Maize for Better Nutrition

SG2000/IAR/FMARD

Editors: S. Miko, J.A. Valencia A.M. Falaki

Proceedings of the National Quality Protein Maize Production Workshop 4th to 5th September 2001 Institute for Agricultural Research Conference Hall, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria

Organized by: Sasakawa Global 2000 Nigeria Project, IAR/ABU and FMARD

Sponsored by: Sasakawa Africa Association 31212 Mita, MinatoKu Tokyo 108, Japan

CONTENTS

i v Abbreviation

Vi SG2000 Agricultural Programme

Vii Forward

Viii General Reflections of the Workshop Ernest W. Sprague.

1 Opening Address Dr. Malami Buwai

2 Speech of the Special Guest of Honour Alhaji Ahmed Mohammed Makarfi Executive Governor of Kaduna State

3 Address by the Hon. Minister Federal Ministry of Agriculture & Rural Development Mallam Adamu Bello

4 Keynote Address: Honourable Minister of State for Agric. & Rural Development Chief Chris Agbobu

TECHNICAL PAPERS

9 Maize No-Tillage Systems for Reduced Labour Requirements, Improved Soil Conditions and production J.B.R. Findlay

17 Balanced Nutrient Management for Intensified Maize-based systems in the Northern Guinea Savanna of West Africa A.Y. Kamara and N. Sanginga

25 Quality Protein Maize: Over-view, Breeding Strategy and Recent Research Result for Southern Africa. K. Pixley

42 Towards Development of Stable High Yielding Disease and Storage Pest Resistant Quality Protein Maize. S.G. Ado

53 Towards Accelerated field testing and release of Quality Protein Maize cultivars S.G. Ado.

59 Quality Protein Maize Seed Programme in Nigeria T.O. Okolo

iii

66 Seed Production and Marketing: The Seedco. Experience. S.B. McCarter

74 The Role and Challenges of Agricultural Extension in Nigeria in the 20th Century. Jacob P. Voh and T.K. Atala

82 Maize as a Potential source of Income and Foreign exchange Earning in Nigeria. S.A. Ingawa

91 Approaches to improving Maize Technology Delivery Systems in Nigeria A.M. Falaki, M.A. Hussaini and S. Miko

99 Towards Dissemination of Quality Protein Maize Technology in Nigeria S.S. Abubakar, S.J. Auta, J.G. Akpoko and J.E. Onyibe.

108 Expected Role of Extension in the promotion of Quality Protein Maize S.S. Abubakar, J.E. Onyibe, C.K. Dauda, J. Ahmad, and R.A. Ghadegeshin

114 Approaches to Improving the Nutritive Value of Maize with particular emphasis on QPM. H. Abubakar

121 Post-harvest Technology of Quality Protein Maize: Storage and Processing—Choosing the Right Technology R.A. Boxall

AAA Amino Acid Analyzer ABU Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria ADPs Agricultural Development Projects AKIS Agricultural Knowledge and Information System BNF Biological Nitrogen Fixation BV Biological Value CBN Central Bank of Nigeria CIMMYT Centro International De Mejoramiento De Maiz Y Trigo. Int. CRI Crop Research Institute DNA Deoxyribo Nucleic Acid EAs Extension Agents ELISA Enzymelinked ImmunoSorbent Assey EOs Extension Officers EPZ Export Processing Zone FAO Food and Agriculture Organization FASCOM Farmers Supply Company FCT Federal Capital Territory FDA Federal Department of Agriculture FGN Federal Government of Nigeria FMA&RD Federal Ministry of Agriculture and Rural and Rural Development FOB Free on Board FPR Farmer Participatory Research FSR Farming Systems Research GCA General Combining Ability GLS Grey Leaf Spot GOs Government Organizations IAR Institute for Agricultural Research IAR&T Institute of Agricultural Research and Training IITA International Institute for Tropical Agriculture ICRISAT International Crop Research Institute for SemiArid Tropics KADP Kaduna Agricultural Development Project

KASCO Kano Agricultural Supply Company MAS Markers Assisted Selection MSV Maize Streak Virus MT Metric Tonne MTP Management Training Plot NAERLS National Agricultural Extension and Research Liaison Services NAFPP National Accelerated Food Production Programme NARIs National Agricultural Research Institute NARs National Agricultural Research System NCRP Nationally Coordinated Research Project NGOs NonGovernmental Organizations NGS Northern Guinea Savannah NPU Net Profit Utilization NRC National Research Council NSS National Seed Service OAU Organization for African Unity OLS Ordinary Least Square OPVs Open Pollinated Varieties PCU Projects Coordinating Unit PER Protein Efficiency Ratio QPM Quality Protein Maize RAAKS Rapid Appraisal of Agricultural Knowledge Systems REFILS Research, Extension, Farmers Inputs Linkage Systems SAA Sasakawa Africa Association SAFE Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education SCA Specific Combining Ability SG2000 Sasakawa Global 2000 T&V Training and Visit TOT Training of Trainers UNICEF United Nations International Children Educational Fund USA United States of America

FORWORD ods through the use of suitable and safe plant materials and the triple polythene bag The workshop on Maize for better Nutrition ging that proved effective and popular with could not have taken place at a better time farmers for storage of legume and cereal than now when majority of Nigerians are grains. relying on maize as their major staple food crop. QPM with its high content of lysine The rate at which QPM is getting accept and tryptophan, two essential amino acids ability will undoubtedly also bring up new that are only found in meat and egg is a spe challenges to extension in the country. cial maize that has been accepted by farm These challenges will entail changes in ers. The introduction, promotion and dis terms of methodology, responsive training semination of QPM by SG2000 through the along the QPM value chain, extension effec state ADPs are great strides in providing tiveness and accountability. maize with better nutrition to the resource poor rural families who cannot afford meat For QPM promotion to fully succeed in the and/egg in their daily diet. country, research needs to address some challenges including availability of good SG2000 Nigeria with the support from SAA quality seed, development and release of has assisted IAR in acquiring new stock of superior QPM (OPVs and hybrids: white QPM germplasm and also provided finan and yellow) varieties, promotion of notill to cial support to promote research and subse reduce drudgery, improve soil fertility and quent release of new QPM varieties. Al check soil erosion and postharvest technol ready, IAR has released Sammaz 14 ogy (harvesting, cleaning and storage). If (equivalent to Ghana’s Obatanpa) for dis the needed research is undertaken to de semination to farmers. In Kaduna and Kano velop and disseminate better quality QPM, states, QPM villages (where only QPM is right quality and quantity of fertilizer is ap grown to avoid contamination) are springing plied, notill is effectively promoted among up and QPM is fast substituting normal farmers, suitable postharvest technology is maize, sorghum and millet on the field and employed and reasonable price is assured at in the preparation of local recipes like tuwo, harvest time, Nigeria by virtue of its avail waina, dambu etc. QPM gruel (koko) is also able cultivable land, good soil, adequate and becoming the main weaning diet for babies well distributed rainfall, has the potential to in many rural communities. produce the quantity of the QPM it requires and also have excess to export to other Special attention however, needs to be paid countries in the West African subregion. in improving the postharvest storage and processing of QPM in order to reduce losses Dr Ahmed M. Falaki and maintain its quality. Reduction in stor Project Coordinator age losses can be achieved by introducing SG2000 Nigeria simple but locally improved storage meth

vii

Sasakawa Global 2000 Agricultural Programme

The SG2000 programme is a partnership of two activity, although over time we have added nu NGOs: Sasakawa Africa Association (SAA) merous new activities such as water harvesting, whose President is Dr. Norman Borlang, and the conservation tillage etc. The main programme Global 2000 programme of the Carter Center, objective is to accelerate the adoption by small whose chairman is Jimmy Carter. SAA is re scale farmers of modern food crop production sponsible for programme management; Global technology (fertilizer, seed crop protection, 2000’s special brief is to engage, through Presi chemicals and agronomic practices) in basic dent Jimmy Carter, in policyrelated interven food crops mainly maize, wheat, sorghum, ses tions. ame, millet, cassava, rice and grain legumes.

The Nippon Foundation, formerly called the The SG2000 project in Nigeria was established Japan Shiplpoulding Industry Foundation in 1992, initially operating in the northern state (JSIF), which was founded by late Ryoichi Sa of Kano, (100 33’ North, 70 34’ East and 500m sakawa, provides the funding for the SG2000 above sea level). The project was expanded the Nigeria programme. following year into the states of Kaduna, Jigawa and much later Katsina, Bauchi, Gombe, Zam SG2000 Nigeria Programme works mainly fara, Sokoto and Kebbi. The project runs in with—and—through the ministries of Agricul close collaboration with the State Rural Authori ture, primarily extension services, but also with ties of KNARDA, JARDA, KADP, KTARDA, NARIs and IARCs. Support for field demonstra BSADP, GSADP, ZACAREP, SADP, Kebbi tion/testing programmes of improved food crop PCU, IAR, IITA, LCRI and ABU Zaria. technology with small scale farmers is the core

Correct Citation: S. Miko et al eds. 2001 Maize for Better Nutrition

Postal Address: SG2000 Nigeria Project KNARDA Building, Hadejia Road, P.O. Box 5190, Kano, Nigeria

Email Address: [email protected]

Printer:

ISBN: 9783741705

Key words: Quality Protein Maize; Nutrition; fertilizer, notill; Post harvest; technology; extension; seed, market diseases, pest, breeding.

Cover Picture

viii

GENERAL REFLECTIONS ON THE WORKSHOP

Ernest W. Sprague*

It has been a pleasure attending this im us another compelling reason to greatly accel portant workshop, organized jointly by the erate our combined effort in Nigeria, which is Institution for Agriculture, Ahmadu Bello the number one maize producer and consumer University, The Federal Ministry of Agricul in West Africa. ture and the Agricultural Development Pro There are available, today, production ject of each of ten States. I am particularly technology and plant materials, including va pleased that the theme was “Maize for Better rieties and hybrid that together, are capable of Nutrition”. greatly increasing maize production in Nige I congratulate you on following up the ria and much of West Africa, if seed and in National Seminal Promotion of Quality Pro puts were available. tein Maize that you held on December 19, I believe that the technology available in 2000, with this comprehensive workshop that Nigeria is certainly capable of producing at is concluding today. least one million more tons of maize if fully The Formal Opening Section gave us an utilized. To do this of course implies seed, opportunity to learn that prominent people in fertilizer and markets are not major con Government support the work that is being straints done to develop and disseminate maize, I would now like to summarize our con which provides for better nutrition, like QPM, cerns and prediction by looking at a few is together with better production technology. sues that I think imperative to the develop I hope this workshop is not an end in it ment of sustained agricultural production, in self, because it addressed a number of issues Nigeria and all other Nations. that challenge all players to work together to greatly increase the production of Quality Plant Materials Protein Maize. We cannot afford to be complacent. Re Dr. Agle mentioned that the health in Ni search should set priorities. I would like to geria ranks a low 187 out 191 countries see a concentration on the continue develop worldwide. Since health is greatly influenced ment of superior QPM cultivars. There is by nutrition the message from Dr. Agle give every reason to believe that a dynamic maize

*Senior Consultant, Global 2000, The Carter Centre, Atlanta, USA

breeding programme could quite quickly gruel allows babies to substantially in develop QPM cultivars with a yield po crease their intake of food. We should tential 15 to 20 % greater than is avail follow this work and be aware of the able to the farmers. positive indicators that babies exhibit Dr. Pixley mentioned the excellent when weaned on QPM. The value of tropical germplasm that is from CIM QPM for the physical development of MYT. Although this germplasm, does not children of all ages should be promoted in have adequate resistance to streak virus it activities dealing with women groups. would be extremely useful to Nigeria and West Africa. This germplasm should be Fertilizer obtained immediately and work begun to We know that maize responds very to transfer streak resistance into it. This ap soil fertility and other production technol proach will be more faster, easier and less ogy such as weed control. I doubt, how expensive that attempting to transfer ever that we know the most economical quality protein into the germplasm that rate of nutrients to use in different soil you now have. types. We need to do research and pro In my view the effort to develop im duce response curves from which we proved cultivars should be a combine re could determine appropriate fertilizer gional and international effort involving rates based on cost of fertilizer and value the national programs in West Africa and of maize. the International Research Centers. The The high leached soils in West Africa approach would greatly accelerate grains are acidic to highly acidic, and the re that could be made, unnecessary time sponse to micronutrients should be stud consuming duplication. ied. The fertilizer manufactures are add ing micronutrients to bulk mixes. How Nutrition ever I am not sure how well we under We all know the nutritive value of stand the value of micronutrients and the QPM from studies that have been con role of soil acidity. ducted in other countries. Ghana has Research on response to plant nutri taken the lead in studying the response of ents should be conducted in the maize babies to QPM gruel. This work is impor producing areas and not on experience tant and I hope it will continue. The next stations where the soil will not be repre step in this study is to add a small quan sentative of the soil where maize is pro tity of malt to the gruel, which causes it duced. to turn to liquid. The liquid form of QPM

No-till Extension Dr. Findlay gave a very good presen Extension is vital to the adoption of tation on notill, which is popular with beneficial changes and the extension ser maize farmers in much of West Africa. It vice is doing a very good job with avail is an excellent technology that should be able technology. However, in my view vigorously promoted. I think however extension should involve more field plot that there is a need to study notill with demonstrations. There is a need to assist maize in various crop rotations. farmers with storage, market prices etc. to In the discussion there was some con perform their role better. The extension cern expressed with regard to notill. I officers also need an opportunity to have believe that notill has several advan a greater in depth knowledge of all pro tages. It reduces the labour required to duction related issues. produce a crop, it helps to prevent soil erosion and it improves soil structure. I Seed Production recommend that notill be promoted and Dr. Mc Cater gave an excellent pres demonstrated by extension, and let the entation on seed Coop activities and phi farmers decide on which technology losophy. Existing and potential seed pro works for them. They will only adopt ducers should consider his message. technology that works and is productive. Availability of quality seed is a con There is also a concern that more straint to accelerated maize production in vegetative material needs to be returned Nigeria and other west African countries. to the soil. Notill helps to satisfy this Unfortunately, to date, a seed industry requirement. has not developed. It is true that seed pro duction has been encouraged, but an in Post Harvest Technology dustry has not yet evolved. There has All aspect of post harvest technology been a tendency for seed growers to rely need to be examined and demonstrated. I on government agencies and NGOs to think it is most important to look at the purchase the seed they produce. More economic returns of post harvest technol positive effort needs to go into the devel ogy at the farm level. We should follow opment of a dynamic marketing and dis the work that is being done in Ghana on tribution system. post harvest storage and we should enlist Seed production and marketing is a the assistance of IITA and the SG2000 business of which growing and process Post Harvest Technology Program. ing quality seed is only part of the re sponsibility. It requires business skills,

marketing promotion and extension skills. are forced to sell immediately after har A further constraint, in my view, is the vest because they need money to pay role that seed regulatory agencies and their financial obligations. seed inspectors play. I know that the in A more stable pricing of maize is es tension is to assure that no seed is sold sential to stimulate more maize produc that does not meet a prescribed standard, tion. A planned government intervention which is meant to protect farmers. How that would take maize out of production ever, with budget constraints, bureau areas at a reasonable price at harvest cratic constraints and inadequately quali could make farming profitable. The fied staff this well intended function be maize taken out at harvest could be stored come a constraint, rather than a positive and later release into the market at suit function to assist in the delivery of qual able times, and at a reasonable price, to ity seed into dynamic seed market. prevent maize prices from becoming too The marketing of inputs (fertilizer high. This would help stabilize maize etc.) is, like seed, a business and must prices throughout the year and would operate with good business management. benefit the producer and the consumer. Perhaps seed dealers or distributors that The Honourable Minister mentioned are well dispersed throughout the maize that the Government would buy maize to producing areas could also deal with fer prevent prices at harvest going too low. If tilizers and other inputs. the Government decide to intervene, there should be careful planning and execution Market of the program. An intervention program Maize farmers today are the mercy of should not be on an ad hoc basis just in greatly fluctuating prices. Because of response to emergencies. laws of supply and demand, when more maize is available, the price is lower. At Potential harvest therefore, when there is more Nigeria has potential of becoming a maize available, farmers are forced to sell major maize producing country. Average at a price that is too low. This greatly re maize yields today are about 1.4 tons per duced the profitability of maize farming hectare on 3.7 million hectares. As I men and is constraint to the use of the best tioned, present technology could make it known technology. possible to produce an additional million Suitable intervention could stimulate a tons on the same area. However this better price at harvest. On farm storage is would be a small increase in average pro a positive step, however many farmers duction per hectare.

xii

Some participants in the workshop sug It will be necessary to formulate appro gested that we must have hybrids to push priate policies on seed regulations. The average yields above 1.4 tons per hectare. private sector should be given the freedom I agree that good hybrids would be one to produce and market quality seed with option to accelerate production. However minimum regulations. Also, initially, the with the variety Obatanpa, yields of 5 tons Government may need to stimulate the per hectare are completely realistic. development of volume will make the in Other factors are more important than dustry more profitable. the choice of hybrid or variety. It is the If all these were accomplished, in a lack of good quality seed, appropriate fer very few years, Nigeria could be produc tilizer and weed control that has depressed ing far more maize than is required of food yields. This will continue until these con and feed within the country. We need to straints or limitations are corrected and anticipate this reality and think about other markets become available. The use of ways of profitably disposing of using Obatanpa alone will not improve the aver maize. There should be steps taken to de age production of maize; likewise hybrids velop regional markets. The use of maize will not increase yield without the appro in feed especially, poultry, and for indus priate support technology. trial needs such as starch and sweeteners If appropriate research is conducted to should be considered. develop superior QPM hybrids, the most If we ignore any one of the issues dis economical rate of fertilizer used is estab cussed we may, five years from now, see lished, weed control is practiced and an Nigeria’s maize production at about where appropriate market for harvest grain is de it is now. However, if all of the pieces are veloped, Nigeria could anticipate yields of put together, I predict that Nigeria will 6 to 8 tons per hectare. All of these con soon be a major maize producer and an straints need to be addressed. example to emulate in all of Africa.

xiii

OPENING ADDRESS: Dr. Malami Buwai*

Your Excellency, The Governor of Ka role to play in the food security of our Na duna State Alhaji Ahmed Makarfi; tion. Through excellent efforts of Sasa

kawa Global 2000 and other Government Honourable Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development, Alhaji Adamu Bello; Agencies, maize production has increased significantly; many farmers in the North Honourable Members of Kaduna State ern States have now incorporated maize Executive Council; production in their farming system. Re

Your Royal Highnesses; search Institutes and Agricultural Devel opment Projects (ADPs) should continue The Vice Chancellor, Ahmadu Bello Uni to provide our farmers with technical versity Zaria, Professor Abdullahi Ma guidance, improved maize seeds and other hadi; inputs to help further increase maize pro Director of Maize Programme CIMMYT, duction in the country. Mexico, Dr. Shivaji Pandey; Federal and State Government should

provide adequate support to our Research Director General, IITA Ibadan, Dr. Lukas Brader; Institutes and Extension Services. Work shops and educational tours should be ar Distinguished Guests; ranged for farmers both within and outside

the country. Government must create fa Ladies and Gentlemen, vourable conditions for farmers to pro Thanks for honouring me to chair the duce and market maize at profitable formal opening of this very important Na prices. There is also need for the Govern tional Maize Workshop. The survival of ment to encourage the use of maize in our young democracy will depend largely beef fattening, milk production and poul on our efforts to feed our people. Maize try through price support programme. crop is not only high yielding but provide Thank you for your attention and May excellent food for both human and animal almighty Allah Bless You AllAmin. consumption. Maize therefore, has a vital

*Former Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development Nigeria

SPEECH OF SPECIAL GUEST OF HONOUR : Alhaji Ahmed Mohammad Makarfi*

I am glad to be called upon to address this gath By way of encouragement to our farmers, Ka ering on this important occasion of the National duna State is embarking on “Back-To Land Pro- Workshop tagged, “Maize for Better Nutrition.” I gramme” which engages school leavers to partake understand that the workshop is jointly organised in modern Agriculture. About 2,300 Youths are by Sasakawa Global 2000 (a NonGovernmental involved in the programme this year across the Organization), the Institute for Agricultural Re State. This is part of the poverty alleviation pro search (IAR), Zaria; Federal Ministry of Agricul gramme of this administration. ture and Rural Development, Abuja and some I am pleased to learn that Sasakawa Global States Agricultural Development Projects with Ka 2000 has diversified its technology transfer drive duna inclusive. into other crops like Sesame, Soybeans, Rice, Considering the role played by Maize as a ma Cowpea, Cassava and Castor. This will also assist jor staple food and cash crop in this country in gen the boosting in production of these crops. eral and Kaduna State in particular, I must com I wish to call on the seed Companies, agro mend the Organisers for choosing Kaduna State to chemical Companies and fertilizer Companies who be the venue of the workshop. The choice of Ka are also participating in this workshop and who duna State to host this workshop as was done in also provide very important and critical inputs for previous years by no means an accident, consider maize production, to improve on the quality of ing the position it occupied in Maize production in their seeds and other imputes sold to farmer. Nigeria. With the theme of this Workshop “MAIZE The Kaduna State Agricultural Development FOR BETTER NUTRITION”, it is hoped that the Project (KADP) in conjunction with Sasakawa discussions will critically proffer solutions to all Global 2000 (SG2000) has continued to intensify the identified constraints facing Maize production efforts with farmers to expand the area under and utilization in this Country with the aim of get Maize cultivation and yield per unit area in the ting the best benefits from its cultivation. State. I will want to appeal to other indigenous public I have been adequately briefed on the very im spirited individuals and organizations that are en pressive achievements that have been recorded in dowed with resources to emulate the example of the State since the beginning of this our collabora Sasakawa Global 2000 and initiate similar pro tion with SG2000 in 1993; especially in terms of grammes with the aim of improving the standard of number of participating farmers, technology adop living of our rural people. tion, yield increases per farm size, provision of Mr. Chairman, distinguished guests, let me also logistics, in terms of various types of mobility and seize the opportunity to call on our farmers to learn training to the States’ indigenous extension staff from their colleagues that have participated in the and farmers. I have also been briefed that two of Sasakawa Global 2000 / KADP activities. It is our staff are among other Nigerians enjoying your through this that the benefits derived will diffuse to Special Scholarship Programme (SAFE all parts of the Country to ensure sustainability. Programme) to pursue MSc and PhD. Degrees at I wish you very useful deliberations. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Thank you.

*Executive GAovernor, Kaduna State, Nigeria. 2

ADDRESS BY THE HONOURABLE MINISTER OF AGRICULTURE Mallam Adamu Bello FCIB (Dan Iyan Adamawa)*

Your Excellency Alhaji Ahmed Mohammed Makarfi Executive Governor of Kaduna State,

Hon. Commissioner of Agriculture Kaduna State Engineer Bawa Magaji,

All Other Commissioners Present,

Permanent Secretary Kaduna State Ministry of Agriculture, Kaduna,

Professor Abdullahi Mahadi Vice Chancellor,, ABU, Zaria,

Director, Institute for Agricultural Research ABU, Zaria,

Chairman of Seminar Dr. Malami Buwai Former Minister of Agriculture,

Directors of Departments, Federal and States,

Distinguished Scientists from CIMMYT, Mexico, Zimbabwe, Ghana United Kingdom and IITA, Ibadan,

Our Esteemed Visitors from Sasakawa Global 2000,

Senior Officers, Sasakawa Nigeria Project, Members of the Press,

Ladies and Gentlemen,

I feel greatly honoured to be invited as a Makarfi and our Chief host, the Vice Chancel Special Guest of Honour at the formal open lor of Ahmadu Bello University, Professor ing of this Sasakawa Global 2000 National Abdullahi Mahadi, in welcoming our august Workshop on the theme “Maize for Better Nutrition” with emphasis on High Quality scientists from Mexico, United Kingdom and Protein Maize (QPM). subSahara African countries, that have been First of all, I will like to join Governor of invited to participate in this workshop. I have Kaduna State, Alhaji Ahmed Mohammed

been privileged to interact with some of you production and its nutritional qualities, par and the SG2000 Country Directors in the Sub ticularly the High Quality Protein content, Sahara Africa last Thursday, August 30th at which this workshop is focusing on. the just concluded Field Day Tour of Maize Distinguished scientists and our august MTP in some project sites in Kaduna and visitors, you may wish to recall that in the first Kano States. week of July this year, former President I will like to add that the theme for this Jimmy Carter of USA and his wife Roseline workshop is most appropriate, because as Carter visited the Sasakawa Global 200 plots most of you are aware, maize is one of the at Kaduna where they were very pleased and most important staple food crops in Nigeria. satisfied with what they saw on the field; well Over the years, Maize production has spread tendered plots of maize and soybeans by the from the forest zone in the Southern Nigeria Gonin Gora Women Cooperative Society. The to the savannah regions of central/northern couple interacted with the farmers and advised Nigeria. It occupied the unique position of the them to source Quality Protein Maize seeds, “hungry breaker” being the first crop to be at which will help improve the nutrition of their the disposal of consumers after the dry season. families, especially the children. In that condition, maize is mainly consumed Mr. Carter went further to advised the Vice fresh as “Corn on the corb”, boiled or roasted. President on the matter when my Ministry In human nutrition in Nigeria, Maize is was directed to source QPM seed in Ghana mainly processed into pap, dried and proc SG2000 project where QPM work is ad essed into flour pastes, mixed with legumes or vanced. We dispatched officers who reported fortified with other additives for rich baby of the wide adaptation of the crop and recom foods. In milled form, maize is used to pro mended the setting up of a Ministerial Com duce flour, bran, grit as well as starch. The mittee on QPM. grit is then used to produce breakfast cereals The Inter Ministerial Committee had been and baby foods. inaugurated, had several times met and made Maize is a most useful source of livestock recommendations to my Ministry for the coor feed. It is infact the pivot of the livestock feed dinated national programme for the imple industry. The poultry industry in the country mentation of the High Quality Protein Maize owes much of its past phenomenal growth to in Nigeria so as to enhance nutritional status maize. While the nutrient composition of of the people. To accelerate the implementa maize is said to be comparable to that sor tion of the programme, my Ministry has re ghum (Guinea corn) and millet, maize has the leased One Million Naira each to IAR & OAU added advantage of having ecological adapta Ibadan and IAR/ABU, zaria for the installa bility which makes it possible to produce it in tion of the Amino Acid Analyzer (AAA) al virtually all over Nigeria. Because of the ready supplied to them. I will like to add that above uses of maize, as a very important sta Ministry will give all the necessary logistic ple food and poultry feed in Nigeria, my Min and financial support to the Committee so as istry attaches great importance to boosting its to accelerate the introduction of the High

Quality Protein Maize seeds to the Nigerian five years, to enable all the states of the Fed Farmers. eration benefit from the project. The importance of the SG2000 Project to I am indeed, very delighted and the Coun our Nigerian Agricultural Development ef try is very grateful that the request for the ex forts, is in no doubt particularly in the boost tension of project life was granted when Mr. ing of Maize production. It is a joy to note Yohei Sasakawa, President of the NIPPON that the SG2000 Project in Nigeria, which foundation of Japan, which is a cosponsor of started with a handful of farmers in Kaduna SG2000 Agric. Project, visited Nigeria in and Kano at inception in 1992, has spread rap March last year to attend the SG2000 Wheat idly to the neighbouring states of Katsina, Ji Field Day in Kano and Jigawa States. I’ m gawa and Kebbi in the North West and to pleased to inform you that my Ministry is Bauchi and Gombe states in the North East. making necessary arrangements to collaborate Equally, I am informed that farmers have rap with Niger Republic to extend SG2000 Agric. idly embraced this Project strategy due to Project to that Country. spectacular success it has recorded during its Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen, in short life span since introduction. The crops conclusion, I am proud to be part of this semi grown also have broadened from the initial nar, which is aimed at the promotion of High two crops of Wheat and Maize to include Quality Protein Maize to improve the nutri Rice, Soybean, Cowpea, Cotton Beniseed and tional status of the Nation. With the presence Sorghum. Further, crop yields increased with of so many international acclaimed scientists consequent marked improvement in farmers at this workshop, there is no doubt in mind, income and well being. All these augur well that the outcome of this workshop will be of for the food security of this nation and im great benefit to Nigeria, particularly on the proved standard of living to our teaming farm implementation of the High Quality Protein ing families. Maize programme in the country. It is now The successful implementation of the my singular honour, pleasure and privilege to SG2000 programme in Nigeria on nationwide declare this workshop open and wish you basis will no doubt contribute significantly to fruitful deliberations. poverty alleviation. It is precisely for this rea Thank you for your attention and God son that my Ministry had to seek extension of bless. the SG2000 Agricultural Project for the next

KEYNOTE ADDRESS: HONOURABLE MINISTER OF STATE FOR AGRICULTURE & RURAL DEVELOPMENT, CHIEF CHRIS AGBOBU

Our Chief Host Professor Abdullahi Mahadi Vice Chancellor A.B.U. Zaria.

Mr. Chairman Eng. Bawa Magaji Hon. Commissioner of Agriculture Kaduna State

The Director Institute for agricultural Research (IAR) A.B.U. Zaria and All other Directors

Our Esteemed Visitor from (CIMMYT) Dr. Ernie Sprague Senior Consultant on Food Security

Senior Officers Sasakawa Nigeria Project

Distinguished Scientists

Ladies and Gentlemen.

I am greatly delighted to be with you this 2000 plots at Kaduna where they were very morning on the occasion of this important pleased and satisfied with what they saw on seminar on the promotion of Quality Protein the field; well tended plots of maize and soy Maize (QPM) in Nigeria. Perhaps it is in place to give a little back beans by the Gonin Gora Women Cooperative ground on this topic to show how greatly gov Society. The couple interacted with the farm ernment attaches importance to this subject. In ers and advised them to source seed of Quality the first week of July this year, former Presi Protein Maize, with the view to improving the dent Jimmy Cater of USA and his wife nutrition of their families, especially the chil Roseline Carter visited the Sasakawa Global dren

Mr. Carter went further to advise the ment in farmers income and well being. All Vice President on the matter. My ministry was these augur well for the food security of this directed to source QPM seeds from Ghana nation and improved standard of living to our SG2000 Project where QPM work is ad teaming farming families. vanced. We dispatched officers who reported Ladies and Gentlemen, it is my singular of the wide adaptation of the crop and recom honour and pleasure at this junction to extend mended the setting up of a Ministerial Com to Mr. President, Chief Olusegun Obasanjo mittee on QPM. This, we did and the inaugu our immeasurable gratitude, for his singular ral meeting of the committee was held in this efforts in introducing the Sasakawa Global very hall on Wednesday 30th August, 2000 2000 (SG2000) Project to Nigeria, having vis and Chaired by today’s plenary session Chair ited on the invitation friend; former President man, Mr. O.A. Edache, Federal Director of Jimmy Cater to see what wonders the Project Agriculture, here with us in person. had done elsewhere in Africa and Asia. Ladies and Gentlemen. It is with the This address will not be complete with above background in mind that I gladly ac out touching on few areas of significance to cepted the invitation to come and deliver my my Ministry. As you know, Agriculture and opening address to this seminar, which is of Agricultural development are complex sub such importance and significance to the work jects with multifarious interrelated issues cut of my Ministry and indeed the food security ting across many disciplines; it is then outside of the nation. the scope of the address to cover issues here. I The importance of the SG2000 Project to will however, attend to the following few top the Nigeria Agricultural Development efforts ics: is immense. It is a joy to note that the SG2000 Agricultural Research : My Ministry Project in Nigeria, which started with a hand oversees the 18 Agricultural Research Insti ful of farmers in Kaduna and Kano at incep tutes in the country and their affiliated Train tion in 1992 has spread rapidly to the ing Colleges. Research is the cutting edge for neighbouring states of Katsina, Jigawa and development whether in Agriculture or Indus Kebbi in the North West and to Bauchi and try; in public as well as in private develop Gombe States in the North East. Equally, I am ment. All advances in Science and Corporate informed that farmers have rapidly embraced technology and new products are achieved this Project’s strategy due to spectacular suc through research and development. In the cess it has recorded during its short life span field of Agriculture, all the wonders of the since introduction. The crops grown also have High Yielding Varieties (HYV) of the 1970;s broadened from the initial two crops of Wheat which have brought about the Green Revolu and Maize to include Rice, Soybean, Cowpea, tion in Asia are the products of research by Cotton, Beniseed and Sorghum. In addition dedicated Scientists such as Noble Laureate crop yield at farmer’s levels have doubled and Dr. Norman Bourlug, who we had the pleas in some cases nearly trebled the national aver ure of having to grace our maize workshop in age yields with consequent marked improve this very venue last year. In this regard, Gov

ernment expects a lot from our research insti tion of new technology, Government assists tutes facing the challenges of improving the with subsidy and even assumes full responsi farmers’ productivity, through crop improve bility of supply. However, when the technol ment and new production and processing tech ogy is widely accepted and a ready market nology development. As regards the Quality avails for it, then the private sector is expected Protein Maize itself, I am made to understand to come in and play its commercial roles. This that quality protein maize obtains in the coun is what obtains in most developed agriculture, try and all that needs to be done is to analyse where the initial promotional role of Govern them for the qualities of the requisite Amino ment has given way to private sector involve Acid (Lysine and tryptohan). The Ministry ment in the fields of inputs supply, farm had already procured the analysers and allo mechanization and even in aerial sprays for cated them to some research institutes, which pest control. Here in Nigeria, we have giant need to install and operate them. commercial firms (UTC, UAC, the Lever Farmers Organization: Organization is a Brothers just to mention a few), which have key to any achievement at whatever level. The distribution outlets and warehouse facilities at collective strength of our individual small the ports; who have the capacity and capabili scale farmers must be harnessed through vi ties to import, warehouse, distribute and sell able Cooperatives. agricultural inputs just as any commodity as table salts or detergents. I am appealing Farmer operation expenses such as pro strongly on behalf of government to our nu curement of inputs (seeds, fertilizers, agro merous firms to take the plunge and get in chemicals, insecticides and herbicides) and volved in large scale Agricultural input Sup farm power (tractors) increasingly getting out ply. The market exists and Government is of the reach of the individual small scale willing to assist. farmers. On the part of the Government, my Distinguished Ladies and Gentlemen, in Ministry oversees the newly created Nigerian conclusion, I am proud to be part of your Agricultural & Rural Development Bank, seminar, which aims at promotion of one of which is funded to the tune of N1 billion to most promising vistas of improving the nutri assist farmers in their operations. This clearly tional status of the nation: the promotion of demonstrates on the part of the government, Quality Protein Maize (QPM). Amongst you the political will and commitment to our farm are eminent scientists who had dedicated their ers, who now need to organise themselves to lives for such pursuit, who would undoubtedly make use of this government measures. guide your deliberations. Private Sector Involvement in Agricul It is now my singular honour, pleasure tural Supply: and privilege to declare this seminar open and Agricultural input supply, as with any wish you God’s guidance for fruitful delibera economic commodity, is by nature, a commer tions. cial and private sector activity. For the pur Thank you for your attention and God pose of effective extension and the introduc bless.

