions events will occur (Filgueira-

Rivera et al., 2007) and greatly influence the evolution of a river system.

Floodplains reflect the important interactions involving the work the river does

and the ability of the underlying strata to resist erosion (Nanson and Croke, 1992:

Abbado et al., 2005). According to Nanson and Croke (1992), three different

classifications of floodplains exist: (1) high-energy non-cohesive, (2) medium-energy

non-cohesive, and (3) low-energy cohesive. Many sub-classifications exist in relation to

these main categories, but overall the growth and development of a floodplain is reliant

on lateral point-bar accretion, overbank vertical accretion, braid channel accretion, and to

a lesser degree, oblique accretion, cut-bank accretion, and abandoned channel accretion

(Nanson and Croke, 1992; Stevaux and Souza, 2004).

In anastomosing systems, low-energy cohesive floodplains form on a low gradient

via processes associated with overbank deposition (Nanson and Croke, 1992).

Interchannel islands surrounded by channel levees, flood basins, and to a lesser extent

crevasse splays, form from fine-grained suspended load material in the river system.

Organic-rich and organic-poor floodplains can develop depending on the climate and

region of the river basin (Nanson and Croke, 1992). Organic-rich floodplains have six

sedimentary facies, including (1) channel, (2) levee, (3) crevasse splay, (4) peat bog, (5)

back swamp, and (6) lacustrine while the facies associated with organic-poor anastomosing floodplains contain (1) channel, (2) levee, (3) crevasse splay, and (4) back swamp deposits that are described as “arid” because they have little to no organics associated with them. On organic-rich floodplains, channels usually have a low sinuosity 27

and are lined on their perimeter with levees that surround interchannel islands and

encircle interior swamps and lakes (Nanson and Croke, 1992). These floodplains are

well vegetated and are made up of fine sands, silts, clays and organics. In organic-poor

anastomosing floodplains, channels can be tree-lined but vegetation is limited and

similarly sized material is transported.

The elevations of a channel along with the channel depths are controlled by the

accommodation space available on a floodplain (Wright and Marriot, 1993). Since floodplain deposits cannot build up higher than bankfull level, their existence is heavily reliant on autocyclic and allocyclic controls such as local base-level, flooding events, and crevasse splay deposits. The type of river mainly affects the preservation and stabilization of the floodplain. With anastomosing river systems, stable channels and limited lateral migration allow the floodplains to be stable over time and allow floodplain lakes to form, and are thus potential areas for carbonate deposition.

CHAPTER 2: CARBONATE LAKES/FLOODPLAIN LAKES

The formation and preservation of carbonate lake deposits on perennial

siliciclastic fluvial floodplains have been explained in various ways. The previous

theories on carbonate lake formation are first presented along with a discussion about their feasibility. Then, this is followed by a discussion on the sedimentologic and hydrodynamic parameters that actually control carbonate lake formation and concomitantly peat/coal on perennial siliciclastic floodplains.

Previous Models

Models for the deposition of carbonate lake sediments in fluvial and lacustrine

basins depend on climatic, hydrologic, or structural parameters. Major published theories

on the origins for continental carbonates that have been extensively cited in the literature include a decrease in siliciclastic supply due to isolation of a whole basin or through faulting, groundwater springs, a dry climate, and metamorphic provenance. Each explanation, which makes assumptions not appropriate for continental systems, can be shown to be untenable or impossible. A consistent sedimentologic model is needed to explain all such carbonate accumulation in perennial river systems.

Isolation

Isolation of areas leading to a decrease in siliciclastic supply is one of the leading

theories advanced to explain the accumulation of lacustrine carbonates, but usually no

concrete reason is given for this isolation mechanism that clearly must protect large areas 29

of a continental basin (Cecil, 1990; Franczyk et al., 1991; Alonso-Zarza et al., 1992;

Talbot and Allen, 1996). Many carbonate lake deposits are extensive (hundreds to thousands of meters wide) and thick (tens of meters), receiving their entire sediment load

from the erosion of the rocks of the watershed by groundwater and surface drainage. For

isolation to work, not only would the siliciclastic supply have to be limited, but this would mean that the supply of water to the drainage basin would be minimal. This cannot occur realistically as large quantities of Ca-rich waters are needed to build these thick carbonate deposits. In contrast, marine waters commonly precipitate large quantities carbonate in isolation from siliciclastic input. Lakes are not mini-oceans

(Bohacs et al., 2000); carbonate precipitation parameters are governed by the watershed geology in continental areas.

In addition, faulting has been invoked instead to produce isolation through localized depressions for carbonate precipitation on a floodplain (Stollhofen, 1998).

This is not a reasonable carbonate precipitation model because it would be unlikely to exclude siliciclastics from such low-lying areas. Isolation mechanisms clearly need to be hydrodynamically correct and realistic.

Groundwater Springs

Groundwater contribution into a continental basin is controlled by the structure of the basinal surroundings (Rosen, 1994). Calcium ions can be delivered to a lake system from groundwater discharge in the form of seeps or springs (Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998;

2009; Winter, 2004). Spring deposits occur on the perimeter of alluvial fans (Nickel, 30

1985), along the margins of rifts and rift lakes (Renaut et al., 1986, 2002; Steinen et al.,

1987; De Wet et al., 2002) or along the floor of extensional basins associated with faults

and lineaments (Hay et al. 1986; Calvo et al., 1995; Quade et al., 1995; Evans and

Welzenbach, 1998; Colman et al., 2002; Rech et al., 2002; Calvo et al., 2003). Carbonate

deposits in these circumstances do not cover large areas of the basin; they are localized

on a scale of hundreds to thousands of meters in areal extent.

Springs deposits have been attributed to widespread carbonate deposition across large tracts of distal foreland basin areas (Bowen and Bloch, 2002; Dunagan and Turner,

2004; Elliot et al. 2007) under semi-arid to arid conditions. Bowen and Bloch (2002)

suggest that floodplain limestones form as a result of shallow groundwater interaction

with muddy floodplain sediments and soils with low permeability under evaporitic

conditions, especially in association with subsurface coarse-grained deposits (Figure 6).

Evaporation is identified as the mechanism for forcing groundwater to overcome gravity and flow upward from subsurface coarse-grained materials through low permeable mud.

There are hydrodynamic and sedimentologic difficulties with this model.

Groundwater does not flow readily through muds, and coarse-grained sediments are not common features on a distal floodplain, except in association with crevasse splays

(Aslan et al., 2005). Groundwater in distal fluvial environments generally flows toward

the ocean at base level, parallel to surface flow. There is no possibility for a large

gradient in the hydraulic head to allow groundwater to flow upward against gravity in a perennial river system in distal basin setting (Ingebritsen et al., 2006). In addition, climate does not control movement of groundwater in spring activity; aquifer hydrology 31

does (Watson and Burnett, 1995). Evaporative pumping of groundwater over thousands

to millions of years through soils accumulates carbonate known as calcrete in the K- horizon of soils (Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Relatively short-lived floodplain lakes could not accumulate similar carbonate thicknesses from a solely evaporative process. And finally, the presence of faults or lineaments is minimal within the distal areas of foreland basins far from the fold-thrust belt as tectonic stresses are minimal (DeCelles et al., 1996).

Thus, groundwater cannot produce thick accumulations of carbonate across a distal foreland basin area, especially within fluvial deposits on floodplains.

Figure 6. Groundwater influx theory for the genesis of floodplain limestones from Bowen and Bloch (2002).

Contributions by groundwater to river channels, not floodplains, are very dependent on the aquifer hydrology and the tectonic situation. Travertine dams, tufa, and other types of spring deposits form in river channels where faults and subsurface aquifer configuration produce springs (Branner, 1911; Ordóñez and García del Cura, 1983; 32

Andrews et al., 1993; Pedley et al., 1996; Pentecost, 2005), normally in the hinterlands of tectonic basins.

Dry Climate

A dry climate is also invoked as a mechanism to precipitate thick continental carbonates, based on the idea that carbonates mostly form under evaporitic conditions

(Cecil, 1990; Drummond et al., 1996; Zaleha, 2006). However, continental carbonates form in all climates today (Platt and Wright, 1992; Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998, 2009), from Antarctica to the tropical lakes of Africa (e.g., Fairchild et al., 1994; Wharton, 1994;

Casanova, 1994). The chemistry of continental waters is heavily reliant on the geology of the watershed and large quantities of carbonates can only accumulate if the catchment area is rich in carbonate-bearing strata whatever the climate (Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998,

2009).

Metamorphic Provenance

A reduced siliciclastic supply to a continental basin, allowing the precipitation of carbonates, has been attributed to the presence of an extensive metamorphic provenance.

With decreased erosion and a suppression of clastic supply from resistant metamorphic rocks, carbonate precipitation in lakes and on river floodplains could occur basin wide

(Carroll et al., 2006). However, there are not enough calcium and carbonate ions released from most kinds of metamorphic rocks to allow for thick accumulations of carbonates

(Winter, 2001). This idea is more applicable to a marine setting where ocean waters are already saturated with respect to calcite. For lakes to accumulate thick carbonate deposits, 33

an extensive marble provenance area would be needed to contribute the necessary

carbonate components for extensive precipitation.

Carbonate Lake Formation on Siliciclastic Floodplains

The origin of lake deposits in general is connected to tectonics, climate, and

source area (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Platt and Wright, 1991; Bohacs et al., 2000;

2003). Overall, three main factors regulate how continental carbonate lake deposits form:

sediment input, hydrologic processes, and temperature variations (Tucker and Wright,

1990; Platt and Wright, 1991).

Lake sediments and lake water chemistry tend to mimic the lithology and geochemistry of the depositional and hydrographic basin in which they formed (Hinderer and Einsele, 2001). Thus, carbonate lakes should be found to exist in areas that have carbonate source rocks and conditions conducive to carbonate deposition and precipitation. If the source area of a drainage basin has widespread carbonates, thick accumulations of carbonates have been found to form (Jones and Bowser, 1978;

Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998; Jiang et al., 2007). Basins with source areas containing less

than 30% carbonates will not likely form carbonate deposits in lakes downstream

(Gierlowski-Kordesch, 2009).

Hydrology, the second most important factor controlling carbonate sedimentation,

is governed in part by tectonics. Many anastomosing rivers form in foreland and rift

basins and in these tectonic settings; various drainage patterns and variable

accommodation space lead to different amounts of sediment accumulation (Bohacs et al., 34

2000, 2003). Rainfall, surface inflow, and groundwater springs all contribute to the

water input of the drainage basin (Winter, 2004), while the topography and geologic structure of the underlying bedrock determine the general direction of flow of groundwater and surface water (Rosen, 1994) and erosion. If carbonates are being transported in a drainage system in surface flow, they can be carried as bedload as clastic carbonates, as suspended load, or as dissolved load ions. Since anastomosing rivers most commonly transport suspended and dissolved load into flood basins during flooding events, carbonates should be easily transported in this fluvial style.

The third contributor affecting carbonate accumulation is temperature fluctuations that occur from weather and climate. Climate controls the amount of precipitation added to a system and the amount of evaporation, but seasonal temperature fluctuations can also affect the activities and diversity of the biota on the floodplain and thus affect how much erosion and sedimentation can occur (Platt and Wright, 1991). Temperature also controls the dissolution and precipitation of carbonate and preservation of carbonate sediments is very dependent on temperature and pH conditions (Dean, 1981).