MAIZE NO-TILLAGE SYSTEMS FOR REDUCED LABOUR REQUIRE- MENTS, IMPROVED SOIL CONDITIONS AND PRODUCTIVITY. J.B.R. Findlay*

ABSRACT trol weeds. This concept of bare soil technol For two to three thousand years, crop pro ogy by manual and mechanical means has duction has been based on soil inversion and resulted in a gradual deterioration of soil cultivation to prepare a seedbed and to control structure resulting in a pulverised soil which weeds. This has led to a deterioration of soil is prone to erosion, has depleted nutrient lev structure and a depletion of soil nutrients re els and often has a compaction layer on and sulting in poor yields and soil erosion. The below the soil surface which restricts water concept of notillage for crop production is penetration into the soil profile as well as lim based on maintaining organic matter in and on iting the growth of the crop root system. In the the soil surface to improve the soil texture for rural communities of Africa, there is often a a seedbed and using herbicides for weed con shortage of mechanical or animal traction and trol. many hours of hand labour are spent in clear Reduced and notillage systems have been ing land and preparing it for planting crops, widely adopted by largescale commercial which are grown primarily for survival with farmers in many areas of the world, which has the production of a surplus as a secondary resulted in improved soil and moisture condi consideration. tions, more reliable yields and improved prof The concept of reduced and no tillage sys itability. This technology has been introduced tems is based on building up the organic mat to smallscale rural farmers in Ethiopia, ter layer on the soil surface with crop and Ghana, Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, South other organic residues to form a mulch as well Africa, Tanzania, Uganda and Zimbabwe in a as to keep the crop root and stalks intact in the cooperative partnership between Sasakawa soil. The only cultivation done is a rip to Global 2000, Monsanto Company, govern break up any compaction layers present in the ment research and extension services and agri soil profile. There is absolutely no soil inver cultural input suppliers. sion, which can destroy the soil structure. The Results achieved by farmers participating mulch on the soil surface allows for rain pene in these programmes are very encouraging in tration into the soil without the possibility of that time is saved and utilised more effec soil surface compaction and crusting, it pre tively, land preparation is easier, moisture vents moisture evaporation from the soil, it utilisation is more efficient, crop production acts as a barrier to prevent physical erosion of risk is reduced, yields are improved and prof soil by wind and water and it contributes to itability is greatly improved. the improvement of the soil structure. The crop stalks and roots in the soil profile dete INTRODUCTION riorate and decompose, adding organic matter Historical crop production systems have to the soil. The root canals allow for the aera relied on the cultivation and inversion of the tion of the soil, but also create a system top soil layer to prepare a seedbed and to con whereby water can rapidly enter the soil and

be stored and also allow for the penetration of farmers. This has been a partnership between fertiliser to become distributed through the soil Monsanto Company, Sasakawa Global 2000, profile. The delicate roots of a new crop can government research and extension services penetrate this soil considerably easier than in a and agricultural input suppliers. With the skills soil that has been pulverised and compacted as and resources required, no single organisation in conventional tillage. The concept is to turn can successfully introduce new technology to crop production soils into compost on a scale smallscale rural farmers. that is considerably larger than the common Considering that only 11% or 1500 million home garden vegetable growing patch and the ha of the world’s soil conditions are suitable target is to get earthworms present in these for crop production (6% is permafrost, 10% is largescale crop production lands. too wet, 22% is too shallow, 23% has chemical A major issue with this crop production sys problems and 28% is too dry), there is an ur tem is that a suitable environment is developed gency for crop production to increase and be for crop production but weeds are often the come more efficient. Africa feeds 2.5 people first to benefit from it. It is essential that an per cultivated ha, South Asia feeds 9.5 and the effective weed control programme based on USA feeds close to 11 people per cultivated ha herbicides and all other weed control tech (FAO). Clearly, the majority of the farming niques be implemented. Apart from herbicides, practices of Africa need to change and govern the mulch will suppress weed development, ments need to regard this as a priority. correct plant spacing will give a canopy that will shade out the weeds, the prevention of Materials and Methods weeds being able to flower and produce seed The introduction of notill systems is based will reduce future weed pressure and regular on the training of field extension officers (EOs) hand pulling or hoeing of weed escapes will all and some of the progressive farmers in their contribute to a reduction of weed pressure over area of responsibility and getting them to do a time. Weed control must be seen as a twelve demonstration plot on each of the participating month a year activity. Even during fallow peri farmer’s land together. In the first year of intro ods, weeds must not be allowed to develop and duction, each EO should have between five and exhaust the soil reservoir of moisture and nutri ten cooperating farmers, each with a notill ents. Weeds on headlands must also be pre demonstration plot to compare with their nor vented from flowering and seeding. mal production method in an adjacent field. In many areas of Africa this technology has These plots should preferably be within walk not been made available to rural communities ing distance of each other to allow farmers to for various reasons. The normal smallholder visit and discuss each other’s results. There is practice is based on a fallow rotation and ‘slash an adjustment period for farmers and some and burn’ technology. Programmes have been EOs to accept a notill concept, which is con launched to make these smallscale farmers siderably different from the ploughing and soil aware of notill technology, which is widely inversion that has been promoted for many implemented by many largescale commercial years. Due to this, it is advisable to support the

10 notill introductory group for two or three years lent of up to 100 days labour to produce maize to ensure the concept is being practiced cor on one ha. This is very variable due to the rectly and to encourage commercial adoption. types and densities of weeds and shrubs pre The recommendation is for each demon sent. When a preplant Roundup spray is used stration plot to be 1,000 square metres (0.1ha) to control the existing vegetation and using a as this is an easy size to manage and calibration notill system, one person can produce maize of seed, fertiliser and pesticide applications is on one ha in approximately 15 to 20 days (Soza simple. For the first two years and possibly a et al, 1996). The total time spent in mixing and third, inputs for the establishment of a maize spraying each herbicide treatment is approxi crop are donated to the farmer. This is nor mately 5 hours per ha, which accounts for 10 mally 2.5kg certified seed, 10.0kg of a NPK hours labour if a preplant Roundup application fertiliser to be applied at planting and 10.0kg is made followed by a residual herbicide at urea /ha to be applied as a topdressing, 300 – planting. The planting, fertilising, weeding and 500ml of Roundup® foliar herbicide (contains harvesting account for the remaining time. 360g glyphosate /l, SL) for a preplant treat Weeding in conventionally tilled lands is the ment and Lasso®+Atrazine residual preemerge major portion of labour required and often ex herbicide (contains 350g alachlor and 200g ceeds 60 days per ha for a good crop to be pro atrazine /l, SC) for a postplant preemerge duced. These data collected during the pro treatment. In the initial stages, the EO and gramme in Ghana confirms the findings of farmer establish and manage the demonstration Soza et al (1996). plot together as it is a practical learning process By using the concept of a notill system, a for both. Keeping weeds under control is a ma farmer can produce on 5 to 6 ha where only jor activity. one ha could be prepared and planted under the It is important that each plot has a data sheet traditional manual systems. for recording all relevant information and that Weeding labour requirements in the crop it is completed in detail as each and every ac were reduced to 10 days/ha with the use of re tivity on the plot takes place. This is vital infor sidual herbicides in a notill system compared mation to enable decisions to be made as to to the traditional crop production reliance on how to increase yields and whether all the rec hand weeding only from up to 60 days. In Af ommendations are valid. rica, land preparation and weeding is done At the end of the season, it is important that mostly by women and this time saving by us the yield is measured. All the collected data are ing notill allows more time for other activities. analysed, the cost of production is calculated In Zimbabwe, the Agricultural Research and the profitability is then determined. Trust farm near Harare reduced labour require ments by 46% when notill was introduced. RESULTS Over a 10year period, labour requirements

were reduced from 35 days/ha to 19 days/ha Time Saving (Winkfield, 1995). When fallow land is hand cleared and pre pared for planting, as is done in most rural Af rican areas, it will take one person the equiva

Cost of Labour 30000 per ha. High weed pressure will neces With more young people attending school sitate an increase in labour costs. In some areas and adult females entering alternative income such as northern Ghana and Tanzania, use is generating activities, available manual labour in made of mechanisation for land preparation, the majority of African rural areas is becoming which results in an additional cost of approxi more expensive with fewer people prepared to mately US $ 3000 to 4500 per ha. do this type of work. The farmers welcome the The promotion of notill maize based on introduction of technology, which can alleviate herbicide use also includes the use of certified this problem. seed and fertiliser. This generally increases in In Ethiopia, the cost of labour for weeding is put costs by US $ 2000 to 5000 per ha but this US $ 125 to 250 per day. In Ghana this is is very variable due to labour required for higher at US $ 200 – 400 and in South Africa weeding. On average, the cost of maize notill it can be as high as US $ 500 a day. production will range between US $ 7000 and Farmers are looking for ways to reduce crop 20000 per ha. production costs and replacing hand weeding In northern Ghana, the 1999 notill demon with herbicides is a very viable option. stration programme of the University of Devel opment Studies suffered from severe drought Cost of Production (See * in Table 1). The average profit for 70 Generally, the cost of land preparation, farmers was $ 2181 but there were 25 notill planting, weeding and harvesting a maize crop plots that made an average loss of $ 6582/ha grown with manual labour in the rural African and 31 conventional plots that gave an average communities is in the region of US $ 5500 to loss of $ 3706/ha.

Table 1. Examples of the cost and profit of maize production under conventional and no-till systems. (PP= Preplant herbicide; P+Pre= preplant + residual herbicide)

Location/Year/System Yield (t/ha) Cost ($/ha) Profit ($/ha) %

Ethiopia, 1998 East Wolega (20 plots) Conventional 4.20 8367 35548 100 NoTill (P+Pre) 4.96 15686 36176 102 West Shoa (15 plots) Conventional 3.91 8300 32583 100 NoTill (P+Pre) 5.54 15686 42240 130

Ethiopia, 1999 (302 plots) Conventional 4.27 18771 30637 100 NoTill (P+Pre) 4.85 18230 39494 129

Ghana, 1997 (225 plots) Slash & Burn 2.5 6667 21111 100 NoTill (PP) 4.9 8311 46111 218 NoTill (P+Pre) 5.4 8444 51555 244

Ghana, CRI, 1999 (34 plots) Slash & Burn 2.81 5357 22722 100 NoTill (P+Pre) 4.97 7000 42670 188

Maize Yields have been fallow can be brought into regular The notill maize programme has resulted production. Apart from increased yields per in increased yields due to the combination of surface area, a larger area can be used for pro certified seed (usually with over a 90% germi duction. nation), high yielding hybrids and quality pro In Table 2, the comparison between the tein maize (QPM), NPK fertiliser and good maize yield from notill plots and the conven weed control with herbicides. However, once tional farmers practice is given as well as the farmers have been introduced to these tech profitability (gross income minus the cost of nologies, they adopt some or all of them to a production per ha) of the crop. The number of greater or lesser extent and this results in an farmer plots that were monitored is also given. increase in production. In Kenya there are data from the short rainfall Notill crop production is not aimed at pro season (s) and the long rainfall season (l) ducing record yields but rather at getting sta which also illustrate the effect of severe ble yields and improving productivity and drought. profits. Due to time saving, land that would

Table 2. The average maize yield (t/ha) and the profit (US $/ha) under no-till and conventional till systems.

Country & Year No. NoTill Conventional Plots Yield (t/ha) Profit ($/ha) Yield (t/ha) Profit ($/ha)

Kenya 1999 (s) 80 0.9 9640 (+228%) 0 (75+) 2000 (l) 250 0.9 9640 (+383%) 0.1 (34+) 2000 (s) 250 4.9 85800 (+204%) 3.1 41900

Tanzania 1994 14 4.5 4.0 1995 22 5.0 4.2 1996 15 4.7 45250*(+33.1%) 4.3 34020* 1997 23 4.6 43200 (+25.8%) 4.2 34350 1998 125 4.4 44500 (+10.5%) 3.8 40280 1999 67 6.1 59517 (+92.0%) 3.9 30991 2000 15 3.5 33419 (+50.6%) 2.9 22188 [* average of 1994, 1995 and 1996 seasons]

Ethiopia 1999 302 4.9 39494 (+29.0%) 4.3 30637 1998 2000 701 4.2 3.8

Uganda 2000 735 5.0 21400 (+38%) 4.6 15400

Source: Findlay et al, 2001; Gebre et al, 2001.

In South Africa, a rural notill project in a better understanding of fertiliser require KwaZuluNatal was initiated in 1998 with 140 ments develops, notill crops will become demonstration plots and this increased to 300 even more profitable. in 1999 and over 720 in 2000. The average Farmers must be prepared to establish their maize yield under the traditional cultivation own markets. In Ghana, farmers that were practice is up to 1.0 t/ha, whereas the notill previously considered as maize farmers have averages range between 2.3 and 7.7 t/ha with put all their grain into poultry production and a maximum of 13.4 t/ha (Berry et al, 2001). become major exporters of poultry. Other A similar project was initiated at Mlon Ghanaian farmers have concentrated on the dozi, Mpumalanga, South Africa, in 1999 production of green maize for fresh human with 17 notill maize plots giving an average consumption and developed a new market. yield of 2.9 t/ha compared to 1.3 t/ha for the Seed production is another option. The pro conventional method (Berry et al, 2001). duction of sweet corn is almost unknown in When converting land from conventional rural African communities and this can be a to notill, certain benefits are immediately very viable product for export. By following apparent but it takes at least 3 years for the this route, maize production can be more prof soils to start improving and give consistently itable than just producing grain. reliable yields. Much of these data are from first year notill plots and a considerable im Fertilization provement can be expected when the system The vast majority of cultivated soils in Af has been practiced for a number of years. rica are nutrient deficient due to a lack of fer tiliser use and the continual burning of all or Profitability ganic matter every year, which prevents a Apart from increasing maize yields, the no build up of soil structure. There is also a lack till system must be profitable for the farmers. of information and soil analytical support fa It is important that a financial analysis is done cilities. More often than not, it is due to the on all demonstration plots. Apart from the nonavailability of any form of fertiliser and food security aspect of improving agricultural the expenses involved in getting it to the farm production, it is also very important to create ing areas that limit the use of this commodity. wealth in the rural communities of Africa. The In Ethiopia, there is decided lack of nitro major and quickest way to create this wealth gen in the soils and recommendations were is through farming and governments have a inclined to be conservative. A trial conducted responsibility to support their farmers by pay at the Bako Research Station indicated that ing a fair price for the produce and encourag there was a positive response to fertiliser lev ing local production. els (See Table 3.). From Tables 1 and 2, it can be seen that the The maize fertiliser recommendations in notill maize production system being pro KwaZuluNatal are between 100 and 200 kg moted does give a significant increase in prof N /ha with an average of 140 kg/ha with 60 kg itability. As better cultivars are introduced and P /ha and 40 to 115 kg K /ha. (Farina et al,

Table 3. Maize yield response to recommended fertilizer levels at Bako Research Station, Ethiopia.

Fertilizer Rate 25% Recommended + 25%

NoTill 6.83 t/ha 7.86 t/ha 8.11 t/ha

Conventional 6.06 6.92 7.28

1993). yields. Ploughing and planting 18 days after In Zambia, the standard fertiliser recom the first planting rains will give a 25% yield mendation for notill maize is 200 kg of N /ha loss and the crop will grow without 30% of or 200 kg urea /ha at planting followed by 100 the average rainfall (Aagaard, 1997). When kg urea /ha as a topdressing at the 6 to 8 leaf well established, notill will allow for better stage of the crop (Aagaard, 1997). It is advis timing of planting as well as better planting able to put on high rates of fertiliser in the conditions. first few years of converting to a notill sys tem in order to build up the nutrient levels in Disease Incidence the soil. The organic matter on the soil surface At certain times there is a suspicion that the will help prevent the degradation of nutrients. incidence of maize diseases increase when no Timing of Planning till is adopted. Over a thirteenyear period, ear The advantage of notill crop production is or cob rot (Stenocarpella spp.) was monitored that over a number of years, soil moisture will on conventionally tilled lands and on notill build up and allow for earlier planting, which lands with no significant differences being enables farmers to plant long growing season recorded at an average infestation of 15.8% and high yielding cultivars. Under notill con for notill and 15.2% for conventional tillage. ditions, the plant available moisture was an Similarly grey leaf spot (Cercospora zeae- average of 27% higher than under conven maydis) (GLS) was monitored and there was tional tillage conditions (Berry et al, 1987), no difference between tillage practices which contributes to earlier planting. (Lawrence et al, 1999). However, notill does result in cooler soil In order to reduce or eliminate disease inci conditions when compared to conventional dence in maize, it is recommended to utilise a bare soil tillage. The average soil temperature multifacet system incorporating crop rota in notill plantings was 19.6 ºC and 20.5 ºC tion, disease resistant or tolerant cultivars and for conventional tillage and this resulted in the fungicide sprays. Notill systems enhance time to 50% emergence being extended from crop vigour and improve the chances of sur 11 days to 13 days in notill (Berry et al, vival. Low plant densities result in high GLS 1987). infections. The GLS spore infection is gener By conserving soil moisture using notill, ally from crop residues and wind blown from farmers will be able to plant during the opti other fields. Burning and / or ploughing crop mum period. Farmers who wait for rains to residues into the soil do not reduce GLS infec plough will always plant late and get low tion.

CONCLUSION Farina M P W, Manson A D and Johnson M A. 1993. Maize in KwaZuluNatal – Fertil By converting maize production from con iser guidelines. Natal Maize 6. Departmental ventional tillage or ‘slash & burn’ to no brochure. tillage, small scale farmers can benefit by sav ing time, increasing the area under production, Findlay J B R, Modestus K W, Lawrence- Brown D, Miheso V and Matovu S. 2001. increasing yields and producing a more profit The introduction of conservation tillage prac able crop. There are numerous associated tices to smallscale farmers in Kenya, Tanza benefits such as better moisture utilisation, the nia and Uganda. (In press) Paper to be pre st prevention of soil erosion, improved soil sented at the 1 World Congress on Conserva tion Agriculture, Madrid, Spain. October structure and less labour requirements. Other 2001. crops such as soybeans, dry beans, cotton, Food and Agriculture Organisation of the sunflower and transplanted crops such as pep United Nations. Protect and produce – put pers, tomatoes, vegetables and tobacco can ting the pieces together. An undated FAO publication. also be planted using the notill system.

The technology required is relatively simple Gebre T, Retu B, Bekele K, Dubale P and but the supply of the necessary inputs is es Findlay J B R. 2001. The introduction of sential and there is a cost associated with it. conservation tillage systems to small scale farmers in Ethiopia. (In press) Paper to be pre However, the increased profitability or eco sented at the 1st World Congress on Conserva nomic benefit is well above the investment tion Agriculture, Madrid, Spain. October cost by uplifting maize production from a sur 2001. vival or food security issue to one where there Lawrence K F, Prinsloo M A and Berry W is a surplus and additional income generated, A J. 1999. Long and short term effects of till and wealth created within the rural communi age systems on grain yield, the incidence of ties. diseases and production costs for maize. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 16 (2), pp 85 – 91. REFERENCES

Soza R F, Adu-Tutu K O, Boa-Amponsem Aagaard P J. 1997. Conservation farming K, Lampoh E K and Haag W L. 1996, re handbook for small holders in region I & II. vised edition. Soil conservation through no Published by the Zambia National Farmer’s tillage in Ghana. Paper presented at the 1994 Union, Lusaka, Zambia. annual meeting of the American Society of

Agronomy, Seattle, Washington, USA, 13 – Berry W A J, Mallet J B and Greenfield P 18 November L. 1987. Water storage, soil temperatures and 1994. maize (Zea mays L.) growth for various tillage practices. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 4 (1), pp 26 – 30. Winkfield R. 1995. Conservation Farming. An unpublished paper presented at the Tinto Berry W A J, Birch E B, Janse van Rens- Expo 95 congress at Harare, Zimbabwe. burg J, Fowler R M and Findlay J B R. 2001. A case study of conservation and no tillage technology transfer – KwaZuluNatal, South Africa. (In press) Paper to be presented at the 1st World Congress on Conservation Agriculture, Madrid, Spain. October 2001. 16

BALANCED NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT FOR INTENSIFIED MAIZE- BASED SYSTEMS IN THE NORTHERN GUINEA SAVANNA OF WEST AFRICA. A.Y. Kamara and N. Sanginga*

INTRODUCTION anced nutrient management systems and thus the In the past two decades, maize has spread natural resource base of the soil is being continu rapidly into the savannas, replacing traditional ously degraded. Soil fertility decline and particu cereal crops like sorghum and millet; particularly larly nutrient mining are widespread in sub in areas with good access to fertilizer inputs and Saharan Africa, especially as agricultural popu markets (CIMMYT, 1990). Maize production lations increase. In consequence crop yields are has expanded dramatically in the NGS of West falling to very low levels and poverty amongst Africa where it has replaced traditional cereals agricultural communities is widespread. Declin and serves as both a food and a cash crop. In ing yields, as a result of continuous cropping on West Africa, Manyong et al., (1996) assessed exhausted soils, are seen to be a threat to food maize to be present as one of the five main crops and livelihood security across the West African of the farming systems in 124. 7 million ha. or Savanna. For example, the reduction of fallow 72% of the study area. The NGS alone took from 6 to 2 years has resulted in yield declines 1 1 about 92% of total area grown to maize. Maize is from 3 t ha to about 0.7 t ha for maize in cer also widely believed to have the greatest poten tain areas such as the derived savanna of Benin tial among food crops for attaining the techno (Houngnandan, 2000). logical breakthroughs that will improve food Nutrient requirements of Maize production in the region. One important characteristic of maize is its Marketdriven systems are characteristic of a high and relatively rapid nutrient requirement. substantial part of the maize area in the sub The soils for example, must supply about 50 1 humid zones (3643%) with the characteristic 60kg N (usually nitrate) and 30 kg P ha in plant land use intensification (Mayong et. al, 1996). In available forms for each ton of grain produced Nigeria, for example, almost in everywhere, (Weber, 1996). Maize grain generally contains maize production has entered the intensification up to 2% N; that is, 100 kg of harvested grain phase. However, continuous cultivation of the contains 2 kg N (Carsky and Ewuafor, 1997). moist savannah zone with inadequate use of nu Total exports are 2.6 kg N per 100 kg of grain trient inputs in Nigeria has recently become a produced if aboveground residues are removed common practice as a result of a combination of (Cretenet et al., 1994). Data by Violic (2000) rapidly expanding population and increasing ur show how quickly soil N can be depleted by ban market demand. This appears to be a micro maize (table 1) especially when yields are high cosm of what the future seems to hold for the and stover is exported. Even when yields are low entire moist savannah zone in West Africa. This on farmers' fields, soil nutrients are being mined has however, occurred without the use of bal beyond the power of the soil to replenish them.

Table 1 Nutrients removed from the soil by maize plant at different yield levels (Violic 2000

Part Yield (t ha1) Nutrient (kgha1) N P K Grain 1.0 25 6 15 Stover 1.5 15 3 18 TOTAL 2.5 40 9 33 Grain 4.0 63 12 30 Stover 4.0 37 6 38 TOTAL 8.0 100 18 68 Grain 7.0 128 20 37 Stover 7.0 72 14 93 TOTAL 14.0 200 34 130

Nitrogen is the most limiting nutrient in Manyong et al., (2000) for example, found the maize production in the humid and subhumid use of chemical fertilizers to be widespread in tropics (Heuberger, 1998). Van der Pol (1991) some farming communities in the NGS of Ni estimated that average depletion of soil N by geria. In the study of two villages in the NGS maize in south Mali was approximately 25 kg of Nigeria, they found between 95100% of ha1. In contrast, phosphorus inputs and out farmers using fertilizers on their farms (Table puts were more or less in balance, thereby 2). They attributed this widespread use of fer justifying an emphasis on nitrogen supply for tilizers to past agricultural policies where gov maize. ernment had played a major role in the popu In pursuance of the first paradigm of soil larity of chemical fertilizers. Fertilizer subsi fertility management which is to overcome dies (usually above 80%), good extension ser soil constraints to fit plant requirements vices, and the release of responsive and high through purchased inputs (Sanchez, 1994), yielding varieties promoted the utilization of chemical fertilizer use was widespread in the chemical fertilizers (Smith et. al, 1997). early 1970s for some crops in some countries.

Table 2 Dynamics in maize and fertilizer adoption in northern Nigeria (Smith et al.,

1970 1989 Maize as major food crop 33 96 Maize as major cash crop 0 70 Fertiliser introduced 33 100 Fertiliser Adopted low 81

Several studies have highlighted the opti northern and southern Guinea savannas. mum levels of nutrient required for profit Similar response was recorded by Chude et able maize production in Nigeria. al., (1994) and Ajala et al, 2000 (Table 3) in Balasubramanian et al., (1978) conducted a the same zone. In addition to fertilizer rates, series of response trials leading to a recom management is also an important factor in mendation of 100 to 120 kg N ha1 in the ensuring its efficient use.

Table 3 Weighted average grain yield of hybrids and openpollinated varieties in several trials involving three rates of N application (Ajala et. al., 2000).

Rate of N appli Hybrids OP varieties Yield difference Standard error cation 120 kg/ha 4717 4083 634 135 60 kg/ha 4386 3028 1368 192 0 kg/ha 1813 1239 579 278

Splits application of N fertilizers to maize factors affecting the use of inorganic fertiliz is usually recommended 1) if the N rate is ers. Even if cheap fertilizers were to be widely high, 2) the maize is a latematuring type or 3) available, their longterm heavy use will also leaching is likely because of sandy soils or aggravate the acidifying effects of these fertil high rainfall before maximum uptake rate by izers. Ammonium sulfate for example acidi maize can occur. Where split application is fies the soil faster than other sources of N. It recommended, the smaller part is applied is well established that 1 kg of nitrate requires around planting time and the larger part at 46 1.75 kg of calcium carbonate for neutraliza weeks after planting when maize is growing tion (Landon, 1991). However, lime is more quickly. inaccessible than nitrogen fertilizer in West and Central Africa. Problems associated with the use of mineral fertilizers in maize Organic sources of N for maize With the removal of subsidies and govern Because of the physicochemical nature of ment withdrawal from the distribution sys savanna soils and the relatively high cost of in tems in the mid 1980s, (Kwanashie et. al., organic fertilizers, another second paradigm 1997), coupled with the environmental degra (Sanchez, 1994), was enuciated: “overcome soil dation associated with continuous use of inor constraints by relying more on biological proc ganic nutrients, fertilizer use dropped substan esses by adapting germplasm to adverse soil tially. Average rates of fertilizer use in Nige conditions, enhancing soil biological activity ria are about 12 kg nutrients/ha of arable land and optimizing nutrient cycling to minimize and figures for other West African countries external inputs and maximise the efficiency of are lower (FAO, 1992). In addition to high their use” The problem facing farmers is that cost, poor transportation and marketing infra their soils cannot supply the quantities of N re structure have often made fertilizer unavail quired and levels of N decline rapidly once able to the farmers. Manyong et al., (2000) cropping commences. Depletion of organic mat found that irrespective of the popularity of ter is approximately 4% per year, resulting in fertilizer use in the NGS, 80% of the fields dangerously low organic carbon levels after 15 surveyed in two villages in the NGS received to 20 years of cultivation (Sanginga et al., 2001). less than half of the 120 kg N/ha recom At levels below 0.5% carbon, the soil supplies mended for cereals in the study area. Thus less than 50 kg N ha1 and this sufficient for only fertilizer availability and cost are important

about 1 t ha1 of maize grain at normal levels of grain legumes represents the single great oppor N use efficiency (Carsky and Iwuafor, 1999). In tunity in the integration of legumes in the cereal most cases, prevailing levels of soil organic car production systems in the Guinea savannas of bon are below 0.5% thereby making it urgent to West Africa. The adoption of new genotypes of incorporate sources of organic carbon. Of the grain legumes by farmers is usually very high plant nutrients, N is unique in that supply and compared to the introduction of herbaceous and replenishment of soil capital need not entail the woody legumes because no additional cost is direct application of external inputs, but rather involved and existing cropping systems are not atmospheric reserves may be exploited through affected. Amongst the grain legumes used in the biological nitrogen fixation (BNF). N can also West African region, cowpea and groundnut are be supplied to field crops through use of animal predominant and a lot of work has been pub manure. lished on their importance and contribution in Biological Nitrogen Fixation (BNF) may be diverse cropping systems (Weber, 1996). Esti exploited through the cultivation of legumes and mates of the benefits of cowpea to soil N supply other symbiotic plants. The nodulated roots and are 80 kg ha1 when residues from two succes aboveground crop residues, left after the seeds sive cowpea crops are left in the field (Horst and and other components crops have been har Hardter, 1994) and 60 kg ha1 when residues vested, represent valuable sources of N for the from one cowpea crop were incorporated into replenishment of soil organic Nitrogen. Many the soil (Dakora et al., 1987). Soybean may con ways to increase N supply by judicious use of N tribute to the N needs of maize in West Africa. fixing plants have been tried in West African The production and utilization of soybean has farming systems. These include their inclusion expanded approximately tenfold in Nigeria in the cropping system, their use in mixed crop over the past 10 to 15 years (Sanginga 1998). It ping, as green manure, as cover crops, in agro has risen as minor crop (2%) in 1986 to 25% of forestry, etc. The increased use of legumes of all crops grown in Kaya village in the northern fers the potential for a significant decrease in the Guinea savanna. Now it is the second most im need for fertilizer N and is therefore a key com portant crop after maize. The contribution of N ponent of sustainable agricultural systems. How by soybean to the cropping systems depends on ever, some of the technologies involving herba the maturity group (Table 4). Generally late ma ceous and woody legumes have not been readily turing cultivars with low Harvest Index contrib adopted by farmers because of lack of direct ute more N to the soil than the early maturing benefits as perceived by farmers. The use of cultivars.

Table 4. Effect of previous crop on total soil N (g kg1) before maize planting in 1994 at 10 locations in the northern (15) and southern (610) Guinea savanna of Nigeria (Carsky et al., 1997).

Previous crop Location Maize Early soybean Medium soybean 1 0.60 0.60 0.63 2 0.63 0.70 0.76 3 0.52 0.59 0.58 4 0.54 0.66 0.58 5 0.41 0.45 0.45 NGS mean 0.54 0.60 0.60

6 0.65 0.71 0.67 7 0.55 0.55 0.57 8 0.67 0.64 0.73 9 0.50 0.52 0.53 10 0.72 0.70 0.77 SGS 0.62 0.62 0.65

Combined mean 0.578a 0.613ab 0.627b

SE (Previous crop main effect) 0.010

Previous crop combined means in a row followed by the same letter are not significantly different at P<0.05.

Use of N-Efficient maize varieties to produce appreciable yields. Also they will One other approach to reducing the impact of benefit more from N released from preceding N deficiency on maize productions, may be to legumes in a cropping cycle. Progress has been select cultivars which are superior in the utiliza made at IITA in the development of Nefficient tion of available N, either due to enhanced up maize cultivars and efforts are still being made take capacity or because of more efficient use of to further improve these cultivars. A maize hy absorbed N in grain production (Laffitte and brid Oba Super II has been shown to yield con Edmeades, 1994). There are variations among sistently over 3 t ha1 at 30 kg N ha1. Also maize maize cultivars in the uptake and mobilization breeding lines LowPool C1, C2 and C3 have of N from leaves and stems to grains as shown given consistently high yield at 30 kg N ha1 by Akintoye et. al., 1999) (Table 5). Cultivars (Fig 1.). However, the full potential of these have been identified that are less responsive to varieties can only be attained at this N level by applied N and these sometimes perform better at integrating these varieties in the legumecereal low N than do Nresponsive hybrids or cultivars. production systems in the northern Guinea sa It is expected that varieties with high N vanna. efficiency will require less inorganic N in order

Table 5. Nuse, Nuptake and Nutilisation efficiency of single, doublecross and a synthetic variety of maize evaluated in three locations and four Nrates. Akintoye et al., (1999).

Genotype Nuse Nuptake Nutilization Efficiency

G grain/g Nf* G Nt/g Mf g grain/g Nt

Single crossesSingle crosses 35.4 1.16 31.0 1368x5012(1) 38.6 1.28 31.5 1368x9071(2) 39.6 1.35 30.8 1368xKU1414SR(3) 35.3 1.11 31.0 5012x9071(4) 37.3 1.17 32.8 5012xKU1414SR(5) 36.9 1.16 31.1 9071xKU1414SR(6) Double crossesDouble 39.8 1.24 31.7 crosses 36.9 1.22 30.9 1x6 38.6 1.28 30.8 2x5 30.4 1.06 27.8 3x4 0.8 0.02 0.4 SyntheticSynthetic Probability>F SE (0.05) 0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Contrasts <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Single vs. double <0.01 <0.01 <0.01 Single vs. synthetic Double vs. synthetic

Maize-Legume-based cropping systems in the vars to contribute more N and increase maize northern Guinea savannas yield in cereal systems than the early maturing Legumecereal rotation can reduce the fertil ones (Tables 6). izer requirement of the cereal crop. The newly Maize growing after soybean was shown to developed grain legumes can produce between 3 significantly yield higher (1.2 to 2.3 fold in and 6 t ha1 of dry matter, 23 t ha1 of market crease) than the maize growing after maize able grain, and still allow a positive soil balance. (Sanginga et al., 2001). At a fertiliser rate of 20 Agronomic trials indicate that maize yields gen kg N ha1, maize yield following medium matur erally are higher when the crop is planted fol ing soybean was 33% and 76% higher in the lowing grain legume crops than in continuous northern and southern Guinea savanna zones, maize. Therefore integrating Nefficient maize respectively, (Table 6) than maize following cultivars into this system will further alleviate maize. Average yield increase due to the previ the problems of N nutrition in maizebased sys ous early soybean was 16% in the northern and tems. However, the N benefits to the system 32 % in the southern sites (Carsky et. al., 1997). depend on the maturity class of the grain legume It is therefore expected that, N efficient maize species. Sanginga et al, (2001) and Carsky et al., will benefit more from a legume rotation where (1997) have shown late maturing legume culti the grain legume cultivar fixes and returns more

N to the soil. Grain yield of an Nefficient maize Carsky, R.J., B. Oyewole and G. Tian (1999). (Low N Pool C2) supplied with 45 Kg ha1 of Integrated soil management for the savanna zone of West Africa: legume rotation and fertil inorganic N after a late maturing soybean for izer N. Nutrient cycling in Agroecosystems 55: example, was 38% higher than the yield from 95105. the control plot with maize following maize (Sanginga et al., 2001) after just one year of ro Carsky R.J., R. Abaidoo, K. Dashiell and N. Sanginga (1997). Effect of soybean on subse tation. These technology options seem to hold quent maize grain yield in the Guinea savanna the future for the Guinea savanna zone of of zone of West Africa. African Crop Science West Africa where maize and grain legumes are Journal, Vol. 5 No. 1, pp. 3138. well adapted and where farmers appear ready to adopt these technologies. Carsky R.J. and E.N.O. Iwuafor (1995). Con tribution of soil fertility research and mainte CONCLUSION nance to improved maize production and pro Maize has spread rapidly in the NGS of Ni ductivity in subSaharan Africa. In Proceedings of Regional Maize Workshop, 29 May 2 June, geria since the 1970s due to improved access to 1995, IITA, Cotonuo, Benin Republic. market, availability of improved seeds and fertil izer. Because of the high nutrient demand by Cretenet, M., D. Dureau, B. Traore, and D. maize, its production requires high inputs of Bello, (1994). Frtilite et fertilisation dans la re gion sud du Mali; du diagnostic au prognostic. fertilizer. However, because of cost, unavail Agriculture et Development 3:412. ability, and low levels of soil organic matter, alternative organic sources of nutrients particu Dakora, F.D, R.A., Abonyinga, larly N need to be included in maize fertliliza Y. Mahama, and J. Apaseku, 1987. Assess ment of N fixation in groundnut (Arachis hy tion. The use of animal manure in compound pozea L.) and cowpea (Vigna unguiculata L. fields, grain legumeNefficient maize rotation, Walp) and their relative N contribution to a suc addition of lower doses of inorganic N are ceeding crop in northern Ghana. MIRCEN Jour needed to ensure an efficient nutrient manage nal 3:389399. ment in the maizebased cropping systems in the Heuberger, H., (1998). Nitrogen Efficiency in NGS. Tropical Maize. Indirect selection criteria with special emphasis on Morphological Root Char REFERENCES acteristics. Verlag Ulrich E. Grauer, Stuttgart, Germany. Pp 1114. Ajala, S.O., A Menkir and J.G. Kling (2000). Fertility Requirement of Openpollinated and Horst, W.J., and R. Hardter (1994). Rotation Hybrid Maize Genotypes. in Proceedings of a of maize with cowpea improves yield and nutri workshop Sustainable Maize Production in Ni ent use of maize compared to maize monocrop geria: The challenge in the coming Millennium. ping in an Alfisol in the northern Guinea anna of SG 2000/IAR/FMARD/ADPs. Ghana. Plant and soil. 160:171183.

Akintoye, H.A., J.G. Kling and Houngnadan, P. (2000). Efficiency of the use E.O. Lucas (1999). N use efficiency of single, of organic and inorganic nutrients in maize double and synthetic maize lines grown at 4 N based cropping systems in Benin. Ph.D thesis, levels in three ecological zones of West Africa. Universiteit Gent, Gent Belgium. Field Crops research 60: 189199. 23

Jagtap, S.S., (1995). Changes in Annual, Sea sonal and Monthly Rainfall in Nigeria During Sanchez ,P.A., Izac, A-M.N., Valencia, I., and 19611990 and Consequences to Agriculture. Pieri, C. (1996). Soil fertility replenishment in Discovery and Innovation Vol. 7 (4): 311426 Africa: A concept note. In: Breth, S.A.(ed.). 1. Proceedings of a Sympossium, March 25 Achieving greater impact from research invest 29, 1996, CIMMYT, EL Batan, Mexico, D.F.: ments in Africa. Chitedz Research Station/ CIMMYT Bunda College. Lilongwe, Malawi Sasakawa Kwanashie M., Garba A-G, Ajilima I., Africa Association, Mexico City. (1997). Policy modelling in agriculture: Testing Sanchez, P.A., (1994). Tropical soil fertility the response of agriculture to adjustment poli research: Towards the second paradigm. Vol cies in Nigeria. AERC Research Paper 57, Afri ume 1. Inaugural and State of the Art confer can Economic Research Consortium, Nairobi, ences. Transactions 15th world congress of soil Kenya. science, 1016 July, 1994, Acapulco, Mexico, pp 6588. Laffitte, H.R., and Edmeades, G.O., (1994). Improvements of tolerance to low soil nitrogen Sanginga, N., Okogun, J.A., B., Vanlauwe, J. in tropical maize. I Selection criteria. Field Diels and K. Dashiell, (2001). Nitrogen Contri Crops Research 39:114 bution of Promiscuous Soybeans in Maize 2. Landon, J.R., (1991). Booker Tropical Soil based cropping systems. Submitted. Manual: A handbook for soil survey and agri cultural land evaluation in the tropics and sub Smith, J., Weber, G.K., Manyong, V.M., and tropics. Longman Scientific, Essex, England. Fakorede, M.A.B., (1997): Fostering sustain able increases in maize productivity in Nigeria. Manyong, V.M., Makinde K.O., Sanginga N., In Byerlee, D. and Eicher, C.K (eds). Africa’s Vanlauwe B., and Diels J. (2000) Fertiliser Use emerging maize revolution. Lynne and Rienner and Definition of farmer domains for impact Publishers, London, UK. oriented research in the northern Guinea sa vanna. Nutrient Cycling in Agroecosystems, In Van der Pol, F., (1991). L’epuisement des ter Press. res, une source de revenus pour les paysans au MaliSud. Pp 403418 in Savanes d’Afrique, Manyong, V.M., Smith J., Weber, G.K., Jag- terres fertiles? Proceedings of an International tap, S.S., and Oyewole B., (1996). Macro meeting at Montpellier, 1014 December, 1990. chracterization of agricultural systems in West Ministere de la Cooperation et du Development Africa: An overview. Resource and crop Man (France), Paris. agement Research Monograph No. 21. Interna tional Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), 4. Violic, A.D. (2001). Integrated crop Man Ibadan, Nigeria. agement. In. Tropical Maize, Improvement and Production. FAO plant production and protec Moll, R.H., Kamprath E.J., and Jackson, tion series No. 28. W.A., (1982). Analysis and interpretation of factors which contribute to efficiency of nitro Weber, G.; Smith, J.; and Manyong, V.M., gen utilization. Agron. J. 74:562564. (1996). Systems Dynamics and the Definition of Research Domains for the Northern Guinea Sa Rodriguez, M. (1986). Agronomies du mais. Pp vanna of West Africa. Agriculture, Ecosystems B1 to B45 in SAFGRAD. Annual report for and Environment 57:133148. 1986. SAFGRAD/IITA, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.

QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE: OVERVIEW, BREEDING STRATEGY AND RECENT RESEARCH RESULTS FOR SOUTHERN AFRICA

Kelvin Pixley*

BACKGROUND AND kernels with modifier genes that gave the en INTRODUCTION dosperm a normal, or translucent appearance, Maize (Zea mays L.) consumption is pro without relinquishing the increased protein jected to increase by 50% globally, and by quality contributed by the opaque2 gene. 93% in subSaharan Africa from 1995 to 2020 The resulting maize is known as ‘Quality Pro (IFPRI, 2000, as cited by Pingali and Pandey, tein Maize’, or QPM. This work in develop 2001). While much of the global increase in ing QPM has recently earned CIMMYT scien use of maize is for animal feed, human con tists, Drs. Vasal and Villegas, the 2000 World sumption is increasing and accounts for about Food Prize. 70% of all maize consumption in subSaharan QPM has about twice the lysine and tryp Africa (Aquino et al., 2001). tophan content of normal maize. In addition, Although maize is primarily a provider of QPM has a much lower ratio of leucine to iso calories, supplying almost 20% of the world’s leucine than normal maize, which is consid food calories, it also provides about 15% of ered beneficial for the production of niacin all foodcrop protein (National Research (Bjarnason and Vasal, 1992; National Re Council, 1988). From a nutritional perspec search Council, 1988). Due to these charac tive, however, the protein of maize and of teristics, the biological value (BV) or the most cereals is deficient in the essential amino amount of nitrogen that is retained in the acids, lysine and tryptophan (Olson and Frey, body, is about 80% for QPM, compared to 40 1987). Several highlysine mutants of maize 57% for normal maize and 86% for eggs have been identified, and the opaque2 mutant (Bressani, 1992). Another commonly cited has been selected by most researchers as the comparison is that protein of normal maize most amenable for use in applied maize has about 40%, whereas QPM has 90% the breeding programs (Bjarnason and Vasal, BV of milk (National Research Council, 1992). Opaque2 maize had several agro 1988). Finally, it can also be calculated that nomic problems, such as low yield, ear rot, the Net Protein Utilization (NPU), which is and slow drydown, that make it unviable as a the product of digestibility and BV, is about crop. 40% for normal maize and 65% for QPM. It Breeding efforts at CIMMYT during the is important to remember that normal and late 1960’s and throughout the 1970’s used a QPM contain, on average, equal protein con twopronged approach to utilize the opaque2 tent (generally 812%); it is the protein quality gene (Bjarnason and Vasal, 1992). In the first which differs between them. step, several broadbased populations and Much controversy surrounds the real value composites were converted to opaque2. The of QPM for enhancing the nutritional status of second and more laborious step was to select humans. Part of the controversy is whether

malnutrition is most often due to calorie or way crosses among lines that performed protein deficiency. There are nutritionists “reasonably” well in Zimbabwe. Twelve hy who argue that increased consumption of al brids were threeway topcrosses, using one of ternate crops or protein sources would be three OPVs as male for one of several single more practical and effective than introduction cross hybrids. The topcrosses were formed to of QPM. There are many data indicating that, obtain hybrids with streak virus (MSV) resis when maize is the only source of dietary pro tance, as the only available QPM with MSV tein, QPM is of tremendous advantage over resistance are OPVs. It was also known that normal maize (e.g. Bressani, 1992). Although topcross hybrids would be easier to produce nobody would recommend use of maize as the than conventional threeway hybrids, and that sole source of dietary protein, maize is a pri inbreeding depression would be less for top mary weaning food for babies and a staple crosses than conventional hybrids, thus mak food of the population in several African ing topcrosses more suited to farming situa countries. Replacement of normal maize with tions where grain is often saved for use as QPM could benefit these people. seed. One disadvantage of topcross relative to conventional hybrids is greater difficulty in CURRENT CIMMYT QPM BREEDING ensuring purity of the hybrid (because off ACTIVITIES IN SOUTHERN AFRICA types are harder to identify and rogue from an OPV than from an inbred male parent during There is a wealth of QPM germplasm seed production of the final threeway hy available from CIMMYT’s breeding programs brid). in Mexico. Much of this QPM is competitive For lowland environments, the Ghanaian in tropical environments with normal maize QPM OPV ‘Obatanpa’ was included in trials for yield and major agronomic characters. first in Mozambique, and later throughout the Almost all of it, however, is susceptible to region. Obatanpa has moderate level of resis maize streak virus (MSV), an important dis tance to MSV, and has large cobs that are ease of maize in subSaharan Africa. Sec liked by many farmers. Obatanpa was re ondly, most of the CIMMYT QPM germ cently released and will be marketed in Mo plasm is of lowland tropical adaptation zambique as ‘Sussuma’. Another promising whereas the majority of maize in southern OPV is PL15QSR, which has moderate resis Africa is grown in midaltitude environments. tance to MSV, flinty grain and is early matur QPM research by CIMMYT in southern ing. Africa has focused on testing inbreds, hybrids and openpollinated varieties (OPVs) devel Inbred line and hybrid development oped elsewhere (primarily at CIMMYT, Mex After identifying the most promising QPM ico). Using results of the first trials (1999), lines based on their per se performance, a two several hybrids and OPVs were selected or pronged strategy has been applied to develop formed with the objectives of evaluating them improved hybrids. The first approach uses regionally. Most of the hybrids were three QPM OPVs with moderate resistance to MSV

as males for singlecrosses among the best lel trials is presented in Table 1. Lines GQL5 (MSVsusceptible) QPM lines. This strategy and CML181 had the best GCA for grain was expected to produce useful varieties in a yield. Results allowed prediction of promis very short period of time. The second strat ing threeway and doublecross hybrids egy is to cross best QPM lines with elite lines (Table 2), many of which are being formed from southern Africa. Although we do not during winter 2001 and will be evaluated in propose to convert elite lines to QPM, we do yield trials during summer 2001/02. expect to achieve two valuable products: 1) elite QPM lines will be converted to MSV Open-Pollinated Variety Development resistant, and 2) new MSVresistant QPM Three openpollinated varieties performed lines will be developed from the QPM by elite well in regional trials during recent years. line crosses. It is crucial that we quickly de Obatanpa and PL15QSR (pool 15 QPM velop QPM lines with MSV resistance; these streak resistant) have moderate resistance to lines are needed for hybrid formation and for MSV, whereas S91SIWQ (synthetic 1991, use as sources or donors of QPM (opaque2 subtropical intermediate maturity white QPM) and modifier genes) for further breeding pro is well adapted to midaltitude areas, but sus jects. ceptible to MSV. We discovered that both A possible protocol for conversion of nor Obatanpa and S91SIWQ had lower protein mal maize lines to QPM is outlined in Annex quality than expected for QPM, so we have 1. Note that the protocol can be interrupted at begun improving them for this trait. PL15Q several points (seasons) to develop new lines SR has good protein quality, but needed some that are QPM and have any desired percentage improvement for MSV and resistance to other contribution from the recurrent parent. diseases, especially rust. Three unique strate Diallel Among QPM Inbred Lines gies are being used to improve each of these Nine QPM inbred lines were selected in OPVs. 1999 for further study primarily based on their good adaptation (per se) in Zimbabwe. One 1. Obatanpa: We planted 1700 F2 plants of line, ‘GQL5’, was obtained from the Ghana Obatanpa, infested them with MSV National Maize Program. Three of the lines viruliferous leafhoppers, and selfpollinated (CML181, CML182 and WWO1408) trace plants healthy for MSV and other diseases their origins to the breeding program of Prof. (particularly grey leaf spot (Cercospora Hans Gevers, at Pietermaritzburg, South Af zeae-maydis; GLS) and rust (Puccinia sor- rica. The remaining four lines are from CIM ghi)). Grain from the F3 ears was screened MYT’s QPM program in Mexico. Hybrids on the light table (see below) and we kept resulting from diallel mating among the nine only kernels with score 2 or 3. For each lines were evaluated in replicated experiments selected cob, one set of selected kernels at eight locations during 2000. was planted with MSV infestation at our A summary of general (GCA) and specific winter nursery and the second set was sub combining ability effects (SCA) from the dial jected to protein quality analysis by ELISA

method (see below). Fullsib crosses will verting normal OPVs to QPM (because there be made among good plants from selected is ample good QPM germplasm for breeding families (good endosperm modification, work), a possible protocol for converting a good protein quality and MSV resistant). normal OPV to QPM is outlined in Annex 2. The fullsib families will be grown in yield trials next summer and protein quality will TECHNOLOGIES FOR QPM be determined for each family. Only the BREEDING best families will be recombined to form the improved version of Obatanpa in mid Light Table 2002. A simple box or table can be constructed 2. S91SIWQ: About 300 halfsib families for evaluating endosperm modification during were planted at Harare and healthy, GLS QPM breeding work. The top of the box must resistant plants were selfpollinated. For be an acrylic or opaque glass, and a source of each cob, grain samples were selected for light, such as fluorescent tubes, must be inside good endosperm modification and a subset the box. Segregating maize kernels will be of the selected kernels was analysed for spread on top of the acrylic surface, and with protein quality. Remnant, wellmodified the lights switched on inside the box, a worker kernels of the best families was planted and will be able to classify maize kernels accord recombined twice to obtain the improved ing to the degree of endosperm modification. S91SIWQ which will be ready for yield Experience has shown us that kernels with 10 trials in summer 2001/02. 30% opaque area will generally have good 3. PL15QSR: About 1000 F2 plants were protein quality; hence, we select kernels of infested with MSV at Harare and only the endosperm modification score 2 and 3 best plants were selfpollinated. Seeds (1=100% modified, or normal appearance; 2 were selected for kernel modification and =25%; 3=50%; 4=75%; 5=100% opaque). wellmodified kernels of each cob were Kernels of score 4 and 5 are very opaque and planted eartorow and infested with MSV. thus unacceptable, whereas kernels of score 1 Fullsib families were formed among good are likely to be normal and thus not high plants in the best rows. Seed of the full lysine (or QPM). sibs was analysed for protein quality and Visual selection for kernel modification is the fullsibs were assessed for grain yield an essential step in QPM breeding, regardless and agronomic traits in two replicates at of which method is used to select for protein one site with artificial infestation for MSV. quality (see below). Well modified kernels of the best families, combining protein quality, good yield and Protein quality analysis disease resistance (including MSV) will be Protein content and quality can be deter recombined to form the improved version mined in a standard laboratory following pro of this OPV. cedures described by Villegas et al. (1984). Although CIMMYT is not currently con Briefly, wholegrain samples must be finely

ground, the resulting flour defatted, and con the homozygous 02 will be planted for further centrations of nitrogen and tryptophan can be work. colorimetrically determined for duplicate sub samples. Previous work has shown that the Marker Assisted Selection (MAS) concentration of tryptophan and lysine are It has recently become possible to use highly correlated, so CIMMYT generally MAS to accelerate QPM breeding work. evaluates only tryptophan content, which is There are three markers available for this pur easier and cheaper to assess than lysine. We pose (J.M. Ribaut, personal communication). use only kernels of uniform size (avoiding One of the markers is dominant, and will those from the ends of the ears) in forming identify any genotype that does not contain a grain samples for protein analyses. During recessive o2 allele. This means that the breeding of QPM it is essential to monitor marker will identify normal and heterozygous both protein content of grain (i.e. percent pro genotypes, and the breeder can then assume tein in grain) and protein quality (e.g. percent that all other genotypes are the desired, homo tryptophan in protein) because these traits are zygous recessive type (o2o2). The advantage negatively correlated (Pixley and Bjarnason, of using MAS is that the breeder uses leaf tis 1993). sue from seedlings to extract DNA and con duct the assay. Selection of the desired types ELISA can be completed prior to flowering, and only Wallace et al. (1990) described a rapid the desired plants will be pollinated. Disad method to quantify the αzein protein fraction vantages of using MAS include costs of the of maize using enzymelinked immunosorbent technology. CIMMYT has successfully used assay (ELISA). This information is useful to MAS in QPM breeding work but has not yet differentiate normal from highlysine concluded whether it is more efficient than (unmodified opaque2 or QPM) maize be using conventional breeding methods. cause both opaque and QPM have about half the αzein relative to normal maize. The RECENT QPM RESEARCH ELISA technique can be used in a breeding RESULTS IN SOUTHERN AFRICA program to evaluate whether a grain sample is A southern and eastern Africa CIMMYT homozygous for the opaque2 gene. For ex regional trial, ‘QPM00’, consisted of 22 ex ample, an F1 cross of normal by QPM would perimental QPM hybrids and two local checks be selfpollinated to obtain a segregating F2 (selected by each grower). This trial was population (S1 bulk). Individual S1 plants grown at 60 sites from which 39 have returned would be selfpollinated to obtain S2 ears, and data (Table 3). The trials had tworow plots, about 25% would be expected to be homozy and were grown in an alphalattice designs gous for the o2 gene (50% heterozygous and with two replications. The trials were re 25% would be homozygous O2 or normal). searchermanaged and were grown primarily Grain samples from each S2 would be evalu on research stations. Trial sites included one ated using ELISA, and remnant seed of only with LowN fertility and one with severe, arti

ficial MSV infestation. evaluations in Malawi are CML144/ Study of Table 1 reveals several out CML159//Obatanpa and CML175/CML176// standing hybrids, including some threeway Obatanpa. The hybrid CML144/CML159// topcrosses using Obatanpa as male (e.g. CML176 can also be considered if MSV resis CML144/CML159//Obatanpa and CML182/ tance is not considered essential; however, CML175//Obatanpa). As expected, these hy data from QPM00 at 39 sites suggests this brids had acceptable yield when challenged by hybrid is generally poor relative to the others. MSV; their aboveaverage performance under It is probably worth further testing CML144/ lowN and drought, however, was fortuitous. CML159//CML182 and CML144/CML159// Other hybrids merit further evaluation in CML181 (Table 3). CML144/CML159// countries where they performed especially S91SIWQ should be reconsidered once the well (e.g. CML144/CML159//CML182 in improved version is available (summer Malawi, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya). 2001/02). Finally, CML144/CML159// It is encouraging to note that the best QPM PL15Q can be considered if an earlier matur hybrid outyielded the best local check at 29 ing option is desired. of the 39 sites and that, averaged across all 39 sites, the yield of the best QPM hybrid was Uganda 26% above the best local check (Figure 1). The best hybrid in Uganda was CML144/ CML159//Obatanpa (Table 5). A singlecross On Farm QPM Evaluations hybrid also performed well, but there is doubt Unreplicated, largeplot (6rows x 10 m) that singlecross hybrids are appropriate for evaluations of QPM hybrids were grown at Uganda because of weakness of the seed sec nearly 50 sites in Malawi, 35 in Uganda and tor and the higher price of this type of seed 15 in Ethiopia (data for Ethiopia have been relative to threeway hybrid seed. reported elsewhere). The plots were ran Considering all the available data (Tables domly arranged at each site to allow analysis 3, 4 and 5), the best QPM hybrid for further of the data using a randomized complete evaluations in Uganda is CML144/CML159// block (RCBD) model in which each site con Obatanpa. CML181/CML175//Obatanpa stituted a replication. should also be considered. If MSV resistance is not required for Uganda, then CML144/ Malawi CML159//CML182 and CML144/CML159// Most of the hybrids had grain yield within CML181 should also be considered. As for one standard error of the trial mean (Table 4). Malawi, CML144/CML159//S91SIWQ and The topcross ‘CML144/CML159//S91SIWQ’ CML144/CML159//PL15Q may be worth was best and the OPV, ‘S91SIWQ’, was worst further testing. entry in the trial, although few differences were statistically significant. Uganda QPM Open-Pollinated Considering all the available data (Tables Varieties 3, 4 and 5), the best QPM hybrids for further An unreplicated, largeplot evaluation of

six openpollinated varieties (OPVs) was car ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ried out at 15 sites in Uganda, from which 13 The Malawi National Maize Program, returned data (Table 6). Four of the OPVs Uganda National Maize Program and SG2000 were QPM, ‘ZM521’ is not QPM and has Uganda organized QPM trials at multiple been selected for tolerance to drought and low sites in their respective countries. Dozens of soil N fertility, and the local check was scientists throughout eastern and southern Af ‘Longe 1’, an OPV (not QPM) commonly rica (and a few at Delhi, India) evaluated the grown in Uganda. There were no significant QPM trial ‘QPM00’. Dr. B. Vivek differences for grain yield among the six (CIMMYT, Zimbabwe) assisted with data OPVs, indicating that the QPM varieties were compilation and analyses. Financial support competitive with the local check, Longe 1. for this work was provided by the Nippon Foundation and by DFID (UK). CONCLUSION There has been an increased interest in REFERENCES QPM, following the award of the 2000 World Food Prize to CIMMYT scientists for their Aquino, P., F. Carrion, R. Calvo and D. work in developing QPM germplasm. Al Flores. 2001. Selected maize statistics. In: though most of the available QPM germplasm Pingali, P.L. (ed.). 2001. CIMMYT 1999 is adapted to lowland tropical environments 2000 World Maize Facts and Trends. Meet and is susceptible to maize streak virus, work ing world maize needs: Technological oppor is underway to develop appropriate QPM cul tunities and priorities for the public sector. tivars for midaltitude maizegrowing areas of Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT. southern and eastern Africa. One year of re gional evaluation (37 sites) of QPM hybrids Bjarnason, M. and S.K. Vasal. 1992. indicated that several conventional and top Breeding of Quality Protein Maize (QPM). cross threeway hybrids merit continued test In: J. Janick (ed.), Plant Breeding Reviews, ing. Several of these promising QPM hybrids Vol. 9. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, were included with best normal commercial USA. and experimental hybrids in regional hybrid trials in 2001; results will permit direct com Bressani, R. 1992. Nutritional value of high parison of QPM hybrids with the best normal lysine maize in humans. In: E.T. Mertz (ed.), (not QPM) hybrids. Also during 2001 we are Quality Protein Maize. American Association increasing QPM breeding and seed production of Cereal Chemists, St. Paul, Minnesota, efforts in southern and eastern Africa to en USA. sure that new and better materials are avail able for testing, and that previouslyidentified, National Research Council (USA). 1988. mostpromising hybrids and OPVs are avail Quality Protein Maize. National Academy able for onfarm verification trials. Press. Washington, D.C., USA.

Olson, R.A. and K.J. Frey (eds.). 1987. Nu tritional Quality of Cereal Grains: Genetic and Villegas, E., E. Ortega, and R. Bauer. 1984. Agronomic Improvement. Number 28 in the Chemical methods used at CIMMYT for de series Agronomy. American Society of termining protein quality in cereal grains. Agronomy Publishers. Madison, WI, USA. CIMMYT, Mexico City, Mexico.

Pingali, P.L. and S. Pandey. 2001. Meeting Wallace, J.C., M.A. Lopes, E. Paiva and world maize needs: Technological opportuni B.A. Larkins. 1990. New methods for ex ties and priorities for the public sector. In: traction and quantification of zeins reveal a Pingali, P.L. (ed.). 2001. CIMMYT 1999 high content of γzein in modified opaque2 2000 World Maize Facts and Trends. Meet maize. Plant Physiol. 92: 191196. ing world maize needs: Technological oppor tunities and priorities for the public sector. Mexico, D.F.: CIMMYT.

Pixley, K.V. and M.S. Bjarnason. 1993. Combining ability for yield and protein qual ity among modifiedendosperm opaque2 tropical maize inbreds. Crop Sci. 33:1229 1234.

Table 1.

Summary of GCA (right column) and SCA (within table) effects for a 9parent QPM diallel mating evaluated at 8 sites in 2000

Parent Line 175 176 E1 E2 WW 174 181 182 GC A

GQL5 G P P P B B B B B CML175 P W W G W G B P CML176 P P B B B G G Exp. 1 W P W G P W Exp. 2 N.A. W N.A. W W WWO1408 G W W G CML174 G G G CML181 P B CML182 A Best Goo Av- Poo Wor d erag r st e

Table 2.

Threeway and doublecross hybrids predicted to be outstanding by a diallel among 9 QPM inbred lines evaluated at 8 sites in 2000

Three-way Double-cross

GQL5/CML176//CML181 WW/CML181//CML175/CML176 GQL5/CML175//CML182 WW/CML181//GQL5/CML176 CML181/CML182//GQL5 CML181/CML182//GQL5/CML176 GQL5/CML176//WW CML181/CML182//GQL5/CML175 WW/CML181//GQL5 WW/CML182//GQL5/CML176 WW/CML181//CML176 WW/CML182//GQL5/CML175 WW/CML182//GQL5 WW/CML182//CML175/CML176

CML175/CML176//CML181 CML181/CML182//CML175/CML176 CML181/CML182//CML176 CML181/CML182//CML175 GQL5/CML176//CML182 GQL5/CML176//CML174 GQL5/CML175//CML181 WW/CML182//CML176

Table 3

QPM hybrids evaluated across 37 sites in E & S Africa 1999/2000

Name Across Southern Eastern N-Stress Drought Africa Africa

Rel GY Rank Across Across Across Across

% Avg Stdev t/ha t/ha t/ha t/ha

Hybrids with anthesis date 65 to 68 d CML182/CML175//S91SIWQ 109 11 7 5.94 5.67 1.98 3.49 CML181/CML175//S91SIWQ 105 11 5 5.69 5.83 1.90 3.13 CML182/CML175//Obatanpa 113 12 6 5.44 5.81 2.07 4.18 CML175/CML176//S91SIWQ 97 12 6 5.64 5.65 1.85 2.51 CML181/CML175//PL15QPM 105 12 6 5.53 5.36 2.14 3.19 CML182/CML175//PL15QPM 100 13 6 5.02 5.30 2.08 2.91 CML144/CML159//PL15QPM 88 16 5 5.04 4.90 1.74 2.44 CML175/CML176//PL15QPM 84 17 5 5.08 4.74 1.82 1.87 Maturity group average 5.42 5.41 1.95 2.97 Hybrids with anthesis date 68 to 72 d CML144/CML159//CML182 116 7 5 6.62 6.66 2.31 3.04 CML144/CML159//CML181 111 7 6 7.11 6.92 2.01 2.53 CML181/CML175//CML176 109 9 6 6.15 6.02 2.20 2.87 CML144/CML159//Obatanpa 110 9 5 6.17 6.38 1.91 3.09 CML181/CML175//Obatanpa 101 10 6 6.16 5.15 2.15 2.53 CML144/CML159//S91SIWQ 112 11 6 5.88 5.52 2.17 3.89 Local check 1 105 11 8 6.28 6.07 1.44 3.36 Local check 2 108 11 8 6.26 5.67 1.40 4.14 CML175/CML176//Obatanpa 107 12 6 5.66 5.69 1.82 3.53 CML175/CML176 96 13 6 5.71 5.59 1.65 2.48 CML182/CML175//CML176 69 22 4 3.64 3.55 1.43 2.04 Maturity group average 5.97 5.75 1.86 3.05 Hybrids with anthesis date 72 to 74 d CML142/CML176 96 11 8 5.74 6.04 1.75 2.35 CML144/CML159//CML176 96 13 6 5.58 5.41 1.96 2.38 QS7705 101 14 7 5.15 4.94 1.95 3.41 CML149/CML176 80 17 6 5.03 4.43 1.57 2.21 CML141/CML144//CML176 75 17 6 4.96 4.44 1.52 1.55 Maturity group average 5.29 5.05 1.75 2.38 Mean 100 12 6 5.65 5.50 1.87 2.89 LSD (0.05) 0.45 0.61 0.37 0.81 Min 69 7 4 3.64 3.55 1.40 1.55 Max 116 22 8 7.11 6.92 2.31 4.18

34 Table 4

Malawi QPM Hybrid on-farm trial 2000 (23 Sites)

Pedigree Ears/ GLS Grain Phaeo Plant Text maydis t/ha Rank # 15 15 15

CML144/CML159//S91SIWQ 3.97 1 1.09 2.6 2.6 3.3 CML144xCML159//CML176 3.83 2 1.10 2.1 2.4 2.8 CML175/CML176//Obatanpa 3.82 3 1.08 2.5 2.9 3.9 CML144/CML159//Obatanpa 3.71 4 1.10 2.6 2.3 2.9 CML142/CML 176 3.69 5 1.14 2.0 2.3 4.4 CML175/CML176//PL15QPM 3.59 6 1.02 2.4 2.3 3.2 CML175/CML 176 3.57 7 1.05 1.8 3.4 5.2 CML144/CML159//PL15QPM 3.49 8 1.10 2.6 2.6 4.6 CML141xCML144//CML176 3.46 9 1.20 2.3 2.7 2.6 CML149/CML 176 3.39 10 1.17 2.6 3.6 4.7 S91SIWQ(1) 3.04 11 0.99 2.5 2.8 4.2

Table 5

Uganda QPM Hybrid on-farm trial 2000 (19 Sites)

Pedigree Ears/ Husk E.turc Farmer Plant Cover Rank t/ha Rank # 15 15

CML144/CML159//Obatanpa 4.96 1 1.04 1.8 1.9 1.0 CML142/CML 176 4.89 2 1.18 1.8 1.9 5.0 CML144/CML159//S91SIWQ 4.64 3 1.01 2.1 1.7 3.0 CML175/CML176//PL15QPM 4.42 4 1.04 2.3 2.0 4.0 CML144xCML159//CML176 4.40 5 1.06 2.0 1.8 7.0 CML144/CML159//PL15QPM 4.32 6 0.99 2.3 1.9 2.0 CML175/CML 176 4.20 7 1.04 2.0 2.2 8.0 CML175/CML176//Obatanpa 4.19 8 1.00 1.9 2.0 9.0 S91SIWQ(1) 4.06 9 1.02 2.1 2.2 11.0 CML141xCML144//CML176 4.00 10 1.19 1.9 1.8 6.0 CML149/CML 176 3.81 11 1.11 2.1 2.1 10.0

Table 6

Uganda QPM OPV on-farm trial 2000 (13 Sites) Pedigree Grain GLS P.sorg E.turc Grain Yield Text t/ha Rank 15 15 15 15 ZM521 4.86 1 1.8 1.3 2.2 2.9 LOCAL CHECK = 4.53 2 1.8 1.3 2.0 3.1 Longe1 OBATANPA 4.48 3 1.9 1.7 2.4 3.0 PL15QPMc7SR 4.36 4 2.1 1.0 2.1 2.8 [MID.ALT.QPM]C2 4.19 5 1.8 1.7 2.1 2.6

S91SIWQ 3.65 6 2.2 1.3 2.1 3.0

Figure 1. Comparison of grain yield of the highestyielding QPM and normal check entry at each location of QPM00, a trial grown in eastern and southern Africa during 2000

QPM2000: Best QPM vs Best Normal

12.00

10.00 Best QPM 2 sites in India

Best Normal 8.00

6.00

Grain Yield (t/ha) Yield Grain 4.00

2.00

0.00 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 Site Code

Season Objectives Materials to Plant Instructions

1 Form BC0F1 Plant 1 row of the recurrent Make planttoplant (FS) crosses. Take pollen parent and 1 row of each from one plant of the recurrent parent and pol QPM donor line linate one plant of the QPM donor line(s). (Recommend using only 1 or Make 46 such pollinations for each donor line 2 donor lines) (s).

2 Form BC1F1 Plant 1 row of the BC0F1 Make planttoplant (FS) crosses. Take pollen formed in Season 1 and 1 from one plant of the recurrent parent and pol row of the recurrent parent. linate one plant of the BC0F1. Make 46 such pollinations.

3 Form BC1F2 Plant 70 (to obtain 5 desired Selfpollinate all reasonable plants. Note, if genotype) to 123 (to obtain you anticipate making much selection, then 10 desired genotype) BC1F1 increase the number of BC1F2 plants planted. plants. Recommend planting Be sure to self at least 60 plants. 48 rows for each BC1F2.

Note: Efficiency can be in If markers have been successfully used, then creased by using markers to you only need to selfpollinate a minimum of self pollinate only heterozy 30 plants. gous BC1F2 plants. Shell each ear of the BC1F2 individually. Evaluate the kernels of each ear on the light table. Keep only the ears with segregation for kernel modification (should be 12.5% (one eighth), or 25% (if you used MAS) of the ears. Select only kernels with modification score of 2 or 3 for planting in season 4.

4 Form BC1F3 Plant the selected kernels Perform some selection for disease resistance from season 3. Keep sepa and other agronomic traits and selfpollinate rate plots for kernels from the best plants in each plot. If available, you individual BC1F2 ears. Plant can use the dominant marker to verify that 26 rows from each cob plants are homozygous recessive for the o2 (don't waste seed by double allele prior to pollination. Shell each ear indi planting for later thinning); vidually and evaluate kernels on the light ta more plants will allow more ble. Keep only seed from ears segregating for selection for agronomic modification. Keep all kernels with modifica traits. tion of 2 or 3. Use 1020 of these selected kernels from each ear to perform protein con tent and quality analysis (ELISA or tryptophan content).

5 Form Plant eartorow, one row of se Make planttoplant (FS) pollinations using pollen from BC2F1 lected (modification 2 or 3) kernels the recurrent parent for selected plants in selected rows from each BC1F3 cob selected in of the BC1F3. Make 23 pollinations in each selected season 4. Eliminate poor rows BC1F3 row. Note: You may wish to selfpollinate other before flowering based on protein good plants in selected BC1F3 rows and use these for quality analysis. Plant also enough line development. rows of the recurrent parent (normal inbred you are converting to QPM).

6 Form Plant 610 rows of BC2F1 seed Selfpollinate all good plants. Shell each ear individu BC2F2 (more, if you would like to make ally and evaluate the kernels of each ear on the light strict individual plant selection for table. Keep only the ears with segregation for kernel agronomic traits like disease resis modification (should be 25% of the ears). Select only tance). kernels with modification score of 2 or 3 for planting in season 7.

7 Form Plant the selected kernels from Selfpollinate good plants; by now these should resem BC2F3 season 6. Keep separate plots for ble the recurrent parent. If available, you can use the kernels from individual BC2F2 dominant marker to verify that plants are homozygous ears. Adjust the number of rows to recessive for the o2 allele prior to pollination. Shell plant from each cob depending on each ear individually and evaluate kernels on the light how many cobs you kept from sea table. Keep only seed from ears segregating for modifi son 6; more plants will allow more cation. Keep all kernels with modification of 2 or 3. selection for agronomic traits. Use 1020 of these selected kernels from each ear to perform protein content and quality analysis (ELISA or tryptophan content).

O Form If you require an additional back Repeat season 6, then season 7 formation of BC3F3. R BC3F1 cross, because you want to recover 7, more of the genotype of the recur 8, rent parent, repeat season 5 proce 9 dure during season 7

Season Objec- Materials to Plant Instructions tives

1 Form Plant 400500 plants of the recurrent Make a bulk of pollen from at least 50 good BC0F1 parent OPV (perform mild selection) plants of the recurrent parent OPV and pollinate 68 plants in each of the QPM donor lines. Break the tasels of plants used to make the pollen bulk to avoid using them again. Plant 3050 plants of each QPM Repeat above process at least on 2 additional donor inbred line. Recommended to dates. A total of at least 200 plants of the recur use 34 donor lines (minimum of 2). rent parent OPV should be included in the pol len bulks.

2 Form Plant 10001500 plants of the Select good plants for disease reaction and BC0F2 BC0F1 balanced bulk (formed using other agronomic traits. Selfpollinate the se equal number of seeds from each lected plants. Pollinate 500800 plants. At BC0F1 cob harvested in Season 1). harvest, select 400600 best ears. Recommended to keep separate bal anced bulks for each donor line, but total planting will be 10001500 plants.

3 Form Plant eartorow (in halfrows, e.g. Identify with tags the best 4 plants in each BC1F1 2.5 m) the 400600 BC0F2s pro agronomically acceptable row (NB: you may duced in Season 2. Note: Each inoculate with some disease so as to eliminate BC0F2 cob should be shelled indi worst rows). Leaf samples from these 4 plants vidually and kernels should be of each row will be collected and sent for DNA screened on light tables; keep and extraction and molecular testing to identify plant only kernels with modification o2o2, homozygous recessive plants. of 2 or 3 on 1 to 5 scale. Plant 400500 plants of the recurrent Make a bulk of pollen from at least 50 good parent OPV (perform mild selection) plants of the recurrent parent OPV and pollinate MASselected plants in the BC0F2 lines. Break the tasels of plants used to make the pollen bulk to avoid using them again. Repeat the immediatelyabove step at least once.

Pollinate a total of 300400 MASselected plants. At harvest, select 200300 best ears.

4 Form BC1F2 Plant 10001500 plants of the Select good plants for disease reaction and other BC1F1 balanced bulk (formed us agronomic traits. Selfpollinate the selected plants. ing equal number of seeds from Pollinate 500800 plants. At harvest, select 400 each BC1F1 cob harvested in Sea 600 best ears. son 3)

5 Form BC2F1 Plant eartorow (in halfrows, e.g. Identify with tags the best 4 plants in each 2.5 m) the 400600 BC1F2s pro agronomically acceptable row (NB: it would be duced in Season 4. Note: Each ideal to inoculate with some disease so as to elimi BC1F2 should be shelled individu nate worst rows). Leaf samples from these 4 ally and kernels should be screened plants of each row will be collected and sent for on light tables; keep only kernels DNA extraction and molecular testing to identify with modification of 2 or 3 on 1 to o2o2, homozygous recessive plants. 5 scale. Plant 400500 plants of the recur Make a bulk of pollen from at least 50 good rent parent OPV (perform mild selection) plants of the recurrent parent OPV and pollinate MASselected plants in the BC0F2 lines. Break the tasels of plants used to make the pollen bulk to avoid using them again. Repeat the immediatelyabove step at least once.

Pollinate a total of 300400 MASselected plants. At harvest, select 200300 best ears.

6 Form BC2F2 Plant 10001500 plants of the Form fullsib, planttoplant crosses, by taking BC2F1 balanced bulk (formed us pollen of one plant to pollinate one other plant. ing equal number of seeds from Use only good plants (perform mild selection), and each BC1F1 cob harvested in Sea use each plant as male only once (break tasel after son 5) use). Make at least 300 pollinations and keep 150 200 best FS ears at harvest.

7 Yield test and Plant a balanced bulk of the BC2F2 Compare yield and agronomic performance of the confirm qual ears in yield trials BC2F2 (new QPM version of the OPV) in trials ity including the original recurrent parent OPV. Send samples of the BC2F2 bulk for protein con tent and quality analysis.

Recommended Option: Plant a Recommended Option: In addition to yield and yield trial at 35 sites with 169 or agronomic traits, evaluate protein content and pro 196 FS entries (use the BC2F2 tein quality for each FS in the trial. cobs harvested in Season 6). Be sure to keep at least 30 kernels selected for good modification as remnant seed for each entry.

8 Increase seed and/or If the new QPM OPV was com Seed production in isolation or by recombine selected petitive and looks useful per se; handpollination families plant a seed production field us ing BC2F2 seed.

If the new QPM OPV has minor See Season 7 deficiencies, use the recom mended option for Season 7 to improve it.

If the new QPM OPV is inferior See Seasons 5 & 6 to the recurrent parent OPV, con sider performing an additional backcross.

If you followed the recom Recombine the selected families. mended option during Season 7, use remnant seed to plant one row of each of the selected FS families (1525 families).

TOWARDS DEVELOPMENT OF STABLE HIGH YIELDINGDISEASE AND STORAGE PEST RESISTANT QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE

S.G. Ado* Email: sheduado@hotvoice. com

INTRODUCTION increase in protein content and an improve The four major uses of maize are livestock ment in protein composition are equally im feed, human consumption, industrial purposes portant in connection with the economic pro and seed. For the considerable part of the duction of animal product and supply of better world’s population, food supplies, proteins in food for the consumers without changing food particular are inadequate and insufficient. The habits at a low price. global deficit in animal and vegetable protein In a normal maize kernel, the endosperm supply can reach million of tons. Food sup protein is different from the embryo protein. plies have not kept pace with the rising popu About 80 percent of the protein content of the lation. In many countries of the world national kernels is in the endosperm, while only 20 protein requirements from both animal and percent is the embryo. Among the endosperm, vegetable sources cannot be met because pro zein is quantitavely predominant and present tein rich foods are especially scarce and about 50 percent of the total endosperm pro costly. The supply of world population with tein or about 40 percent of the total protein of more meat, milk. eggs and product of higher the whole kernel. Being deficient in almost all protein content can be enhanced through vari essential amino acids with the expectation of ous means. One way is the improvement of phenylalnine and leucine, zein has a low bio content of the local staples. The other means logical value. There is an almost complete is by improving the ratio of the fundamental absence of lysine only insignificant amounts amino acids (lysine and tryptophan) in protein of tryptophan. The proteins of the embryo and (Balint, 1970). Global use of maize for direct the nonzein part of the endosperm have a human consumption has remained stable at higher biological value than zein does 100 million tonnes per annum since 1988. (Dumanovic and Denic, 1969). In contrast, the Maize contributes 15 percent (more than 50 protein content in opaque2 maize has a nu million tonnes) of protein and 19 percent of tritic value of about 90 percent that of proteins the calories derived from food crops in the found in skim milk—the standard against world’s diet (CIMMYT, 1999). Making ani which cereal protein is normally measured mal products requires large amounts of food (National Research Council, 1988). Adding stuffs. An increase in animal protein produc the opaque2 gene to the world’s maize crop tion necessitates adequate supplies of forage would add 10 million tons of quality protein suitable both in quantity and composition. An to the world food supply. By 1986, Opaque2

*National Coordinator, Maize Research Programme, IAR, ABU, Zaria.

maize was transformed into a maize that was hence they require great attention in order to ‘normal’ in all respect except for its superior reduce changes for economic losses. Today, nutritional value. Although the quality protein the demand for quality is a worldwide phe maize (QPM) has the same amount of protein nomenon, accelerated by the application of as common maize, it has the usable proteins agricultural chemistry. Thus, the breeding ob because the quality and biological value of jective for improvement of nutritional value of QPM is about 90 percent that of milk protein. protein in maize is concerned with increasing Beside the yellow kernel types of QPM may the deficient amino acids primarily lysine and be unusually valuable in helping to overcome tryptophan. Another basic breeding objective xerophthalmia, a vitamin A deficiency that is is to develop cultivars with broad adaptation the primary cause of childhood blindness in to permit their production under a reasonable many developing countries (National Re range of different environments. Improved search Council, 1988). Thus use of QPM will cultivars must have high yield as well as sta help reduce nutrition related diseases and ble performance. Early maturity is another deaths and significantly improve nutritional objective especially, now that extraearly status of individuals who depend primarily on maize is cultivated in the Sudan savannah maize for sustenance (thialabein, 1969; Vasal, zone. Other objectives may include short plant 1974; Ado, 1999). height, good standability, striga resistance etc. Within the content of this workshop, de velopment of QPM implies breeding of varie Inheritance of Quality Protein Traits ties that are better suited to meeting man’s The inheritance of the characteristics chosen food needs. For this, the appropriate technol as breeding objectives will have a major influ ogy for control of diseases and pests have ence on the strategy employed for cultivars been included. The purpose of this paper is to development. Thus, in order to make progress present essential information needed to de it is necessary that breeding methods be se velop stable, high yielding disease and pest lected in accordance with the principles of resistant QPM for Nigeria. pure genetics. The genetic control of traits commonly include in breeding programs Breeding Objectives range from single major genes to complex To increase yielding capacity has been and inheritance (Fehr, 1987 and Hallauer, 1987). still is the primary task of plant breeding. A The characters, protein and oil content and basic requisite is that the experimental hybrids each constituent amino acid, are hereditary produced should approach the recommended traits. Frey (1949) reported that the protein hybrid in respect of yielding ability. The pro content is determined by 22 genes. duction of cultivars tolerant or resistant to Of these, only a few major but numerous field hazards such as diseases and pests is a modifier genes contribute to the formation of perennial objective. Damage to maize due to this character. Modifiers are genes that influ bacteria, fungi and virus infection, insect in ence the expression of a non allelic gene or festation can sometimes be very important, genes. They are minor genes that exert their

influence chiefly by intensifying or diminish hybrids. High tryptophan contents are associ ing the expression of the major genes, since ated with favourable tryptophan percentage. their effects are weak. Since modifiers are This is understandable since an increase in inherited quantitatively, it is important to protein content was associated with a dou know how many modifier genes are involved bling of the germ ratio, with a concomitant and where these are located. improvement in the tryptophan ratio. The According to Nelson (1969), higher protein amino acid composition is not dependent upon content is conditioned by genic systems. the protein content, even though if the propor Floury2 and Opaque2 mutants both increase tion of zein increases with a rise in protein protein content. The floury2 mutant is inher content, there is a depression of protein qual ited as semidominant while the Opaque2 is ity. The contradiction of the statement can be inherited as a simple Mendelian recessive explained thus: if a marked increase occurs in with both the floury2 and Opaque2 being the germ ratio the resulting quantitative rise in indistinguishable phenotypically. However, the germ protein may lead to an increased pro the floury2 mutant tends to increase protein portion of the amino acids. But a rise in pro content largely by conditioning larger embryo tein content may occur without causing an size and increasing the content of non extract increase in the germ ratio as a result of a rise able protein. With regard to the effect of the in the endosperm level. Thus, it is better to Opaque2 mutant, the difference in amino increase tryptophan level in maize instead of acid composition of the proteins is apparently increasing protein content. This is because confined to the endosperm. Thus, the substan there is negative correlation between in tial change that opaque2 effects in the overall creased protein per cent and yields. Increasing amino acid composition of the endosperm are lysine per cent contributes remarkably to the not apparent when one examines protein taken better utilization of maize. from other tissues of plant. Dumanovic and Development of Stable high yielding Denic (1969) reported that a change in the disease and Pest Resistant Quality content of one single amino acid may reflect a Protein Maize Different breeding procedures can be used changed protein content, changed relative effectively to develop superior cultivars. amount of protein fractions or change in the There are different factors that influence the composition of the individual proteins. Sam choice of breeding procedure for the develop ples with medium protein content exhibit the ment of superior cultivars. The breeding highest lysine production. methods and strategies developed for maize Frey (1949) ascertained that tryptophan improvement have changed rapidly owing to level was controlled by 15 pairs of genes, zein the rediscovery of Mendelian genetics, devel by six, valine and leucine by eight and isoleu opment of experimental designs, analysis of cine by six pairs. Low tryptophan content is variance and proper plot techniques and the dominant. For breeding purposes, this implies pureline method of breeding. Maize breeding that at least two high tryptophan lines are is now more of a science than an act since the needed for the production of high tryptophan inbredhybrid concepts are emphasized. For

development of synthetic and hybrid cultivars, This approach will be very useful where methods of determining the combining ability whole grain is used for consumption. As much of an individual are of primary consideration. as 10.8 per cent of the total protein is located Development of suitable QPM cultivars in the germ. Assuming a 10 per cent ratio, requires the contributions of the geneticists when the germ ratio is doubled, as much as 20 and plant breeders, crop protectionists, ana per cent of the proteins falls into the fraction lytical chemists and biochemists, physicists with more desirable amino acid composition and nutritionists. One very important point in (Balint, 1970). choosing breeding techniques to improve quality protein in maize is the question of Germplasm Development whether the amount of protein synthesized by Success in the breeding of maize for higher a seed is conditioned by its own genotype of quality requires first of all the corresponding the plant on which it is borne. Anon. (1969), genetic variability exists together with suit reported that in maize, the genotype of the able method for detection and selection. There plant itself seems to be far more important are basically two main sources of variability than the genotype of seed. In other words, the for inherited characters: those within the culti material parent determines the amount of pro vated species and those found in the related tein with little influence of the pollen parent. wild species. They are an important source of Thus, selection for protein quantity should be genes for specific characteristics not available based on plant basis rather than on seed basis. in commercial cultivars. Artificial mutagene Improvement of the chemical composition sis by treatment with ionising radiation is one of maize by breeding is a difficult task. The of the methods of creating useful genetic vari length of time needed to develop a hybrid is ability hitherto absent of natural germplasm. usually 1015 years. This period, however, Gene mutations had markedly raised the level varies among breeding programmes because of the limiting amino acids in maize. Cell and of season available for breeding activities, tissue culture techniques may further expand source material used for extraction of lines, the opportunities for the development and se extent of testing and resources, available to lection of genetic variability. Vasal (1974) increase lines and produce hybrids. With effi reported that excellent opportunities exist for cient use of growing seasons, the cycle time improvement in protein, lysine and tryptophan for development of new hybrids by the pedi levels of Opaque2 materials. Considerable gree method of breeding may be only four to variation for the traits had been observed and six years (Fehr, 1987). could be exploited within certain limits be Increasing size of germ is one of the ap cause of negative correlation between protein proaches to develop high QPM because the quality and content. Hallauer (1987) observed embryo protein are of excellent nutritive that maize breeders, presently, prefer geneti value. Any change in size of the embryo in a cally narrowbased populations including elite positive direction will be reflected in in line synthetic with restricted genetic base, F2 creased contents of lysine and tryptophan. populations of single crosses and back cross

populations. Development and dissemination Pedigree selection is the most frequently of maize germplasm that possess durable re used method for maize breeding and has been sistance to pests and diseases, tolerance to very effective in the genetic improvement of environmental stress as well as quality trait is hybrid maize. Generally, the pedigree selec one of the aspects of food security. tion in maize is used to develop purelines that The Institute for Agricultural Research, are used as parents of hybrids. Accurate re Samaru has so far obtained QPM germplasm cords are essential to maintain the filial record materials from the Crop Research Institute, (pedigree) of each genotype during each gen Ghana and CIMMYT, Mexico. Additional eration of inbreeding and selection (Hallauer, germplasm materials were obtained from 1987). CIMMYT, Zimbabwe through the Sasakawa Backcrossing is another obvious choice for Global 2000. The germplasm materials have line development. This method is usually used been planted for preliminary characterization. in context of transferring a trait from one Materials with sufficient seed have been genotype (donor parent) to an otherwise desir planted at Samaru, Funtua, Dutsin wai, Tiga able genotype (recurrent parent). The trait and Kano. Visual vigor score indicates that been transferred is usually simply inherited. It some of the materials are promising. is therefore a correctional breeding method that is used to enhance the performance of an Breeding Methods elite inbred line, but it is also used to insert a Maize breeding involves the systematic im specific gene in an elite inbred line. Alexander provement of the crop by controlling the per et al (1969) used F1 backcrossed to the cur centage of the seed. Many breeding proce rent inbred parent. Heterozygotes segregate 3 dures have been suggested for developing new normal: 1 Opaque. After five back crossings, lines, modifying existing lines and improving Opaque2 segregates were selected from the germsplasm source for extraction of new selfed ears. Thus, backcrossing is the easiest lines. Two broad categories of breeding meth method for production of new lines. By this ods are used in maize improvement : develop means Opaque2 gene can be transferred to ing of either new or modified inbred and any ordinary line. population improvement to provide improved Population improvement can be achieved sources of germsplasm for development of through current selection procedure. The steps new lines. Selection aimed at changing the for current selection include development of a chemical composition can also include a heterozygous, heterogeneous population, se change in the morphological characters of the lection among individuals within the popula kernel and ears of the resulting varieties. Such tion and intercrossing of the selection to form selection may also reduce the grain yield. To a new population. Vasal (1974) reported that avoid these undesirable effects, selection intra population selection scheme of fullsib should proceed on the basis of those plants family selection have raised the yield level of that are both high in protein percentage and some opaque2 materials. For traits which are protein quality per see controlled by additive gene action, fullsib

family selection would be very effective. Sev (Pixley, 2001). In the near future, use of bio eral circles of the current selection could be technology particularly cell and tissue culture employed to create genetic families whose may expand the opportunities for the develop kernels have both high nutritional value and ment and selection of useful genetic variabil desirable agronomic characteristics. In each ity in Nigeria maize breeding endeavour. year, about 40 percent of superior families would be analysed and selected. In subsequent Diseases and Pests growing seasons, reciprocal crosses would be Although the implications of developing made between individual plants of these fami resistance to maize diseases and insects, will lies. At harvest, 250 pairs of ears would be only be mentioned briefly here, Vasal (1974) analysed and selected for the next cycle of reported that four major limitations of Opaque evaluation. 2 materials include greater vulnerability to The steps for development of inbred lines ear rot pathogens and greater infestations by for use in the production hybrid cultivars in weevil, both in the filed and in storage. This clude the development of a segregating popu may result from the floury endosperm of the lation, inbreeding of the population to obtain Opaque2 maize which fosters fungal growth homozygous individuals, evaluation of inbred (National Research Council, 1988). According lines for combining ability, evaluation of in to Ortega (1974) pathogens causing disease breds for use as parents in producing superior and insect pests are more prevalent and more hybrids. Hybrids generally yield better and severe at altitudes below 1,200 to 1,500m ele maintain their genetic quality more consis vation in the tropical belt. Under these condi tently. Thus, hybrids are a way of stabilising tions, temperature and moisture and the preva the purity of QPM traits. However, the draw lence of insect vectors, influence the severity back here is that the hybrid seeds have to be of the pest complexes in time and space. Or produced by seed companies and farmers tega (1974) further reported that temperature must buy new seed each year, with its atten and moisture are the major agents regulating dant high cost relative to open pollinating the geographical distribution of insect pest seed. The ultimate economic benefits are and pathogens. In the Nigerian context, four however innumerable. In Nigeria, hybrid major disease and pest problems require inten seeds are used by progressive farmers who sive and systematic work. There are the maize have the required capital to purchase seed and streak virus (MSV), corn stunt and its associ other inputs for intensive maize cultivation. ated insect vectors, the borer complex and the Open pollinated and synthetic cultivars on the downy mildew complex. Although there are other hand are used mainly by subsisting less well defined close associations of maize farmers. Recent trends have shown that use of maizepathogeninsect relationship, maize ear hybrid cultivars, however, are spreading rap and stalk rots caused by Fusarium can become idly even among resources poor farmers. For more prevalent when earworm and stalk borer the farmers who utilize grains as seed, top larvae are abundant. Such interrelations re cross QPM hybrids could be recommended, quire the crop protectionists, the breeders and

the agronomists to work together jointly to Spodoptera budworms, the Heliothus ear produce appropriate pest management prac worms and the stored grain insect can be re tices to reduce pest damage. In the converted garded as the most important. In addition to Opaque2 materials, Fusarium ear rotting was their direct damage, the borers and earworms significantly higher in tropical, subtropical favour the invasion of ear and stalk rotting and highland environments as compared to organisms. Insects are a major cause of maize their normal counterparts. The incidence of storage losses in the tropics. They infest and ear rotting is associated with higher earworm damage grains, resulting in direct and indirect susceptibility. Reaction to other foliar diseases losses of both quality and quantity of food and insect pests seems to be similar to that stored. The insect community associated with observed in ‘normal’ counterparts (Ortega, stored maize includes primary pests as well as 1974). scavengers, predators and parasites (Kossou The endemic presence of sorghum downy and BorquePerez, 1995). Damage and losses mildew (Sclerospora sorghi) and maize in to stored maize in Nigeria are often severe. West Africa, and its dispersal in several coun The difficultly of storing Opaque2 was due tries poses a serious threat to maize produc mainly to insects penetrating the soft kernels. tion. In Nigeria, the disease is a serious prob However, the cracking and splitting of the lem and is moving northward and areas seed coat also foster decay. With QPM, stor around Kabba are hot spots. Thottappily et al age damage is no worse than in ordinary (1995) reported that seven viruses are known maize because the endosperm hardness is vir on maize in tropical Africa, and MSV is tually the same. A particular problem of widely distributed in subsaharan Africa while stored QPM is aflatoxin. Though there is no the other viruses are less widely distributed or unequivocal evidence that QPM is any more only of local importance. Mealie variegation susceptible than normal maize to this toxin or MSV is transmitted by leafhoppers Cica- producing fungus, but like people, fungi re dulina mbla Naude. The symptoms consist of spond to better nutrition (National Research chlorotic streaking over and a long the veins Council, 1988). Jugenheimer (1975) observed on most of the leaf lamina. Though MSV re that the germ of QPM seed with its high food quires the appropriate coincidence of inocu value, is especially attractive to certain in lum source, vector and susceptible material, it sects. Destruction of the germ is often the first can be very effective in ruining plants. At the injury resulting from attack by the grain bee very least, it severely limits times when maize tle. The weevil, grain moth and lesser grain can be planted in many areas (Johnson, 1975). borer usually damage the grain as a whole. In the case of both downy mildew and streak virus, resistance should be incorporated into Control Methods promising QPM varieties as quickly as practi Control of disease and insect involve cable. For us to accomplish this very soon, we breeding, use of chemical and cultural prac require active cooperation of IITA. tices. Established insect problem require im With regard to insects, stem borers, the provements in control, whether these involve

plant breeding, parasites, predators, microor to make QPM beneficial for areas where this ganisms, cultural practices or insecticides. fungal disease is endemic. Resistant varieties Control of fungal diseases can be effected us are the most practical and the cheapest solu ing chemical control, particularly the systemic tions for control. ones. Naturally occurring biological control of Resistance to MSV is controlled by 2 or 3 maize insect pests should not be overlooked. major genes and immunity to MSV have been There is also the need to assess the impact of detected in inbred lines and experiment hy production practices and selective chemical brids. The resistant materials to MSV also control measure in the population of parasites, showed resistance to other viruses. In the case predators and other entomophagous agents. of downy mildew, resistance is controlled by Control of stored grain insect involve sani several factors and is additive in nature. tation, fumigation and use of various dust and Therefore, the breeding approaches that ex sprays. Prevention is very important, and ploit the additive genetic variance such as full therefore for emergency problems, storage sib and should allow pyramiding of genes for facilities may be fumigated with methyl bro resistance. If backcrossing is to be used where mide (Phostoxin). Grain protestants of low resistance is quantitatively inherited, it is nec mammalian toxicity (malathion, gardone, and essary to include one or two generations of baythion) when use at a rate of 7.5 –15 ppm inter mating of resistant plants and their can provide effective control of the cosmo progenies between generations of back politan granary weevil for over a year in tropi crossing to maintain acceptable levels of resis cal environment. A tight long husk cover has tance. Use of conventional backcrossing been shown to reduce weevil penetration and breeding as conducted for a qualitative trait, thus grain damage. The following insecticides may not be successful because the level of are also recommended (g/100g maize grain): resistance decreases with successive genera permethrin 0.5% dust (55g), deltamethrin tions of backcrossing. For disease and pest 0.2% dust (50g) and fervalerate 1.0% dust resistance, artificial methods of infection and (50g) (Kossou and BorquePerez, 1995). infestation are used to reduce escapes. Resistance to fungal diseases has increased partly because QPM kernels are harder and Cultivars Stability dry more quickly than those of Opaque2. It Improved QPM materials generated in the has increased also because the influences that breeding program must be capable of per cause the endosperm to shrink and the seed forming satisfactorily over a range of environ coats to splitwhich opens the kernels to infes ments, or in other words, be broadly adapted. tations –have been reduced or eliminated. Adaptation to diverse environmental condi QPM materials resistant to MSV are neces tions can be gradually achieved through suc sary. According to Pixley (2001), almost all cessive recombinations of superior genotypes the available QPM germplasm from CIM identified at each of a series of sites represent MYT is susceptible to MSV. Similarly resis ing the area for which adaptation is sought tance to downy mildew should be developed (Balint, 1970; Ado, 2000). The development

of systematic analysis of varietal adaptation to throw varying proportions of soft kernel. should be lead to identification of materials or This effect is undesirable and suggests the groups materials with differing responses to need for bringing about stability for this char environments. The next logical step in the acter. Systematic progeny testing in different development would be attempt to identify the locations and eventually recombining only specific environmental factors associated with those families that are relatively stable for this the responses and to understand the morpho character into new population is necessary. logical processes which are the bases of the Genetic improvement in this manner will sur different responses of the materials vive interaction with the environment. (Goldsworthy, 1974). Because varieties are he effects of sites on protein imply the not yet selected for all sites, current QPM va joint effect of several factors, for example, rieties may not perform well in all environ soil type and weather. Of the agronomic prac ments especially those with specific disease or tices, it is fertilization, especially nitrogen insect problems. Although current QPM varie fertilizer which chiefly increase the protein ties can approach normal yields, this may not level. The production of varieties responsive necessarily be true for every part of the world. to higher nitrogen doses is associated with the This is why we have started this evaluation of production of varieties with higher protein available QPM material for stability across level. It should be noted that a rise in protein our environment. Twentyone QPM materials content leads to a rise not in germ size, but in from lowland programme of CIMMYT Mex the endosperm protein especially zein, associ ico had been obtained and are currently grown ated with a reduction of the ratio of the essen in five sites: Kano, Tiga, Dutsin wai, Samaru tial amino acids (Balint, 1970). According to and Funtua. Other CIMMYT QPM materials Vasal (1974), environment influences quality obtained from Zimbabwe through the SG2000 of protein, but there Is little information as to had also been planted at the locations given its effect on quality protein maize grain. Alex above. ander et al (1969) reported that lysine content Questions concerning QPM’s field stabil expressed as per cent of total grain protein ity, protein quality and endosperm expression exceeds 5 per cent in several stock (inbreds, would best be answered by more definitive hybrids) and that environment apparently has research. It is true that in international testing, little effect on relative level of lysine. How some QPM populations seem to be strongly ever, for any quantitative trait, it is important influenced by climate and do not behave as to determine the magnitude of variation expected. This is true of all crop varieties but caused by location and year. Variation due to in the case of QPM, the instability of the gene localities can be larger than that due to two modifiers adds an additional uncertainty to be different years and viseversa. Large scale studied, codified and overcome (National variability caused by environmental effects Research Council, 1988). Modifier genes have shows that breeders are faced with a difficult been known to interact with the environment. problem in their attempt to improve amino The hard endosperm Opaque2 materials tend acid level in maize; .advances in breeding

may be expected to lower variability, but will mium markets. Maintaining QPM’s genetic not eliminate it completely. purity in commercial production will then be of great concern. Maintaining genetic purity CONCLUSION in production field and for monitoring protein quality levels in commercial practice is not Although various approaches can be used only essential but absolutely necessary. One to bridge protein gaps, one of the most feasi possibility can be the introduction of yellow ble and economic solutions is the develop QPM in areas where white maize is used and ment of QPM. The improvement gained viceversa. Use of hybrid QPM is another pos through breeding can provide the consumer sibility since hybrid seed must be purchased with more nearly adequate amounts of nutri for each planting. Genetic contamination can tionally balanced protein without changing be avoided by developing QPM varieties that food habit and without additional food cost. will be incompatible with normal maize by Improvement of chemical composition of employing suitable incompatibility systems. maize by breeding is difficult task. However From the available QPM introduced, the best the expected result will largely repay the re can be chosen for immediate use until the su quired dividends for all the funds and energy perior one is identified or developed. The suc invested. The choice of a particular breeding cess of breeding programme is measured by method depends on the breeding objectives the final product: a superior cultivar that is and whether one or two populations are in acceptable over a large area and provide an cluded. The breeding sequence for developing economic return on the investment in research progenies, evaluating them and recombining and development. superior ones to form the next population gen erally is the same methods of population im REFERENCES provement. By integrating new techniques with traditional methods, genetic improve Ado, S.G. (1999). Maize Production and Food ment will continue to accelerate. Security. Invited paper presented at the Work shop on Food Security, Social Mobilization In order to develop a sustainable disease and Community Empowerment held at and pest management strategy for QPM we Ahmadu Bello University, Kongo Campus, 3 need to understand clearly the interactions 4 November, 1999. pp.27. among cultivars grown as sole crops and in Ado, S.G. (2000). Towards accelerated field association with other crops, the tillage prac testing and release of Quality Protein Maize tices adopted, planted densities, fertility level, Cultivars. Invited paper presented at a Na pesticides levels and other cultural practices tional Seminal on Promotion of Quality Pro that may influence disease and pest inci tein Maize held at Institute of Agricultural Reserch, Ahmadu Bello University, Azria, dences. Use of resistant cultivars offers an December 19, 2000. pp.10. economically stable and ecologically friendly Alexander, D.E.; R.J. Lambert and J.W. approach to minimizing losses from disease Dudley (1969). Breeding problems and poten and pest. Economically successful QPM va tials of modified protein maize. In : New Ap proaches to Breeding for Improved Plant Pro rieties are likely to create new unique and pre tein. Panel Proceedings Series. International

Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. pp.5556. Kossou, D.K. and N.A. Borque-Perez (1995). Insect Pests of Maize in storage: Anonymous (1969) New Approaches to Biology and Control. IITA Research Guide Breeding for Improved Plant Protein. Panel 32, pp.28. Proceedings Series. International Atomic En ergy Agency, Vienna. pp.193. National Research Council. (1988). Quality Protein Maize. National Academy Press, Balint A. (Ed.) (1970) Protein growth by Washington D.C. pp.100. plant breeding. Aademiai Kiado, Budapest. pp.179. CIMMYT. (1999). People and Parner Nelson, O.E. (1969). The Modification by ships: MediumTerm Plan of the Internation Mutation of Protein Quality in Maize. Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre. 2000 In: New Approaches to Breeding for Im 2002+. proved Plant Protein. Panel Proceedings Se Mexico D.C.: CIMMYT. pp.76. ries. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. pp.4154. Domanovic, J. and M. Denic (1969). Varia tion and heritability of lysine content in Ortega, A. (1974) .Maize insects and dis maize. In: New Approaches to Breeding for eases. In: Proceeding World Wide Maize Im Improved Plant Protein. Panel Proceedings provement in the 1970s and the Role for CIM series. International Atomic Energy, Vienna. MYT, April 2226, 1974, LeBatan pp.109116. Mexico pp. 41. Pixley, K.V. (2001). Protein Maize: Over Fehr, W.R. (1987). Principles of Cultivar view, breeding strategy and Recent Reseach development. Vol.II. Macmillan Publishing Results for Southern Africa. Paper presented Co. New York pp.110. at a National Maize Workshop, Samaru, Zaria, Nigeria, September 2001 pp.16. Frey, J.K. (1949). The inheritance of protein and certain of its components in maize. Agr. J. Thielebein, M. (1969). The world’s protein 41, 399403. situation and crop improvement. In:: New Ap proaches to Breeding for Improved Plant Pro Goldsworthy, P. (1974). Maize physiology. tein. Panel Proceedings Series. International In Proceeding World Wide Maize Improve Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. pp.36. ment in the 1970s and the Role for CIMMYT, April 2226, 1974, LeBatan, Mexico pp. 36. Thottappilly, G.; H.W. Rossel; N.A. Borque -Perez (1995). Viruses and virus diseases of Hallauer, A.R. (1987). Maize. In : Fehr, W.R maize in tropical Africa. IITA Research Guide (Ed.). Principles of Cultivars Development. 54, pp.36. Vol.II. Macmillan Publishing Co. New York pp. 249293. Vasal, S.K. (1974). Nutritional quality of Maize. In: Proceeding World Wide Maize Johnson, E.C. (1974). Maize improvement. Improvement in the 1970s and the Role for In Proceeding World Wide Maize Improve CIMMYT, April 2226, 1974, LeBatan ment in the 1970s and the Role for CIMMYT, Mexico pp. 28. April 2226, 1974, LeBatan, Mexico pp. 37.

Jugenheimer, R.W. (1975). Corn improve ment, seed production and uses. UrbanaCampaign, Illinois pp.670.

TOWARDS ACCELERATED FIELD TESTING AND RELEASE OF QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE CULTIVARS

S.G. Ado* (Maize breeder)

INTRODUCTION Qualitative characters such as disease resis The ultimate goal of quality protein maize tance, controlled by a single gene, are not in (QPM) breeding program is development of fluenced by the environment, and limited cultivars that have high contents of lysine and evaluation in the greenhouse or field may be tryptophan as well as high stable yield per adequate. formance over environments. This goal is Since maize is cultivated in a large scale achievable in different phases. In the short in the country, initial informal or exploratory term, introduced materials can be tested in survey on maize production by researchers is multilocation and on farmer’s fields to iden not necessary. However study of secondary tify suitable cultivars for production within data to enable proper choice of a first set of four years. In the medium term, improved cul QPM cultivars for onfarm testing and addi tivars can be developed as composites and tional studies through focused (formal) sur synthetic varieties, while in the long run, veys is necessary. Continued testing with a adapted hybrids would be developed from the modified or new cultivars based on previous available germplasm. Quality protein hybrids results is also necessary. Technical questions developed could be better in terms of yield with regard to accelerated field testing of and quality protein than those currently QPM varieties such as how to elucidate farm grown. The responsibility for developing new ers wishes and understand their constraints, varieties rests with the national agricultural the type of experimental designs to use in the research institutes and to some extent, the pri field testing, the techniques of data analysis to vate seed companies. Improved population use and how the results obtained could be dis developed as potential cultivars must be seminated to farmers as well as to the scien evaluated before they are considered for regis tific community at large will be highlighted tration and release to farmers. Usually the by the paper. amount of testing depends on the breeding objectives, the purpose of release and the in FIELD-PLOT TECHNIQUES FOR CUL- fluence of the environment on the expression TIVAR EVALUATION of the character being tested (in this case the Accelerated field testing and release of content of quality protein). Quality protein QPM cultivars can be achieved through well being a quantitative character is expected to designed experiments which are carefully be strongly influenced by the environment. conducted, analysed and properly interpreted.

*Department of Plant Science Institute for Agricultural Research Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria.

Statistical technique are generally used for for normal maize, which Is usually between choosing appropriate experimental designs for 1st to 15th June in the Northern Guinea sa error estimation, error control and proper in vanna. The germplasm materials are com terpretation of results obtained. The experi pared with the cultivars that have been ac mental error gives the difference among ex cepted by the farmers. Check varieties are perimental plots treated alike and it is the pri placed at random or at regular intervals say at mary basis for deciding whether observed dif every 5 or 10 rows. Recommended production ferences are real or just due to chance. Experi practices for production in term of cultural mental error is estimated by use of replica management practices are followed. Three tions and randomisation while control of error seeds are planted per hole, about 34cm deep is achieved through blocking. Proper interpre on ridges with interrow spacing of 50cm. tation of results is essential because results Thinning to two seedlings per stand is done obtained are applicable only to conditions that two weeks after planting to give a population are the same or very similar to that under approximately 53,000 plants per hectare. Fer which the experiment was conducted (Gomez tilizes are applied at a rate of 1005050kg N, and Gomez, 1984). Because of variation in P2O5 and K2O per hectare, respectively. time and space, trials with new QPM cultivars Weeds are controlled by appropriate methods must be conducted in the research station, in such as manual weedings or use of pre multilocations and on farmers field, to ensure emergence or post emergence herbicides or a that the results will apply over a wide range of combination of them. Remolding is done to environments before suitable ones are recom achieve weed control, improve soil aeration mended for release to the growers. However, and prevent root lodging. to accelerate the release of suitable cultivars, The trial is laid out in a simple lattice or in the first year of test can be limited to the re a randomised complete block design with 2 or search station and two or three other locations, 3 replications. The choice of design to use is while promising cultivars can be tested in to be determined by the number of entries in multilocations and onfarm in the second and cluded in the experiment and soil variability at the third years. the site. For 100 or more entries, the simple lattice design is preferred. However, further ON-STATION TRIALS decision about the choice of an experimental Preliminary trials with introduced QPM design is made by comparing their relative germplasm materials are conducted in the re efficiencies. If the lattice design is more effi search fields. The main aims of the prelimi cient in reducing the experimental error by nary trials are to identify cultivars, lines or about 10 percent, the lattice design is used hybrids with production potential and to select rather than the randomised complete block the best ones to continue in the program. The design. Plots in general are longer than their lines that have specific deficiencies are elimi width and usually one to two unbordered rows nated at the same time. The preliminary trials are used. The row length is about 5.0m while are planted at the recommended planting time row width is 0.750.90m. Interplot competi

tion effects among entries in small plot trials, forest zone is chosen for testing the same such as can occur. If cultivars of different ma short season cultivars for second season plant turity and plant height are in adjacent plots, ing or long season cultivars for early planting. the earlier, smaller cultivars will be at a disad Other sites are chosen for testing cultivars vantage in comparison with the later taller under drought or other stress conditions. cultivars. The effects of interplot competi The breeder or his institution nominates tion; usually are kept to a minimum by group new cultivars into Nationally Coordinated ing cultivars in a test by maturity and plant Research Programme (NCRP) on Maize for type, if large differences among cultivars are the multilocation trials. New varieties for known for plant height within the same matur release must undergo at least two consecutive ity, 3 or 4 row plots are used and data are col years of multilocation researcher managed lected from the centre rows (Hallauer, 1987). trials. One year of multilocation testing may Data in the field are recorded for days to ger be accepted in exceptional cases when there is mination, plant stands after germination, days urgent demand, for example in the case of to tassel, days to silking days to maturity, QPM (Oyekan, 1999). The multilocation tri plant height, ear height, root lodging, plant als are planted in 5.0m long plots with 24 aspect and ear aspect while grain yield and rows. The 2row plots are unbordered with protein quality are determined in the labora both rows harvested for yield. Bordered plots tory. are 3row or 4row plots with only the centre row harvested in the 3row plots and the 2– MULTI-LOCATION TRIALS center rows harvested in the 4row plots. A Because new cultivars will be grown under subsample from the harvest of a plot is used many different management practices and in for estimating protein quality. The most com environment conditions different from those mon design utilised for the multilocation tri found at the research station, promising geno als is a randomised complete block design types selected from the preliminary yield test with 3 or 4 replications at each location. A must be examined in as many different envi simple lattice design with 24 replications can ronments as possible in subsequent years. also be utilised if the number of cultivars ex This is the responsibility of the breeder in ceeds 36. conjunction with cooperators at the different locations. The multilocation trials are also ON-FARM TRIALS conducted to determine the range of possible Onfarm research is used in examining the use and stability of performance over the geo effect of physical, biological and socio graphic area in which the prospective cultivars economic factors on the performance of dif are expected to be grown. About 1020 loca ferent farming systems as well as test the ac tions for yield trials are considered each year. ceptability or adoptability of new technologies Three of the sites are selected for certain rea by farmers (Mutsaers et. Al, 1991, Spencer, son such, as Sudan savannah to test early ma 1991). In onfarm research, new technologies turing cultivars for short season. A site in the are exposed to the real world of small scale

farmer. On the farmer field, new cultivars reduced. Besides, this improves assessment have to cope with conditions which often have because they understand the trials better and only a remote resemblance to those of the well are aware of impute as well as outputs. Team organized and uniform experimental fields of and interdisciplinary work is improved when the research station. Through onfarm trials actual constraints are faced with the farmers. factors influencing yield variability between The results are easily diffused in case of suc field are analysed and the major yield limiting cess. Thus the onfarm trial if well designed factors are identified. Integration of agro may provide not only the intended evaluation nomic and socioeconomic studies improves of QPM materials, but may also supply breed the efficiency of onfarm research and at times ers with information concerning selection cri partly substitutes for costly experimentation teria, pathologists and entomologist with use (Byerlee and Tromphe, 1991). ful data on the importance of significant dis Onfarm testing is usually the final stage of eases and pests at different times of the year, the cultivar evaluation. The outstanding culti and may provide agronomist with information vars selected after multilocation trials must on a number of cultural practice issues as well be tested for at least one year in farmer man as effects of various environmental factors on aged condition. This is usually carried out in yield. If the trial is designed to conduct both collaboration with the State Agricultural De farmer managed and researchmanaged on the velopment Programmes (ADPs). The main same land; longterm onstation testing is un objectives of the onfarm trials are to provide necessary (Diomande and Tanom1991) additional information in determining which Onfarm trials are usually nonreplicated cultivars are considered for release to farmers. and are conducted on larger plots (0.25 ha). In designing the onfarm trial, ecological Maximizing the number of sites is generally disparities must be addressed. Good use of more important than replications within sites. secondary data concerning vegetation , soil When testing the new cultivars, one or two and climate is made in the design of trials. level of fertility may be considered in the trial. Joint visits by scientists and ADP staff to Many important farmer related variables will monitor the trials at important stages of the show up during the trial. Therefore, a suffi crop growth are planned. The farmers reaction cient larger number of sites, say 20, is neces during the monitoring is noted (Erenie et. Al. sary in order to obtain the effect of this vari 1991). The feasibility trials of the QPM culti ability. A check is usually included in the trial vars is designed by both the researcher and the as an adjacent plot on which the farmer grows farmers. The involvement of farmers in the the crop his own way. Labour cost is esti design and implementation of the trials im mated to enable calculations of the profitabil proves the reliability of the results obtained ity of the technology being tested. Information because the farmers are interested in the out required from the onfarm trial include stand come of the trials. Consequently common establishment after germination and final problems such as farmer’s neglects of trial stand count before harvest, pest and disease plots, obstruction of data collection etc. are scores, weed scores, maturity period, crop

yields, plant and ear aspects, quality protein vars will be entered into the National Register. content, variable inputs, farmer assessment of the trial, etc. The farmers’ assessment is ob CONCLUSION tained through group interviews, field days, fol Accelerated field testing and release of QPM lowup surveys and test panels. If farmers are cultivars is possible if proper assessment of in negative about a technology, it is unlikely to be troduced germplasm is carried out . Proper field adopted even if economic analysis shows it is plot technique is needed in the conduct of on profitable. A positive response by farmers need station, multilocations and onfarm trials. If not, however necessarily imply that the technol funds are available for germplasm assessment in ogy will be adopted. Further evaluation is done multilocations and onfarm trials involve farm after farmers have had a chance to evaluate stor ers in the design and execution of the trials; new age, processing quality and marketability cultivars may be identified, selected and re (Mutsaer et. Al. 1991). A complete analysis of leased within four years. Further breeding work agronomic and economic data enables a better will, however, continue to improve the assessment of recommendations for variety re germplsm for hybrid variety development. lease. REFERENCES RECOMMENDATION FOR REGISTRATION AND RELEASE Byerlle, D. and B. Triomphe (1991). The use of integrated agronomic economic surveys in After one or two years of onfarm trials, the the diagnostic stage of onfarm Research in best cultivars with broad adaptation are recom Theory and Practice. Proceedings of workshop mended for registration and release. The data on design and analysis of onfarm trials, 27 Feb collected from all the trials used to determine ruary to 3 March 1989, IITA Ibadan pp. 2338. the stability of performance of the cultivars. Diomende, M. and K. Tano (1991). On farm According to Findlay and Wilkinson (1963) trial designed to stabilize an upland rice based stability of performance is assessed by regress cropping system in Cote d’Ivore. In: Mutsaers, ing the varieties mean yields on the environ H.J.W. and P. Walker (eds). Onfarm Research in theory and Prctice. Proceedings of workshop mental index (the site mean yield). on design and analysis of onfarm trials, 27 Feb The breeder or breeding institution sends the ruary to 3 March 1989, IITA Ibadan pp. 198 recommendation for registration and release of 199. the cultivars through the NCRP coordinating Eremie, S.W., P.S.O. Okoli and H.R. Chheda institute to the Registrar, National Committee (1991). An assessment of the design and analy on Registration and Release of Crop Varieties sis of onfarm trials in Nigeria’s Agricultural and Livestock Breeds in accordance with De development Projects (ADPs). In: Mutsaers, cree 33 of 1987. The submission made should H.J.W. and P. Walker (eds). Onfarm Research in theory and Practice. Proceedings of workshop contain general and specific descriptors of the on design and analysis of onfarm trials, 27 Feb cultivars as well as the performance data of the ruary to 3 March 1989, IITA Ibadan pp. 101 – cultivars from the onstation, multilocation and 110. onfarm trials. If release is approved, the culti

Fibndlay, K.W and G.N. Wilkinson (1963). Oyekan, P.O. (1999). Variety Development, The analysis of adaption in plant breeding Testing and Release Mechanism in Nigeria. programme. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 14, 742 –754. In: FAO/FDA/NSS Proceeding of comprehen sive training in seed Production, Proceeding, Gomez , A.C. and A.A. Gomez (1984). Sta Storage, Distribution and Marketing, Vo l. II, tistical Procedures for Agricultural Research. pp. 4148. Second Edition John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 680. Spencer, D.S.C. (1991). Collecting meaning ful data on labour use and farm size for eco Hallauer, A.R. (1987). Maize. In: W.R. Fehr nomic analysis associated with onfarm trials (ed). Principles of cultivars development Vol. in SubSaharan Africa. In: Mutsaers, H.J.W. 2 Macmillan Publishing Co. New York pp. and P. Walker (eds). Onfarm Research in 249293 theory and Practice. Proceedings of workshop on design and analysis of onfarm trials, 27 Mutsaers, H.J.W.: J. Smith and P. Walker February to 3 March 1989, IITA Ibadan pp. (1991). A synopsis of workshop concussions. 5359 In: Mutsaers, H.J.W. and P. Walker (eds). On farm Research in theory and Practice. Pro ceedings of workshop on design and analysis of onfarm trials, 27 February to 3 March 1989, IITA Ibadan pp. 1 –22.

QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE SEED PROGRAMME IN NIGERIA T.O. Okolo*

1.0 BACKGROUND improve on the protein content of normal maize, whose crude protein content is gener 1.1 Importance of Maize ally below 11%. The recent discovery of Maize is a very important cereal crop in quality protein maize has made it possible to Nigeria, probably ranking third among the tremendously improve on the essential amino cereal crops. The 1998 Central Bank of Nige acid composition from the plant kingdom. ria annual Report and Statement of Accounts Studies conducted in Ghana have shown that: stated that 6.4 million tonnes of maize was i. QPM enhance linear growth in weaning produced. Based on an average yield of about children by 19.3% and 1.31.4 metric tonnes/hectare, this means that ii. Children fed on QPM had better chances about 5.0 million hectares of land is under of escaping death due to diarrhoea and maize cultivation. Maize is usually consumed other infectious diseases compared to green during the “hungry” periods immedi those fed on normal maize. ately after the long dry season when tubers iii. Cost per kilogramme feed was reduced by like yam and other food stuff become too 29.4% for broilers and by 18.0%; 12.6% scarce; it is also widely used as food by both and 12.8&% at starter, grower and finish man and livestock. Normal maize cultivars ing phases for pigs, respectively, when commonly grown and consumed are deficient QPM was substituted for normal maize in in two essential amino acids, Lysine and tryp these diets. tophan. As a result, malnutrition due to inade There is significant difference when lysine quate protein intake is, therefore widespread. and tryptophan content in QPM were com To solve this problem, interinstitutional and pared with what is obtained in normal maize. multidisciplinary research was conducted with The average of 4.005% / 100g of protein, for commendable result which have helped to: lysine in QPM and 2.96% / 100g of protein i. Develop high yielding and stable quality for normal maize was observed while that of protein maize (QPM) varieties which are tryptophan is 1.665g / 100g of protein as high in these two essential amino acids, against 0.61g /100g of protein for normal lysine and tryptophan, and maize. It follows that the main thrust of QPM ii. Promote the production and utilisation of development was to increase the essential these cultivars. amino acid content of maize, particularly the lysine and tryptophan content. 1.2 Benefits of QPM Because of the tremendous success of Quality Protein Maize (QPM) is relatively a Obatanpa in Ghana, several other subSahara new set of varieties of maize developed to African countries are testing the variety with

*National Seed Service, Abuja

the aim of releasing it and improving on the duction in Ghana. Today, the emphasis of nutritional value and therefore addressing the CIMMYT is more on developing hybrids, issue of resistance to stress and other biotic although new openpollinated varieties are and abiotic conditions. being generated as well. The process of evolving QPM is based on 2.0 State of QPM in the Sub-Region conventional breeding process which is safe Quality Protein Maize is at long last, begin and environmentally friendly as against the ning to fulfil the promise that scientists genetically modified processes, whose tech originally saw in this type of maize when it nologies are still subject to controversy as was first discovered in 1963. QPM breed they relate to the environment, human health, ing materials, experimental varieties and nutrition etc. hybrids were distributed to national re search programmes and a few scientists 3.0 Status of QPM in Nigeria. most notable in South Africa, Brazil and During the most recent visit of former Presi Ghana—by CIMMYT, Mexico. The dent of the United States of America, Presi SG2000 was instrumental in reviving QPM dent Jimmy Carter and his wife to Nigeria, research at the Crop Research Institute the issue of QPM formed a very important (CRI) in Ghana starting in 1990. By 1993, part of their discussions with the Vice Presi an outstanding QPM variety based on dent of the Federal Republic of Nigeria, Al CIMMYT material, had been developed haji Atiku Abubakar. The Vice President and approved for commercial production. It thereafter, directed the Federal Ministry of was named Obatanpa, which means good Agriculture and Rural Development (FMA & mother. Since its release, Obatanpa has RD) to study the QPM in Ghana with the aim spread to more than 200,000 hectares of of introducing it to Nigeria. Consequently a farmers’ land in Ghana. Its high yield po team of two Officials of the FMA & RD un tential, excellent resistance to maize streak dertook a study tour in Ghana between 2nd virus, which is a serious disease problem in and 6th August, 2000. The outcome of their most of tropical and subtropical Africa, report culminated into setting up of a Minis intermediate maturity classification, and terial Committee on Introduction / Develop white grain type are all very much appreci ment of QPM in Nigeria. The Committee’s ated by farmers. Its broad breath of adapta teams of Reference was to look into the detail tion makes it suitable to many maize— modus operandi for the smooth, safe and sus growing environments. Obatanpa is being tainable introduction / development of QPM tested in most other SG200 project coun in Nigeria. The inaugural meeting of this tries, with very good results and is pres committee was held at the Institute for Agri ently being commercially grown in Benin, cultural Research ABU, Zaria on the 30th Togo, Burkina Faso, Mali and Guinea. In August, 2000.. After extensive deliberations 1998, three, even highyielding QPM hy the committee came up with the following brids were approved for commercial pro decisions:

i. The Committee agreed to introduce QPM viii. The NCRP should be adequately into Nigeria, because of its inherent quali strengthened to ensure accelerated release ties of increasing the protein intake and en of proven QPM materials. hancing the nutritional status of Nigerians. ix. Large scale importation of QPM seed from ii. A virile National Seed Multiplication Pro Ghana or elsewhere should be avoided for gramme for QPM should be put in place. biotic reasons and other associated risks. This programme will be required to co x. The NSS should meet very quickly with ordinate and monitor all implementing the two NARIs and come up with a costed agencies (Public and Private) that would National QPM Programme. This meeting be involved in the cultivar development, was convened by IAR, ABU Zaria. multiplication, quality control, promo xi. Priority will be given to the installation of tions, utilisations etc. of the various amino acid analysers already procured and classes (Breeder, Foundation and certified supplied. At least two (2 No) analysers Seed) emanating from the QPM Pro particularly at IAR and IAR & T shall be gramme. installed before the end of the year. Pend iii. Field testing should be accelerated to en ing the installation, QPM materials shall sure that the requirements for varietal re be forwarded to a reputable testing labora lease are met within shortest time. Provi tory for analysis. This should be done with sional release should follow laid down approval of the Registrar of Crop Variety procedure. Registration and Release, through whom iv. Existing legislation, rules and regulations the materials will be forwarded to the governing germplasm introduction, vari agreed laboratory. ety development, release and registration xii Whatever is sent outside the country for should be strictly adhered to, but it should amino acid analysis must conform with the not stifle private sector initiative. international phytosanitary procedures v. Need for compulsory certification of QPM through the involvement of the Plant Quar seed was adopted, so that farmers are not antine service. ripped off and consumers interest pro There is evidence that IAR, ABU Zaria tected. collected germplasm of QPM seed between vi The NARIs, NSS and Extension should be May and June, 2000 from Ghana Crop Re adequately and timely funded for success search Institute. The IAR&T Ibadan also re ful implementation of the National QPM ported that three outstanding maize varieties cultivar development, seed production/ that combine high yield with high protein con distribution and promotion programmes. tent (about 14% total protein) as against the vii. Prospective seed companies or interested normal maize variety which contains 811% seed producers desiring to partake in QPM protein have been identified. programme shall be dully accredited for that purpose to ensure effective supervi sion, control and competition.

4.0 Strategies for Virile QPM Programme sure the maintenance of high quality in the In Nigeria purity of the QPM. i. The maize cultivars and hybrids currently in use by farmers are developed to solve the 5.0 QPM National Programme. problems of Downy Mildew, Striga, The QPM National Programme shall: Streak, Blight and drought. The incorpora a. Organise and coordinate the activities of tion of quality protein in maize seed sown relevant agencies (Public and Private) that by the farmers will be another monumental will be involved in the screening, develop achievement if it takes cognisance of the ment, multiplication, promotion, distribu need to include these advances already re tion and utilisation of the various classes of corded in the normal maize into the QPM seeds (Breeder, Foundation and certified). cultivars. b Ensure that a sustainable and phased pro ii. The National Agricultural Research Insti gramme with the ultimate goal of covering tutes with national mandate for genetic the total land area under maize production improvement of maize should be ade with QPM is achieved within the shortest quately and timely funded to carry out possible time. The NSS, NARIs and the germplasm screening and development of Private sectors should be given very promi QPM cultivars adaptable to the various nent roles and support in this regard. ecologies (forest, midaltitude and savan In pursuance of the decisions of the Minis nah) of Nigeria. terial Committee, the technical sub iii. The National Coordinated Project on Committee comprising NSS, IAR and IAR&T maize and the National Variety Registra charged with the responsibility of developing tion and Release mechanism/committee a costed National QPM Programme met on should be well facilitated to ensure accel the 19th and 20th September, 2000 at IAR erated release of highly proven materials Zaria. The subcommittee came up with a suited for any part of the country. three year costed QPM Programme. The iv. A strong and very effective seed certifica budget implementation schedule for the three tion and Law Enforcement Scheme should year costed programme shall be at 50% during be put in place in order to ascertain the the first year, 30% in the second year and 20% quality of QPM in the market and arrest in the third year. By the fourth year the entire the situation of spurious and unscrupulous programme shall be reviewed. On the claim seed merchants who may wish to take un that QPM seed is available in the country, the due advantage of the uninformed farmer. Government agreed that such claims should v. All QPM cultivars shall be declared noti be ascertained and the varieties involved be fied kinds for compulsory certification. analysed for their essential amino constitu vi. A National Programme on QPM seed Mul ents. To actualised this, the two NARIs, IAR tiplication, Promotion and Utilisation shall and IAR&T would be assisted by the Govern be in place to gradually replace normal ment to install their amino acid analysers be maize with quality protein maize and en fore the end of the year. Currently. NSS is in

possession of cost estimates for the required pleted within 6 months. accessories which will enable full functionality of the amino acid analyzers and that for the 5.1 Implementation Strategies installation / commissioning of the amino acid Concerted actions are being undertaken to analyzer for IAR and IAR&T respectively. ascertain the locations of all established QPM Concerted efforts are being made and available seed fields in the country for proper follow up information showed that the release of funds actions needed to mount effective quality con has reached advanced stages, which will guar trol programme. The confirmed / certified antee successful installation of the equipment quantities of Breeder, Foundation and certified for use before the end of the year, 2000. The seeds shall form the take off point for QPM verification of the essential amino acids of the use in Nigeria in year 2001. available QPM in the country shall be com

SEED REQUIREMENT FOR A THREE YEAR NATIONAL QPM PROGRAMME

Seed Class of Activity Within Quality of Seed to be Produced (kg.) 3 Years

2001 1002 2003

1000 kg 500 300 200 Breeder Produced by

IAR IAR&T

25,000 kg 12,500 25,000 15,000 Foundation Produced by

NSS

Certified =N= 1,000.000

** = Quantity of QPM seeds to be sourced outside the National QPM Programme during the first two years of the Programme.

The development of QPM including germ The NSS shall produce Breeder seed from any plasm collection, evaluation, screening/ Seed Company having duly accredited materi selection and Breeder seed production already als. Within the three year programme NSS initiated by IAR and IAR&T shall be com shall be funded to procure 25 metric tonnes of pleted within three years programme with pro Foundation seeds while price support of about duction of 500kg Breeder seeds of two QPM =N=1, 000,000.00 shall be provided to en cultivars per institute. Similarly OnFarm test hance uptake of certified QPM seeds by farm ing / NCRP evaluation nationwide with ers. ADPs, NSS and FDA shall go on currently.

5.2. Price Support ing for spurious seeds and curtail the activities To ensure quick and adequate uptake of of unscrupulous seed dealers / merchants. QPM seeds by farmers, a price support re gime is envisaged to make the seeds af 7.0 Seed Promotions fordable and this shall be implemented in QPM adoption and utilisation promotion line with the budgetary provision of 50% programmes to create needed awareness on support in the first year, 30% in the second the nutritional qualities inherent in QPM to year and 20% support in the third year of enhance rapid uptake by the end users shall be the programme. accomplished through these strategies: i. Demonstration 6.0 Seed Certification and Quality Using the MTP approach of SG 2000, Control with a plot size of 0.25 ha, provision of The General Seed Certification Standards agroinputs (seed, fertilizers, agro which are basic and together with the specific chemicals) on time, 10 N0s. Demonstration field and seed standard shall constitute the plots, to be farmers managed, shall be es standards for the certification of QPM seeds. tablished per state and the FCT during the For the production of OpenPollinated QPM first year of the Programme. cultivars, a minimum of three seed field in ii. QPM Workshops spections shall be conducted in such a way Two workshops with the objectives of that the first is made before flowering, the enlightening the policy makers and all second during flowering and the third just be stakeholders including the participating fore the harvest. In the case of the production ADPs, WomeninAgriculture, Home Eco of QPM inbred line, single, three way and nomic Division, Ministry of Health, UNI double cross hybrids seeds, a minimum of CEF, SG2000 and agro based industries on four seed field inspections shall be conducted the utilisation and benefits of the QPM in such a way that the first is made before shall be carried out. One in IAR, Zaria for flowering, two during flowering when the the Northern States and the other at seed crop has apparently 5% or more recep IAR&T, Ibadan for the Southern States. tive silks in the seed parent rows (hybrids) and iii. Publicity the last before the harvest. a Production of Advisory Leaflet on Only seed lots that meet both the pre QPM scribed field and seed standards, granted certi Advisory leaflets in English language, fication, well labelled and packaged with af and three Nigerian languages, including fixed certification tag shall be allowed to be Posters, Handbills shall be produced in marketed. This shall be assured through regu collaboration with NAERLS. lar seed quality checks, assurances and control b Radio Jingles on all categories of QPM seeds in seed stores Radio jingles in three Nigerian lan across the county in order to safeguard the guages and English language shall be de interest of the uninformed farmers from pay veloped by NSS in collaboration with

NAERLS, WomeninAgriculture and formation services would be provided. In ad Home Economic for use during sponsored dition, baseline survey and impact evaluation air time to convey specific messages on studies would also be conducted. QPM to the grassroot. c Documentaries 9.0 CONCLUSION Television documentaries in the third year In conclusion, therefore, the biotic and of the programme on the achievement of abiotic problems peculiar to the diverse agro the QPM programme shall be produced. ecologies of Nigeria will have to be overcome iv. Community Seed Diffusion e.g. Downy Mildew, drought tolerance, Striga, Programme Blight etc. importation of QPM materials ex The federal Government may consider cept for germplasm purposes should be pur the option of procuring a given quantity of sued with caution, because of its adverse con QPM seed for distribution to the States sequences. Adequate and timely funding of and FCT for planting, following the the National QPM Seed Production, Promo SG2000 MTP model during the second tions, Utilisation and Distribution Programme and third year of the programme. should be accorded top priority so as to ensure proper coordination and monitoring of QPM 8.0 Monitoring and Evaluation dissemination into the rural farmers through Effective implementation support in terms out the country. of adequate monitoring and management in

SEED PRODUCTION AND MARKETING: THE SEED CO EXPERIENCE S.B. Mc Carter*

INTRODUCTION pany’s sphere of operation. Effective maize breeding in Zimbabwe created the need to create business structures Achievement of this mission will ensure a to multiply and market superior hybrids. The sustainable and profitable business providing seed company created has successful to the acceptable returns to our shareholders, while point that large volumes of adapted, high significantly improving food security in the quality seed have been made available and are region. It is important to note that while the purchased annually by smallholder farmers. company was born in Zimbabwe the mission The almost total adoption of hybrid seed is to extend operations to all appropriate mar would tend to indicate that these are ready to kets in subsaharan Africa. The company’s apply reasonably priced improved technology. marketing theme for 2001/2002 embraces the simple statement £Seed CoFeeding Africa”. SEED CO MISSION STATEMENT Critical Success Factors SEED CO LIMITED - THE RESULT OF • The development of superior leading prod EVOLUTION ucts through innovative research and ac The origin of Seed Co in Zimbabwe date cess to the seed industry’s best technology. back to 1940, with the formation of the Seed • Commitment to customer satisfaction and Maize Association. This Association was re the enhancement of farmer productivity quested by Government, to multiply and mar and profitability. ket popular open pollinated maize varieties. • The recruitment and development of This group of farsighted maize growers rec skilled employees and their retention ognized the vital importance of seed quality through rewarding output, talent and integ and supply. Together, these members have rity. ably produced consistent quality, hybrid and • The efficient coordination and manage open pollinated seed in sufficient volumes to ment of the seed supply chain, from seed sustain Zimbabwean and Regional needs even production and processing through to the after recent droughts. distribution network. The Crop Seed Association was formed in • Sound financial management and informa 1957 initially to concentrate on improved tion systems to ensure continue business wheat, soybean and groundnut seed produc viability and growth from a strong financial tion. Later developments embraced the sun base. flower, sorghum, millets, barley and bean • The development of new markets of new seed crops. markets and the expansion of the com In 1988 the Zimbabwe Seed and Crop

*SEED CO LIMITED, P.O. Box WGT 64, Westgate, Zimbabwe

Seed Associations merged to form the Seed This evolution of Seed Co was precipitated Cooperative Company of Zimbabwe Limited. by the increasing complexity of seed produc Having similar objectives, this rationalisation tion, rapidly increasing seed volumes, chang provided for more efficient resources use and ing economic conditions and the need to com consolidation of like interests. Membership plete with global players. What started in and staff were amalgamated which resulted in 1940 as a relatively significant grouping of far a single management structure where all re sighted maize growers has evolved over 60 search, production, conditioning, warehous years to the largest seed company in the Re ing, marketing and financial support were gion. streamlined. In order to bridge the gap for resource poor Seed production volumes continued to in farmers, between research and field applica crease and in 1990, it was realised that plant, tion of appropriate technology, linkages need building and equipment were inadequately to be created and nurtured. The combined re coping with growth. Relocation took place the sources of CGIAR Centres, NARS, NGOs, following year to a 10 hectare property at Sta donors and the private sector will need to be pleford, some 20 kilometres north of Harare. focused specifically at raising productivity at These new facilities comprise a three smallholder level. Seed Co works effectively hectare warehouse (including an Export Proc with CIMMYT, ICRISAT and SG2000 in a essing Zone), a parent seed store, government range of projects and crops... resources are too approved seed testing laboratory and Head limited for any of us to do it alone! Office. Stateoftheart seed conditioning equipment has been installed to ensure the RESEARCH IN ZIMBABWE timely delivery of quality seed to our custom Research focused on breeding hybrid ers. Small packing equipment has, in recent maize began in 1932, at the Harare Research years, been stretched beyond the limit of its station which is still today, part of the Minis capacity in providing customers with a large try of Agriculture. This remarkable event range of pack sizes to meet their individual placed Zimbabwe as the second country in the requirements. world, after the United States, to embark on a In mid 1996 the company was renamed hybrid maize breeding programme. The first Seed Co Limited and was listed on the Zim commercial maize hybrids were released by babwe Stock Exchange. This significant event the station and introduced for sale by the Seed would: Maize Association in 1947. SR52, the world’s • Make shares available to all interested in first commercial single hybrid cross, was offi vestors. cially released in 1960. The hybrid is grown • Provide the mean to raise capital in small volume in the region. • Make management more accountable for An important key in the development of the company’s performance the Zimbabwe seed industry was the signing • Facilitate the development of regional many years ago of the legal agreement with Business the Ministry of Agriculture. This agreement

entitled the company the exclusive right to The Research Stations are a showpiece of multiply and market a range of Government professionalism and is not the only site used bred products. In exchange, the company had to evaluate germplasm. Extensive trials are to undertake to produce agreed volumes of carried out countrywide, in both large and seed, including a 20% to 30% carryover, de small scale farming environments. Collec pending on seed type and to sell the seed at tively, in 2000/2001, over 700 scientific trials agreed prices. These agreements have resulted on over 1000 000 field plots were planted and in large volumes of quality seed being made will be analysed before next summer. In addi available to Zimbabwean farmers at prices tion, demonstration blocks at approximately three times lower than those in South Africa 200 sites featuring newly release materials are and appropriately to the farming community grown and used effectively for field day on the basis of royalty paying agreement with events. a number of seed companies including Seed More resources are being allocated to re Co. search activities. The number of breeders em ployed has increased to 10 and additional fi ONGONIG COMMITMENT TO nancial and technical support has followed RESEARCH Research needs to be market driven customer Acknowledging the importance of crop focused and cost effective and should cost a breeding development and to provide a mid minimum of seven percent of net revenue. attitude testing site for Zimbabwe Govern With frequent droughts, a new breeding ment breeders, Seed Co bought a 300 hectare emphasis has been placed in the development farm in Arcturus in 1973. Named the Rattray of droughttolerant crops and varieties. Since Amold Research Station, this private facility, Rattray Arnold Research Station is situated in funded entirely be seed sales, has since pro a high potential farming area a second station vided the company’s with appropriate breed was purchased in 1996 at Kadoma, ing and testing facilities on range of crops. (Zimbabwe) a warmer, dried and lower poten A company committee comprising breed tial environment, which will provide the con ers, production and marketing expertise stud ditions needed to breed such varieties. This ies reports and data presented before release development will enable the company to bet for commercial use is considered. Higher ter serve the needs of small scale customers yield, improved disease tolerance and product and to remain competitive in this most impor adaptability to meet certain market segments tance market. are vital criteria and usually reflect at least The two research stations in Zimbabwe are three years of multilocation testing and dem both suitable for the development of maize onstration under field under field conditions. hybrids adapted to midaltitude conditions. In Release for commercial is only proposed for order to supply hybrids adapted to lowland more of the critical criteria show significant tropical conditions a third breeding pro improvements over currently available prod gramme is now conducted near Maputo in ucts. Mocambique.

In order to provide a foundation for busi • Soil management ness in countries in subSaharan Africa where • Insect resistance maize is an important food crop an extensive • Cultivars better adapted to low soil fertility testing programme is conducted.this pro and drought. gramme involves observation and critical tri • Cultivars more tolerant to root, stalk, leaf als of both release and experimental cultivars and grain diseases. expected to perform in the target environment. There is need to develop for different ecol Cultivars with outstanding yield potential are ogies and economic situations appropriate targeted with additional strength in the areas “best practices”. These practices need to be of drought and disease tolerance (grey leaf understood and supported by all who address spot, maize streak virus, rusts, leaf blights and the needs of smallholder farmers. On the back cob rots) improved plant type and grain qual of these “best practices” breeder should use ity (dent/flint, white/yellow and Quality Pro appropriate breeding techniques to develop tein Maize/normal types. The aim of this proc cultivars that will be more productive under ess is to identify superior products for farmers conditions encountered by the Regions farm use and to secure national release/registration ers. to enable sales to commence. SEED PRODUCTION HOW TO DOUBLE SMALLHOLDER Seed Production division is the ‘sees fac YIELDS IN TWENTY YEARS tory’ of the business and is responsible for the Significantly increasing yields in small production of large volumes of seed requested holder farm is a task we need to apply our by the Marketing Division. selves to if we are to feed for people for After release by the Research Division, twenty years and to ensure basic food produc limited quantity of breeder’s seed is provided tion as a platform on which other develop to the Parent Seed Department Subsequent ments may take place. production cycles will involved seed growers The development, deployment and adop in multiplication for the company of approxi tion of affordable and sustainable technology mately 50 000 tonnes per annum. All this seed is the key to raising productivity of resource is produced to conform to the requirements of poor farmers. A number of studies have dem the Seed Certification Scheme and is moni onstrated that over time approximately 50% of tored by a large group of company employed, yield grains in farmers’ fields are agronomic but Government approved, seed inspectors and 50% genetic. There is a long list of issues and quality control laboratory. The whole that need to be grappled with. It may, how scheme is ‘policed’ by Seed Services as the ever, be appropriate only to mention a few responsible Government agency. that may likely be addressed by a group of In addition, in pursuit of enhanced quality agriculturalist; and customer service, the company has em • Water conservation technologies barked on a total quality management pro • Improved agronomy practices (planting gramme and was awarded ISO 9001 certifi dates, weed control etc.) cate in November 1999.

The Members of the Zimbabwe Crops Seed maize is delivered either ready for Seed Maize Association produce much of sale or in its raw state. The Operation Divi Seed Co’s seed requirements. This structure sion small packs millions of units into 10kg., provides a reliable, consistence and permanent 5kg, 2kg and 1kg pack sizes. The plant used production base which is extremely cost effec for this massive exercise has appropriate ca tive. Grower viability has been maintained pacity to meet the requirement of the market whilst seed selling prices are some of the low during seasonal peak demand periods. est in the world. Other crop seed are delivered after harvest For the past six years over one thousand as raw seed and required conditioning. State small scale farmers have been involved in the of the art equipment (CIMBRI/HEID) has production of sorghum, millet, cowpeas and been installed to facilitate this conditioning groundnut seed. (Note these are crops where plants consist of precleaner, gravity table, isolation distances are less of an issue than sizing tower (for maize) treater and bagging they are with maize). This exercise has in unit. creasingly involved small farmers in see pro The warehouse has road and rail facilities duction while also providing Seed Co with a which caters for incoming and outgoing stock more consistence supply of these seeds. This movements. This flexibility assists in reducing is more potential to increase utilisation for this equipment has been positioned in Mocam producer base and seed Co is willing to work bique and Zambia. Currently facilities are be through third parties (NGO’s) etc.) or to pro ing rented in Malawi and South Africa while vide quality foundation seed to facilitate com production in Uganda is effected by an agent. munity based or contract seed production rela It is considered vital in a competitive mar tionships. ket that funds are continually allocated to the In harmony with the company’s Mission provision facilities and plants to enable the Statement to develop the business increas company stay ahead. This is particularly true ingly in subSaharan Africa, seed is currently in times of draught, high interested rates and being produced in Malawi, Mocambique, economic instability. south Africa, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe. As product registrations are achieved and THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE business opportunities occur the list of seed ZIMBABWE MAIZE SEED MARKET producing countries will be expanded. Once the first double hybrids were released in 1994, adoption was so rapid by commercial OPERATIONS farmers that are more than half the commer The Operations Division is the service cen cial crop was planted to hybrids within two tre of the company with responsibility for years. The release of SR52 in 1960 further seed deliveries, processing, storage, small stimulated the use of hybrid seed and by 1970 packing, despatch and overall ’housekeeping’ 98% of the commercial area was planted to of these valuable products, worth of millions this hybrid. This coincide with development of dollars. of the fertilizer industry and the widespread

application of fertilizers and improved man require assistance/incentive from the public agement practices on maize. Consequently sector. between 1949 and 1970 commercial from ap proximately 1 t/ha. MARKETING ACTIVITIES With the release of short season maize hy Like many African companied, seed Co brids in the early 1970’s adoption of hybrid was until recently production driven. Good seed by smallholders grained momentum. The quality products, bred and adapted for local area planted to maize by these farmers in Zimbabwe growing conditions, sold them creased from 600 000 ha in 1979 to 1 074 000 selves. Increasing competition and the need to hectares in 1986, a 79% increase, yields develop new markets has provided the impe achieved over this period rose approximately tus to shift to meeting the needs of the cus from 0,7 to 1,2 t/ha. tomer. Today, almost 100% of smallholder maize Extension field promotional work is now a is grown to hybrid seed and is sold in park major focus with over 200 demonstration sites sizes between 0,5 to 25 kg. Everybody, irre planted in the 2000/2001 season largely in the spective of plot size purchases hybrid seed! communal farming sector. These sites are There were a number of factors that have used to facilitate a massive field day pro contributed to this remarkable story; gramme where farmers and trader can seed Return to peace and political stability at and evaluation new offseason. These pro independence in 1980 grammes address an estimated 70 000100 • Attractive commodity prices 000 farmers annually. • Effective commodity purchasing and pay Improved farming practices are actively ment by the Grain Marketing Board encouraged through sponsorship of the annual • Commitment and field demonstrations by National Crop Farming Competition for small the Government extension agency scale farmers. Winners have shared knowl • Cost benefits are clearly evident even to edge and experiences with their counterparts smallholder farmers which has been beneficial to farmers gener • Production and wide distribution of small ally. packs of seed at relatively low prices Distribution of all seed types and pack • Appropriate seed legislation sizes pose the biggest challenge to effective • The presence of a seed company with the seed marketing. With a short, concentrated vision to expand its business selling season, lasting around 12 weeks, seed The success of this model both can, and needs to be timeously placed closed to farm needs to be repeated in other developing ers throughout the country. Several compli countries. It needs to be stressed that this mentary strategies are used to achieve early process has taken time and the development seed distribution, including a number of Seed of appropriate private/public sector partner Co Depots. From depots the seed usually ships. Particularly in the initial stages of mar passes through a wholesaler before reaching ket development the private sector is going to retail stores widely distributed throughout the

area where maize seed is required. It should REGIONAL BUSINESS DEVELOP- be stressed that sales to smallholder farmer is MENT largely on a cash basis with minimal outside For many years the company exported sig financial intervention. nificant volumes of seed into Regional mar In 2000/2001, 10 new maize hybrids, one kets. soybean and two wheat varieties were placed This Regional market is many time the on the market and required special promotion large Zimbabwean market and provides the to make them known. A sponsored vernacular company with the opportunity to continue to radio programme has provided a link, directly expand its business in the face of increasing with farmers who write in to the presenter competition in the home market. The com with questions and request for advice on pany’s products are well adapted to much of achieving better farming results. Greater con the midelevation ecology in the Region and sumer contact is needed where modern mar an aggressive testing process is needed, in keting techniques move from the mass mar particular, to expose newly released material keting systems toward small, focused cus to these markets. In addition, for export, only tomer groups and even individual in the more strategy of the past has been replaced by a personalised touch that is expected today. will to develop resident seed business within Point of sale material, signage and con targeted countries. In recent years a subsidiary sumer competitions have recently generated has been established in Zambia, Botswana, valuable trade alliances within the distribution Malawi and a 51% share of SEMOC in Mo chain. cambique has been purchased and a joint ven Comprehensive literature is a critical vehi ture with Syngenta in South Africa estab cle for information dissemination and this is lished. The company has both the need and used extensively to reach as many farmers as the desired to regionalise its business which possible. They constantly use reference mate should ultimately also enhance the availability rial and want to stay with new products and of superior products for farmers throughout their characteristics. the Region. All these activities are designed to provide a focus on the customer whose custom is re FINANCE SUPPORT quired on an annual basis and should assist in With high prevailing rate of interest, infla raising productivity at the household level. It tion, economic instability, droughts and the should be noted that the amount of finance consequential escalation in the prices of agri provided to promotion related activities cultural commodities, it is vital that more at matches expenditure on research. The point is tention is paid to correct financial structuring. that good research and the resultant good High level of financial expertise are needed to products need to be adequately promoted if cope in this difficult environment and the in farmers are to adopt the improved technology. jection of additional capital is considered nec essary to take hold of new opportunities and to maintain a competitive edge in our core

business. In addition realistic margins need to year ended February 2001. be realised on sales to sustain the business in the long term. SUMMARY A number of key elements may be identi The 1996 flotation and listing on the Zim fied in relation to past and anticipated success. babwe Stock Exchange was in principle • Build continually on past performance driven by the need to strengthen the com • Research and development is long term pany’s financial position. In addition, signifi and the heart of the business and must cant funds were raised to finance additional adequately funded. seed cleaning and packing equipment and the • An unwavering commitment to quality is Kadoma Research Centre. Additional shares required by all customers. were subsequently issued to finance invest • Provision of adequate facilities and plant ment in SEMOC and for the establishment of is essential. our Export Processing Zone (EPZ). The EPZ • Marketing must be driven by the needs of has some tax advantages but has plant and customers equipment that will enable the processing of • Correct financial structuring may dictate seed to international standards for the compa success or failure nies increasing export markets. Access to finances, facilitates and germ The opening of a subsidiary in Botswana plasm are essential to the success of many has enabled the company to operate in a hard seed business. However, people remain our currency environment and has facilitated the greatest asset. Seed Co seeks to employ, de raising of finances to fund the expansion of velop, retain and adequately compensate the the business in the Region. best available talent in the seed business. If The company had a turnover of approxi there is any single secret to success in the seed mately USS32,0 million and made an after tax businessthis is it! profit of approximately US$4,8 million in the

THE ROLE AND CHALLENGES OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN NIGERIA IN THE 20TH CENTURY Jacob P. Voh and T.K. Atala*

INTRODUCTION farmers, pursue equity and sustainability of Agricultural Extension in the 20th Century fields and rivers was ignored. The underlying purpose of extension any There were basically two major roles of ex where is to facilitate technological change at tension to farmers, namely technology transfer, farm level, which would enhance the productive i.e. to recommend to farmers what to do, and to capacity of the farm and its operators (Pretty, provide advisory service, i.e. to provide infor 1995). Hence the role of extension has been the mation to farmers that gives them options for promotion of economic and social development their decision making. The important role of in the rural areas. The economic goals are rais facilitating change through experiential learning ing production and productivity while the basic and acquisition of skills such as problem solv social goal is equity between regions, communi ing, organizing and motivating farmers was not ties, households, men and women, age groups emphasized. and individuals (Garforth and Harford, 1997). Extension activities were associated with In the 20th century, increasing food supply government extension agencies. There was no became the central goal of agricultural extension perception or recognition of extension activities in Nigeria and elsewhere in the Third World. as being performed by research institutes, pri This led to neglect of small mixedfarming sys vate companies and even farmers and farmers tems. Government extension organizations lis groups. Projects sponsored by international do tened to researchers and not to the farmers. As a nors had many problems of their own, including result, the technologies developed did not fit the high recurrent costs, which threatened sustain needs and interests of smallscale subsistence ability of the projects, insufficient understanding farmers. Agricultural research emphasized ir of the local context, imposition of approaches relevance of extension to small mixed farming and insufficient time for institutional building systems. The NGOs with their human and fam (Garforth and Harford, 1997). ilywelfare approach were, however, few and limited to small areas. Changes in Agricultural Extension in the In the last half of the 20th century, agricul 20th Century tural extension systems shifted away from the Changes are inevitable in all aspects of life. multiple roles, which registered great successes, Therefore, the important concern is not change into extreme emphasis on new technology deliv but how to respond to change. In the Nigerian ery to farmers. According to Axinn (1977), the agricultural scene, much change has occurred opportunity for longrange rural development of since during the colonial era. Some of the gen which aim was to organize groups, empower eral changes that have taken place which relate

*Department of Agricultural Economics and Rural Sociology, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria.

to agricultural extension are briefly discussed marketing, prices, etc. and that no single entity hereunder. can solve the problems of relevance, quality and sustainability alone. All stakeholders including Natural Resources Management, Sustainabil- NGOs, agribusinesses, CBOs, cooperatives, user ity and Extension associations and donors must be involved. The Earlier in the twentieth century, people were realization for change is as a result of liberaliza aware of the fact that natural resources were not tion, democratic governance, decentralization unlimited or inexhaustible and that there were and devolution of power and financial con limits to development and growth. However, straint. there has been a growing concern over sustain ability of farming systems and widespread dete Extension methodology rioration of the physical environment on which The traditional extension methodology has agriculture depends. The concerns over soil been the diffusion and adoption or technology conservation are brought about by deforestation, transfer mode of extension services. In this soil erosion, desertification, pollution and over method, new or recommended technologies are extraction of surface and groundwater, depend passed on to extension agents who then pass ence on nonrenewable petroleum, and the inap them on to farmers, who go through a long deci propriate use of agrochemicals (Pretty, 1995). sionmaking process after which they adopt or Traditional individual farm orientation of incorporate the technologies into their farming extension work has been challenged by the con systems. Now the trend towards interactive and cerns on natural resource management and sus experiential reflexive experiential learning has tainability. With increasing focus on natural given a new direction to technology develop resource management and sustainability, the ment and uptake. importance of group and community involve ment in extension has been highlighted. The Extension education issues involve social forestry, communal range Traditional extension education is character management projects, land use planning, water ized by high content of theory and inclass and shed planning, communal resource use (e.g. wa laboratory activities. There is little fieldwork or ter), and integrated pest management. All these practical skills, lack of concern with the labour require formations and teamwork of other pro market pressure or employers' needs. Yet uni fessionals and stakeholders. versities and colleges should be at the cutting edge of knowledge as well as transmit relevant Partnership and Inclusion in Extension knowledge to the people and train the cadres In the past, extension was associated with needed for modernization. However, there have only government extension systems. Other been changes that impact on and pose chal stakeholders in extension delivery were not lenges to agricultural education. These include given due recognition. Now it has been increas globalization, downsizing of the public sector, ingly realized that farmers require information biotechnology, urbanization and information regarding various aspects of farming including technology. These must be taken into account

in developing relevant and responsive or de The Role of Agricultural Extension in the manddriven extension education curricula. 21st Century The Role of Agricultural Ex- According to Friedman (1999), globalization tension in the 21st Century is the integration of markets and technologies Up till the middle of the 20th century, the that enables individuals, corporations, and other idea of participation was not widely accepted. organizations and nations to make decisions Topdown authority was the cultural and politi faster and cheaper than ever before (Knipscheer cal norm, especially by those in power. Exten et al, 2001). For the Nigerian farmer, it means sion has been largely a topdown delivery ap change of orientation from local market and proach in which others decide what farmers local competition to global market and competi need to know, and attempt to deliver it to them. tion for their farm produce, farm inputs and re This has failed in the smallscale mixedfarming search and extension services. To be competi systems. It is now realized as reported by tive, farmers must have access to global tech Uphoff, (1992) and Chambers, (1993) that top nologies. Therefore, extension should serve as down approaches are much less effective than the key facilitator and should be able to intro participatory, farmercentred approach whereby duce new technology and market options to farmers participate in determining the agenda, farmers. the content, the communication channels to be Downsizing or reduction in the size of exten used, and even the personnel to staff the system sion field staff took place in line with the gen (Axinn, 1997). This should guide extension in eral downsizing of the public sector in Nigeria. the 21st century. This implies an increasing role for the private The Structural Adjustment Program intro sector and need for searching for alternatives to duced in Nigeria in 1986 to restructure the coun the fully public funded extension system such as try's economy attempted to reduce the main serviceforfee systems or close linkages with roles of extension and research to facilitative private sector organizations (Knipscheer et al, and qualitative roles and divest the important 2001). roles of input supply, credit and seed multiplica tion to the private sector. The program also led Biotechnology and urbanization to reduction of the number of government exten A lot of new technology is being generated sion staff due to the decline in the level of State through biotechnology research which extension expenditure. must know of and pass it on to farmers for their As it is, the role of the public sector exten uptake. This necessitates use of new informa sion system needs redefining because of cost tion technology at research, extension and even consideration and the limited success of the sin farmer levels. Urbanization effect on rural agri glesystem approach. There should be a clear culture, and urban agriculture are also changes extension strategy which encompasses the adop that have applications for extension services. tion of multiple approaches to extension. The public sector should divest itself of the aspects of extension which the private sector can handle such as service provision and input supply.