Fluvial environments are the third most important lake-forming realm preceded only by glaciation and tectonic processes. According to Cohen (2003), lakes formed by fluvial processes make up 8% of the world’s total lake area, but only 0.3% of the total volume of all the lakes in the world. When lakes are formed in association with fluvial systems, they are commonly found around alluvial fans, on floodplains, and as abandoned channels (Cohen, 2003; Archer, 2005). 35

Floodplain lakes can contain coal and carbonate deposits and give clues on paleoclimate (Halfar et al., 1998; İnci, 2002). Usually floodplain lakes are only as deep

as the channels that form them, but most tend to be shallower (Wright and Marriott,

1993; Cohen, 2003). Depth, oxygen content, chemistry (reliant on provenance and hydrology), and basal morphology of a lacustrine system affect sedimentation parameters in addition to climatic and tectonic controls (Bohacs et al., 2003), However, the factors that control river systems, both allocyclic and autocyclic controls, also greatly influence the type of floodplain carbonate deposit.

Carbonates that are found on floodplains can be lacustrine, palustrine, and calcrete (Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The height of the water table and the length of subaerial exposure control carbonate precipitation patterns in palustrine and lacustrine

paleoenvironments (Platt and Wright, 1992), especially on a floodplain (Wright, 1999).

Deposits of palustrine and lacustrine limestone range from several centimeters to

decimeters thick and are made up of micrites containing mollusk and charophyte remains

as well as ostracodes (Freytet and Plaziat, 1982; Petzold, 1989; Gierlowski-Kordesch et

al., 1991; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Subaerial exposure features, such as circumgranular

cracks and brecciation, alternate with subaqueous features, such as lamination and

subaqueous bioturbation traces. Calcrete deposits are the result of pedogenic processes

involving evaporitic pumping of Ca-rich groundwaters, allowing for the accumulation of

carbonate as the K-horizon of a soil in an arid to semi-arid climate (Knox, 1977; Wright,

1999; Alonso-Zarza, 2003; Pentecost, 2005). Calcretes form over a time period spanning

several thousand to several million years (Alonso-Zarza, 2003). Pedogenic carbonates are 36

less likely to form in the flood basins of perennial anastomosing deposits because of seasonally high water tables, especially where contemporaneous coal deposits also form

(Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1991; Freytet and Verrecchia, 2002; Alonso-Zarza, 2003). The long exposure and little to no sedimentation needed for the formation of calcretes differentiates calcretes from palustrine and lacustrine carbonate deposition (Wright,

1999).

Provenance

A source of carbonate ions is needed to allow carbonate precipitation to occur

(Leggitt et al., 2007) in continental basins. Simply removing or limiting siliciclastic input

(e.g., Franczyk et al., 1991; Horton et al., 2002; Carroll et al., 2006; Zaleha, 2006) is not sufficient to allow carbonate deposits to form meter(s) thick deposits in continental basins

(Gierlowski-Kordesch, 1998, 2009). The geologic composition of the catchment area for a lake or river system controls the type and amount of ions that are dissolved and carried in a solution as well as carried as bedload or suspended load.

Not all catchment areas have carbonate or other Ca-rich rocks in them, so carbonate deposits do not form in every floodplain situation. Areas that have a high proportion of carbonate rocks produce enough Ca, Mg, or CO3 ions to produce a

carbonate deposit, in some cases overwhelming siliciclastic input (Gierlowski-Kordesch,

1998). Overall, many factors can affect the formation of a carbonate lake deposit but the

most significant control is provenance because a dominantly carbonate source area must

be present in the provenance of a river system to form thick carbonate lake deposits. 37

Carbonates Interbedded with Coal

Organic matter can be preserved to form coal when an increase of accommodation space is accompanied by an increased production rate of peat with a concomitant

decrease in siliciclastic influx (Bohacs and Suter, 1997). Channel migration, channel

avulsion, overbank flooding, crevasse splay progradation, and rarely volcanism may

affect peat accumulation in river systems (İnci, 2002). Coal can also form at lake

margins and in deserts because of variations in water table, plant productivity, and

siliciclastic input (Diessel, 1992; Bohacs and Suter, 1997). Where coal forms on an

anastomosing floodplain, it can be interbedded with carbonate deposits (e.g. Flores and

Hanley, 1984; Valero Garcés et al., 1994, 1997). This hydrodynamic scenario occurs in

flood basins of anastomosing river systems where protection from a siliciclastic milieu,

even while the water table remains high in a perennial system, allows for the

accumulation of large quantities of peat (Gradzinski et al., 2003). Vertical aggradation

then guarantees preservation and compaction for coal formation. Coals associated with

carbonates are abundant in the rock record in river and lake paleoenvironments since the

Devonian (Heward, 1978; Rust and Legun, 1983; Gierlowski-Kordesch et al., 1991;

Valero Garcés et al, 1994, 1997; Fielding and Webb, 1996; Keighley and Pickerill, 1996;

McLoughlin and Drinnan, 1997; Dunagan and Driese, 1999; Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004;

Allen and Fielding, 2007). Their association with siliciclastic fluvial channels and

carbonates may signify that the coal may have accumulated on the floodplain of an

ancient anastomosing river system. 38

CHAPTER 3: DATABASE

Hypothesis

In order to test the hypothesis that carbonate lakes form preferentially on

anastomosed river floodplains, not on meandering river floodplains, a literature search for

river deposits of anastomosed, meandering, and some braided types in conjunction with

carbonate floodplain deposits was performed. Additional information such as provenance

and other hydrodynamic features were also collected into a database.

Methodology

A database of over 200 river system deposits from the Phanerozoic was created

from articles describing perennial meandering, braided, and anastomosing fluvial

deposits over the last 30 years. Braided river systems were not thoroughly researched

since carbonate lakes did not seem to be directly associated with this river type. Though

far from complete (not all studies provided sufficient sedimentologic detail), the dataset

is large enough to detect patterns of carbonate accumulation associated with fluvial

styles. Fluvial depositional systems from all seven continents ranging from the Devonian

to the mid-Holocene were analyzed with modern examples listed separately since they are not yet as complete as ancient examples. Indirect measurements were derived from diagrams and maps from each article, and further information concerning tectonics, provenance, abundance of crevasse splays, carbonate lake deposits, occurrence of coal, and the presence of upright tree trunks were obtained from the original articles or from

other sources. The database was compiled in a Microsoft Excel file with the following 39

categories: Formation, Age, Location, Basin, Tectonics, Provenance, Thickness of

Channels, Width of Channels, Width/Thickness Ratio for Channels, Carbonates,

Crevasse Splays, Upright Tree Trunks, Presence of Coal, River Type, Interpretations and

Comments, and References. Abbreviations used in the abridged database are found in

Table 1.

Table 1. List of Abbreviations used in the Database

Term Abbreviation used in Database

Formation Fm. Anastomosing A

Member Mb. Meandering M

Average Avg. Braided B

Group Gp. Carbonates in Provenance Carb. In Prov. Shale Sh.

Sandstone Ss.

An objective measure of river type was needed for the comparison of river

systems. The classification of fluvial systems based on channel width/thickness (W/T) after Gibling (2006) was applied, where W/T for anastomosing rivers is 1-60, for meandering rivers is 61-250, and for braided rivers >250. In this system, only true

perennial anastomosing systems were accepted as entries with width/thickness ratios less

than 60. This did not include channels on a megafan, delta distributary systems, and 40

ephemeral river channels, or valley fill deposits which can also have similar W/T.

Sedimentologic context was important in choosing appropriate examples for the database.

Entries in the database were limited to examples that included information concerning the

external geometry of identified channel bodies for which the author included direct or

indirect measurements of channel widths, thicknesses, or a width/thickness ratio.

Problems occurred with standardizing width and thickness measurements because

many authors used different techniques to derive their estimates. In some instances, direct measurements of a single channel body were given, but in other instances, ranges

of measurements for a suite of channel bodies was used, sometimes across a whole

formation containing a variety of river types through time. The use of a single fluvial

system gave the most valuable information, but many older articles do not differentiate

between different river systems within a formation, so the inclusion of mixed river

system data was inevitable. These older articles predate the advent of sequence stratigraphy as well as the newest refinements in fluvial system models This information is represented by the mixed categories of anastomosing to meandering, anastomosing to braided, and meandering to braided. Since these entries are highly variable and do not represent a single river system, they are not as useful. However, many of them have carbonates deposits associated with them and could not be disregarded.

Commonly, average values of channel width and thicknesses were used because it gives a more accurate view of the total distribution of channels in the ancient fluvial system (Miall, 1996). If an exact width to thickness ratio was not given, this information was calculated. But, if the widths and thicknesses were given in ranges, the 41 width/thickness ratios were found by dividing the largest number in the thickness range by the smallest in the width range and vice versa. A limitation with this derivation is not obtaining true width/thickness ratios (W/T) for individual channels. Thus, the method of

W/T collection is included in the database in Appendix A as follows: (A) W/T was taken from Gibling (2006) database, (B) W/T is the direct measurement of a channel, (C) W/T was derived from a diagram in the articles used, (D) W/T is an average of multiple channels, (E) the width measurements may not be accurate, and (F) the width and/or thicknesses were described as, “few hundred meters” or “tens to hundreds of meters thick.”

Table 2 contains Quaternary anastomosing river entries with citations.

Unfortunately, these could not be directly compared to the other ancient river examples because accurate width/thickness measurements cannot be derived with these as yet

“incomplete” deposits. For a channel to be preserved, a landslide or mass wasting event must fill the channel and immediately preserve it (Keefer, 1999) or multiple flooding events have to occur on the floodplain to allow sediments to infill the channel and preserve its dimensions (Gibling, 2006). Studies of channel deposits found in the rock record are much more consistent and reliable for analysis. Quaternary examples were also less useful because coal and carbonate deposits may have not fully formed in these systems even though dissolved carbonate ions and peat bogs may exist. In addition, descriptions of floodplain lake sediments for most modern rivers are lacking.

Table 2. List of Quaternary River Systems with Anastomosing Reaches

River System Location Reference N. Saskatchewan River Alberta, Canada Smith & Smith, 1980

Mistaya River Alberta, Canada Smith & Smith, 1980

Alexandra River Alberta, Canada Smtih & Smith, 1980

Niger River Central Mali, Africa Makaske, 1998

Magdelena River Colombia, S. Amer. Smith &Smith, 1980; Smith, 1986

Tigris-Euphrates Delta Mesopotamia Aqrawi & Evans, 1994; Baltzer & Purser 1990

Columbia River B.C., Canada Makaske, 1998; Makaske et al., 2002

Pecora River Russia Try et al., 1984

Lejowa Valley Poland Glazek, 1965

Ob River Russia Try et al., 1984

Volga River Russia Try et al., 1984

Yangtze River China Try et al., 1984

Jumahe River China Try et al., 1984

Indus River Pakistan Try et al., 1984

Mackenzie River Canada Try et al., 1984

S. Saskatchewan River Canada Smith & Putnam, 1980; Smith, 1983

Willamette River sw Oregeon Wallick et al., 2006

Mahakam River Borneo Flores & Ethridge, 1985

Araguaia River Brazil Try et al., 1984

Parana River Argentina Try et al., 1984

Rapaalven River n Sweden Axelsson, 1967

Pánuco River Mexico Hudson & Colditz, 2003

Cumberland Marshes Canada Try et al., 1984

Pitalito Basin S. Africa Bakker et al., 1989

Narew River Poland Gradzinski et al., 2003 References for Table 2 appear in Appendix G. 43

The database and citations given in Appendices A-F only represents a portion of

the data collected from ancient river examples because of space limitations. Appendix A lists all ancient river systems found with their formation name, location, age, width/thickness ratio for channels, river type, presence of carbonates, and presence of

carbonates in formations, but it only gives the location, the method of W/T collection,

and citations for each entry. Complete references for the citations in Appendix A are

found in Appendix F. Appendix B highlights the river deposits classified as anastomosing

with similar information as given in Appendix A. Appendix C lists the meandering river

deposits separately. Complete references for the citations in Appendix C are found in

Appendix F. Appendix D lists other anastomosing river entries that could not be

included in this study because they did not contain W/T measurements but may be useful

for further study.

Some fluvial deposit studies that included full facies descriptions were excluded

from this study because W/T was not measured. This limitation may be because fluvial

style assessments are hard to derive from limited core information, subsurface wire-logs,

and from stratigraphic columns that are widely dispersed.

Results

Overall, 232 river deposits were examined in the creation of this database. Total

number of river entries tabulated with W/T measurements was 176. These included 171

different formations of which 122 contained an anastomosing river deposits that were

differentiated separated from the formations’ other types of fluvial deposits. Of these, 56 44

of them were ancient anastomosing deposits with carbonate lake deposits. These deposits

also had carbonates in their provenance. This does not include the entries that did not

give a width/thickness ratio (found in Appendix D) even if carbonates were found

associated with them and they were classified as anastomosing. Regardless, this means

46% of the tabulated ancient anastomosing river deposits in this study have carbonate lake deposits as part of floodplain facies and have source area carbonates. The anastomosing river systems without carbonate lake deposits added up to a total of 66

entries with no carbonates found in their source area. The percentage of anastomosing

river deposits with no significant carbonates in their floodplain nor in their source area

amounts to 54%. Therefore, 100% of the definitively anastomosing river deposits with a

carbonate provenance accumulated carbonates within their flood basins. As theorized,

anastomosed river deposits require carbonate source areas to form carbonate lake

deposits. Thus, a large proportion of carbonate deposits are genetically related to

anastomosing rivers and carbonate lake formation is controlled by the presence of

significant carbonate source rocks.

Only twelve meandering river deposits identified as separate systems within formations were found in the literature. This small limited sample size is because

meandering river floodplain deposits have a low preservation potential in the rock record because of the processes of lateral migration (Gibling, 2006). None of these entries contained carbonate lake deposits, though four entries were found to have significant

carbonates in their source area. This information suggests that carbonates do not precipitate in a meandering system even if carbonates are present in the source area. 45

In the transitional category of anastomosing to meandering, 26 total examples

were identified with six having a carbonate source area as well as carbonate lake deposits

while thirteen had no carbonates in the floodplain or in the source area. Seven entries

had no carbonate lake deposits but carbonates in their source area. Entries in this

category had width/thickness ratios of 0-250. Another transitional category ranged from anastomosing to braided and showed one entry with carbonate lake deposits and provenance carbonates, while three had no carbonate lake deposits and two had carbonates in the source area, but no carbonate lake deposits. With these examples representing a broad range of river systems in a single formation, it is unclear exactly what river systems contained carbonate floodplain lakes and what source area was drained during their deposition.

Finally, a few braided deposits were included, showing three entries without carbonates and no carbonate provenance and three with a carbonate provenance but no carbonate deposits. A quick cursory examination of braided river systems showed no carbonate lake deposits are present in ancient floodplains.

Thirty additional river deposits were examined but the studies did not have useable width/thickness measurements. One example of a clearly anastomosing river deposit that does not have a measured channel width/thickness ratio but has associated thick carbonate deposits, is the Fenghuoshan Group of north-central Tibet in the Hoh Xil

Basin. The carbonates in this river deposit are intercalated with siliciclclastic lacustrine and alluvial plain deposits and are interpreted as forming in temporary shallow lake systems (Cyr et al., 2005). 46

Table 3: Results Carbonates No No Carbonates River Style in Lakes & Carbonates in Lakes, but Provenance Carbonates in Provenance

Anastomosing 56 66 0

Meandering 0 8 4

Anastomosing-Meandering 6 13 7

Anastomosing-Braided 1 3 2

Meandering-Braided 0 2 2

Braided 0 3 3

Total river entries tabulated with W/T measurements: 176 (from 171 formations).

Finally, 25 Quaternary examples of anastomosing river systems were documented

(Table 2). These entries were not included in the database because they are not yet complete deposits as those in the geologic record. Direct comparisons are not possible but the recognition of characteristic anastomosing characteristics is useful. One example where a modern day anastomosing river system exists with carbonate lake deposits on its floodplain is located on the Lower Mesopotamian Plain of Iraq where the Tigris and

Euphrates Rivers flow (Baltzer and Purser, 1990; Aqrawi and Evans, 1994). The marshes of the flood basins contain hundreds to thousands of shallow lakes with both carbonate and siliciclastic sediments. Peat and organic deposits are also present but not extensive 47

perhaps because of the arid climate and possible low subsidence rates (Baltzer and

Purser, 1990; Aqrawi and Evans, 1994). The source area indeed contains carbonates.

Discussion

The hypothesis that carbonate lake deposits form preferentially in perennial anastomosing river systems is supported by the collected data. No meandering river floodplains contain carbonate lake deposits. In addition, the model presented here that provenance is crucial to the accumulation of carbonates is supported. The hydrodynamics of flood basin isolation from bedload is explained by relatively high levees that only allow dissolved and suspended load during flooding events. Aggradational processes are important in preserving floodplain deposits in anastomosing systems. Even though lateral migration occurs in anastomosing river systems, this process is not as dominant and

lateral scours are limited in comparison to vertical aggradation in anastomosing river

systems. In contrast, meandering floodplain deposits have a low preservation potential

because of widespread lateral migration of channels. Thus, point bars deposits in

meandering rivers systems are very extensive while those in anastomosing river systems

are not.

Thus, because of lateral migration, the width/thickness ratios (W/T) of channels in

meandering river systems are larger than those of anastomosing river systems.

Meandering W/T is usually greater than 60 while anastomosing channel width/thickness

ratios are usually less than 10 (Gibling, 2006). Both anastomosing and meandering river

systems form floodplain lakes, but oxbow lakes in meandering river systems are not 48 stable for long periods of time and are filled by frequent overbank flooding events (Wren et al., 2008). The lakes found in anastomosing river systems are stable and form in protected flood basin areas surrounded by relatively high levees, only receiving suspended to dissolved loads during most floods. This protection and isolation in anastomosing systems is conducive to the precipitation of carbonates and to the accumulation of peat/coal as well.

Other information that may help distinguish between the two river systems in the geologic record is the presence and quantity of crevasse splay deposits. In anastomosing systems, crevasse splays appear to be abundant and laterally extensive while, in meandering river systems, they mostly absent or limited. The presence of upright tree trunks might be a useful indicator for an anastomosing river deposit because of the unique river dynamics. Flooding events and lateral accretion processes, like the erosion of cut banks, differentially knock down and destroy large trees in meandering river systems. Within anastomosing river systems, with high-velocity flooding events generally restricted to channels and with suspended and dissolved load reaching vegetation in flood basin areas, in situ tree trunks have a higher preservation potential.

This may be the case but few descriptions of upright tree trunks are documented in the literature (Heward, 1978; Gibling and Rust, 1990; McKnight et al., 1990; Nadon, 1994;

Batson and Gibling, 2002; Bowen and Bloch, 2002). Many articles described “abundant plant debris,” “root traces,” “tree trunks”, and “fossilized plant detritus”. The main problem may be due to the low preservation potential of the wood material, but trunk molds and molds of their upper root systems are difficult to identify in the fossil record 49

(Martel and Gibling, 1991; Melrose and Gibling, 2003). Any information on in situ tree preservation was used to reinforce the classification of a river as anastomosing.

The river entries that were found to be anastomosing with no carbonate deposits did not have carbonates in their source area, as theorized. It was interesting that no meandering river deposits had carbonates associated with them even though five river entries had a carbonate source area. These examples help confirm the idea that no protected locations exist on a meandering fluvial floodplain and carbonate precipitation does not occur in these systems. Even though some examples from the combined category of anastomosing to meandering had carbonates associated with them, perhaps the anastomosing systems in the fluvial successions are responsible for the accumulation of lake carbonates. More field work will be necessary to confirm this.

No entries in the braided and braided-meandering categories had carbonate deposits, as theorized. There was one river entry in the anastomosing to braided category that had a carbonate lake deposit and this can be attributed to an anastomosing river system. The inclusion of these mixed categories did lead to some ambiguous results but since so many of the entries in the database belonged in this category, this information could not be disregarded. These discrepancies exist because many of the deposits included channel measurements from an entire suite of channels across a whole formation containing a succession of fluvial styles through time, not just from one single fluvial system. Many of the articles also contained width/thickness channel measurements that classified a fluvial system contrary to the Gibling (2006) classification; these articles were written before the advent of sequence stratigraphy (Vail et al., 1977) and without 50

the benefit of the newest advances in fluvial sedimentologic models. For example,

Englund (1974) classified the Mississippian Pocahontas Formation in the Appalachian

Basin as anastomosing to meandering with W/T ranging from 52.8-140.8. This range is

indeed across these two fluvial types and indicates measurements of at least two different

fluvial systems.

Other factors such as the abundance of crevasse splays and presence of upright

tree trunks confirmed if an entry was anastomosing or not. Many more entries could

have been added to include braided river deposits. But, since the floodplains of these river systems do not contain any protected locations, they were disregarded in this

research. Only a few were included to reinforce the idea that carbonate deposits do not

form in association with them.

Overall, 46% of the tabulated ancient, anastomosing river deposits contain

floodplain carbonate lake deposits, to the exclusion of other river types. With 100% of

these river deposits having a carbonate source area, carbonate deposits are genetically

related to anastomosing river deposits. The other 54% of anastomosing river deposits

without carbonate indeed contained little to no carbonate source rocks in their source

area, indicating that carbonate lakes cannot develop without a significant amount of Ca-

rich rocks, such as marble, limestones, and dolomites, in the surrounding watershed.

Conclusions

Continental waters derive their highly variable chemistry directly from the

watershed in contrast to the well-defined chemistry of marine waters. Provenance is a key 51 indicator for the genesis of carbonates lakes as well as the type of fluvial depositional paleoenvironment. River systems, which contain perennially protected areas on their floodplain, are ideal localities to accumulate and preserve carbonate lacustrine and palustrine deposits.

Two types of rivers that contain significant lakes on their floodplains, anastomosing and meandering, were examined. It was shown that the lakes associated with meandering rivers systems are very temporary and rarely preserved due to lateral migration. On the other hand, the lakes found in anastomosing river systems are stable over extended periods and form in protected flood basin areas surrounded by high levees, only receiving suspended and dissolved load. This protection and isolation is conducive to the precipitation of carbonates. Therefore, anastomosing river systems are the most likely fluvial style to form carbonate lake deposits.