Instead of feeding the farmers with the new Agricultural Knowledge Systems (RAAKS). technologies which were not part of their devel Village groups participatory technology de opment, the farmers are to be assisted in identi velopment is a counter approach to the past fying constraints, problems and opportunities on (failed) centralized organizational and technol their farms and in obtaining information and ogy delivery setups that developed blanket rec other support for solving the problems and in ommendations for individual crops and uniform taking advantage of opportunities, through inter technology packages for large recommendation active and experiential learning. This new per domains (areas). The centralized approach did spective entails greater interaction and dialogue, not consider the complexity and diversity of the use of participatory methods and recognition local farming systems with highly variable con of indigenous knowledge and how farmers com ditions. It also neglected minor crops and ig pare options, minimize risk, adapt practices and nored intercropping, household food security, seek information (Garforth and Harford, 1997). complexity of livelihood systems, the role of It ensures that the technology is appropriate, women in food production, use of local re recognizes adaptation rather than adoption only sources and local knowledge (Röling, 1995). To and it is built on sound principles of adult learn address this problem, agricultural extension role ing and partnership. must change to become a decentralized knowl The new approaches of extension that are edge system which works with groups of local central to the changing role of agricultural ex experimenters. tension have been delineated and explained by Local organizations for improving socioeco Röling (1995). These approaches are as fol nomic positions approach is premised on the lows: fact that the key aspect for smallscale farmer village groups for participatory technology development is the organization of smallholder development farmers for understanding of problems, mobili local organizations for improved socioeco zation of local resources, innovations, and a nomic positions powerful voice for support and counteracting platforms for sustainable natural resource exploitation and oppression. Therefore, exten management sion intervention should involve mobilization, agricultural technology systems for technol training, opportunities and system management. ogy innovations. Hence arrangement involving farmers groups, These approaches are based on the frame GOs and NGOs is required for smallholder work of the Agricultural Knowledge and Infor farmer development. mation System (AKIS) which is a novel and The platforms for sustainable natural re coherent perspective on agricultural innovation source management approach emerged out of and knowledge management and emphasizes on the realization that traditional extension work the creation of articulated networks of actors tackles three agricultural development objec that synergistically support innovation in a given tives food production, productivity and equity area of activity. The methodology that has been without tackling sustainability or protection of used for AKIS studies is the Rapid Appraisal of the resource base which requires focus on larger

system than the farm, large time horizons than a extension organization are (Knipscheer, et al, growing season and focus on groups of stake 2001): holders in natural resources (eg. villages or • Dialogue among stakeholders in agricultural groups of villages). Hence managing entire agro extension ecosystem is a new role required of extension • Development of a consensus on the vision organizations. and goals of the extension system and set The agricultural technology systems for in ting up priorities for action. novations approach is a counteraction of the • Analysis of the training needs of extension linear or the technology transfer model which staff in terms of critical knowledge, skills, has failed because farmers are not passive re and attitude. ceivers of scientific idea. They are active re • Encouraging and assisting agricultural col searchers and experimenters themselves. It is leges and universities to revise their curric therefore now realized that active involvement ula to make them more responsive to the of farmers in research and extension is necessary changing job market. and that relevant innovation emerges from the • Forging a strong network among institutions interaction between scientists, farmers, traders and agencies to benefit from the diverse and companies. The new role of extension is talents, resources, experiences and perspec therefore involvement of major stakeholders in tives innovation or a wholistic system management • Ability to cope with challenges for optimal effect. • Ability to identify and convene stake These new approaches of extension require a holders. new definition of extension. The new definition These new extension service roles imply new of extension service for the new approaches in roles for the extension agents. In this regard, the new millennium is given by Knipscheer, et they are to be managers of change; facilitators; al (2001) as a knowledge management organiza information seekers; and option providers. tion, the purpose of which is to introduce change In general, extension organizations have two for the benefit of its clients. This implies getting essential roles to play in the 21st century the right information to the right people at the (Röling, 1995): right time in a userfriendly manner. Therefore, 1. Facilitation of group processes (in small the extensive service should have intellectual groups of clients). Such facilitation has not capital (understanding, insights, technologies as been considered as the task of conventional well as skills, expertise, organization ability to technical extension, but in the changing meet market requirements and customer capital role of extension, facilitation seems to be a or goodwill); it should be a learning organiza key activity tion to the core; it should create, store and re 2. Knowledge management to achieve syn trieve, distribute and apply knowledge; and it ergy and enhance performance in the net should be based on partnerships and collabora works of actors. Conflict may be inevitable tion among stakeholders. among stakeholders with diverse views and In this regard, the specific roles of an interests. Therefore, an important role for

extension is to achieve cooperation, conflict community resources as well as individual resolution and harmonization between the farms. various players. The processes of facilitation and knowledge Training extension personnel management involve bringing out to the open, A change in extension approaches implies the diverse views and interests of the actors in retraining and new approaches to training of volved, negotiation and accommodation to cre extension personnel. Sustainable agricultural ate shared objectives, common appreciation of development and farmerled approaches would problems and mutual independence, joint learn require extension personnel to have a sound ing about local systems and contexts, brain knowledge of farming systems and the physical storming and finding solutions to develop alter and socioeconomic environment in order to be natives, and shared monitoring systems to allow able to adapt technical advice to local environ joint learning (Röling, 1995). In this regard, the ments. The extension personnel must have ana envisaged role expansion will include more em lytical skills to be able to help farmers identify phasis on social goals of poverty alleviation production problems and the potential for im through facilitation of gainful employment or provement. They must be able to work closely alternative livelihoods for the poor, improved with groups and communities and act effectively nutrition (eg. high protein maize) of the rural as intermediaries between groups and govern families and ensuring food security at all levels. ment institutions. They must have good training Extension will also take on the role of conserv in communication skills (with groups and with ing the environment. individuals) and they should know very well the learning and teaching methods which are neces The Challenges of Agricultural Extension sary for sustainable extension. In this case their in the 21st Century role would be to facilitate learning and not to The role of agricultural extension in the 21st import information only. That is, they should century poses numerous challenges which have the ability to work in a participatory mode should be faced squarely in order to successfully of extension rather than a linear, technology perform the role. Some of these challenges are transfer mode. In short, the training needs re hereby highlighted. quired are skills in science, technology, manage rial, communication and humanrelations for Extension methodologies sustainable agricultural and rural development. Sustainability or responsible management of natural resources depends upon community ac tion. Therefore, research and extension should Extension education adequately take natural resource management Extension education is generally weak, into account and generate effective extension bogged down by inadequate funding and debili methodologies for motivating farmers for com tated by outdated and irrelevant curricula. Other munity action and develop and disseminate ap problems facing extension education include propriate technologies for the management of lack of communication with the employers of

university graduates, poor practical skills, and tion. Thus, dialogue between stakeholders high unemployment of university graduates would be imperative. (Magure, 2001). As such, the universities are not leading in upgrading the skills of research Equity and targeting and extension practitioners and in preparing ca By design and/or by chance, extension pro pable professional agriculturalists for the future. grams have favoured the wealthier, more edu In facing up to this challenge, SG 2000 has cated, more influential farmers and male farm developed an innovative extension education ers. This has widened the gap between these and program for midcareer extension workers in the poor, disadvantaged and female farmers. In order to 1) provide opportunity for midcareer future, extension should target at the resource extension workers for leadership positions, and poor households, marginalized, women farmers, 2) link extension curricula more closely to the and training of female extensionists and low real world of farmers and help university facili cost, lowrisk technology. ties to broaden their perspectives by frequent contact with the rapid change taking place in Role of Farmers' Organizations rural areas. The program which has taken off in Past extension work was focused on individ four African countries, is to start in 2002 in Ni ual farmers. Now the many potential advan geria. tages of farmers' organizations for extension has been better realized. These organizations offer Control and accountability the opportunity for greater efficiency, effective Extension services have been considered as a ness and equity of provision and access. They social service and therefore paid for by the gov can serve as a means by which farmers can pay ernment. But future trend of policy of decen for services, become actively involved in the tralization and privatization and dwindling pub planning and management of extension, and act lic financial support would mean privatizing as a voice for their members in bringing services some aspects of extension and introducing par which meet their needs (Garforth and Harford, tial cost recovery from farmers. Then, paying 1997). for the services would give farmers some con trol over the providers of the services and make Effective use of mass media extension workers more accountable to the Mass media have been used based on a tech farmers. But then, government would continue nology transfer principle. In future, a participa to finance extension in strictly social/communal tory approach to the identification of program areas such as environmental protection and content would ensure that the mass media pro management and resourcepoor households and grams are based on expressed information needs the disadvantaged groups. Hence, the main is of farmers. Also with the increasing globaliza sues for the future are identification of areas of tion of information, farmers should have access coordination between NGOs, private sector and to various channels of information, and mass the public extension/research organizations, and media would be appropriate for this task. Thus, deciding on the mechanism for such coordina extension services delivery must face the chal

lenge of globalization impact. REFERENCES

CONCLUSION Axinn, George H. (1997). "Challenges to agri Agricultural extension in Nigeria in the 20th cultural extension in the twentyfirstcentury". century was a highly centralized government In: Vanessa Scarborough et al (eds). Farmerled organization characterized by focus on technol Extension: Concepts and Practices. London: ogy delivery, emphasis on highinput technolo Intermediate Technology Publications Pp. 13 gies, neglect of small mixed farming systems, 22. inappropriate technology for subsistence farmers and poor linkage with NGOs. Garforth, C. and N. Harford (1997). The wind of change moved extension to in "Extension Experience in Agriculture and Natu creasing attention on natural resource manage ral Resource Management in the 1980s and ment, sustainability and group and community 1990s" In: V. Sarborough, et al (eds.) Farmer involvement in extension, inclusion of non led Extension: Concepts and Practices. London: government extension providers, farmers groups Intermediate Technology Publications Ltd, Pp. and interative, experiential and responsive learn 2333. ing. The forces behind the change include liber alization, democratic governance, decentraliza Knipscheer, Henk C., M.M. Zinnah and J.K. tion, globalization and cost factor. Mutimba (2001). Addressing the Challenges of Accordingly, the role of extension has been Extension Services Delivery in SubSaharan undergoing gradual change. In the new millen Africa Through Responsive Extension Educa nium, there will be a clear reversal of the role of tion. Presented during the Workshop on Africa extension from technology delivery approach of Food Security in a Changing Environment: the immediate past century to facilitation of Sharing Good Practices and Experiences, Kam change and knowledge management in the rural pala, UgandaJune 6th9th. Sponsored by Sasa areas leading ultimately to decentralized, partici kawa Africa Association. patory, collaborative, farmercentred, farmerled Magure, Charles J. (2001). "Agricultural Edu and farmercontrolled extension and rural devel cation in Africa: Managing Charge". In: Joseph opment programs including "Maize for Better A. Kwarteng (ed.) Extension Education: Re Nutrition" program. shaping African Universities and Colleges for However, this process of change will bring the 21st Century. Geneva: Centre for Applied about new challenges to extension. The chal Studies in International Negotiations. lenges to face up would include change of ex tensions, methodologies, responsive extension Pretty, J.N. (1995). "The Changing Role of training and education in colleges and universi Agricultural Extension" In: Agricultural Exten ties, user control and extension accountability, sion in Africa: Proceedings of an International equity consideration, and effective use of mass Workshop, Yaoundé, Cameroon. Wageningen: media. Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Co operation.

MAIZE AS A POTENTIAL SOURCE OF INCOME AND FOREIGN EXCHANGE EARNING IN NIGERIA

S.A. Ingawa*

INTRODUCTION small farmers. Maize matures in about 90120 days. With current pace of the development of Nigeria is endowed with a large expanse of dry season (irrigation) farming in the country, arable land, a large population of unemployed maize could be cropped on a piece of land and underemployed labour force, a veritable three times in year. As an incentive to encour stock of human capital in the research institu age the production of maize in the country the tions, universities and colleges of technology. Federal Government of Nigeria (FGN) placed In spite of the vast agricultural potential, the maize on the import prohibition list in 1996 leading source of income and foreign ex and 1997. change in the country is the petroleum sector. Population pressure on land and the land This has subjected the economy to the vaga tenure systems have made it appreciably diffi ries associated with fluctuation in the world cult to increase the area under maize cultiva prices of oil. The security implications and tion over time. According to MaziyaDixon disadvantages for a growing economy cannot (1999), increases the production of maize are be overemphasized. There is need to diversify expected to come from yield increases since the source of income and foreign exchange to little additional land can be bought under cul the economy. With appropriate resource real tivation. location measures in place and policy actions geared to increased production of certain agri Proposition cultural commodities, the income and the for The basis for exporting a commodity is eign exchange earning of the country will be determined by the production possibility fron enlarged. This paper assesses the potential of tier schedule and the international terms of maize as a veritable source of income and for trade. If the world price of maize is high rela eign exchange earning for Nigeria. tive to the domestic price then the terms of Maize (Zea mays L.) is the third largest trade is favourable for exporting maize and if crop grown in the world. It could be used in it is possible to reallocate domestic resources more than 2000 forms. It is the most diversi and / or improve the productive power fied food, feed and industrial crop (CIMMYT, through technological advancement to pro 1994). It is a very popular stable food and in duce marketable surplus of maize, then the dustrial cash crop in Nigeria. exportation of the commodity can be sus The environmental conditions in the rain tained. forest and Savannah zone of the country are particularly favourable for the production of Objectives maize. Ingawa )1990), noted that maize fits The objective of this paper is to deter well into the farming systems of Nigerian mine weather maize could be a major poten

tial source of income and foreign exchange ters are estimated using the Ordinary Least earner for Nigeria. The derived objectives in Square (OLS) regression technique. The tech clude: nology situation about maize production in the • Comparative analysis of the world and do country is assessed through the review of mestic prices of maize to determine available literature on the subject. Result of weather the terms of trade favours exporta the empirical analysis and literature review tion of maize; are presented, discussed and conclusions to • Estimate the growth rate and average an gether with recommendations made. nual rate of change of land area cultivated to maize in the country to determine Comparative Analysis of the World and weather the rates are significantly positive Domestic Prices of Maize to guarantee the existence of a marketable In order to determine the profitability of surplus; exporting maize from Nigeria the export par • Estimate the growth rate and average an ity price for the commodity is computed and nual rate of change in the yield the Free On Board (FOB) price is compared (productivity) in the country to determine with FOB price of maize quoted for any other weather the rates are significantly positive country exporting maize. If local FOB price is to allow for the generation of marketable lower than the foreign one it implies that the surplus. term of trade favours the exportation of maize i.e. it is profitable to export maize. The Devel Methodology opment Project Group of the World Bank esti The data used in this paper are secon mated year 2000 FOB price of a metric tonne dary, time series data obtained from the Pro of maize at Gulf of Mexico, United States of ject Coordinating Unit (PCU) which has the America at $95.00. The computation of year mandate to collect and consolidate agricul 2000 FOB price of maize at Apapa port in tural data in the country. The growth parame Lagos, Nigeria is illustrated in table 1.

Table 1: Estimation of Year 2000 FOB Price of Maize

Description about a metric tonne of maize Value 1. Whole sale price (Lagos) 22050 2. Local transport to Apapa port 1000 3. port changes including: taxes storage, loading fumigation, tariffs and agent fees (5%). 1102.5 4. FOB (Lagos) N24152.5 5. Dollar equivalent (exchange rate $1.0 = N112.0) $215.7

The ratio of FOB (US Gulf) to FOB productivity per unit area land under maize (Apapa) is 0.44 (95/215.7) which is less than production. On exploring the approach, it is unity. It implies that the current terms of trade pertinent to ask weather current intertemporal does not favour the exportation of maize from changes in the annual acreage under maize Nigeria to the US Gulf. This finding may ex cultivation indicates that given sufficient time, plain the fact that the Federal Government of will the desired output level be attained? To Nigeria (FGN) placed maize on the export answer this question, this paper estimated the prohibition list since 1997. The ban seemed growth rate and annual rate of change of the unnecessary, anyway, since the local price is area cultivated to maize in the country to de not competitive. Is the term of trade reversi termine whether the rate is significantly posi ble? Yes. The term of trade for maize is re tive such that given sufficient time will gener versible by pushing out the production possi ate the desired marketable surplus. bility frontier to produce more output and bring down the domestic price of maize. How Regression Result for Land Area Under could this be done? There are two possible Maize Cultivation in Nigeria ways of increasing output: the first way to The estimated growth rate and annual rate increase the land area under the cultivation of of change of land under maize cultivation in maize: and the second one is by increasing the Nigeria is presented in table 2.

Table 2: estimated Growth Rate and Annual Rate of Change of Land Area Under Maize Cultivation

Parameters of the growth equation Land area = 3136.9 (1+0.005)t Std Error 0.054 0.009 Tstatistic 150.1 0.55 R2 = 0.32; Std error of Estimate = 0.095; F statistic = 0.29

parameters of annual rate of change equation Land area = 3157.3 + 14.34t Std Error 176.3 14.34 Tstatistic 17.9 0.48 R2 = 0.025; Std error of Estimate = 312.56; Fstatistic = 0.23

The tstatistic for the estimate coefficients Kaduna, Katsina, Bauchi Gombe and Kano of time in table 2 are less than 1.96. This indi States. cates that using twotailed test at 95% level of Abalu et al (1981) observed that there is confidence, the estimate parameter with re rising difficulty in acquiring land for agricul spect to time are not significantly different ture and that the fragmented holdings of Nige from zero. The Fstatistic in table 2 are less ria farmers are not viable for farreaching than 1. This indicates poor fitness of equation technological changes. Nwagbo (1981) and I.e. that time alone is not sufficient explana Oredipe (1998), concluded that the way for tory variable of the intertemporal changes in ward is increasing land productivity through the cultivated land area. The R2 are not greater acquisition of improved technology and that than 0.32. This indicates that time alone, as an not much incremental output or income is explanatory variable could not explain more possible without change in the technological than 32% of intertemporal changes in culti frontier of maize production in Nigeria. vated land area. In exploring the second approach, the The tstatistics in the equation indicated question whether current intertemporal that estimated growth rate and annual rate of changes in the productivity of maize in Nige change of the area cultivated to maize are not ria indicates that, given sufficient time, will statistically different from zero: that is, that the desired output level be attained? To an land area under maize cultivation is stagnating swer this question, this paper estimated the over time. growth rate and the annual rate of change of It is evident from this analysis that the land the yield (productivity) per hectare of maize under area maize cultivation does not grow or in the country to determine whether the rate is increase appreciably with time. This implies significantly positive such that given suffi that the production of exportation surplus of cient time the desired marketable surplus will maize in the country may not be achieved be generated. through the increment of cultivated land area. The tstatistic for the estimated coeffi This view is supported by a host scholars in cients of time in table 3 are greater than 1.96. cluding Famoriyo et al (1981), Busie Maziya This indicates that using twotailed test at Doxon (1999), Abalu et al (1981), Nwagbo 95% level of confidence, the estimated pa (1981) and Oredipe (1998), rameters with respect to time are significantly Famoriyo et al (1981) noted that the pros greater than zero. The Fstatistic in table 3 are pect of increasing agricultural production by greater than 1. This indicates good fitness of land expansion is possible in areas where cul the equations I.e. that time alone explained a tivable land is still available. This happen in large proportion of the intertemporal changes Nigeria between 196071 when most of the in yield of maize. The R2 are 0.5. This indi increases in food took place by expansion of cates that time alone as an explanatory vari the acreages of maize, sorghum, rice, cowpea, able explained up to 50% of intertemporal yam and cassava. But this option is not open changes in the yield of maize. The tstatistic particularly in major maize producing areas of for the estimated coefficients of time in the

equations indication that the estimated growth at a rate 2% and the average annual rate of rate of the area cultivated to maize are statisti change in yield of maize is positive I.e. 30.23 cally greater than zero. Specially, it indicates thousand metric tons annum. that the yield of maize was growing overtime

REGRESSION RESULTS FOR MAIZE YIELD The estimated growth rate and average annual of change of yield of maize in Nigeria is presented in table 3.

Table 3: Estimated Growth Rate and Annual Rate of change of Yield of Maize

Parameter of the growth equation Maize Yield = 1312.9 (1+0.022)t Std Error 0.046 0.008 Tstatistic 155.9 2.83 R2 = 0.5; Std error of Estimated = 0.08; Fstatistic = 7.98

Parameter of annual rate of change equation Land area = 1323.03 + 30.23 t Std Error 63.71 10.77 Tstatistic 20.8 2.8 R2 = 0.5; Std error Estimate = 112.9; Fstatistic = 7.9

This positive growth rate may be attrib level of capital investment, high wage rate uted to the extension efforts of the Agricul of farm labour, large incidence of diseases tural development projects (ADPs) nation and pests and ineffective government poli wide. This growth rate however is not satis cies; factory towards achieving the expected output • Known biological discovery which could for domestic consumption and exports. Ac transform maize production in the country cording to the Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN), are not being extended to farmers and of (1996) and the National Rolling Plan (1992 the innovations do not go beyond the 95), the agricultural sector is expected to at gates of the universities and research in tain an annual real growth rate of about 7.2% stitutions; According to Abalu et al (1981), under • Farmers tools and mode of operation have traditional production technology the yield not changed for generations; and rate of maize is estimated at 1.046MT. The • Young and ablebodied men have deserted national estimated mean yield per hectare is the farm, leaving it to the aged and 1.323MT. However, the estimated mean yield women. for farmers adopting improved technology is 3.000 Mt/Ha and at Research Stations a mean SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS a yield of 7.840 Mt/Ha has been attained. It is Currently, the terms of trade does not gratifying to note that some Sasakawa Global favour the exportation of maize from Nigeria. 2000 participating farmers have also now This may explain why in 1997 the Federal been shown to have achieved the quoted re Government of Nigeria (FGN) placed maize search station yield of 8 tons per hectare. on the export prohibition list. However, the It is evident from this analysis that the terms of trade for maize is reversible by push productivity of maize in the country grows ing out the production possibility frontier to (increase) with time. The current rate of produce exportable surplus output and bring growth is too low to be relied upon for the down the domestic price of maize. The land production of exportable surplus of maize in area under maize cultivation does not grow or Nigeria. There is therefore the need to rapidly increase appreciably with time. This implies increase the productivity of maize per unit that the production of exportation surplus of area in order to obtain exportable surplus. maize may not be achieved through the incre This view is supported by Awoyemi ment of cultivated land area. (1981), abalu, Famoriyo and Abdullahi The productivity of maize is found to (1980), Ingawa (1999) and Oredipe (1998). increase with time in Nigeria. However, the These authors observed that the problems current rate of growth is too slow to be relied militating against Nigerian agriculture are: upon for the production of exportable surplus • Technological gap I.e little application of of maize. There is still a wide room for in modern technology, poor management creasing the productivity of maize through practices by farmers, inefficient marketing adoption of improved production technologies system, inadequate financial resource, low by farmers. Efforts to produce marketable sur

plus that will reverse the terms of trade of our wonder crop MAIZE. maize to favour the exportation of grain by Thank you all. Nigeria will be geared at increasing the pro ductivity per hectare of maize. REFERENCES

RECOMMENDATIONS Abalu G.O.I. Et al (1981), Production Prob- To produce an exportable surplus of lems in Nigerian Agriculture, A Paper pre maize should be taken by the various tiers of sented in a Seminar on Agricultural Credit government. These policies will be directed and Finance in Nigeria: Problems and Pros mainly at: pects Organized by the Central of Nigeria, • Revamping the agricultural extension sys April 2730. tem of agricultural development projects to enable the dissemination of modern tech Awoyemi O. (1981), Problems Of Agriculture nology and improved management prac In Nigeria: A Paper presented in a seminar on tices to maize farmers; Agricultural Credit and Finance in Nigeria: • Improving the support to agricultural re Problems and Prospects Organized by the search system to enable the generation of Central Bank of Nigeria, April 2730. appropriate improved technology and prac CBN Various Publications Annual Report tices; And Statement Of Account, • Strengthening the linkage between the re Central Bank O Nigeria. search, extension system (ADPs / Farmers) and the private sectors; CIMMYT (!994), CIMMY 1993 / 94 • Encouraging farmers especially the youths World Maize Facts and Trends. Maize Seed to take up the maize farming as an attrac Industries, Mexico DF CIMMYT. tive and profitable enterprise. • Export prohibition may be counter produc Development Projects Group (October tive to Nigerian agriculture. 1999), Global Commodity Prices: a compre- • There is need for policy stability with re hensive review and price forecast, IBRD, The spect to agriculture. World Bank, 1818 H Street N.W. Washing • Budgetary allocation to the sector needs to ton DC. 20433, USA. be substantially raised. • Put the farmers in drivers seat and em Famoriyo, S. (1979), Land Tenure And power them to master their productivity Agricultural development In Nigeria. Ibadan and marketing circumstances. University Press. Ibadan.

Thanks to the organizers, SG2000, IAR / Ingawa, S.A. (1999), Socio-Economic Con- ABU Zaria and the cooperating ADPs for this siderations in Maize Production In Nigeria. A opportunity to discuss issues with regard to paper presented at Maize Production Work

shop Organized by SG2000, IAR / FMARD / Oredipo A.A. (1998), An Analysis Of Effi- ADPs; Ahmadu Bello University, 22nd –24th ciency and Productivity Gaps Among July 1999, pp. 7175.. Farmers Adopting Improved Maize Tech- nology In Ogun State, Nigeria. Unpub Maziya-Dixon, B. (1999) Maize As A Food lished Ph.D. Thesis, Department Of Agri Source And Industrial Material Processes, cultural Economics, University Of Ibadan, Products And Uses. International Institute Of Nigeria. Tropical Agricultural, Ibadan, Nigeria. Nwagbo E.C. Famoriyo S. (1981), Prob- Oyetoye, E.T.O. (1980), An Economic As- lems of Agricultural Finance in Nigeria. A sessment Of Selected Government Agricul- Paper presented in a Seminar on Agricultural tural Projects In Western Nigeria. Unpub Credit and Finance in Nigeria: Problems and lished Ph.D. Thesis, Department Of Agri Prospects Organized by the Central Bank of cultural Economics, University Of Leeds. Nigeria, April 2730.

89 Appendix 1: Summary of the Regression Results

Dependent Const. SE t– Coeff SE– t– R— SE– FStat. Variables Const Const Coeff Coeff square Estim.

Log AREA 8.05 0.05 150.1 0.005 0.009 0.55 0.32 0.1 0.29

Log OUTPUT 8.33 0.1 86.6 0.026 0.016 1.65 0.23 0.17 2.73

Log YIELD 7.18 0.05 155.9 0.022 0.008 2.83 0.47 0.08 7.98

AREA 3157.3 176.3 17.9 14.34 29.8 0.48 0.03 312.56 0.23

OUTPUT 4242.8 450.8 9.4 109.11 76.19 1.43 0.19 799.12 2.05

YIELD 1323 63.7 20.8 30.33 10.77 2.81 0.47 112.95 7.88

Appendix 2: Time series Data Used in the Paper

YEAR OUTPUT AREA YIELD PRICE

In ‘000 In ‘000 Ha. In Mt/Ha. Kobo / Kg.

Mt.

1990 3163.70 2802.86 1128.74

1991 3913.82 2904.40 1347.55

1992 4452.44 3195.85 1393.19

1993 4861.51 3295.87 1475.03 648.00

1994 5896.18 3671.38 1605.98 713.00

1995 6145.87 3792.03 1620.73 1448.00

1996 4667.78 3253.37 1434.75 1756.00

1997 4811.22 3144.26 1530.00 2325.00

1998 5305.53 3253.10 1630.00 2829.00

1999 5021.71 3271.17 1540.00 1919.00

2000 4431.68 2934.88 1510.00 2205.00

Source: Time Series Database: Monitoring and Evaluation Programme, PCU, Sheda, FCT.

APPROACHES TO IMPROVING MAIZE TECHNOLOGY DELIVERY SYSTEMS IN NIGERIA

A.M. Falaki, M.A. Hussaini and S. Miko*

INTRODUCTION potential, has been much less dramatic. In Maize is one of the important food and most areas, yields have been below 2t/ha, and industrial crops in Nigeria. Worldwide, wheat, infact, Nigeria’s average yield is 1.36/ha maize, and rice are produced in greater quanti which is about 1/3 of the World’s average of ties than other crops. Among these crop, 4.13/ha (FAO,1997). Higher yield tends to be maize has the highest average yield hectare. associated with the largescale farmers who Maize is good source of energy for human and grow maize on commercial scale and the low animal and it is highyielding, easy to process est yields are common with the smallscale and readily digested (Okoruwa and Kling, farming communities, who grow maize 1996). mostly for subsistence but, are often forced to As at 1997, the world production of sell the grains soon after the harvest to meet maize stood at 580 million tonnes, with Nige family needs. ria producing about 6.2 million tonnes of a The key point is that significant maize mere 1.1% of the world’s output (FAO, 1997). productivity gains are possible for all classes Yet maize is the most important cereal crop of farmers, provided they have access to the grown in Nigeria; the area of its production technological components. stretching from the coast in the to the savanna areas in the North. It is a principal component The role of Extension in Maize of the different cropping systems in all the Technology delivery: parts of the country .Maize production in the For a long time, extension was the step country was until early 1970s confined to the which followed after research. This seems forest zone. In the savanna, maize production logical: research finds a solution to a certain has since been transformed from the status of agricultural problem, and must find a way to a minor crop by being grown around the transfer this solution to farmers through exten homestead to a major commercial grain crop, sion who then put the new technology into competing with sorghum and millet as a stra practice. tegic crop in the grain economy of the nation Nowadays, it is recognized that this one (Elemo, 1993). Infact, about 70% of the maize way flow of information, ie from research in Nigeria is produced in the savanna zone. through extension to the farmers is insuffi Unfortunately, the spread of the modern cient. Extension interaction between the dif maize production technologies in most of ferent component is essential to obtain satis these maize areas, especially the Northern factory results. In this, the extension services Guinea savanna, which provides the greatest play an essential role: on one hand by taking

*Agronomy Department, Institute for Agricultural Research, ABU, Zaria, Nigeria.

information from one party to another (ie farm machinery; and agricultural lenders. from research to farmers), on the other hand (Dowswell et al., 1996) by effecting the necessary feedback between The development of maize technology de the two parties. In this sense, extension is no livery systems is strongly influenced by gov longer the following step after research, but ernment policies. In industrialized countries, can take place simultaneously with, or even the private sector a major role in the delivery prior to it. of improved maize technologies to farmers. The arrows going left represent the proc These private businesses have benefited ess of “problem definition” the arrows going greatly from publicly funded maize research to the right depict the process of “problem and development programs. Over time, a well solution” (schoubroeck, et. al., 1989). integrated and highly effective publicprivate Most recently, the approach has shifted maize research and development system has to a more participatory approach as illustrated evolved, one that is capable of generating and by the technology triangle (Schulz, 2000) transferring to farmers a continuing stream of productivityenhancing maize technologies. However, in Nigeria (typical of a develop ing nation), the organizations that make up the RESEARCH EXTENSION UTILIZATION national maize technology delivery systems are primarily within the sector. Although pub Farmers lic institutions have had success in developing maize technologies, government organizations responsible for delivering improved technol Extension Research ogy to farmers generally have not functioned well. As a consequence, maize research pipe The principle is to engage farmers and re lines are full of productivityenhancing tech source persons from different institutional nological components that generally fail to get backgrounds in interactive learning and ac beyond the boundaries of experiment stations. tion. The efficiency of maize technology delivery systems can be gauged from the gap that ex Improving Maize Technology ists between farmers’ actual yields and opti Delivery Systems mum economic yields observed nonfarm Maize technology delivery systems comprise maize technology validation trials (table 1). public and private institutions and bodies that Nigeria happens to have one of the lowest develop and supply new varieties, improved technical efficiencies (40%) among the major crop management practices, and production maize growing countries in the world. A na practices to farmers. These bodies include tional maize technology delivery system research organizations; extension and techni whose technical efficiency is below 50% has cal advisory services; suppliers of improved serious flaws. Low technical efficiency scores seed, fertilizer, crop protection chemicals, and are generally caused by some combination of

illfunctioning supply systems for seed and needed inputs themselves, in a timely fashion fertilizer, farmers’ poor knowledge of recom argue strongly for some continued public mended crop management practices, discrimi sector developmental support in building ef natory price policies, and farmers’ lack of suf fective agricultural input supply systems. No ficient capital to employ the recommended private business will succeed where basic in inputs and crop management practices frastructure are not available, social amenities (Byerlee, 1987). are not affordable, security of investment is Raising the technical efficiency above 70% not guaranteed, and there is lack of consis is probably only possible when we have a well tency and stability of policies. developed market economy and highly devel An effective maize technology delivery oped rural and agricultural infrastructure. system in Nigeria will therefore require a Thus, farmers will produce maize strictly on a more serious participation of government. commercial basis. They must then have access Although there is no specific policy for maize to current technical information, possess high (Edache, 1999) the National policy of Agri level skills in crop management, and be able culture would have to be strengthened to en to operate close to the margin of economic sure the supply of agricultural inputs at af efficiency. fordable and sustainable manner. If the indus trialized nation of Western Europe and North Input Supply Strategies America will continue to heavily subsidize Since availability of improved farm input their Agriculture (world Bank, 1989) there is is a prerequisite to intensive agriculture, dif no reason why the Nigerian government ferent policies and programmes have to be put should not take measure in the same direction. in place to promote efficiency in the produc The importance of seedfertilizer interac tion, procurement and distribution of agricul tions should not be over looked. Infact, no tural inputs. The challenge facing government farmer will ever plant maize on his farm if he/ is to formulate policies that promote the de she is not assured of fertilizer, especially with velopment of effective input supply systems. the use of improved germplasm. Farmers that In the past, governments have opted to de tends to plant improved maize germplasm but velop publicly funded input supply organiza apply very little fertilizer, can only realize tions such as Kano State Agriculture Supply productivity grains through greater use of fer Company (KASCO) in Kano state and Farm tilizers. Similarly, farmers that use fairly high ers Supply Company (FASCOM) in Kaduna levels of fertilizer but little improved seed can State. With many failure, the trend now is to raise yields through greater use of improved wards shifting input supply functions to the varieties. private sector. The development of viable and dynamic private organizations will not how Extension Approaches ever, come overnight nor very easily. The Extension, as mentioned earlier, is an inte high cost of rural transportation and the diffi gral part of an effective maize technology de culty of reaching smallscale farmers with the livery system. In the past, the frontline exten

sion worker was engage in broad activities big minus on the system. Efforts must be in including community development and non tensified to link maize farmers with the appro farm aspect of agricultural development such priate input agencies. Government as a matter as public work supervision, assistance in elec of policy must continue to fund research while toral registration, adult literacy campaigns, at the same time providing opportunities to public health campaigns, youth club manage farmers to effectively utilize the products of ment, etc. it therefore became clear that they the research through the setting up and sup could not be effective in supporting agricul port for the input delivery agencies. But most ture if they are the call of several ministries importantly for extension to succeed, there parastatals. Moreso, most extension field staff has to be a deliberate effort to motivate the were poorly trained and that farmers often staff i.e. good remuneration, transportation, lack confidence in their technical and diagnos training, promotion etc. tic abilities. Thus, upgrading the technical knowledge of extension officers inservice Maize Technology Demonstration training courses and meetings is extremely Successful maize production campaign can important. To address these problems and have a positive training and motivational im many other deficiencies of the previous ap pact on extension officer. The ability to pro proaches, the Training and Visit (T&V) exten vide farmers with the to radically improve sion system was introduced in 1986 and in maize productivity is a powerful morale 1992 the Unified T&V extension concept was booster for the extension service. With the introduced. Under this system, all extension production test plot as the common ground activities covering crops, livestock, fishery, between the extension officer and the farmers, agroforestry and women in agriculture are their relationship is strengthened. Maize pro under one unit, that is, the ADPs. The T&V duction campaigns can accelerate the adoption seeks to strengthen three critical needs: the of improved technology by farmers who use need to make extension staff into specialists in lowyielding production systems. They are production technology, the need for sustained most successful when they involved coopera field efforts, and the need for regular instruc tion among research, extension, seed produc tions (Dowswell et al., 1996). However, ex tion, fertilizer supply, farm machinery, and perts criticise the T&V, contending that most agricultural credit organizations. recommended technologies involved the use The trial should be large enough to repre of inputs such as fertilizers, which must be sent a legitimate test in the eye of the cooper closely linked to inputs availability. This led ating farmers. The demonstration plot should to the introduction of REFILS, which is a re be at least 0.2 hectare and preferably 0.4 to cent concept, and encompasses research, ex 0.5 hectare to have a strong psychological tension, inputs agencies and farmers. impact on the farmer. The farmer should grow As earlier observed the T&V system does a companion plot 0.4 to 0.5 ha along sidealso not encourage the involvement of the exten using traditional technology for the purpose of sion agents in the supply of production inputs comparison. or marketing of produce. Certainly, this is a 94

Farmers’ Roles in Technology should mirror the training sessions for the ex Diffusion tension agent; preplanting, planting and ini Farmermanaged field demonstration plots tial fertilizer dose, weed control and second are the heart of an effective maize technology fertilizer dose, flowering and crop assessment, transfer campaign. These practical lessons are harvest and yield calculations. The importance designed to let farmers test, evaluation, and of providing proper farmer training, especially possibly adapt the recommended crop tech during the year of demonstrations in a village, nologies. Once the economic superiority of cannot be overemphasized. It is expected that the recommended crop maize technologies the firstyear participants will pay a teaching has been verified in 30 to 40 test plots, it and technology diffusion role with new farm should be vigorously promoted through hun ers who join in the program in the second and dreds and then thousands, of farmermanaged third years. Field days should be organized for demonstration plots. Usually, the demonstra villagers to see the results of the demonstra tion program in each village should last 2 to 3 tion plots and to discuss the factors responsi years. In the first year, a few demonstration ble for the yields achieved. plots (about 10) should be established. Each plot will provide training for the participating Involving Policy Makers farmer as well as “cluster) of neighbouring A dynamic onfarm maize demonstration farmers. In the second and third years, the program can have important impacts beyond number of demonstration plots can be ex teaching farmers about improved methods of panded fourorfivefold (Dowswell et. Al., maize crop management. It must also serve to 1996). influence government policy makers and pri The success of any maize technology pro vate entrepreneurs to take decisions that en gram will require the sustenance of input sup courage farmers to try new practices. It is ply. The extension service must therefore un therefore vital that decision makers visit the sure that the farmer who takes part in the demonstration plots to see firsthand, the su maize demonstration and testing program periority of the production recommendations. have access to improved seed, fertilizer, and The best time to invite influential people to other key inputs of the recommended produc visit the plots is during the field days organ tion technology. For the smallscale low in ized towards the end of the crop cycle. come farmers, it may be necessary to supply these inputs on loan, especially during the first The Role of Private-Sector in year of field demonstration in a village. Technology Delivery The role of privatesector in technology Farmer Training delivery has been discussed partly in the ear Using the ’cluster’ system of participating lier part of the paper. However, it is necessary farmers, the most intensive training in the rec to emphasize that the privatesector has no ommended maize production technologies better opportunity than now when government occurs during the first year. Farmer trainings policies (though genuinely resisted) are gradu

ally moving towards privatisations must un pegs before the onset of rains. The extension dertake the delivery of improved technologies agents pay regular visits to farmers during the and research products developed by public critical stages of crop establishment in order sector organizations. Seed production and to ensure good land preparation and mainte distribution of improved varieties, and hybrids nance of 133 ridges / hectare at a spacing of fertilizer distribution, farm machinery ser 75 cm between ridges and 25 cm within to vices, and crop marketing are all prime candi attain a population of 53, 300 plants/hectare. dates for private activity. Infact, it is even Compound fertilizer (NPK) is applied a time for the private sector to begin to partici week after planting in a hole about 12 cm pate in research and development activities away from the crop stand. When using NPK rather than waiting for the publicsector to (201010), 9 bags (450kg)/hectare are ap provide. With the commercialisation of farm plied. The second application of N in form of ing activity (maize inclusive) it may be neces Urea (43% N) is undertaken when the crop is sary to encourage private sector involvement at Knee height. Weeding are generally done in extension services even if not in a form of manually with the second weeding coinciding consultancy service but the marketing of their with the second fertilizer application and re products. But to get private sector involve moulding of ridges. ment effectively, government has to provide During the season, more visits are under the enabling environment through the provi taken by the EAs, Zonal and State Coordina sion of infrastructure and the right policies. tors to address any possible field problems (pest and disease incidences, soil problems Maize Technology Delivery System-SG2000 etc). Approach At the peak of the season, field days The SG2000 approach entails the conduct (major and minor) are conducted at MTPs of preseason training of trainers (TOT) for sites. During the field days farmers from selected Extension Agents (EAs) and some neighbouring villages, scientists, input agen enlightened farmers who are to participate in cies and policy makers are invited to partici the Management Training Plot (MTP) estab pate in the field days where each farmers ex lishing during the proceeding season. The plains what he did to obtain good crop of EAs and farmers thereafter return to their maize. Each field day serves as an avenue for states to conduct preseason training for se farmertofarmer transfer of technology and lected farmers who will participate in the thereafter farmers show interest to participate MTP establishment. in the programme during the coming season. One of the cardinal issue in the approach is The aspect of record keeping are strictly the timely procurement of good quality inputs adhered to. All records related to cost produc (seed, fertilizer and agrochemicals) from reli tion are kept for each farmers. Other records able sources. Farm (0.25 –0.50 ha) targeted including village and farmer name, variety for MTP establishment are clearly measured planted, date of planting, type (s) of fertilizer (to ensure their sizes) and demarcated with used, dates of first and second application,

problems encountered etc. are collated, entered REFERENCES into computer data sheets and submitted to the Byerlee, D. 1987. Maintaining momentu in post office. green revolution agriculture. A microlevel At physiological maturity stage, farmers are perspective from Asia. MSV International De advised to bend the cobs downwards in order to velopment Paper No. 10. East Lansing Michi hasten drying, prevent bird damages and avoid gan: Michigan State University. rainwater getting into the cobs to cause mould ing. At harvest, EAs move round the MTPs Dowswell, C.R., R.L. Palwal and R.P. with weighing scale to record and determine the Cantrell 1996. Improving Maize Technology exact yield obtained from each MTP. Farmers Delivery Systems in the Third World. West are graduated after conduct of successful MTPs view Press Inc.; A Division of HarperCollins to allow new ones have access to the technol Publishers, Inc. ogy. Edache, O.A. 1999 Agricultural Policy in rela CONCLUSION tion to sustainable maize production in Nigeria. Maize has the greatest potential of success In; Valencia, J.A. et. Al. eds. 1999. Sustainable among all the major cereals commonly culti maize Production in Nigeria. The challenge in vated in Nigeria. The yield per unit area far ex coming millennium p. 24-32. ceeds any other cereal crop and is of great sig nificance as a food and feed for livestock and Elemo, K.A. 1993. Maize Agronomy Research poultry and also for several industrial purposes. in the Nigerian Savanna. In; Fakorede, M.A.B; All the research efforts put in place so far to Alofe, C.O. and Kim, S.K. (eds). Maize Im- come up with appropriate technologies in maize provement, Production and Utilization in Nige- cultivation/production will lead to only mar rian. ginal yield increases unless they are backed up FAO, 1997. Quarterly Bulletin of Statistic Vol. with appropriate technology transfer mecha 10 no 1/2 nisms. The key among the component technolo Okoruwa, A.E. and J.G. Kling.1996. Nutrition gies are improved germplasm and fertilizer. and quality of maize. IITA Research Guide 33 Infact, maize requires much more fertilization pp 33. than the traditional cereals (sorghum and millet) to produce a worthwhile yield. Schoubroeck, F.H.J.; M. Herens; W. de This means an effective researchextension Louw; J.M. Louwen and T.O. Overtoom, farmerlinkage system has to be developed in 1989. Managing pests and pesticides in small clode association with input supply agencies scale agriculture. Center for Development from both public and private organizations and work, the Netherlands (CON). supported by credit/lending agents.