The reasons that anastomosing rivers can form carbonate deposits are: (1) anastomosing rivers possess concave-upward interchannel areas or flood basins that are conducive to lake development and vertical aggradational processes promote preservation of lake deposits, (2) suspended and dissolved load generally enter these flood basins during flooding events where Ca-rich waters can precipitate carbonates and the absence of siliciclastic bedload can promote peat growth and coal formation, and (3) stable channels do not erase lake deposits by extensive lateral migration. Meandering and braided river systems seem less likely to form carbonate lakes because they carry bedload sediments across their meander belt no where no significant areas are isolated from siliciclastic input and their channels are generally unstable through time. 52

Future Work and Significance

To increase the number of anastomosed river deposits in this database, better

measurements of channel deposits are needed. The sedimentology of river deposits from

the older literature need to be reassessed using sequence stratigraphic methods to identify

the evolution of river systems through time in the formations of continental basins and

measure W/T separately in the different river systems. Appendix D lists river deposits in which published studies do not contain definitive W/T measurements and lack detailed sedimentologic and sequence stratigraphic descriptions. Adding this information to the collected data would enhance the results. More information regarding present day river systems needs to be collected to more fully understand their preservation potential and parameters in comparison to ancient examples.

The data collected are important in the refinement of fluvial sedimentologic models for exploration. Applications of this research include enhancing coal recovery,

refining porosity and permeability measurements, and improving oil and natural gas

recovery within ancient fluvial rocks. The easy recognition of anastomosing river deposits in the geologic record using the presence of carbonate floodplain deposits will

simplify field work and augment sedimentologic analyses.

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Table 4. River Systems Carb. In Formation (Fm.) Member (Mb.) Age Location W/T River type Carbonates Prov.

1 Oneonta Fm. (Catskill Magnafacies) Devonian New York 7.5-20 A Y Y Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 2 Complex A Devonian South Wales 1-3 A Y Y Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 3 Complex B Devonian South Wales 11.67 A Y Y Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 4 Complex C Devonian South Wales 5 A Y Y Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 5 Complex D Devonian South Wales 15 A Y Y 6 Zoologdalen Fm. Devonian Greenland 5-6 A N N 7 Kapp Kjeldsen; Wood Bay Fm. Devonian Spitsbergen, Norway 57-60 A Y Y 8 Bulgeri Fm. Upper Devonian Queensland, Australia 6 A N N 9 Castlehaven Fm. Upper Devonian southern Ireland 3.3-5 A Y Y 10 Lower Kekiktuk Fm. Mississippian northeast Alaska 35.88 A Y Y 11 Pocahontas Fm. Mississippian SW Virginia; S West Virginia 52.8-140.8 A-M N Y 12 Fletcher Bank Grit Mississippian Lancashire, England >27.59 A N N 24 A N N 12.4 A N N >72.73 M N N 15-30 A N N 13 Westcoe Coal Fm. Mississippian England 46.32 A N N 100 M N N 222.22 M N N 14 Animas Fm. Mississippian southern Scotland 2.5-3.3 A N N 15 Threequarter Seam Mississippian/Penn. North Derbyshire, England 60 A N N 16 Malpas Fm. Pennsylvanian Catalonian Pyrenees 16.67-30 A N N 17 Sydney Mines Fm. Pennsylvanian Atlantic Canada 2.86-5.56 A N N 68

18 Springhill Mines Fm. Pennsylvanian Nova Scotia, Canada 3-37 A N N 19 Joggins Fm. Pennsylvanian Nova Scotia, Canada 0.46-51 A N N New Brunswick and Nova 20 Boss Point Fm. Pennsylvanian Scotia >32 A N N 21 Sandia Fm. Pennsylvanian New Mexico 15.63 A N N 17 A N N 22 Salvan-Dorenaz Basin Fill Pennsylvanian Switzerland/France 15-20 A Y Y 23 Port Hood Fm. Pennsylvanian Nova Scotia, Canada >15 A N N 24 Seaton Sluice Ss. Pennsylvanian England 190 M N N 25 Waddens Cove Fm. Pennsylvanian Nova Scotia, Canada 13.14,8 A N N 26 Petersburg Fm. Springfield Coal Mb. Pennsylvanian Indiana 42.11-454.55 A-M N N 27 Breathitt Gp. Pennsylvanian eastern Kentucky 66.67-166.67 M N N 28 Pastora Fm. Pennsylvanian northern Spain 6.67-66.67 A-M N Y 29 Warwickshire Thick Coal Pennsylvanian England 5-50 A N N 30 Durham Coal Measures Pennsylvanian England 142.86 M N N 31 Coal Measures(Westphalian) Pennsylvanian South Wales 2-3 A N N 32 Clifton Fm. Pennsylvanian New Brunswick, Canada ≤ 73 A-M Y Y 33 Lower Coal Measures Pennsylvanian north-west Germany 100-1066.67 M-B N Y Lower/Upper Mahoning Mb. Conemaugh 34 Gp. Pennsylvanian Ohio 12.5-33.35 A N N 35 Grafton Ss. Conemaugh Gp. Pennsylvanian northern West Virginia 12.5 A Y Y 36 Vamoosa Fm. Gypsy Ss. Pennsylvanian Oklahoma 30.26 A N N Middle 37 Upper Freeport Fm. Pennsylvanian Pennsylvania 2.4 A Y Y Upper 38 Monongaela-Dunkard groups Penn./Permian West Virginia >40 A Y Y Upper 39 Cutler Fm. Penn./Permian New Mexico ≤ 40 A Y Y 40 Archer City & Nocona Fms. Lower Permian Texas 8.33 A N N 41 Shanxi Fm. Lower Permian China <30 A N N 42 Leard and Maules Creek Fm. Lower Permian eastern Australia 40-200 A-M N N 43 Bainmedart Coal Measure Toploje Mb. Permian eastern Antarctica 6.66 A N N 44 Bainmedart Coal Measure Dragon Teeth Mb Permian eastern Antarctica 3.33-33.33 A Y Y 69

45 Ecca Group Permian Zululand, South Africa 2-15 A N N 46 Ecca Gp. Permian South Africa 45.45 A N N 47 Beaufort Gp. Permian South Africa 12, 14 A Y Y 17.86 A Y Y 15 A Y Y 48 Beaufort Gp. Permian South Africa 30 A Y Y 34.09 A Y Y 22.73 A Y Y 33.33 A Y Y 3.18 A Y Y 49 Barren Measures Fm. Permian India 35.71-200 A-M N N 50 Barakar Fm. Permian India 48-76 A-M N N 51 Rangal Coal Measure Permian Australia 37.5 - 154 A-M N N 52 Goonyella Coal Measure Permian Australia 80-160 M N N 142.86- 53 German Creek Fm. Upper Permian Australia 714.29 M-B N N 54 Betts Creek Bed Upper Permian Queensland, Australia 30-50 A N N 55 Bijori Fm. Upper Permian India 12.5 A N N 56 Newcastle Coal Measure Upper Permian eastern Australia 50-200 A-M N N 57 Uralian Foreland Basin Deposits Upper Permian Russia 2.5-50 A Y Y 58 Buntsandstein Sequence Permian, Triassic central Spain 3.89-10 A N N 59 Tanzhuang Fm. Triassic China 6.25-10 A Y Y 60 Limos y Areniscas de Rillo Fm. Triassic Spain 26-44 A Y Y 61 Chinle Fm. Moss Back Mb. Upper Triassic Utah/Arizona 22.22-50 A Y Y 62 Chinle Fm. Petrified Forest Mb. Upper Triassic Utah/Arizona 35 A Y Y 63 Chinle Fm. Owl Rock Mb. Upper Triassic Utah/Arizona >33.33 A Y Y 64 Callide Coal Measure Upper Triassic Queensland, Australia 6.67 A N N U. Triassic/L. 65 Elliot Fm. Jurassic South Africa >20 A N N 66 Kayenta Fm. Jurassic SW USA 8-200 A-M Y Y 67 Zone Y10 Jurassic northwestern China <15 A N N 70

68 Ness Fm. Middle Jurassic northern North Sea 71.43-500 M-B N N 69 Ravenscar Gp. Middle Jurassic Yorkshire, England 5-60 A N N 70 Scalby Fm. Middle Jurassic U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.) 2.5-46.67 A N N 71 Scalby Fm. Middle Jurassic U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.) 3.33-166.67 A-M N N 72 Scalby Fm. Middle Jurassic U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.) 10 A N N 11.67 A N N 60 A N N 73 Saltwick Fm. Middle Jurassic Yorkshire, England 17-30 A N N 74 Morrison Fm.; Brushy Basin Sh. Mb. upper Jurassic Colorado 10.1 A Y Y 75 Salt Wash Member, Morrison Fm. Upper Jurassic Four Corners area, SW USA 53-59 A N N 76 Sergi Fm. Upper Jurassic Brazil >30 A N N 77 Shishu Fm. Upper Jurassic Xinjiang, China 15.45 A N N 78 El Castellar Fm. U. Jurassic/L. Cret. Spain <100 A-M Y Y 79 Nubian Facies U. Jurassic/L. Cret. Egypt 3.33-100 A-M N N 80 Mist Mountain Fm. Kootenay Gp. U. Jurassic/L. Cret. Alberta and B.C., Canada 18.18-45.45 A N N 81 Wessex Fm. Lower Cretaceous Southern England 50 A N N 82 Cloverly Fm. Lower Cretaceous Wyoming and Montana 3.53-40.91 A Y Y 83 Mattagami Fm. LowernCretaceous Ontario, Canada 1.58-125 A-M N N 84 Cedar Mountain Fm.; Ruby Ranch Mb. Lower Cretaceous Utah 50 A Y Y 85 Manville Gp. Lower Cretaceous Alberta and Saskatchewan 8.57 A N N 86 Piedrahita de Muno Fm. Lower Cretaceous Spain 5-10 A Y Y 87 Escucha Fm. Upper Mb. Lower Cretaceous northeastern Spain 1250 B N Y 88 Kootenai Fm. Lower Cretaceous Montana 8.6-17 A Y Y 89 Khuren Dukh Fm. Lower Cretaceous Mongolia 10 A N N 90 Cuerda del Pozo Fm. Lower Cretaceous north-central Spain 2.5-100 A N N 91 McMurray Fm. Lower Cretaceous Alberta 10 A N N 92 Gates Fm. Falher Mb. Lower Cretaceous western Canada 300-1920 B N Y 93 Hasandong Fm. Lower Cretaceous South Korea 0.19-33 A N N 94 Haizhou Fm. Lower Cretaceous northeastern China 5-15 A N N 95 Subzone SII (13-16) Lower Cretaceous Daqing, China 20-40 A N N 71

96 Matasiete Fm. Lower Mb. Chubut Gp. Lower Cretaceous Argentina <10 A Y Y 97 Matasiete Fm. Middle Mb. Chubut Gp. Lower Cretaceous Argentina avg. 21 A Y Y 98 Matasiete Fm. Upper Mb. Chubut Gp. Lower Cretaceous Argentina <20 A Y Y 99 Castillo Fm. Cretaceous Argentina >15 A Y Y 100 Ericson Fm. Canyon Creek Mb. Cretaceous Wyoming 50 A N N 101 Blackhawk Fm. Cretaceous central Utah >15 A N N 102 Castlegate Fm. Cretaceous central Utah 11.92-500 A-B N Y 103 Kogokri Unit Cretaceous Korea 2-4 A N N 104 Helvetiafjellet Fm. Cretaceous Svalbard 46.67-300 A-B N N 105 Bajo Barreal Fm. Cretaceous Argentina 17-53 A Y Y 106 St. Mary River Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 8-27 A Y Y 107 Dinosaur Park Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 28 A N N 22 A N N 108 Dakota Fm. Upper Cretaceous southwest Utah 7-20 A N N 109 Straight Cliffs Fm. Upper Cretaceous southern Utah 10-60 A N N 110 Kaiparowits Fm. Upper Cretaceous southern Utah <15 A Y Y 111 Atane Fm. Upper Cretaceous Greenland 61.25-245 M N N 5.5-33 A N N 112 Dunvegan Fm. Upper Cretaceous British Columbia, Canada <30 A N N 113 Crevasse Canyon Fm. Bartlett Mb. Upper Cretaceous New Mexico 333.33-1000 B N Y 114 Crevasse Canyon Fm. Gibson Coal Mb. Upper Cretaceous New Mexico 100 M N Y 115 Lower Williams Fork Fm. Upper Cretaceous Colorado avg. 58.74 A N N 116 North Horn Fm. Upper Cretaceous central Utah 20-200 A Y Y 117 Two Medecine Fm. Upper Cretaceous western Montana 20-200 A-M N N 118 Lenticular Ss. & Shale Sequence Upper Cretaceous Wyoming 10-20 A Y Y 119 Messak Ss. Upper Cretaceous Libya 1.5-2000 A-B N N 120 Horseshoe Canyon Fm. Coal-bearing unit Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 600-2400 B N N 2000- 121 Horseshoe Canyon Fm. Fine-grained unit Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 3333.33 B N N 122 Oldman Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 10 A N N 123 Cardium Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 33.33-100 A-M N N 72

124 Calcaire de Rognac Fm. Cret.-Paleocene Southern France 0.6-1 A Y Y 125 Ferris Fm. Cret.-Paleocene south central Wyoming 75-333.33 M-B N Y 126 Raton Fm. Cret.-Paleocene Colorado/New Mexico 2 - 120 A-M N Y 127 Hell Creek Fm. Cret.-Paleocene Montana and North Dakota <83.33 A-M N Y 128 Fort Union Fm. Tullock Mb. Paleocene Wyoming 1-100 A-M Y Y 129 Fort Union Fm. Paleocene Wyoming <33 A Y Y 48.31 A Y Y 130 Bullion Creek Fm. Paleocene Montana 100-200 M N Y 131 Sentinel Butte Fm. Paleocene Montana 33.33-300 A-B N Y 132 Ludlow and Lower Slope Fm. Paleocene Montana 64 M N Y 133 Paskapoo Fm. Paleocene Alberta, Canada 13.33 A N N 134 Willwood Fm. Paleo.-Eocene Wyoming 40-150 A-M Y Y 135 Kuldana Fm. Eocene Pakistan 38522 A Y Y 136 Escanilla Fm. Eocene Spain <15 A Y Y 137 Escanilla Fm. Eocene Spain 15-25 A Y Y 138 Escanilla Fm. Eocene Spain 24-150 A-M Y Y 60avg. A Y Y 139 Bournemouth Fm Eocene Dorset, England 20-166.67 A-M N Y 140 Green River Fm. Eocene Wyoming <83.33-500 A-B Y Y 141 Wasatch Fm. Eocene Wyoming 105 - 165 M N Y 142 Bridger Fm. Unit B Eocene SW Wyoming 2.5-3.75 A Y Y 143 Guarga Fm. U. Eocene Spain 0.38-0.6 A Y Y U. 144 Amphitheatre Fm. Eocene/Oligocene Alaska 16.67-40 A N N U. 145 Middle and Upper Borna beds Eocene/Oligocene Germany 5-5000 A-B N N 146 Brule Fm. Oligocene South Dakota 8.75-16.66 A Y Y 147 Tortola Fan Fm. Oligocene-Miocene Spain 14.17-212.5 A-M N Y 148 Uncastillo Fm. Lower Miocene northern Spain avg <15 A Y Y lower-middle 149 Yeniçubuk/Middle Soma Fm. Miocene Turkey 5-15 A Y Y 150 Castissent Fm. Miocene Spain 50-250 A-M N Y 73

151 Kızılburun Fm. Miocene Turkey 3.33-10 A Y Y 152 Montello Conglomerate Miocene Italy 2.67-9.47 A N N 153 Shakardarra Fm. Miocene Pakistan 1000-3000 B N N 154 Vinchina Fm. Miocene Argentina <30 A N N 155 Prangat Fm. Miocene Indonesia 6.67-100 A-M N N 156 Lower Freshwater Molasse Miocene Switzerland 20-42.5 A Y Y 157 Tariquia Fm. Upper Miocene Bolivia <50 A Y Y Miocene- 158 Clayey-coal Unit- Upper Mb. Pleistocene central Poland about 25 A N N Miocene- 159 Intermediate Unit Pleistocene Spain 1.5 A N N Miocene- 160 Tokai Gp. Pleistocene Southwest Japan >3 A N N Miocene- 161 Tatrot/Pinjor Fm. Pleistocene India ≥ 7 - 26 A N N 162 Fosso Bianco Fm. Pliocene Umbria, central Italy 1.2-9 A Y Y 163 St. David Fm. (M.Mbr.) Plio-Pleist southeastern Arizona <15 A Y Y 164 Unit 5 Plio-Pleist southern Spain 2-7 A Y Y 165 Upper Dupi Tila Fm. Plio-Pleist Bangladesh, India avg. 6 A N N 166 Chalk Hills Fm. Plio-Pleist Idaho <15 A Y Y 167 Glenns Ferry Fm. Plio-Pleist Idaho 15 A Y Y 168 Muda Fm. Plio-Holocen Indonesia 20-120 A-M N N western Maryland and 169 Warners and Massenetta Series L. Holocene Virginia around 10 A Y Y 170 Niobrara River Fm. Holocene Nebraska 2.5-60 A N N 171 Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm. M. Holocene Netherlands 39.44 A N N 43.33 A N N 26.09 A N N 9.64 A N N 14.58 A N N 22.32 A N N 23.21 A N N 74

Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm. 171 continued 18.27 A N N 8.11 A N N 12.33 A N N 11.73 A N N 8.89 A N N 7.39 A N N 4.76 A N N 9.87 A N N 10.59 A N N 10.71 A N N 36.36 A N N 82.61 M N N 51.28 A N N 94.87 M N N 67.86 M N N 66.67 M N N

Citations for Table 4 above (Method refers to mode of collection, see text for explanation:

Formation (Fm.) Member (Mb.) Location Method References

1 Oneonta Fm. (Catskill Magnafacies) New York C Demicco et al., 1987; Gordon and Bridge, 1987; Dunagan and Driese, 1999 Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 2 Complex A South Wales B Owen and Hawley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2006; Woodcock, 2000 Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 3 Complex B South Wales B Owen and Hawley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2006; Woodcock, 2000 Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 4 Complex C South Wales B Owen and Hawley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2006; Woodcock, 2000 Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 5 Complex D South Wales B Owen and Hawley, 2000; Thomas et al., 2006; Woodcock, 2000 75

6 Zoologdalen Fm. Greenland B Olsen and Larsen, 1993 7 Kapp Kjeldsen; Wood Bay Fm. Spitsbergen, Norway B Moody-Stuart, 1966; Blomeier et al., 2003 8 Bulgeri Fm. Queensland, Australia B Veevers, 1984; Lang and Fielding, 1991; Lang, 1993; 9 Castlehaven Fm. souther Ireland B Graham, 1983; MacCarthy, 1990; Woodcock, 2000 10 Lower Kekiktuk Fm. northeast Alaska B Melvin, 1987 11 Pocahontas Fm. SW Virginia; S West Virginia D Englund, 1974 12 Fletcher Bank Grit Lancashire, England B Okolo, 1983; Hallsworth et al., 2000; Warr, 2000 13 Westcoe Coal Fm. England B Keogh et al., 2005; Warr, 2000 14 Animas Fm. southern Scotland B Andrews et al., 1991; Craig, 1983 15 Threequarter Seam North Derbyshire, England C Guion, 1984 16 Malpas Fm. Catalonian Pyrenees C Besly and Collinson, 2006 17 Sydney Mines Fm. Atlantic Canada A Batson and Gibling, 2002 18 Springhill Mines Fm. Nova Scotia, Canada A Rust et al., 1984 19 Joggins Fm. Nova Scotia, Canada A Rygel, 2005 20 Boss Point Fm. New Brunswick and Nova Scotia B Browne and Plint, 1994; Plint and Browne, 1994 21 Sandia Fm. New Mexico B Soegaard, 1991 22 Salvan-Dorenaz Basin Fill Switzerland/France B Capuzzo and Wetzel, 2004 23 Port Hood Fm. Nova Scotia, Canada D Keighley and Pickerill, 1996 24 Seaton Sluice Ss. England B Haszeldine, 1983; Holdsworth et al., 2000 25 Waddens Cove Fm. Nova Scotia, Canada A Gibling and Rust, 1990 26 Petersburg Fm. Springfield Coal Mb. Indiana D Eggert, 1984; Kolata and Nelson, 1988; Treworgy et al., 1997 27 Breathitt Gp. eastern Kentucky E Aitken and Flint, 1995; Eble et al., 2002 28 Pastora Fm. northern Spain D Heward, 1978; Bruner and Smosna, 2000 29 Warwickshire Thick Coal England F Fulton, 1987; Warr, 2000 30 Durham Coal Measures England B Fielding, 1986; Warr, 2000 31 Coal Measures(Westphalian) South Wales B Bluck and Kelling, 1963 32 Clifton Fm. New Brunswick, Canada B Rust and Legun, 1983 33 Lower Coal Measures north-west Germany D Hampson et al., 1999; Koenigswald and Meyer, 1994 34 Lower/Upper Mahoning Mb.Conemaugh Gp Ohio D Donaldson, 1974 35 Grafton Ss. Conemaugh Gp. northern West Virginia B Morton and Donaldson, 1978 36 Vamoosa Fm. Gypsy Ss. Oklahoma B Doyle and Sweet, 1995 76

37 Upper Freeport Fm. Pennsylvania E Garcés et al., 1997 38 Monongaela-Dunkard groups West Virginia B Ghosh, 1987 39 Cutler Fm. New Mexico B Eberth and Miall, 1991 40 Archer City & Nocona Fms.. Texas B Sander, 1989; Tabor and Montañez, 2004 41 Shanxi Fm. China B Zhang et al., 1997; Rongxi and Youzhu, 2008 42 Leard and Maules Creek Fm. eastern Australia D Hunt and Holday, 1984 43 Bainmedart Coal Measure Toploje Mb. eastern Antarctica C Fielding and Webb, 1996; McLoughlin and Drinnan, 1997 Bainmedart Coal Measure Dragon Teeth 44 Mb. eastern Antarctica C Fielding and Webb, 1996; McLoughlin and Drinnan, 1997 45 Ecca Group Zululand, South Africa B Hobday, 1978; Turner and Whateley, 1983; Petters, 1991 46 Ecca Gp. South Africa A Cairncross, 1980; Petters, 1991 47 Beaufort Gp. South Africa A Stear, 1983; Petters, 1991 48 Beaufort Gp. South Africa A Stear, 1983; Turner, 1978; Petters, 1991 49 Barren Measures Fm. India D Casshyap and Tewari 1984 50 Barakar Fm. India B Casshyap and Tewari 1984 51 Rangal Coal Measure Australia A Veveers, 1984; Fielding et al., 1993; Michaelsen et al., 2000 52 Goonyella Coal Measure Australia D Johnson, 1984; Veveers, 1984 53 German Creek Fm. Australia D Veevers, 1984; Falkner and Fielding, 1993 54 Betts Creek Bed Queensland, Australia F Veveers, 1984; Allen and Fielding, 2007 55 Bijori Fm. India C Chakraborty and Sarkar, 2005 56 Newcastle Coal Measure eastern Australia D Hunt and Holday, 1984; Veveers, 1984 57 Uralian Foreland Basin Deposits Russia D Newell et al., 1999 58 Buntsandstein Sequence central Spain D Ramos and Sopena, 1983; Gibbons and Moreno, 2002 59 Tanzhuang Fm. China F Mangano et al., 1994; Yuejun et al., 2002 60 Limos y Areniscas de Rillo Fm. Spain A Munoz et al., 1992 61 Chinle Fm. Moss Back Mb. Utah/Arizona C Dubiel, 1991 62 Chinle Fm. Petrified Forest Mb. Utah/Arizona A Blackey and Gubitosa, 1984; Dubiel, 1991 63 Chinle Fm. Owl Rock Mb. Utah/Arizona F Tanner, 2000 64 Callide Coal Measure Queensland, Australia B Veveers, 1984; Jorgensen and Fielding, 1996 65 Elliot Fm. South Africa B Eriksson, 1985; Petters, 1991; Bordy et al., 2004

66 Kayenta Fm. SW USA A North and Taylor, 1996 77

67 Zone Y10 northwestern China F Qiu et al., 1987 68 Ness Fm. northern North Sea C Ryseth, 2000 69 Ravenscar Gp. Yorkshire, England B Mjos et al., 1993; Hesselbo, 2000 70 Scalby Fm. U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.) A Nami and Leeder, 1978; Hesselbo, 2000 71 Scalby Fm. U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.) A Nami and Leeder, 1978; Hesselbo, 2000 72 Scalby Fm. U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.) A Eschard et al., 1991; Hesselbo, 2000 73 Saltwick Fm. Yorkshire, England B Dreyer, 1990; Mjos and Prestholm, 1993; Hesselbo, 2000 74 Morrison Fm.; Brushy Basin Sh. Mb. Colorado B Campbell, 1976; Richmond and Morris, 1996; Dunagan, 2000 75 Salt Wash Member, Morrisson Fm. Four Corners area, SW USA C Peterson and Tyler, 1985; Robinson and McCabe, 1997 76 Sergi Fm. Brazil B Scherer et al., 2007 77 Shishu Fm. Xinjiang, China B McKnight et al., 1990; Carrol et al., 1995 78 El Castellar Fm. Spain B Liesa et al., 2006 79 Nubian Facies Egypt D Bhattacharyya and Lorenz, 1983; Tawadros, 2001 Alberta and British Colombia, 80 Mist Mountain Fm. Kootenay Gp. Canada D Dustin and Bustin, 1987; Bustin and Dunlop, 1992 81 Wessex Fm. Southern England B Stewart, 1983; Gale, 2000 82 Cloverly Fm. Wyoming and Montana D Ostrom, 1970; Zaleha et al., 2001 83 Mattagami Fm. Ontario, Canada A Try et al., 1984; Long, 2000 84 Cedar Mountain Fm.; Ruby Ranch Mb. Utah B Stokes, 1944; Masters et al., 2004 85 Manville Gp. Alberta and Saskatchewan B Putnam, 1983 86 Piedrahita de Muno Fm. Spain B Platt, 1989a; Platt, 1989b; Platt, 1990; Platt and Meyer, 1991 87 Escucha Fm. Upper Mb. northeastern Spain B Querol et al., 1992 88 Kootenai Fm. Montana D Hopkins, 1985 89 Khuren Dukh Fm. Mongolia C Ito et al., 2005 90 Cuerda del Pozo Fm. north-central Spain F Clemente and Pérez-Arlucea, 1993 91 McMurray Fm. Alberta B Mossop and Flach, 2006 92 Gates Fm. Falher Mb. western Canada C Wadsworth et al., 2003 93 Hasandong Fm. South Korea D Choi, 1986; Paik et al., 2001; Jo, 2003 94 Haizhou Fm. northeastern China D Chonglong et al., 1992 95 Subzone SII (13-16) Daqing, China D Qiu et al., 1987 96 Matasiete Fm. Lower Mb. Chubut Gp. Argentina D Paredes et al., 2007 78

97 Matasiete Fm. Middle Mb. Chubut Gp. Argentina D Paredes et al., 2007 98 Matasiete Fm. Upper Mb. Chubut Gp. Argentina D Paredes et al., 2007 99 Castillo Fm. Argentina D Paredes et al., 2007 100 Ericson Fm. Canyon Creek Mb. Wyoming B Martinsen et al., 1999 101 Blackhawk Fm. central Utah D Adams and Bhattacharya, 2005 102 Castlegate Fm. central Utah D Adams and Bhattacharya, 2005; McLaurin and Steel, 2007 103 Kogokri Unit Korea C Ryang and Chough, 1999 104 Helvetiafjellet Fm. Svalbard D Nemec, 1992 105 Bajo Barreal Fm. Argentina D Bridge et al., 2000; Sylwan, 2001 106 St. Mary River Fm. Alberta, Canada A Nadon 1993, 1994 107 Dinosaur Park Fm. Alberta, Canada A Wood 1989; Eberth and Hamblin, 1993; Hamblin, 1997 108 Dakota Fm. southwest Utah A Kirschbaum and McCabe, 1992; Ulicny, 1999 109 Straight Cliffs Fm. southern Utah A Shanley and McCabe, 1993 110 Kaiparowits Fm. southern Utah D Roberts, 2007 111 Atane Fm. Greenland D Olsen, 1993 112 Dunvegan Fm. British Columbia, Canada A McCarthy et al., 1999 113 Crevasse Canyon Fm. Bartlett Mb. New Mexico C Cavaroc and Flores, 1984 114 Crevasse Canyon Fm. Gibson Coal Mb. New Mexico C Cavaroc and Flores, 1984 115 Lower Williams Fork Fm. Colorado D Cole and Cumella, 2005 116 North Horn Fm. central Utah D Spieker, 1946; Olsen, 1995 Lorenz and Gavin, 1984; Fink and Schmitt, 1999; Roberts and Hendrix, 117 Two Medecine Fm. western Montana D 2000 118 Lenticular Ss. & Shale Sequence Wyoming D Shuster and Steidtmann, 1987 119 Messak Ss. Libya D Bhattacharyya and Lorenz, 1983; Tawadros, 2001 120 Horseshoe Canyon Fm. Coal-bearing unit Alberta, Canada C Nurkowski and Rahmani, 1983 121 Horseshoe Canyon Fm. Fine-grained unit Alberta, Canada C Nurkowski and Rahmani, 1984 122 Oldman Fm. Alberta, Canada D Putnam, 1993 123 Cardium Fm. Alberta, Canada B Plint et al. 1988; Hart et al., 2003 124 Calcaire de Rognac Fm. Southern France D Cojan, 1993; Léonide et al., 2007 125 Ferris Fm. south central Wyoming F Jones and Hajek, 2007 126 Raton Fm. Colorado/New Mexico B Flores and Pillmore, 1987 79

127 Hell Creek Fm. Montana and North Dakota D Butler and Hartman, 1999; Hartman et al., 2002 128 Fort Union Fm. Tullock Mb. Wyoming D Johnson and Pierce, 1990; Nichols and Brown, 1992 129 Fort Union Fm. Wyoming A Warwick and Stanton, 1988 130 Bullion Creek Fm. Montana F Cherven and Jacob, 1985 131 Sentinel Butte Fm. Montana F Cherven and Jacob, 1985 132 Ludlow and Lower Slope Fm. Montana B Cherven and Jacob, 1985 133 Paskapoo Fm. Alberta, Canada D Smith, 2005 134 Willwood Fm. Wyoming A Jones and Hajek, 2007; Bowen and Bloch, 2002; Kraus and Gwinn, 1997 135 Kuldana Fm. Pakistan A Wells, 1983 136 Escanilla Fm. Spain A Bentham et et al., 1993 137 Escanilla Fm. Spain A Bentham et et al., 1993 138 Escanilla Fm. Spain A Dreyer et al., 1993 139 Bournemouth Fm Dorset, England D Plint, 1983; Anderton, 2000 140 Green River Fm. Wyoming D Sklenar and Andersen, 1985 141 Wasatch Fm. Wyoming A Warwick and Flores, 1987 142 Bridger Fm. Unit B SW Wyoming C Buchheim et al., 2000 143 Guarga Fm. Spain F Nickel, 1982 144 Amphitheatre Fm. Alaska D Ridgeway and DeCelles, 1993 145 Middle and Upper Borna beds Germany C Halfar et al., 1998 146 Brule Fm. South Dakota D Ritter and Wolfe, 1958; Terry and Kosmidis, 2004 147 Tortola Fan Fm. Spain B Diaz-Molina, 1993; Gibbons and Moreno, 2002 148 Uncastillo Fm. northern Spain B Nichols, 1987; Turner, 1992 149 Yeniçubuk/Middle Soma Fm. Turkey D Türkmen and Kerey, 2000; İnci , 2002 150 Castissent Fm. Spain D Marzo et al., 1988 151 Kızılburun Fm. Turkey F Alçiçek, 2007 152 Montello Conglomerate Italy C Massari et al., 1993 153 Shakardarra Fm. Pakistan F Abbasi, 1994 154 Vinchina Fm. Argentina B Limarino et al., 2001 155 Prangat Fm. Indonesia F Land and Jones, 1987 156 Lower Freshwater Molasse Switzerland B Burgisser, 1984; Morend et al., 2002 157 Tariquia Fm. Bolivia F Uba et al., 2005 80

158 Clayey-coal Unit- Upper Mb. central Poland F Krzyszkowski, 1993 159 Intermediate Unit Spain B Alonso Zarza et al., 1993 160 Tokai Gp. Southwest Japan B Nakayama, 1996 161 Tatrot/Pinjor Fm. India B Kumar and Tandon, 1985; Thomas et al., 2002 162 Fosso Bianco Fm. Umbria, central Italy D Cavinato and De Celles, 1999; Basilici, 2000 163 St. David Fm. (M.Mbr.) southeastern Arizona A Smith, 1994 164 Unit 5 southern Spain D Soria et al., 1998 165 Upper Dupi Tila Fm. Bangledesh, India D Gani and Alam, 2004 166 Chalk Hills Fm. Idaho B Middleton et al., 1985 167 Glenns Ferry Fm. Idaho A Kraus and Middleton, 1987 168 Muda Fm. Indonesia F Darmadi, 2007 169 Warners and Massenetta Series western Maryland and Virginia D Shaw and Rabenhorst, 1997 170 Niobrara River Fm. Nebraska D Bristow et al., 1999 171 Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm. Netherlands A Tornqvist et al., 1993; Makaske, 1998; Makaske et al., 2007

Reference list can be found in Appendix F. 81

APPENDIX B: ANASTOMOSING ENTRIES FROM APPENDIX A

Table 5. Anastomosing Entries River Carb. In Formation (Fm.) Member (Mb.) Age Location W/T type Carbonates Prov.

1 Oneonta Fm. (Catskill Magnafacies) Devonian New York 7.5-20 A Y Y Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 2 Complex A Devonian South Wales 1-3 A Y Y Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 3 Complex B Devonian South Wales 11.67 A Y Y Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 4 Complex C Devonian South Wales 5 A Y Y Lower Old Red Sandstone-Channel 5 Complex D Devonian South Wales 15 A Y Y 6 Zoologdalen Fm. Devonian Greenland 5-6 A N N 7 Kapp Kjeldsen; Wood Bay Fm. Devonian Spitsbergen, Norway 57-60 A Y Y 8 Bulgeri Fm. Upper Devonian Queensland, Australia 6 A N N 9 Castlehaven Fm. Upper Devonian souther Ireland 3.3-5 A Y Y 10 Lower Kekiktuk Fm. Mississippian northeast Alaska 35.88 A Y Y 12 Fletcher Bank Grit Mississippian Lancashire, England >27.59 A N N 24 A N N 12.4 A N N 15-30 A N N 13 Westcoe Coal Fm. Mississippian England 46.32 A N N 14 Animas Fm. Mississippian southern Scotland 2.5-3.3 A N N 15 Threequarter Seam Mississippian/Penn. North Derbyshire, England 60 A N N 16 Malpas Fm. Pennsylvanian Catalonian Pyrenees 16.67-30 A N N 17 Sydney Mines Fm. Pennsylvanian Atlantic Canada 2.86-5.56 A N N 18 Springhill Mines Fm. Pennsylvanian Nova Scotia, Canada 3-37 A N N 19 Joggins Fm. Pennsylvanian Nova Scotia, Canada 0.46-51 A N N 82

20 Boss Point Fm. Pennsylvanian New Brunswick and Nova Scotia >32 A N N 21 Sandia Fm. Pennsylvanian New Mexico 15.63 A N N 17 A N N 22 Salvan-Dorenaz Basin Fill Pennsylvanian Switzerland/France 15-20 A Y Y 23 Port Hood Fm. Pennsylvanian Nova Scotia, Canada >15 A N N 25 Waddens Cove Fm. Pennsylvanian Nova Scotia, Canada 13.14,8 A N N 29 Warwickshire Thick Coal Pennsylvanian England 5-50 A N N 31 Coal Measures(Westphalian) Pennsylvanian South Wales 2-3 A N N Lower/Upper Mahoning Mb. Conemaugh 12.5- 34 Gp. Pennsylvanian Ohio 33.35 A N N 35 Grafton Ss. Conemaugh Gp. Pennsylvanian northern West Virginia 12.5 A Y Y 36 Vamoosa Fm. Gypsy Ss. Pennsylvanian Oklahoma 30.26 A N N Middle 37 Upper Freeport Fm. Pennsylvanian Pennsylvania 2.4 A Y Y Upper 38 Monongaela-Dunkard groups Penn./Permian West Virginia >40 A Y Y Upper 39 Cutler Fm. Penn./Permian New Mexico ≤ 40 A Y Y 40 Archer City & Nocona Fms.. Lower Permian Texas 8.33 A N N 41 Shanxi Fm. Lower Permian China <30 A N N 43 Bainmedart Coal Measure Toploje Mb. Permian eastern Antarctica 6.66 A N N Bainmedart Coal Measure Dragon Teeth 3.33- 44 Mb. Permian eastern Antarctica 33.33 A Y Y 45 Ecca Group Permian Zululand, South Africa 2-15 A N N 46 Ecca Gp. Permian South Africa 45.45 A N N 47 Beaufort Gp. Permian South Africa 12, 14 A Y Y 17.86 A Y Y 15 A Y Y 48 Beaufort Gp. Permian South Africa 30 A Y Y 34.09 A Y Y 22.73 A Y Y 33.33 A Y Y 3.18 A Y Y 83

54 Betts Creek Bed Upper Permian Queensland, Australia 30-50 A N N 55 Bijori Fm. Upper Permian India 12.5 A N N 57 Uralian Foreland Basin Deposits Upper Permian Russia 2.5-50 A Y Y 58 Buntsandstein Sequence Permian, Triassic central Spain 3.89-10 A N N 59 Tanzhuang Fm. Triassic China 6.25-10 A Y Y 60 Limos y Areniscas de Rillo Fm. Triassic Spain 26-44 A Y Y 61 Chinle Fm. Moss Back Mb. Upper Triassic Utah/Arizona 22.22-50 A Y Y 62 Chinle Fm. Petrified Forest Mb. Upper Triassic Utah/Arizona 35 A Y Y 63 Chinle Fm. Owl Rock Mb. Upper Triassic Utah/Arizona >33.33 A Y Y 64 Callide Coal Measure Upper Triassic Queensland, Australia 6.67 A N N U. Triassic/L. 65 Elliot Fm. Jurassic South Africa >20 A N N 67 Zone Y10 Jurassic northwestern China <15 A N N 69 Ravenscar Gp. Middle Jurassic Yorkshire, England 5-60 A N N 70 Scalby Fm. Middle Jurassic U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.) 2.5-46.67 A N N 72 Scalby Fm. Middle Jurassic U.K. (Long Nab Mbr.) 10 A N N 11.67 A N N 60 A N N 73 Saltwick Fm. Middle Jurassic Yorkshire, England 17-30 A N N 74 Morrison Fm.; Brushy Basin Sh. Mb. upper Jurassic Colorado 10.1 A Y Y 75 Salt Wash Member, Morrisson Fm. Upper Jurassic Four Corners area, SW USA 53-59 A N N 76 Sergi Fm. Upper Jurassic Brazil >30 A N N 77 Shishu Fm. Upper Jurassic Xinjiang, China 15.45 A N N Alberta and British Colombia, 18.18- 80 Mist Mountain Fm. Kootenay Gp. U. Jurassic/L. Cret. Canada 45.45 A N N 81 Wessex Fm. Lower Cretaceous Southern England 50 A N N 3.53- 82 Cloverly Fm. Lower Cretaceous Wyoming and Montana 40.91 A Y Y 84 Cedar Mountain Fm.; Ruby Ranch Mb. Lower Cretaceous Utah 50 A Y Y 85 Manville Gp. Lower Cretaceous Alberta and Saskatchewan 8.57 A N N 86 Piedrahita de Muno Fm. Lower Cretaceous Spain 5-10 A Y Y 88 Kootenai Fm. Lower Cretaceous Montana 8.6-17 A Y Y 84

89 Khuren Dukh Fm. Lower Cretaceous Mongolia 10 A N N 90 Cuerda del Pozo Fm. Lower Cretaceous north-central Spain 2.5-100 A N N 91 McMurray Fm. Lower Cretaceous Alberta 10 A N N 93 Hasandong Fm. Lower Cretaceous South Korea 0.19-33 A N N 94 Haizhou Fm. Lower Cretaceous northeastern China 5-15 A N N 95 Subzone SII (13-16) Lower Cretaceous Daqing, China 20-40 A N N 96 Matasiete Fm. Lower Mb. Chubut Gp. Lower Cretaceous Argentina <10 A Y Y 97 Matasiete Fm. Middle Mb. Chubut Gp. Lower Cretaceous Argentina avg. 21 A Y Y 98 Matasiete Fm. Upper Mb. Chubut Gp. Lower Cretaceous Argentina <20 A Y Y 99 Castillo Fm. Cretaceous Argentina >15 A Y Y 100 Ericson Fm. Canyon Creek Mb. Cretaceous Wyoming 50 A N N 101 Blackhawk Fm. Cretaceous central Utah >15 A N N 103 Kogokri Unit Cretaceous Korea 2-4 A N N 105 Bajo Barreal Fm. Cretaceous Argentina 17-53 A Y Y 106 St. Mary River Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 8-27 A Y Y 107 Dinosaur Park Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 28 A N N 22 A N N 108 Dakota Fm. Upper Cretaceous southwest Utah 7-20 A N N 109 Straight Cliffs Fm. Upper Cretaceous southern Utah 10-60 A N N 110 Kaiparowits Fm. Upper Cretaceous southern Utah <15 A Y Y 111 Atane Fm. Upper Cretaceous Greenland 5.5-33 A N N 112 Dunvegan Fm. Upper Cretaceous British Columbia, Canada <30 A N N avg. 115 Lower Williams Fork Fm. Upper Cretaceous Colorado 58.74 A N N 116 North Horn Fm. Upper Cretaceous central Utah 8-20 A Y Y 118 Lenticular Ss. & Shale Sequence Upper Cretaceous Wyoming 10-20 A Y Y 122 Oldman Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada 10 A N N 124 Calcaire de Rognac Fm. Cret.-Paleocene Southern France 0.6-1 A Y Y 129 Fort Union Fm. Paleocene Wyoming <33 A Y Y 48.31 A Y Y 133 Paskapoo Fm. Paleocene Alberta, Canada 13.33 A N N 85

135 Kuldana Fm. Eocene Pakistan 6-20 A Y Y 136 Escanilla Fm. Eocene Spain <15 A Y Y 137 Escanilla Fm. Eocene Spain 15-25 A Y Y 138 Escanilla Fm. Eocene Spain 60avg. A Y Y 142 Bridger Fm. Unit B Eocene SW Wyoming 2.5-3.75 A Y Y 143 Guarga Fm. U. Eocene Spain 0.38-0.6 A Y Y U. 144 Amphitheatre Fm. Eocene/Oligocene Alaska 16.67-40 A N N 8.75- 146 Brule Fm. Oligocene South Dakota 16.66 A Y Y 148 Uncastillo Fm. Lower Miocene northern Spain avg <15 A Y Y lower-middle 149 Yeniçubuk/Middle Soma Fm. Miocene Turkey 5-15 A Y Y 151 Kızılburun Fm. Miocene Turkey 3.33-10 A Y Y 152 Montello Conglomerate Miocene Italy 2.67-9.47 A N N 154 Vinchina Fm. Miocene Argentina <30 A N N 156 Lower Freshwater Molasse Miocene Switzerland 20-42.5 A Y Y 157 Tariquia Fm. Upper Miocene Bolivia <50 A Y Y Miocene- 158 Clayey-coal Unit- Upper Mb. Pleistocene central Poland about 25 A N N Miocene- 159 Intermediate Unit Pleistocene Spain 1.5 A N N Miocene- 160 Tokai Gp. Pleistocene Southwest Japan >3 A N N Miocene- 161 Tatrot/Pinjor Fm. Pleistocene India ≥ 7 - 26 A N N 162 Fosso Bianco Fm. Pliocene Umbria, central Italy 1.2-9 A Y Y 163 St. David Fm. (M.Mbr.) Plio-Pleist southeastern Arizona <15 A Y Y 164 Unit 5 Plio-Pleist southern Spain 2-7 A Y Y 165 Upper Dupi Tila Fm. Plio-Pleist Bangledesh, India avg. 6 A N N 166 Chalk Hills Fm. Plio-Pleist Idaho <15 A Y Y 167 Glenns Ferry Fm. Plio-Pleist Idaho 15 A Y Y around 169 Warners and Massenetta Series L. Holocene western Maryland and Virginia 10 A Y Y 170 Niobrara River Fm. Holocene Nebraska 2.5-60 A N N 86

171 Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm. M. Holocene Netherlands 39.44 A N N 43.33 A N N 26.09 A N N 9.64 A N N 14.58 A N N 22.32 A N N 23.21 A N N 18.27 A N N 8.11 A N N 12.33 A N N 11.73 A N N 8.89 A N N 7.39 A N N 4.76 A N N 9.87 A N N 10.59 A N N 10.71 A N N 36.36 A N N

51.28 A N N

References can be found in Appendix F.

APPENDIX C: MEANDERING ENTRIES FROM APPENDIX A

Table 6. Meandering Entries from Appendix A

Carb. In Formation (Fm.) Member (Mb.) Age Location W/T River type Carbonates Prov.

12 Fletcher Bank Grit Mississippian Lancashire, England >72.73 M N N 13 Westcoe Coal Fm. Mississippian England 100 M N N 222.22 M N N 24 Seaton Sluice Ss. Pennsylvanian England 190 M N N 27 Breathitt Gp. Pennsylvanian eastern Kentucky 66.67-166.67 M N N 30 Durham Coal Measures Pennsylvanian England 142.86 M N N

52 Goonyella Coal Measure Permian Australia 80-160 M N N 111 Atane Fm. Upper Cretaceous Greenland 61.25-245 M N N 114 Crevasse Canyon Fm. Gibson Coal Mb. Upper Cretaceous New Mexico 100 M N Y 130 Bullion Creek Fm. Paleocene Montana 100-200 M N Y 132 Ludlow and Lower Slope Fm. Paleocene Montana 64 M N Y 141 Wasatch Fm. Eocene Wyoming 105 - 165 M N Y 171 Rhine-Meuse Rivers~Betuwe Fm. M. Holocene Netherlands 82.61 M N N 94.87 M N N 67.86 M N N 66.67 M N N

Reference list can be found in Appendix F.

APPENDIX D: ENTRIES WITH NO CHANNEL WIDTH/THICKNESS RATIOS

Table 7. Entries with No Width/Thickness Ratios

Formation (Fm.) Group (Gp.) Age Location River Type References

Pittsburgh Fm. Pittsburgh Ss. Mb. Upper Penn./Perm. northern West Virginia M-B Hoover et al., 1969 Pittsburgh Fm. Sewickly Ss. Mb. Upper Penn./Perm. West Virginia A-B Hoover et al., 1969 Glenshwa Fm. Middle-Late Penn. OH, KY, and WV B Martino, 2004 New Oxford Fm. Triassic Pennsylvania B de Wet and McCabe, 1998 Porto Novo Jurassic Portugal A-M Hill 1989; Cunha and dos Reis, 1995; Burla et al., 2008 Antlers Fm. Lower Cretaceous Texas/Oklahoma M Hobday et al., 1981 Gething Fm. Lower Cretaceous B.C., Canada A-M Stott 1973 Vega de Pas Fm. Lower Cretaceous northern Spain A Yusta et al., 1998 Winton Fm. Cretaceous Australia A-M Fielding, 1992 Styx Coal Measure Cretaceous Australia A-M Fielding, 1992 Stanwell Coal Measure Cretaceous Australia A-M Fielding, 1992 Burrum Coal Measure Cretaceous Australia A-M Fielding, 1992 Otway and Eastern View Groups Cretaceous Australia A Fielding, 1992 Strzelecki and Latrobe Groups Cretaceous Australia A-M Fielding, 1992 Otway and Sherbrooks Gp. Cretaceous Australia A-M Fielding, 1992 Takena Fm. Upper Cretaceous Tibet A-M Leier et al., 2007 Ajka Coal Fm. Upper Cretaceous Hungary A Haas et al., 1992 Wayan Fm. Upper Cretaceous southeastern Idaho M Schmitt and Moran 1982 Whitemud Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada A Pruett and Murray, 1991 Lower Tuscaloosa Fm. Upper Cretaceous Mississippi M Werren et al., 1990 Battle Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada A-M Russell, 1983 Scollard Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada M-B Russell, 1983 Foremost Fm. Upper Cretaceous Alberta, Canada A-M Ogunyomi and Hills, 1977 Ojo Alamo Sandstone or Animas Paleocene New Mexico and A Sikkink, 1987 89

Fm. Colorado

basal Black Peak Fm. Paleocene Texas A-M Schiebout et al. 1987 Calvert Bluff Fm. Paleocene-Eocene Texas M Kaiser et al., 1977 Fenghuoshan Group Eocene to Oligocene north central Tibet A Wang et al., 2004; Cyr et al., 2005 Li Formation mid-Cenozoic Thailand M Nichols and Uttamo, 2005 Middle unit Miocene NE Nevada, NW Utah A Hildebrand and Newman, 1985 Camp Rice and Palomas Fm. Plio-Pleist New Mexico B Mack and James, 1993

*References for Table 7 above appear in Appendix E.

APPENDIX E: REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX D

Burla, S., Heimhofer, U., Hochuli, P.A., Weissert, H., Skelton, P., 2008. Changes in sedimentary patterns of coastal and deep-sea successions from the North Atlantic (Portugal) linked to Early Cretaceous environmental change. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 257, 38-57. Cunha, P.P., dos Reis, R.P., 1995. Cretaceous sedimentary and tectonic evolution of the northern sector of the Lusitanian Basin (Portugal). Cretaceous Research 16, 155- 170. Cyr, A.J., Currie, B.S., Rowley, D.B., 2005. Geochemical Evaluation of Fenghuoshan Group Lacustrine Carbonates, North-Central Tibet: Implications for the Paleoaltimetry of the Eocene Tibetan Plateau. The Journal of Geology 113, 517- 533. de Wet, C.B., McCabe, P., 1998. Carbonate lakes in closed basins; sensitive indicators of climate and tectonics; an example from the Gettysburg Basin (Triassic), Pennsylvania, USA. In: Shanley, K.W., McCabe, P.J. (Eds.), Relative Role of Eustasy, Climate, and Tectonism in Continental Rocks. Special Publication- SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 59, pp. 191-209. Fielding, C.R., 1992. A review of Cretaceous coal-bearing sequences in Australia. In: McCabe, P.J., Parrish, J.T. (Eds.), Controls on the Distribution and Quality of Cretaceous Coals. Geological Society of America Special Paper 267, pp. 303- 324. Haas, J., Jocha-Edelenyi, E., Csaszar, G., 1992. Upper Cretaceous coal deposits in Hungary. In: McCabe, P.J., Parrish, J.T. (Eds.), Controls on the Distribution and Quality of Cretaceous Coals. Geological Society of America Special Paper 267, pp. 245-262. Hildebrand, R.T., Newman, K.R., 1985. Miocene sedimentation in the Goose Creek Basin, South-central Idaho, northeastern Nevada, and northwestern Utah. n: Flores, R.M., Kaplan, S.S. (Eds.), Cenozoic Paleogeography of the west-central United States. Rocky Mountain Section of SEPM, pp. 55-70. Hill, G., 1989. Distal alluvial fan sediments from the Upper Jurassic of Portugal: controls on their cyclicity and channel formation. Geological Society of London Journal 146, 539-555. Hobday, D.K., Woodruff, C.M., McBride, M.W., 1981. Paleotopographic and structural controls on non-marine sedimentation on the Lower Cretaceous Antlers Formation and correlatives, north Texas and southeastern Oklahoma. In: Ethridge, F.G., Flores, R.M. (Eds.), Recent and Ancient Nonmarine Depositional Environments: Models for Exploration. SEPM Special Publication 31, pp. 71-87. Hoover, J.R., Malone, R., Eddy, G., Donaldson, A., 1969. Regional position, trend, and geometry of coals and sandstones of the Gahela Group and Waynesburg formation in the Central Appalachians. In: Donaldson, A.C. (Ed.), Some Appalachian Coals and Carbonates: Models of Ancient Shallow-Water Deposition. West Virginia Geological and Economic Survey, Morgantown, Preconvention G.S.A. Field Trip, November 1969, pp. 157-192. Kaiser, W.R., Johnson, J.E., Bach, W.H., 1977. Sand body geometry and the occurrence of lignite in the Eocene of Texas. Proceedings of the Second Symposium of 91

Geology of Rocky Mountain Coal. Colorado Geological Survey Resource Series 4, 67-87. Leier, A.L., DeCelles, P.G., Kapp, P., Ding, L., 2007. The Takena Formation of the Lhasa terrane, southern Tibet: The record of a Late Cretaceous retroarc foreland basin. Geological Society of America Bulletin 119, 31-48. Mack, G.H., James, W.C., 1993. Control of basin symmetry on fluvial lithofacies, Camp Rice and Palomas Formations (Plio-Pleistocene), southern Rio Grande rift, USA: International Association of Sedimentologists, Special Publication 17, 439-449. Martino, R.L., 2004. Sequence stratigraphy of the Glenshaw Formation (Middle –Late Pennsylvanian) in the Central Appalachian Basin. In: Pashin, J.C., Gastaldo, R.A. (Eds.), Sequence Stratigraphy, Paleoclimate, and Tectonics of Coal-Bearing Strata: American Association of Petroleum Geologists Studies in Geology 51, pp. 1-28. Nichols, G., Uttamo, W., 2005. Sedimentation in a humid, interior, extensional basin; the Cenozoic Li Basin, northern Thailand. Journal of the Geological Society of London 162, 333-347. Ogunyomi, O., Hills, L.V., 1977. Depositional environments, Foremost Formation (Late Cretaceous), Milk River area, southern Alberta. Bulletin of Canadian Petroleum Geology 25, 929-968. Pruett, R.J., Murray, H.H., 1991. Clay mineralogy, alteration history, and economic geology of the Whitemud Formation, southern Saskatchewan, Canada. Clay and Clay Minerals 39, 586-596. Russell, L.S., 1983. Evidence for an unconformity at he Scollard-Battle contact, Upper Cretaceous strata, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Earth Science 20, 1219-1231. Schiebout, J.A., Rigsby, C.A., Rapp, S.D., Hartnell, J.A., Standhardt, B.R., 1987. Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous-Tertiary and Paleocene-Eocene transition rocks of the Big Bend National Park, Texas. Journal of Geology 95, 359-375. Schmitt, J.G., Moran, M.E., 1982. Stratigraphy of the Cretaceous Wayan Formation, Caribou Mountains, southeastern Idaho thrust belt. Contributions to Geology, University of Wyoming 21, 55-71. Sikkink, P.L., 1987. Lithofacies and depositional environments of the Tertiary Ojo Alamo Sandstone and related strata, San Juan Basin, New Mexico and Colorado. In: Fassett, J.E., Rigby, J.K., Jr. (Eds.), The Cretaceous-Tertiary Boundary in the San Juan and Raton Basins, New Mexico and Colorado. Geological Society of America Special Paper 206, pp. 81-104. Stott, D.F., 1973. Lower Cretaceous Bullhead Group between Bullmoose Mountain and Tetsa River, Rocky Mountain Foothills, northeastern British Columbia. Geological Survey of Canada Bulletin 219, 228 p. Wang, C., Liu§, Z., Zhu, L., 2004. Northeastward growth and uplift of the Tibetan Plateau: Tectonicsedimentary evolution insights from Cenozoic Hoh Xil, Qaidam and Hexi Corridor basins. Himalayan Journal of Science 2, 266. Werren, E.G., Shew, R.D., Adams, E.R., Stancliffe, R.J., 1990. Meander-belt reservoir geology, mid-dip Tuscaloosa, Little Creek Field, Mississippi. In: Barwis, J.H., 92

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APPENDIX F: REFERENCES FOR APPENDIX A, B, AND C

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