Schulz, S. 2000. Farmer participation in re search and development: the problem census and solving technique. IITA Research Guide 57 pp 22

World Bank, 1989. International Bank for Reconstruction and Development Report. In

Table 1: Technical efficiency of technology delivery systems in major maize environments of se lected countries

Country Environment Economic yield Estimated ac Technical potential tual yield efficiency (t/ha) (t/ha) (%) United States Temperature 9.0 7.5 85 China Temperature 6.0 4.8 80 Pakistan Subtropical 3.5 1.4 40 Thailand Tropical 3.5 2.5 71 Philippines Tropical 3.5 1.5 40 Egypt Subtropical (irrigated) 6.5 5.9 90 Benin Tropical 3.5 1.0 29 Ghana Tropical 3.5 1.4 40 Nigeria Tropical 3.5 1.4 40 Kenya Tropical (Highland) 3.5 1.4 40 Zimbabwe TropicalMidattitude 4.5 1.8 45 Argentina Temperate 6.0 3.5 58 Brazil Tropical 4.0 2.2 55 Subtropical 3.0 1.4 47 Ecuador Tropical 3.5 2.0 57 Highland 4.0 1.5 38 Guatemala Tropical 4.0 2.0 50 Highland 4.0 1.5 38 Mexico Subtropical 4.0 2.5 63 Highland 4.0 1.6 40

Optimum yield potential, given current input prices, availability of technology, and farmer management skills, as determined from farmermanaged onfarm research trials. Sources: FAO and Dowswell et. Al., (1996)

TOWARDS DISSEMINATION OF QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE TECHNOLOGY IN NIGERIA S.S. Abubakar 1, S.J. Auta2, J.G. Akpoko2, and J.E. Onyibe2*

INTRODUCTION and tryptophan has great potential for partially Maize is a major food and industrial compensating for a protein energy deficiency crop in Nigeria. Its genetic plasticity has made in the energing food habit. Also, the use of it the most widely cultivated crop in the coun QPM in feeds has potential for improving the try from the wet evergreen climate of thr for quality of feeds and reducing the level of for est zone to the dry ecology of the Sudan sa tification with legumes. The would indirectly vanna. National production is put at 6.14 mil reduce the cost of feed supplements in live lion tones on an area of 3.78 million hectares stock husbandry, it would also indirectly im (NAERLS 1999). Maize is used directly for prove human diets through improvement of human food, constituting about 6070% of the the quality of livestock that has been main dietary profile of adults and over 80% of that tained on QPM. In essence therefore, QPM of infants. It is widely fed to weaning children has high prospect of impacting positively on with or without any protein supplement. the Nigerian populace. About 3040% of annual production is used as However, the opportunities that are avail livestock feed. able following the development of QPM are Maize contains about 10% protein, but the not yet known to target beneficiaries (farmers, protein has been found to efficient in two households and industrial users of maize). amino acids –lysine and tryptophan Hence, like every new biotechnology, the (NRC,1988). Human being and other awareness of the use and cultivation of QPM monogastric animals do not synthesize these has to be created and sustained. Extension amino acids and may therefore need these services in Nigeria having successfully pro protein supplements. In order to provide a moted the cultivation of maize which now balance dietary profile in maize based food extends far into marginal zones of Sudan sa and feeds; fortification with grain legume vanna of Nigeria, still holds keys to a success such as soybean and groundnut is prevalent. ful stimulation and sustenance of farmers’ The widespread use of these grain legumes interest in this new variety of maize. especially at industrial level has raised de This paper discuss the strategies towards mand for legumes beyond what a majority of dissemination of QPM technology in Nigeria. potential users can afford. The first part of the paper highlights the con The development of quality protein maize straints to adoption of maize technology. This (QPM), which contains higher level of lysine is followed by methodologies often used in

1—Director, National Agricultural Extension Research and Liaison Services (NAERLS); 2—Extension Specialists (NAERLS) ABU Zaria, Nigeria.

the dissemination of technologies dissemina expensive and, therefore, not economi tion. The paper concludes with recommenda cal and socially rewarding. tion drawing experience with agricultural (viii) Draught is a major case of production technology dissemination in Nigeria. instability –this is more frequent and serious in the north. It may occur two to Constraints to Self-sufficiency in Maize three weeks following the first rains, or Production flowering or the season’s rainfall may Demand for maize is increasing at a fast cease well ahead of longterm average. rate. Unfortunately, constraints to meet this (ix) Lack of easily obtainable credit facili everincreasing demand manifest themselves ties. in production volume that is lower than that (x) Lack of effective, organized produce achievable. These constraints have been sum marketing system. marised (Fajemisin, 1995) as follows: (xi) Need for consistence government policy i) Extensive use of local, lowyielding –one that encourages production rather maize varieties than create disincentives as rational in This is, to a large extent, due to inade putsubsidies, assistance in land clear quate supply of seed improved, high ing and discouraging maize importa yielding varieties. tion. (ii) Low soil fertility and nonwidespread (xii) Varieties preference use of fertilizers. Soils in the forest Several factors (Figure 1) such as col zone rapidly lose fertility a few crop our, yield, kernel type / characteristics, ping seasons after clearing from the compatibility with traditional food hab natural buffered forest cover. In the sa its, fertilizer requirement, plant height, vannas, soils are low in organic matter, tolerance to striga, seed purity and cli nitrogen phosphorus and secondary nu matic/weather factors have also bee trients. identified to influence farmers’ choice (iii) High cost and inappropriate methods of of maize (Arokoyo et. Al., a996 and land clearing NAERLS. 1996). (iv) Land tenure problems –difficulties in obtaining land in the desired ecology Extension Methodologies in the and / or inadequate size. Dissemination of Agricultural (v) Inadequate and often untimely supply of Technologies production inputs –fertilizer, herbi The extension teaching methods that have cides, pesticides and been used over years in Nigeria fall into three machinery. basic categories: individual contacts, mass (vi) Low productivity due to losses from communication and the group approach. weeds diseases and insects. a) Individual contacts (vii) Prevailing management practices are Individual contacts involved personal visit labourintensiveslow, uninteresting, to the farmers to hold personal discussions

100

and / or teach the farmers techniques. Individ agricultural extension education. The group ual visits allow twoway communication proc approach includes farm demonstrations (either ess between farmers and extension workers. It method of results); farm talks or walks, agri often leads the development of mutual confi cultural shows, group meetings, etc. Since dence and trust, a prerequisite to greater re farm families traditionally live together in ceptivity of new ideas. Unfortunately, the of villages, it becomes possible to give talks, extension workers is too small compared with farm demonstration, farm walks, etc. to a the population of farmers to be served. The large group of farmers. acute shortage of extension personnel, the large population of farmers and the widely Extension Strategies for QPM scattered nature of farms, all limit the scope Technology Dissemination for the use of individual approach to agricul The primary role of extension will be to tural education create a desire to adopt the production and b) Mass Communication utilization of QPM. Generally, the role of ex Mass communication as a means of exten tension will include amongst others to: sion education involves the use of printed ma (i) Create awareness / interest of target terials, film shows, radio and television talks, groups on QPM; etc. Fir teaching farmers and making them (ii) Identify and confirm sources of good aware of new techniques. It finds its widest quality and suitable QPM seeds; application in a situation where is high pro (iii) Organised farmers into community based portion of literacy and there is adequate provi and strengthening the capacity of NGOs/ sion of infrastructures such as good roads, contract seed growers; electricity, television, radio etc. it can serve as (iv) Train relevant extension agents and farm an effective medium of teaching when the ers on production and utilization QPM; subject matter is not complex or where simple (v) Promote / introduce QPM through a vari information is to be passed to farmers. It is ety of sustainable extension methodolo effective in reaching a large number of farm gies; and ers within a very short period of time. (vi) Ensure production of good quality seed One of its major advantages is its imper and identify source for QPM products sonal nature. There is no facetoface contact marketing. and the development of mutual contact char The abovecited roles could be through the acteristic of individual contact is lacking. use and provision of the following: Mass media is not yet an effective and widely used method of agricultural education because (a) Use of the mass media: of the illiteracy of the farming population and The use of the mass media such as radio, the poorly developed infrastructures television, and extension publications should c) Group approach widened in order to reach many more farmers The group approach to agricultural educa with different backgrounds, interest and incli tion is the most commonly used method of nations. Radio is the best tool for creating

101

awareness in such a new idea as QPM in all (b) Production and Supply of Good Seeds hooks and corners of Nigeria within the short Good seeds are often the basis of the ac est possible time. Radio has the advantage of ceptance and impact of any crop anywhere in reaching the large majority of Nigerians irre the world. Other inputs such as fertilizers and spective of sex, language, cultural and physi agrochemicals are only additives, which re cal barriers. The television on the other hand , quire good seeds as foundation, before their is a powerful tool which can not only be used full impacts can be felt. It is also obvious that for creating awareness and interest, but also to the private sector is better suited for the sup teach and demonstrate to the target groups, the ply and distribution of good quality inputs. It production and utilization techniques of QPM. is recommended, therefore, that the private Extension publication such as posters, guides, sector should be given the responsibility of magazines newspapers, news letters, etc. writ making QPM seeds available to farmers. The ten particularly in vernacular could help to private sector’s role should largely be re sensitise the target groups on QPM. They are stricted to providing the enabling environ also effective means to conveying specific ment, the regulatory framework and funding technical detail information on the production facilitating institutions (e.g. research institu of QPM. If well organized and publicised, tions, regulatory agencies) that will make the agricultural shows could serve as an important private sector function efficiently in making medium of agricultural education. Farm dem good quality seeds available to farmers at the onstrations appears to be the most effective right time and places, and at affordable prices. and widely used method of creating farmer’s The government efforts in providing the ena awareness on new techniques or convincing bling environment should center around pro farmers about agricultural innovations. Since viding appropriate laws and regulations and predominantly illiterate farmers are generally their operations should, however, not serve as inductive orientated, demonstration brings the impediments to private sectors operators. Ad points home clearly to the farmers and cre ditionally, extension will have to empower the dence to the superiority of the practices being farmers with the knowledge of identifying demonstrated. Organized walks and talks are suitable seeds. Several attributes of maize va usually arranged as part of agricultural dem riety such as colour, yield, kernel type/ onstrations during which the farmers can ask characteristics, compatibility with traditional questions and change ideas with extension food habits, fertilizers requirement, plant agents. The organized walks, talks and ex height, tolerance to striga, and climate/ change of ideas between the farmers and agri weather factors have also been identified to cultural firms’ officials could go a long way in influence farmers choice of maize varieties. creating awareness. Visual aids and demon Accordingly, the following recommendations stration which integral part of agricultural are offered: show often increase farmers’ awareness and i) Colour: Studies show that considerable create lasting impressions on the farmers. differences exist between communities in terms of colour preference in maize accep

102

tance and adoption (Figure 1). While the compounds. For these reasons the feed industries prefer yellow maize to height of the QPM should also pro white maize because of the high carotene vide for these other uses of maize. content of the former, most households in vii) Tolerance to Striga: Striga is a major Northern Nigeria prefer the white for the parasite of cereals especially maize in making “tuwo”. These factors warrants Nigeria. It may therefore be necessary the need to provide varieties of QPM in that QPM varieties have some measure of both colours in order to facilitate early tolerance to striga infestation. acceptance and adoption. viii) Seed Purity: There is need for a seed ii) Yield: It is important that the QPM has delivery system which will ensure mul high yield potential in addition to its high tiplication and distribution of pure seeds protein content as lower yields is likely to of QPM. The possibility of having com impede its adoption. posite varieties which can be replanted iii) Kernel type / Characteristics: Kernel while still retaining desirable qualities characteristics (especially in terms of tex should be exploited. Seed purity is of par ture and density) should allow for ease ticular concern especially because QPM grinding, resistance to pest attack and is indistinguishable in appearance from other factors which can affect acceptance the conventional maize varieties currently by farmers and consumers. available. iv) Compatibility with traditional food ix) Climate/Weather Factors: In the drier habit: There is need to ensure that part of Nigeria, where many places sel there is no adverse change (not even dom receive an average rainfall subtle change) in appearance, texture higher than 25mm, some level of and flavour when QPM is used in the drought tolerance would be necessary preparation of indigenous foods when in QPM. However, the varieties to be compared with conventional maize varie promoted should not be susceptible to ties consumed. lodging. Another option would be to v) Fertilizer requirement: Chemical fertil incorporate QPM into the early and extra izers are still expensive and not available early maize varieties that can be intro in sufficient amounts. It would therefore duced into there drier areas. In order to be desirable that nutrient demand by QPM ensure sustainable of QPM adoption, varieties should not exceed those of the therefore, it is proper to incorporate farm conventional maize variety being grown. ers’ preferences and climatic conditions at This also stresses the need to develop nu the developmental stages. trient efficient varieties of QPM. vi) Plant height: Farmers have other uses (c) Setting up a Suitable Machinery for for maize straw as a source of forage Quality Seed Production for livestock and for domestic use Nigeria is the lack of suitable mecha such as roof thatching, and fencing of nisms for seed production. The problem

103

may be more serious with the QPM seed are certificate training that can last from a few production. Suitable QPM seed produc days to several weeks. tion and distribution in could possibly be Training of farmers and rural house fostered through the strengthening of local holds should however be a continuous exer communitybased seed producing organi cise. Such training should focus on a particu zations. Farmers groups, NGOs and indi lar aspect / topic at a time and should not ex vidual contract seed producers are increas ceed one day. ingly becoming important in Nigeria. Ini tially, surveys should be conducted by the (e) The Use Participatory Approach in national extension services in order to which Decisions are made as much identify the resource capabilities of local Possible by the Farmers community organizations and farmers to The participatory approach is one of the be contract growers. These groups and effective and sustainable approaches being individual contract farmers should be pro promoted in recent years in a number of coun vided with the necessary inputs and foun tries. The participatory approach is based on dation seed on credit to produce certified the fact that many agricultural problems can seeds. These seeds should be directly to no longer be solved through individual deci the extension services which then deducts sionmaking. Participation of the target group input costs. in collective decision Is required. This is in sharp contrast with other approaches where (d) Training of both Farmers and the farmers are often treated as ignorant re Extension Agents on QPM cipients of information, rather than knowl Production Techniques edgeable partners in programme implementa This is necessary because of the new tion. Farmers have information which is cru ness of this technologies. Special handling is cial for planning a successful agricultural pro generally required for any quality maize to gramme, including their goals, situations, avoid cross pollination. This is important be knowledge, experiences with technologies and cause genetic contamination is a potential the social structure of their society, and they problem. Farmers need to be trained in the will be more motivated to cooperate in agri techniques of seed production and how to se cultural programme if they share responsibil cure good seed of the QPM. Training on QPM ity for it. In a democratic society, it is gener processing is also of importance. Some train ally accepted that the people involved have ing may be necessary to ensure that normal the right to participate in decisionsmaking methods of processing do not contaminate the about the goals they hope to achieve. The par proteins. Also new form of food such as tortil ticipatory is recommended for the dissemina las and tortilla chips can be introduced. tion of the QPM technology. Training of field extension staff can be In order to facilitate technology dissemina formal and informal. Informal training can be tion using the participatory approaches, areas done in one to five days while formal training that need to be carefully explored include:

104

i) The encouragement of interaction be are other methods that can be adopted to tween nongovernmental agencies, and promote QPM. They are both tools got farmers; technology dissemination. ii) Promotion of the participation of farmers, and farmers group organizations. Several (f) Organization of Effective Marking farmers groups exist through which infor System mation on QPM can be targeted. Farmers The lack of effective marketing system groups are a particularly good means of in Nigeria has created problem in maize pro extension communication as people are duction. Although farmers are sometimes more inclined to respond to the pressures aware that prices are lowest soon after har and opinions of groups in which they are vest, most farmers sell up their harvest within involved; the first three months after harvest to meet iii) Fostering of the participation of farmers, immediate cash needs. Subsequently, maize and farmers’ organizations in problem supply to the market are controlled by traders diagnosis, technology testing, selection and not producers. Consequently, the benefit and dissemination; of maize of maize production accrues to the iv) It had been suggested in several litera traders rather than the producers. Low prices ture that networking, information collec are also often obtained by farmers who pro tion and exchange among countries can duce poor quality maize grains. A steady price help accelerate progress in both research for maize grains that is beneficial to the pro and technology transfer. New knowledge ducers should be evolved. Extension should or innovations therefore need to be inven insure that farmers produce poor quality toried, checked, stored, and made widely maize grains that will attract good market available through networking and ex prices. There will also be the need to educate change of information on QPM, and. the farmers on the importance of farmers stor v) Targeting other categories of farmers ing their produce during peak periods. This other than smallscale rural farm house will enable them obtain good prices by selling holds should be accorded some priority. at the appropriate time thereby enhancing This because increasingly, youths, their income and it will serve as a source of women, urban farmers, medium and large encouraging high levels of adoption. The scale farmers are being recognized as Government should also make regulations on important contributors in aggregate agri the use of standard measures that are benefi cultural production in Nigeria. Extension cial to the producers, nationwide. The linkage strategies which specially address the between research and the private sector pro problems of these categories of farmers ducer and marketers of maize products must should be utilized in reaching them. Spe be strengthened. cialized such as the Management Train ing Plot (MTP) approach by SG2000 and Community Based Extension approach,

105

(g). The Need for Consistent Government Conclusion Quality protein maize has a lot Policies of potential for increasing the protein require Inconsistency of government policies ment of the Nigerian populace. This paper has been identified as a constraint. Today it is identifies factors that could influence adoption subsidy removal, tomorrow is another differ of QPM. A multidimensional broadbased ent policy. Under such uncertainty investors approach requiring broad based participation of production inputs are discouraged. Simi and a mix of extension methods of advocated larly, price instability due to the inconsistency for the promotion of QPM. of government policy on ban and importation The critical question that research and ex of competitive food items as well as across the tension will, however, have to answer sooner border trade, are other constraints. A case in or later will be “How far should QPM go in point is the consistency in the policy of the the replacement of the conventional maize ban and importation of barley and wheattwo varieties being grown in Nigeria?” grains that are good substitutes for maize as materials for the bread and brewery industries. REFERENCES: Maize is also unofficially, but actively traded across Nigeria’s borders in a bid to earn for Abubakar S.S. Akpoko, J.G. and Onyibe eign exchange. Indeed, the inconsistencies in J.E., 1999. The role of Agricultural Extension national policy on trade control have had un in Sustainable Maize Production in Nigeria. In beneficial effect on maize farmers. It is rec Valencia et. Al. (ed). Sustainable Maize Pro ommended that to sustain the production of duction in Nigeria: The challenges in the com QPM, government should be consistent in its ing Millennium, Proceedings of the National trading policies, which are beneficial to then Maize Production Workshop SG2000 / IAR / farmers; that is policies that encourage pro FMRD / ADPs 22nd—24th July, 1999 p.33 duction rather than create disincentives. 42 h). Adequate Funding and Proper Arokoyo, J.O. Onyibe, J.E., daudu C.K., Organization of Research and Akpoko J.G. Inwafor E.N.O. and Extension K.A.Elemo, 1996, Promotion of Maize Tech Finally, both research and extension on nology Transfer in the Savanna Ecology of QPM should be adequately funded and prop Nogeria: 1996 Annual WECAMAN Project erly organized. Research must new and appro report 20pp priate seed varieties, while extension must make them available to the farmers. The pri Fajemisin, J.M.., 1995. Status of Maize Pro vate sectors must provide with fund to supple duction Technology in Nigeria and Prospects ment government expenditure on research, for Sustained Selfsufficiency. Paper Pre while research must generate new and appro sented at the NAFPP 3rd joint Workshop held priate seeds for the private sector to produce at Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria, March 70, and sell. 1995.

106

Idachaba, F.S.,1988. Extension Service and Institutional Linkages in Universities of Agri Valencia, J.A. and Breth: S.A. 1999. Maize culture. In: M. Shittu and M.T. Garba (Eds): Technology Transfer. The Sasakawa Global Proceedings of National Seminal on Universi 2000 Experience in Nigeria. In Valencia et. ties of Agriculture, Nigrian University Com Al. (ed). Sustainable Maize Production in Ni mission, Lagos. geria; the Challenges in the coming Millen nium Proceedings of the National Maize Pro NAERLS, 1999. Maize Production in Nige duction Workshop. SG2000 / IAR / FMRD / ria. Extension Bulletin No. 11. ADPs 22nd 24th July, 1999 p.3342. National Research Council, 1988, Quality Protein Maize, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.

Grain yield Straw yield

60 Plant yield Grain colour

40 40

25 25 Percentage (%) 20 20

15 15

10 10

0 Ladanawa Kafinsoli

107

EXPECTED ROLE OF EXTENSION IN THE PROMOTION OF QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE

S.S. Abubakar1, J.E Onyibe2, C.K. Daudu2, J. Ahmed2 and R.A Gbadegeshin2*

INTRODUCTION children. The development of quality protein maize is a major food and industrial crop maize (QPM), which contains higher level of in Nigeria. Its genetic plasticity has made it lysine and tryptophan has great potential for the most widely cultivated crop in the country partially compensating for a protein energy from the wet evergreen climate of the forest deficiency in the emerging food habit. Also, zone to the dry ecology of the Sudan savanna. the use of QPM in feeds has potential for im National production is put at 6.14 million proving the quality of feeds and reducing the tones on an area of 3.78 million hectares level of fortification with legumes. This (NAERLS 1999). Maize is used directly for would indirectly reduce the cost of feed sup human food, constituting about 6070% of the plements in livestock husbandry. It would also dietary profile of adults and over 80% of that indirectly improve human diets through im of infants. It is widely fed to weaning children provement of the quality of livestock that with or without any protein supplement. have been maintained on QPM. In essence About 3040% of annual production is used as therefore, QPM has high prospect of impact livestock feed. ing positively on the Nigerian populace. Maize contains about 10% protein, but the However, the opportunities that are avail protein has been found to be deficient in two able following the development of QPM are amino acids –lysine and tryptophan not yet known to target beneficiaries (farmers, (NRC,1988). Human being and other households and industrial users of maize). monogastric animals do not synthesize these Hence, like every new biotechnology, the amino acids and may therefore need these awareness of the use and cultivation of QPM protein supplements. In order to provide a has to be created and sustained. Extension balance dietary profile in maize based food services in Nigeria having successfully pro and feeds; fortification with grain legume moted the cultivation of maize which now such as soybean and groundnut is prevalent. extends far into marginal zones of Sudan sa The widespread use of these grain legumes vanna of Nigeria, still holds key to a success especially at industrial level has raised de ful stimulation and sustenance of farmers’ mand for legumes beyond what a majority of interest in this new variety of maize. potential users can afford. The high depend This paper discusses the role of extension ence on maize for food and the increasing cost in the introduction, acceptance and adoption of legumes has resulted in increasing cases of of QPM. The paper also highlights key issues potential protein deficiency, especially among for consideration in order to ensure a sustain

1. *Director, NAERLS 2. *Extension specialists, NAERLS

108

able adoption of QPM, drawing experience kawa Global 2000 farmers maize yield have from framer preferences and food culture of been doubled in the Northern Guinea savanna the Nigerians. (Valencia and Breth, 1999). The West and Central African Maize Network (in an Previous Extension Efforts to NAERLS / IAR collaborative project) used a Promote Maize Production and participatory model in a community based Utilization extension approach to stimulate the produc The first major effort to promote massive tion of early and extraearly maturing varieties production of maize in Nigeria was in 1971 of maize in the savannas. Both approaches through the Federal Government supported have achieved significant level of success National Accelerated Food Production Pro while working in collaboration with ADPs. gramme (NAFPP) on pilot basis (Idachaba, These approaches may need to be adopted to 1988). The role of extension under this pro promote the QPM. gramme was to pass information on improved maize production practices to farmers and ob Factors Affecting Adoption of Varieties: tain feedback on farmers problem back to re Research on the potential of QPM in Nige search. Extension also has a role of helping ria is very recent and critical recommenda farmers gain access to necessary farm inputs. tions are currently being finalised. Several There was also another government supported factors have been identified to influence programme in 1976 tagged “Operation Feed farmers choice and variety preference the Nation”. This programme however had (Arokoyo et. al. 1996 and NAERLS. 1996). In virtually no articulated role for extension. The order to ensure sustainable recommendation, Agricultural Development Project (ADPs) it is proper to incorporate farmer preferences system, which is an integrated rural develop at the developmental stages. According to ment approach was first initiated at pilot level Arokoyo et al. (1996) and NAERLS. (1996) in Funtua, Gusau and Gombe in 1975. The the following attributes will be relevant to the key features were mechanisms for problem promotion of QPM: identification and prioritisation, active linkage a. Colour: Arokoyo et. al. (1996) reported with farmers which allowed for feedback and that considerable differences exist be training. The ADPs have an agricultural ex tween communities in terms of colour tension component using the training and vis preference in maize acceptance and adop iting system, and had extended nation wide tion, while farmer choice and preference now. The ADPs work closely with research in selection of maize varieties are depend institutes. A considerable number of recom ent mainly on grain yield and some other mended maize varieties and recipes have been factors (fig.1). The figure also shows the promoted through these projects (Abubakar et. diversity in factors that influence adoption al. 1999). of any particular variety of maize. While Through the use of Management Training the feed industries prefer the yellow maize Plot Approach (MTP) popularised by Sasa to white maize because of the high caro

109

tene content of the former, most house QPM should also provide for this other holds in Northern Nigeria prefer white uses of maize. However, varieties to be “tuwo” made from white maize. These promoted should not be susceptible to factors warrant the need to provide varie lodging. ties of QPM in both colours in order to g. Tolerance of striga: Striga is a major facilitate early acceptance and adoption. parasite of cereals, especially maize in b. Yield: maize farmers are beginning to Nigeria. It may therefore, be necessary get used to high yields of maize under the that QPM varieties have some measure of MTP and community based extension ap tolerance to striga infestation. proach. It is important that QPM has high h. Seed purity: There need for a delivery yield potential in addition to its high pro system which will ensure multiplication tein content as lower yield is likely to im and distribution of pure seed of QPM. The pede its adoption. possibility of having composite varieties c. Kernel type / characteristics: Kernel which can be replanted while still retain characteristics (especially in terms of tex ing desirable qualities should be exploited. ture and density) should allow for easy Seed purity is of particular concern espe grinding, resistance to pest attack and cially because QPM is indistinguishable in other factors, which can affect acceptance appearance from the conventional maize by farmers and consumers. currently available. d. Compatibility with traditional food i. Climatic / weather Factors: In the drier habit: There is need to ensure that there part of Nigeria, where many places sel is no adverse change (not even a subtle dom receive an average rainfall, some change) in appearance, texture and flavour level of drought tolerance would be neces when QPM is used in the preparation of sary in QPM. Another option would be to indigenous foods when compared with incorporate QPM into early and extra conventional maize varieties consumed. early maize varieties that can be intro e. Fertilizer requirement: Chemical fertil duced into these drier areas. Extension izers are still expensive and not available must therefore ensure that farmers are in sufficient amounts. It would therefore fully involved at all stage of planning, be desirable that nutrient demand by QPM identification and appraisal of QPM varie varieties should not exceed those of the ties. This is important also because when conventional maize varieties being grown. selection of suitable varieties is done in This also stresses the need to develop nu collaboration with farmers, it increases trient efficient varieties of QPM. early acceptance of QPM. f. Plant height: Farmers have other uses for maize straw as a source of forage for their Expected Role of Extension in the livestock and domestic use such as thatch Promotion of QPM ing of roof, and fencing of their com The primary role of extension will be to pounds. For this reason the height of the create a desire for change (to the production

110

and utilization of QPM) and, to influence Extension Methods: farmers and consumers to take action that Extension methods comprise of channels bring this change. Generally, the role of ex (techniques of communication ) through tension will include amongst other: which farmers and other target groups are mo i. Identify and confirm suitable QPM varie tivated and enhanced to address their prob ties through multilocational trials. lems. It would be advisable to use a wide vari ii. Create awareness / interest of target group ety of extension methods as possible to ensure in QPM rapid dissemination of QPM. Extension meth iii. Train relevant extension agents and farm ods are classified into two main groups viz: ers on production and utilization of QPM 1.Mass Methods: iv. Promote / introduce QPM through a vari This method aims at reaching most of the ety extension methodologies target groups at the same time. It involves the use of all available media such as: Coordination of Promotional Electrical media: the electrical media will Efforts: include radio and television broadcasts, inter There is need for identification of relevant net etc. stakeholders in promotion exercise and for (i) Radio: This is probably the effective com extension to coordinate their efforts. The po munication tool used in Nigeria today to tential stakeholders in promotional efforts re communicate to farmers and the general lated to QPM will include research institutes public. It overcomes the problems of dis (both local and international), extension and tance, time, poor roads and illiteracy. Ra extension support agencies, NGOs, health / dio is the best tool for creating awareness nutrition agencies; farmers and consumers of and interest in such new ideas as QPM in QPM. Consumers of particular interest in all nooks and corners of Nigeria within clude children of all age (with emphasis on the shortest possible time. Radio has the weaning babies), nursing mothers, livestock singular advantage of reaching the large farmers, food industries etc. High prospect majority of Nigerians irrespective of sex, exists for the involvement of all of these language, cultural and physical barriers. stakeholders in the promotion of QPM which (ii) Television (and internet) will warrant coordination of the effort in order Compared to radio, these two are con to avoid duplications, reach consensus on fined to areas where electricity is available critical issues and formulate effective strate and stable. While internet is further re gies for the promotion and adoption of QPM. stricted by access to telephone and com There is no doubt that multisectoral involve puters. Thus the internet despite its poten ment in promotional efforts will evoke the use tial is not likely to be of much use in QPM of different extension methods. Some of the promotion for now. potential extension methods that may be The radio and television and print adopted are presented bellow: media are powerful tools which cannot only be used for creating awareness and interest,

111

but also can be used to teach and demonstrate groups exist through which information to the target group the production and utiliza on QPM can be targeted. Farmers’ tion techniques for QPM. groups are a particular group means of Print media: The print media that could extension communication as people are be adopted to extend QPM technology in more inclined to respond to the pressures clude; Newspapers, Magazines agricultural and opinions of groups in which they are extension publication etc. involved. 2. Newspaper / Magazines: (c) Specialised approaches: Such as the MTP The use of timely release in Newspaper, approach by SG2000 and Community Magazines, Newsletters etc. (particularly in Based Extension Approach Developed by vernacular versions)) will help sensitize the NAERLS referred earlier are other meth target group on QPM. ods that can be adopted to promote QPM. Extension Publication: They are both tools for technology dem Posters, Flipbooks and Guides are channels onstration. of disseminating information on QPM. They (d) Agricultural show / Field days / Fairs: are particularly effective for conveying techni these are activities organized to allow cal details for production on QPM. However, farmers learn technologies and ask rele the more it is used to supplement the mass vant questions. extension, the greater the amount of success Mass methods when used in combination with achieved. individual and group methods could be a very 3. Group Methods: productive means of dissemination of QPM This is an approach in which several mem bers of the target group who are linked with Extension Training formal and informal ties are addressed at the There is a strong need for training both the same time. It is the most important method as farmers and extension agents on QPM produc it permits more participation by the target tion techniques because of newness of this groups, and saves extension costs and time. technologies. Special handling is generally Group methods include: required for any quality maize to avoid cross (a) Demonstration: The result demonstration pollination. This is important because genetic will have to establish proof that utiliza contamination is a potential problem. Farmers tion of QPM is more beneficial and more need to be trained on how to secure seeds of economical than any other maize varie the QPM. Training on how QPM processing ties. This could be through comparison of and utilization is also of some importance. livestock fed on QPM and other maize Some training may be necessary to ensure that varieties. This result can also be used for normal methods of processing do not denature open days, agricultural shows and fairs the proteins. Also new forms of food can be etc. Demonstration can be used to show introduced. farmers QPM production techniques. Training field extension staff can be formal (b) Farmers’ Groups: Several farmers’ and informal, informal trainings can be done

112

in one to five days while formal trainings are Maize Production Workshop SG2000 / IAR / certificated trainings that can last for a few FMRD / ADPs 22nd—24th July, 1999 p.3342 days to several weeks. Training of farmers and rural households Arokoyo, J.O. Onyibe, J.E., daudu C.K., should however be continuous exercise. Such Akpoko J.G. Inwafor E.N.O. and training should focus on particular aspect / K.A.Elemo, 1996, Promotion of Maize Tech topic at a time and should not exceed one day. nology Transfer in the Savanna Ecology of Nogeria: 1996 Annual WECAMAN Project CONCLUSION report 20pp

Quality protein maize has a lot of potential Idachaba, F.S., Extension Service and Institu for impacting positively on the food habit of tional Linkages in Universities of Agriculture. the Nigerian populace. The role of extension is In: M. Shittu and M.T. Garba (Eds): Proceed to stimulate and sustain the production and ings of National Seminal on Universities of utilization of QPM with collaborative efforts Agriculture, Nigrian University Commission, with Farmers, Research and potential users of Lagos. QPM. This paper presented the menu of exten sion options that could be adopted for the pro NAERLS, 1999. Maize Production in Nigeria. motion of QPM and suggested the need to in Extension Bulletin No. 11. volve farmers in the screening promising varie ties and recipes. The paper identifies factors National Research Council, 1988, Quality that could influence adoption of QPM. A multi Protein Maize, National Academy Press, dimensional broadbased approach requiring Washington, D.C. broadbased participation and a mix of exten sion methods Is advocated for the promotion of Valencia, J.A. and Breth: S.A. 1999. Maize QPM. Technology Transfer. The Sasakawa Global The critical question that research and ex 2000 Experience in Nigeria. In Valencia et. Al. tension will have to answer sooner or later will (ed). Sustainable Maize Production in Nigeria; be “How far should QPM go in the replace the Challenges in the coming Millennium Pro ment of conventional maize varieties being ceedings of the National Maize Production grown in Nigeria” Workshop. SG2000 / IAR / FMRD / ADPs

22nd 24th July, 1999 p.1323. REFERENCES:

Abubakar S.S. Akpoko, J.G. and Onyibe J.E., 1999. The role of Agricultural Extension in Sustainable Maize Production in Nigeria. In Valencia et. al. (ed). Sustainable Maize Pro duction in Nigeria: the challenges in the com ing Millennium, Proceedings of the National

113

APPROACHES TO IMPROVING THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MAIZE WITH PARTICULAR EMPHASIS ON QPM

H. Abubakar*

ABSTRACT to improve the nutritive value of maize with Maize is a basic staple food for large popula particular emphasis on QPM in view of its tion groups around the world particularly in importance to the nutritional well being of developing countries. Its low nutritional value millions around the world. particularly with respect to its protein quality has been of concern to Agriculturalist, Nutri 1.1 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF tionist and Policy Makers. Accordingly, sub MAIZE : AN OVER VIEW stantial progress has been recorded in improv The importance of cereal grains to the nutri ing its protein quality culminating in the de tion of millions of people around the world is velopment of a good quality variety, popu widely recognized. Because they make up larly known as Quality Protein Maize (QPM). such a large part of diets in developing coun A lot effort has been made to improve the tries, cereals cannot be considered only as a biological utilization of the nutrients con source of energy, as they provide significant tained in different maize varieties. Three ap amounts of protein as well. It is also recog proaches have been tried; namely, genetic ma nized that cereal grains have a low protein nipulation, processing and fortification. This concentration and that protein quality is lim paper discusses briefly progress so far re ited by deficiencies in some essential amino corded in these processes. acids, mainly lysine and tryptophan. Much less appreciated however, is the fact that some 1.0 INTRODUCTION cereal grains contain an excess of certain es Maize (Zea mays), botanically a member of sential amino acids that influence the effi the grass family (Gramineae) is the third ciency of protein utilization. The classic ex (after wheat and rice) most important cereal ample is maize. Other cereal grains have the grain in the world (FAO, 1992). Of the three same constraints but less obviously. crops, maize has the highest yield per hectare. A comparison of the nutritional value of This advantage probably explains its wide maize protein with the protein of some com utilization as food, feed for livestock and as mon cereals is given in Table 1.1 expressed as raw material for industry. Maize is an impor percentages of casein. The protein quality of tant source of Carbohydrates, Proteins, Vita common maize is similar to that of the other min B and Minerals particularly in Africa cereals except rice. Both opaque – 2 maize where it is mostly used for human consump and Quality Protein Maize (QPM) have a pro tion. This papers discusses the nutritional tein quality not only higher than that of com quality of maize and survey the efforts made mon maize, but also significantly higher than that of other cereal grains.

*Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine Bayero University, Kano, Negeria 114

Table 1.1 Protein quality of maize and other cereal grains PROTEIN QUALITY S/No. CEREAL (% CASEIN) 1. Common maize 32.1 2. Opaque –2 maize 96.8 3. QPM 82.1 4. Rice 79.3 5. Wheat 38.7 6. Sorghum 32.5 7. Barley 58.0 8. Pearl Millet 46.4 9. Finger Millet 35.7 10. Oat 59.0

The reasons for the low quality of maize plained by variations in the lysine content of proteins have been extensively studied by nu maize varieties. Work in this field led to the merous investigators. Among the first were discovery by Mertz, Bates and Nelson (1964) Mitchell and Smuts (1932) who obtained a of the highlysine maize called Opaque – 2. definite improvement in human growth when In any case, it has been amply documented 8 percent maize protein diets were supple that, the addition of 0.30 percent Llysine and mented with 0.25 percent lysine. These results 0.10 percent Ltryptophan easily increases the have been confirmed over the years by several protein quality of maize by 150 percent. authors. While others (et. al. 1968) have The essential amino acid content of the major shown that the addition of lysine to maize components of maize kernel is given in Table causes only a small improvement in protein 1.2 quality. These differing results may be ex

Table 1.2 Essential amino acid content of germ protein and endosperm protein. ENDOSPERM GERM S/No. AMINO ACID mg % mg/gN mg% mg/gN 1. Lysine 228 180 791 341 2. Tryptophan 48 38 144 62 3. Leucine 1,024 810 1,030 444 4. Threonine 315 249 622 268 5. Isoleucine 365 289 578 249 6. Phenylalanine 359 284 483 208 7. Tyrosine 483 382 343 148 8. Valine 403 319 789 340 9. Total Sulphur Amino Acids 249 197 362 156

115

1.2 NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF QPM 2.1 GENETIC MANIPULATION The protein quality of alkaliprocessed QPM 2.1.1. Carbohydrates was evaluated in children using the nitrogen The quantity and quality of the carbohydrate balance index (the relationship between nitro component of the maize kernel can be gen absorption and retention). No significant modified by breeding. The subject is be differences in nitrogen retention was observed ing extensively reviewed by Boyer and among the children fed the diets based on Shannon (1983) and Shannon and Gar milk and on alkali – processed QPM when the wood (1984). Specific examples include: level of protein intake was 1.8g per Kg per 1. The waxy gene (Wx) in waxy maize has day (Bressani, et. al, 1969). The data demon been shown to control amylopectin starch strated differences in nitrogen absorption. Ni in the endosperm up to 100 percent with trogen absorption from QPM and common very low amounts of amylose. maize was 70 and 69 percent respectively, and 2. The amylose extender gene (Ae) increases 82 percent from casein. Nitrogen retention as the amylose fraction of the starch from 27 a percentage of intake was 32 percent for to 50 percent. QPM as compared with 41 percent for casein 3. Other genes cause an increase in reducing and 22 percent for common maize. These re sugars and sucrose. Sugary (Su) genes sults, like others reported by many workers, produce relatively high amounts of water confirm the great superiority of QPM to com soluble poly saccharides and amylose. mon maize as food for children. Similar works Maize kernels containing this gene are on human adults also demonstrated the superi sweet and are important in canning. Their ority of QPM over many other cereals as a starch content and quality also have nutri source of good quality protein and overall nu tional implications, since some starch tritive value. granules have low digestibility while oth ers have high digestibility. 2.0 METHODS OF IMPROVING Some researchers (Sandstead, et. al, 1968) THE NUTRITIVE VALUE OF MAIZE have suggested that maize varieties with waxy Given the importance of maize as a staple or sugary genes could be of better nutritional food for large population groups particularly value for monogastric animals because of the in developing countries, and its low nutri greater digestibility of the type of starch they tional value, mainly with respect to protein, produce. many efforts have been made to improve the biological utilization of the nutrients it con 2.1.2. Protein Quantity tains. Three approaches have been tried: As early as 1948, Woodworth and Jugen 1. Genetic manipulation heimer, demonstrated that total protein con 2. Processing tent could be increased by selection in an open 3. Fortification pollinated variety or by crossing standard in bred lines with an HP strain followed by back crossing and selection in segregating popula

116

tions. Later, Tsai et.al (1983) concluded that grow them commercially even though the full expression of the protein genes in maize benefits to be derived from them by large can be attained with appropriate levels of ni maize consuming populations would be high. trogen fertilizers; and that nitrogen fertiliza tion of maize increased total protein because 2.1.4 Fat Content and Quality It has been of an increase in prolamine content. Studies shown through genetic studies that oil content conducted by others, showed, however that in maize is subject to genetic influence, with the protein quality of the HP strains was lower diversity often found, although environment than that of common maize since the increase and agronomic practices can influence fatty in protein was due to an increase in the prola acid composition. As with protein content, mine fraction. This led to the greater attention mass selection over 65 years increased oil to improving protein quality rather than pro content from 4.7 to 16.5 percent (Leibovits tein quantity. and Ruckenstein, 1983). The increase was obtained through increases in the size of the 2.1.3 Protein Quality germ. Besides total oil content, some studies The low protein quality of maize stems have shown that the fatty acid content may mainly from the deficiency of the essential also be subject to genetic control, as seen by amino acids lysine and tryptophan. The feasi changes in linoleic acid content in maize oil. bility of improving the quality of maize varie Poneleit and Alexander (1965) suggested a ties were obtained from the early studies of single gene or singlegeneplus modifier ef Frey and Co (1949) that showed the genetic fect. A multigene system of inheritance has variability in tryptophan content in a cross been proposed by other investigators. QPM between the Illinois HP and LP strains as well oil fatty acid composition was found to be as in hybrids. However, as stated earlier, it similar to that reported for normal maize. was Mertz, et. al (1964) that reported the role of opaque –2 gene in significantly increasing 2.1.5 Other Nutrients the lysine and tryptophan content in maize In view of the association of maize consump endosperm. This gene also reduced the leu tion and pellagra and the low availability of cine level, giving a better leucine to isoleu nicotinic acid in maize, efforts have been cine ratio. The same workers also showed that made to increase niacin in maize by genetic the floury –2 gene when homozygous could processes. Results from 22 varieties planted also increase the lysine and tryptophan levels in one location showed a variation in niacin in maize. Eventually, research conducted at content of between 1.25 to 2.6 mg per 100g. CIMMYT yielded maize lines of QPM which However, the problem of niacin in maize is its agronomically behave like common maize. non availability to the animal organism. The The protein quality of QPM is significantly other nutrient that have received attention is higher than that of common maize as shown carotene. Researchers have shown that Vita by tests in humans. Although such types of min A activity in yellow maize vary from maize are available, it has been difficult to 1.52 to 2.58 mg per gram. They have also

117

indicated that provitamin A activity is under maize, many efforts have been made to im genetic control in the maize kernel. prove its quality and particularly that of its protein through addition of amino acids or 2.2 PROCESSING protein sources rich in the limiting amino ac Processing of foodstuffs often stabilizes nutri ids. ents in the food but losses may also take place. However, the beneficial effects often 2.3.1 Fortification with Amino Acids and outweighs the losses. Beneficial effects in Protein Sources clude the removal of anti physiological fac Many studies conducted with animals have tors in foods and the improvement in the demonstrated that the addition of both lysine availability of essential nutrients. Such proc and tryptophan have improved the quality of esses include: maize protein. Some workers have even found that besides lysine and tryptophan, isoleucine 2.2.1 Alkaline Treatment of Maize is also limiting in maize proteins. Many pro The alkaline treatment of maize widely prac tein sources have been used to supplement ticed in Latin America has been shown to im and thereby improve the protein quality of prove the availability of niacin, calcium and maize flour. Such sources include casein, fish the essential amino acids especially lysine and protein concentrate, soy protein isolate, soya tryptophan. Data from biological studies have bean flour, yeast, egg protein, meat flour, and shown significant improvement in the nutri cotton seed flour etc. Many studies have tive quality of maize diets and their support shown that maximum PER (Protein Efficiency for optimal growth in both children and Ratio) is achieved with the addition of other adults. sources of protein such as the ones enumer ated above. 2.2.2 Fermentation and Germination Natural fermentation of cooked maize has 2.3.2 Fortification with Green Vegetables been shown to result in higherBvitamin con and Other Sources centration and protein quality. Germination of Some communities have the traditional habits the grain has also been reported to improve of wrapping maize doughs in leaves. The the nutritional value of maize by increasing young leaves of mature vegetables such as lysine and to some extent tryptophan and de crotalaria and amaranthus have been used. creasing zein content. A similar result was Chemical and nutritional studies have demon found with QPM. strated that about 95 percent contribution of these leaves improves the protein quality of 2.3. FORTIFICATION the dough. The reason is that they have rela Fortification is universally accepted as the tively high levels of protein rich in lysine and most versatile approach of improving the nu tryptophan. They also provide minerals and tritive value of foods especially cereal grains. vitamins particularly provitamin A. Leaf pro Because of the great nutritional limitations in tein concentrates have also been shown to

118

improve the protein quality of cereal grains. 3.0 CONCLUSION Many cereal grain flour mixtures have been The evidences presented from chemical, bio tested and found to improve the nutritional logical and nutritional studies in both children quality of the end product. Such flour mix and adults clearly indicate the superiority of tures include sorghum/maize composite, QPM maize over common maize. In spite of wheat and maize, rice and maize and lately this, only few countries such as Columbia, amaranth flour with maize flour. The ama Guatemala and Ghana have made efforts dur ranth lime cooked maize flour mixture has ing the last few years to introduce this supe been shown to improve protein quality be rior maize into agricultural production sys cause of the higher lysine and tryptophan con tems. The reasons are not clear, since agro tent of amaranth as compared with maize. The nomic studies conducted in a number of loca product has been reported to be of an accept tions have shown that there are no differences able organoleptic quality. between QPM and common maize in cultural Complementation of both common maize and practices, yield per unit of land and physical QPM maize with common black beans re quality of the grain. Furthermore, the plants sulted in a 50% increase in PER. The nitrogen look alike, QPM kernels are crystalline and increase resulting into higher PER was con grain yields are comparable to those of com stantly provided by QPM. A similar response mon maize. These factors are perhaps more was observed with mixtures of normal and important to growers than the nutritional ad QPM maize and soybean flour. The mixture is vantages offered by QPM. Although energy equivalent to 77 percent maize and 23 percent content is alike in both types of maize, but the soybean flour on a weight basis. Many other protein content of QPM is higher and is better mixtures of maize and other foods have been utilized because of its better essential amino developed with common maize or QPM and acid balance. other protein sources, giving products of high The nutritional advantages offered by QPM nutritional value and acceptability. should be fully utilized in a country such as ours (Nigeria) where poverty level and malnu trition among children are relatively high. SA SAKAWA GLOBAL 2000 as ever should lead this crusade.

119

REFERENCES CITED Mertz, E.T., Bates, L.S. and Nelson, O.E. Benton, D.A., Harper, A.E., Spivey, A.E. 1964. Mutant gene that changes protein com and Elherjem, C.A. 1956. Leucine, Isoleu- position and increases lysine content of maize cine and Valine relationships in the rats. endosperm. Science 145: 279280 Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 60: 147-155 Michell, A.H. and Smuts, D.B. 1932. The BreZssani, R., Elias, L.G. and Braham, J.E. amino acid deficiencies of beef, wheat corn, 1968. Supplementation con aminoacids del oats and soyabeans for growth in the white maiz y de la tortilla. Arch. Latinoam. Nutr., 18: rate. J. Biol. Chem., 95: 263281 123:124 Poneleit, C.G. and Alexander, D.E. 1965. Bressani, R., Alvarado, J. and Viteri, F. Inheritance of Linoleic and Oleic acids in 1969. Fevalucion en ninos de la Calidad de la maize. Science, 147: 15851586 proteinadel maiz opaco2 Arch. Lati- noam. Nutr., 19: 129140 Sandstead, R.M., Hites, B.H. and Shroeder, H. 1968. Genetic Variations in Maize: Effects Boyer, C.D. and Shannon, J.C. 1983. The use on the properties of the starches. Cereal Sci- of endosperm genes for sweet corn improve ence Today, 13: 8294, 156. ment. In. J. Janick, ed. Plant breeding reviews, Vol. I., P. 139161. Westport, Conn., USA, Shannon, J.C. and Garwood, D.L. 1984. Ge AVI Publishing Co. netics and Physiology of starch development. In R.L. Whistler, J.N. Bemiller and E.F. Pas FAO, 1992 Maize in Human Nutrition. chall, eds. Starch Chemistry and Technology, FAO Rome Italy 1992. P. 2586. Orlando, Fla., Academic Press.

Frey, K.J. 1951. The interrelationships of pro Tsai, C.Y., Warren, H.L., Huber, D.M. and teins and amino acids in corn. Bressani, R.A. 1983. Interaction between the Cereal Chem., 28:123132 Kernel N Sink grain yield and protein nutri tional quality of maize. J. Sci. Food Agric. 34: Hogan, A.G., Gillespie, G.T., Kocturk, O., 255263 O’Dell, B.L. and Flynn, L.M. 1955. The Per centage of Protein in Corn and its nutrition Woodworth, C.M. and Jugenheimer, R.W. properties. J. Nutr. 57: 225239 1948. Breeding and genetics of high protein corn. Ind. Res. Rep., 3: 7583 Leibovits Z. and Ruckenstein, C. 1983. Our experiences in Processing Maize (Corn) germ oil. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 60: 395399

120

POST-HARVEST TECHNOLOGY OF QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE: STOR- AGE AND PROCESSING –CHOOSING THE RIGHT TECHNOLOGY.

R A Boxall*

ABSTRACT interaction of farmers and extension personnel The efforts being made to improve produc at this stage are likely to result in greater up tivity of maize in Africa include the introduc take of new technologies. Farmers can pro tion of high yielding varieties of quality pro vide feedback on development of interven tein maize (QPM). In order to maximise the tions and extension personnel will be better benefits of improved production, attention able to analyse farmers’ postharvest prob must also be paid to improving postharvest lems and identify technology options suited to storage and processing to reduce losses and to farmers’ individual circumstances. maintain quality. The increases in yield that are possible can place a severe strain on the INTRODUCTION traditional postharvest system; farmers have Maize is the world’s most widely grown to cope with larger volumes of grain which is cereal crop and it is an important staple food often more susceptible to attack by storage grain in many African countries. Maize pro pests than traditional varieties. Storage losses duction in SubSaharan Africa is estimated to can be minimised by introducing improved have been increasing between 2% and 3% storage methods, including the use of pesti annually over the last 25 years, but it is ques cides or alternatively, less toxic or nontoxic tionable whether this current rate of increase materials such as extracts of plant materials or can keep up with demand since the population inert dusts. Improved agroprocessing tech of the region is projected to double in the next niques provide producers with an opportunity 2025 years. Moreover, it is expected that for adding value to their produce, whilst re more than half of the population will be living ducing the drudgery of manual processing. A in urban areas by 2020 (IFPRI, 1997) and the considerable amount of research has been de inevitable urban expansion into farming land voted to developing technologies aimed at will further restrict the land available for improving the efficiency of the postharvest maize cultivation. Hence, the often repeated system but such technologies have not always calls for greater efforts to be made to improve been taken up. A precondition of technology maize production. transfer and adoption is that the technology Much research is being devoted to improv must be appropriate to the potential adopter. ing productivity of maize through the devel Farmers and extension personnel must be in opment of new, higher yielding varieties. volved at the centre of the technology devel Among these are the varieties of quality pro opment and testing process. Involvement and tein maize (QPM) which not only show supe

*Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, Ken, UK

121

rior yields of 10% or more over normal com face considerable problems in postharvest mercial varieties of maize, but also provide a management of grains. means of improving the nutrition for resource The spectacular increases in yield brought poor producers and consumers. about by the introduction of highyielding However, in order to maximise the benefits varieties often place a severe strain on the tra of this improved production, attention must ditional postharvest system. Not only are also be paid to improving the capabilities for farmers faced with having to handle, store and postharvest handling, storage and processing process much larger quantities of grain but of maize in order to reduce losses and to also they frequently find that the grain is more maintain quality. It is widely acknowledged vulnerable to attack by storage insect pests. that losses of maize after harvest can be sub The inherent qualities of traditional maize va stantial and often these loss levels often have rieties (namely hard endosperm and good been used to justify efforts to increase produc husk cover) help to protect the grain from in tion. However, the pressures of increasing sect attack, and will have been selected, over production mean that it is more efficient to time, for their good storage characteristics. preserve what has been produced rather than The high yielding varieties (including QPM) to produce more to compensate for what although possessing improved nutritional might be lost after harvest. value, unfortunately have some characteristics that render them liable to spoilage during stor Post-harvest consequences of the introduc- age. Where the husk does not extend suffi tion of high yielding varieties of maize ciently to cover all the grain on the cob there In Africa, it is estimated that between 60% is a risk of damage through entry of moulds and 75% of all grain production is retained at and insect pests and the larger grains of these the farm level, perhaps mainly for home con varieties are softer and extremely susceptible sumption but also for sale and for seed. The to insect attack. methods of storage have evolved over many The fact that plant breeders have not incor years of experience and tradition and are usu porated good storage characteristics in the ally well suited to local conditions. Neverthe selection of new varieties often surprises less, stored grain is subject to various degrees many people. But this is not an oversight if of loss and deterioration due to attack by a commodity is unattractive to insects it may moulds, rodents, birds and especially insects. also be unattractive to humans, maybe be Experience from a wide range of loss assess cause of taste or flavour, or because small ment studies show that in the truly traditional hard grains, which may deter insects, are also storage system, losses are usually well con difficult to process. Breeders have many fac tained at around 5% (Tyler and Boxall, 1984). tors to consider both post and pre harvest. However, because of the many technical, so There is the pressing need for higher yields, cial, economic and political changes that have the need for drought resistance, improved nu taken place, that truly traditional system tritional value and of course, the consumers' probably no longer exists and farmers now preferences must be taken into consideration.

122

Hence, the breeder may ask, quite justifiably, very soon after harvest, to avoid high losses to 'why try to incorporate postharvest pest resis insects, and then to buy grain later (but at tance factors when good control can be higher price) as it is required (Boxall 1998). achieved by use of pesticides?' (Interestingly, Clearly, if such farmers (usually the poorer, there is now more interest in breeding varie smallscale producers) are to reap the benefits ties of QPM that are resistant to storage pests. of producing high yielding QPM varieties For example, CIMMYT’s research project they must receive sufficient support to enable ‘Genetic approaches to reducing postharvest them to be confident that they can store the losses’ aims to develop maize lines resistant grain satisfactorily. to the important pests Prostephanus truncatus and Sitophilus zeamais). Maize storage Unfortunately, storage pesticides have not Maize may be stored in a variety of ways. always been readily available and at an ac For example, on the cob (with or without ceptable price. The farmers' typical response husks) on racks or in cribs, or as shelled grain in the absence of a suitable technology to re in bags, pots, baskets, or mud brick bins. duce losses has often been to grow local varie These traditional structures provide many fea ties which store well for their own use, and to tures that are conducive to safe storage and, produce the high yielding varieties for sale at, since the stores are constructed of local mate or very soon after, harvest. This may have rials, they are relatively inexpensive. Never been an attractive proposition while there theless, there is often room for improvement, were marketing boards to guarantee a high especially where there are now shortages of floor price at harvest. However, the various the traditional store construction materials or economic and political changes that have where construction skills have been lost. taken place throughout Africa have tended to Approaches to improving farm storage sys make onfarm storage more important than tems have been either: ever. a) to make minor modifications to the tradi The introduction of liberalised agricultural tional store, usually to guard against mois markets has created advantages and disadvan ture uptake or to provide barriers against tages for grain producers. There is now rodents rather than to deter insect pests; greater opportunity for speculative storage. or, However, whilst the storage of marketable b) to introduce a new store using industrially surpluses may be attractive to those willing produced materials and one that will pro and able to invest in technology to minimise vide a barrier against moisture, rodents, losses to pests, others may simply be forced to insects; retain more grain for longer periods at the although, in both cases, it has also been farm level, with an increased risk of loss. usual to promote the use of pesticides to com Where the risk is particularly high as in the bat storage insect pests. case of high yielding varieties, a common However, neither of these approaches is as coping strategy is to sell grain early, often simple as they may first appear. Technically

123

sound improvements to traditional stores may the lack of appropriate containers for shelled be socially unacceptable, or simply too costly. grain and of storage space, may discourage The same may apply to newly introduced sys farmers from shelling until the grain is to be tems. Many designs of small, closed storage consumed or sold, or until infestation be bin, constructed from wood, brick, concrete or comes obvious. metal may appear attractive especially if they It is often assumed that farmers can obtain can be made gastight, thereby allowing good insecticides of the correct formulation, in ap control of insects by fumigation. However, it propriate packages, at the right time, and at or is evident that uptake of such improved stores close to the farmgate and that expert advice has often been poor because of high costs, on the use of chemicals is available. This may inadequate supplies of materials, lack of con have been so where governments were in struction skills, or the need for extra drying of volved in input supply and provision of advice the crop for safe storage in closed systems. via the extension services, but the introduction Even when an improved system has de of economic reform programmes have tended monstrable technical and economic advan to restrict public sector budgets with the result tages, farmers may still be unwilling to adopt that such services have been suspended or at it. They may see little point in changing their best severely reduced. Adequate and timely store until the existing structure requires re supply of insecticides coupled with expert pair or replacement. On the other hand, insti advice is essential to ensure correct and safe tutions promoting the new system may have application and to discourage farmers from to address issues such as the production and using inappropriate and potentially dangerous distribution of storage structures, or the provi products such as pesticides designated for use sion of credit to finance the schemes. against field pests. However, there is increasing concern over Pesticides the use of conventional synthetic insecticides Pesticides are often regarded as the most on health and environmental grounds. The successful of storage technologies; they are high toxicity, persistence and wide spectrum considered as being attractive to farmers be of activity of some compounds has already led cause they fit well with the range of storage to the withdrawal of certain insecticides and systems and require little effort to apply and farmers and traders are often reluctant to ac little capital investment. They can be highly cept the admixture of insecticides with food cost effective, with the value of the grain grains. These concerns have highlighted the saved being anything from 10 to 25 times the need to find ways of either reducing the cost of the insecticide. amount of insecticide needed to treat stored Why then are serious losses in farmstored grain and to identify alternative compounds. grain still reported? Maybe the use of insecti Insecticide use might be reduced by divid cides does not fit well with the storage system ing the harvest into two parts before storage after all. For example, where maize is tradi and treating just the one part that will be kept tionally stored on the cob, labour constraints, for a long period. The second part to be

124

stored separately remains untreated and is comparison to synthetic insecticides when used first. The size of the two parts can be assessed against criteria such as cost, effec determined by reference to the economic dam tiveness, availability, toxicity, ease of use, age threshold (Henckes, 1994). In Ghana, acceptability and versatility. Trials on screen reduced levels of insecticide have been used ing of candidate plants through laboratory and successfully to protect maize stored in tradi field trials, and toxicity testing are continuing tional granaries against attack by storage in to allow recommendations to be formulated sects such as P. truncatus and Sitophilus spp. on which materials might be used at farm Since the initial infestation tends to occur to level and/or require further research (Belmain, wards the base of the store, insecticide need 1999; Belmain et al., 1999). only be applied to the basal layers of grain. A Minerals, such as sand, lime, and ash can high degree of protection has been reported in be applied to grain to form a physical barrier mud silos and traditional cobstorage struc to insects, but large quantities are needed, per tures even when pesticide application is re haps 10g/kg of grain or even up to 50% by duced by 50% and 80% respectively weight of grain to be treated. (Birkinshaw and Hodges, 2000). Some dusts, such as diatomaceous earths Farmers have traditionally used a variety have been commercially available for many of local materials with insecticidal properties years. They have extremely low toxicity to such as plant products and minerals, (ash, mammals and are commonly used to combat sand, lime). They may not provide complete internal parasites of cattle and poultry. Diato control but can reduce infestation to low lev maceous earths are now registered in several els that are considered economically worth countries as grain protectants although there is while. little information about their efficacy in tropi Of the wide range of plant materials used cal smallscale farm storage. When used as a as grain protectants the most promising and grain protectant, the inert, sorptive or desic popular is neem (Azadirachata indica), stud cant dust disrupts the waxy cuticle of insects, ies of which have been extensive. The insec which permits loss of body fluids leading to ticidal properties of neem are well known to dehydration and death. Recent field trials in farmers in many parts of the world and some Zimbabwe have demonstrated the value of neem extracts and derivatives have even been diatomaceous earths as an alternative grain commercially produced and registered as in protectant to organophosphate insecticides for secticides. Other promising plant materials sorghum, cowpeas and maize. Diatomaceous include sweet flag (Acorus calamus ), worm earths were equally as effective as the conven seed (Chenopodium ambrosioides) and pepper tional insecticide in maintaining damage lev (Piper spp) (Golob et al., 1999). Recent stud els at a very low level over a period of 40 ies in Ghana identified seventeen different weeks (Stathers, 2000). plant species used as storage protectants, eight of which were very commonly used. Farmers Processing favourably rated the use of these materials in Agroprocessing provides an opportunity

125

for producers to add value to their crop and involve travelling long distances and/or long the introduction of good processing technolo waiting times at the mill, especially when the gies alongside the introduction of QPM varie volume of maize production increases. ties can encourage their wider adoption, re The International Institute of Tropical Ag duce postharvest losses, reduce the drudgery riculture (IITA) in collaboration with the Sa of manual processing, and improve quality sakawa Africa Association (SAA) has been and productivity. addressing the issue of villagelevel agro Most traditional postharvest operations processing and a whole range equipment, in are slow and may be a constraint to the wider cluding machinery for maize shelling and cultivation of high yielding varieties of QPM. processing, which has been produced (Jeon For example, maize is traditionally shelled by and HalosKim, 1998). hand, by beating cobs with sticks or using small hand shellers, thus, available labour Technology transfer may not be sufficient to cope with increased Clearly there is a considerable body of re yields. The high labour requirement for shell search worldwide devoted to developing ing was identified as a factor limiting the area technologies aimed at the reduction of qualita given over to maize cultivation in Zambia; tive and quantitative losses in storage and of producers with access to mechanical shellers improving the efficiency of the postharvest commonly had larger areas of land under system. However, closer examination of the maize cultivation (Boxall, 1997). Not only outputs of this research often shows that the can mechanical shellers increase productivity technologies are not always taken up. they can also reduce postharvest losses and There is widespread evidence of recom lead to improved quality. Although some mended practices or techniques being ignored breakage or cracking of grains may occur dur and equipment not being adopted. Looking at ing mechanical shelling, the quality of the some of the past attempts to reduce grain stor maize is usually superior to that of hand age losses in Africa, for example, we find nu beaten maize. Increased incomes are there merous concrete, brick and metal structures fore possible because of a lower rejection rate that are no longer in use. In the field of post by traders due to poor quality (broken) maize. harvest processing, equipment aimed at reliev In most African countries women are re ing the drudgery of women may be found ly sponsible for food processing. Since whole ing idle because the items are culturally unac grains store better than ground flour many ceptable or do not fit with the users’ needs. rural women grind or pound small quantities A precondition of technology transfer and of grain daily for home consumption. The adoption is that the technology must be appro methods are often tiring, monotonous and priate to the potential adopter, i.e. adopting time consuming. Some women will have ac the innovation will be in his/her best self cess to small custom or cooperatively owned interest. If this precondition is not met, any power driven mills and although this can re initial adoption may be ephemeral. This is duce the drudgery of home processing, it may particularly so in cases where a new technol

126

ogy is promoted with the assistance of subsi • spray cobs with an approved insecticide; dies or credit. All may go well in the early • store in a narrow ventilated crib; stages, but a subsequent loss of interest by • shell cobs when dry; and farmers may be attributed to their failure to • mix grain with an approved insecticide comply with credit conditions or a lack of ef and store in sacks or in a storage bin. fort by extension workers; the fact that the Such a package assumes that the farmers technology was inappropriate being com are able to plan how they will manage their pletely overlooked. stored crop right from the start of the season. The conventional approach to postharvest A few may be able to do this and for them the technology development and transfer has package of recommendations will be accept tended to proceed stepwise as follows: able. However, most farmers, especially • researchers at research stations produce a smallscale farmers, may adopt only parts of recommended technology; the package or none at all. Farmers tend to • extension staff are trained in the applica make a series of decisions on how to manage tion of that technology; their crop in sequence throughout the season • the technology is passed on to farmers based on the options and constraints at each through farmer training programmes or point. demonstrations. Effective storage programmes that will If the technologies are not adopted, exten minimise losses must involve farmers in the sion workers may be blamed for not doing analysis of their storage problems and in iden their job properly or farmers are criticised for tifying appropriate storage systems and man being slow to understand the need for change. agement techniques. The analysis of storage Only as a last resort may consideration be problems will include an assessment of: given to assessment of the appropriateness of • the postharvest handling methods and interventions to the specific circumstances of constraints; the target group. Officially promoted options • the advantages and disadvantage of tradi are usually formulated in packages of recom tional and improved storage methods; mendations suitable for specific groups of • the potential causes, extent and value of farmers or farming systems. storage losses; The recommendations may be technically • any current loss reduction procedures; sound but they may be unavailable, inappro • the reasons for storage and the farmers’ priate, inconvenient or too expensive for some future expectations; and farmers. The majority of farmers will need • alternative methods of loss reduction and good information about all the options avail the costs and benefits. able to them. For example, a recommended The role of the extension officer is there storage package for medium and largescale fore as a facilitator in the analytical process, farmers producing highyielding QPM might the ultimate goal of which is to advise farmers be: on particular options suitable for their individ • dehusk cobs at harvest; ual circumstances. This participatory ap

127

proach of involving farmers, either individu tions, rather than on the farm, several research ally or in groups, in deciding on a storage organisations now incorporate farmer partici management strategy will be more time con patory research into their programmes suming and more complex than promoting a (Farrington, 1997). Very recently Uganda has single extension message but it is likely to be adopted a new approach to research and ex more effective and will result in a higher tension aimed at improving the process of adoption rate of recommendations. technology generation and technology trans When villagelevel interventions are fer. This is to be achieved through decentrali planned with the objective of reducing the sation of activities, greater participation of labour of traditional processing, or to provide potential users, improved utilisation of knowl cash income for individuals or groups, the edge found in local communities and involve activity should be viewed in the context of a ment of farmers in programme planning and series of interlinked systems: the food sys evaluation of decisions about extension provi tem, involving production, processing and sions (Anon., 2001). marketing; an economic system of production Similar reorientation is required in post and exchange of assets, including labour; and harvest agroprocessing programmes. The a social system of bargaining and responsibili Postharvest Engineering Unit at IITA noted ties within the household and community. that a number of technologies introduced in Evaluating the situation in this way and in Africa since the 1970s had met with little suc volving all stakeholders will make it possible cess because they did not fit with users’ to assess more accurately who will benefit and needs. The unit’s technology development who might lose from the introduction of the approaches have now been reoriented to fully new technology. Village level processing integrate social, economic and technical con schemes aimed at raising income have some siderations. The design and manufacture of times run into marketing problems because of equipment, through stakeholder participation, lack of management or marketing expertise now takes account of factors such as: the pat and failure to research potential markets ade tern of crop production; the type and nature quately. of food processing and consumption; the Farmers are more likely to adopt new tech available resources; the technical and eco nologies if they have been in Certified nomic capability of farmers; marketing op Involved from the development stage. The portunities; special requirements for specific involvement of farmers in agricultural re food preparations and taste preferences of search is not a new idea (Biggs, 1989) and consumers (Jeon and HalosKim, 1999). indeed onfarm, clientoriented research has been practised, often under the label of farm CONCLUSION ing systems research (FSR) since the mid The widespread introduction of the new 1970s (Okali et al.,1994). Although there is high yielding varieties of quality protein still a tendency for much research to be cen maize can have an enormous impact on in trally organised and focussed at research sta creasing food availability throughout Africa.

128

However, the benefits of the increases in pro the centre of the technology development/ duction that are potentially available must be testing process and more emphasis is being maximised by close attention to improving placed on socalled Farmer Participatory Re postharvest storage and processing. Losses search (FPR). This involves methods de after harvest must be kept to a minimum and signed to give farmers an active role as deci maize of a high quality must be delivered to sion makers in planning and execution; farm consumers. ers must be encouraged to participate in: Postharvest systems are highly complex problem diagnosis, planning and design, ex because of the interaction of technical, social perimentation, adaptation and validation, and, and economic constraints. The use of an ap later, in promotion of innovations. propriate and effective research and develop The approach will enable farmers to de ment and extension approach is the key to scribe how they perceive the technologies on ensuring that postharvest research and tech offer and researchers to understand farmers’ nology transfer activities have the desired im points of view. The staff of the extension ser pact. Research into new ways of reducing vices also have a crucial role to play. They postharvest losses and improving the effi must be able to present farmers with a choice ciency of the system will continue, but a wide of options for their particular circumstances range of storage and processing technologies and this means that new demands will be made already exists. These technologies for farm of extension staff, particularly those accus and villagelevel will have varied probabilities tomed to delivering a single message to all of success unless they are developed and in farmers. With systematic feedback to tech troduced on the basis of an understanding of nology design and to the farming community, the criteria that farmers use to adopt/reject the recommendations can be formulated with a technology. There is now an increasing rec knowledge of a greater degree of acceptabil ognition of the fact that farmers need to be at ity.

129

REFERENCES Evans, J. and Gudrus, I. (1999) The use of Spices and Medicinals as Bioactive Protec Anon. (2001) Uganda new approaches to tants for Grains. FAO Agricultural Services agricultural extension. Feeding the Future Bulletin No. 137. Rome. Food and Agricul Issue 16. Newsletter of the Sasakawa Africa ture Organization of the United Nations. Association. Henckes, C. (1994) Dividing the harvest: an approach to integrated pest management in Belmain, S.R. (1999) Use of plant materials family stores in Africa. pp. 925928 in: Pro- for protecting farmstored grain against insect ceedings of the sixth International Working infestation. Final technical report. Project Conference on Stored-product Protection. R6501. Chatham, UK. Natural Resources Highley, E.; Wright, E.J.; Banks, H.J. and Institute. 33 pages.. Champ, B.R. (eds.). Canberra, Australia

Belmain, S.R., Golob, P., Andan, H.F. and IFPRI (1997) Achieving food security in Cobbinah, J.R. (1999) Ethnobotanicals Fu southern Africa. Haddad, L., ed. IFPRI, ture prospects as postharvest insecticides. Washington D.C. Agro Food Industry Hi-tech. 10 (5): 3436.

Biggs, S.D. (1989) ResourcePoor Farmer Jeon, Y.W. and Halos-Kim, L. (1999). Participation in Research: A Synthesis of Ex Characterizing the desirability of post- periences from Nine National Agricultural harvest technologies for African condi- Research Systems. OFCOR Series No. 3 tions. In Kwarteng, Joseph, ed. 1999. En- (Comparative Study) ISNAR. The Hague. 58 hancing post-harvest technology genera- pages. tion and dissemination in Africa. Mexico City: Sasakawa Africa Association. 79 Birkinshaw, L and Hodges, R. (2000) Im pages. proving IPM approaches for LGB control in Africa. PhAction News No.3. Okali, C., Sumberg, J. and Farrington,

J. (1994) Farmer participatory research:

Boxall, R. A. (editor) (1997) Constraints rhetoric and reality. London, UK: Inter analysis of the post-production sector in Zam- mediate Technology Publications and bia. Project: PFL/ZAM/003/PFL, Final Re Overseas Development Institute. 156 port. Rome, Food and Agriculture Organiza pages. tion of the United Nations. Stathers, T. (2000) Use of diatomaceous Boxall, R. A. (1998) Grains post-harvest loss earths in tropical smallscale grain stor assessment in Ethiopia. Final report. NRI age. PhAction News. No 2. Report No.2377. Chatham, UK. Natural Re sources Institute. 44 pages. Tyler, P. and Boxall, R.A. (1984) Post

harvest loss reduction programmes: a Farrington, J. (1997) Farmers' Participation in Agricultural Research and Extension: Les decade of activities: what consequences? sons from the last decade. Biotechnology and Tropical Stored Products Information 50, Development Monitor, No. 30, p. 1215. 413.

Golob, P., Moss, C. Dales, M., Fidgen, A.,

130

THE GENETICS OF QUALITY PROTEIN MAIZE Ernest W. Sprague

A single recessive gene, Opaque 2, con tionists saw opaque 2 maize as a promising trols tee improved protein quality in QPM candidate for reducing wide spread protein maize. In spite of this it took about 20 years deficiency. of research to develop QPM varieties and hy This potential stimulated many maize re brids that were agronomically acceptable. search programs worldwide to devote efforts Why? to introduce the opaque 2 gene into their maize breeding programs. Historical Review This effort was endorsed when feeding I would like to review the development trials with pigs and chickens demonstrated from the discovery of opaque 2 to the produc that opaque 2 maize was very much superior tion of QPM. to normal maize as feed. This further fueled The opaque 2 mutant was found in genetic more enthusiasm. Even more dramatic and stocks that had been classified in the 1930s. It exciting was the rapid recovery seen in chil was labelled opaque 2 after the recessive dren who were just short of dying, after gene, which gave the kernels an opaque ap opaque 2 maize was substituted for normal pearance, in contrast to the normal translucent maize in their diets'. shiny appearance of regular dent and flint ke Maize breeders were stimulated to initiate mels. breeding programs to incorporate the opaque In 1964 Purdue University reported that a 2 gene into agronomically good normal mate mutant maize that was homozygous for the rial as soon as possible. From 1964, the year opaque 2 gene contained nearly twice as much that the biochemical effects of opaque 2 were lysine and tryptophan in the endosperm as discovered until 1970 the major emphasis in normal flint and dent maize. In addition they maize breeding was to obtain opaque 2 ver found that laboratory rats fed opaque 2 maize sions of normal maize genotypes, principally gained weight much more rapidly than did the using the classical backcross system. rats fed normal dent maize. During this initial effort, several opaque 2 This discovery came before IRRI rice and varieties and hybrids were developed. Some CIMMYT wheat had any impact on world of these were promoted for commercial pro wide food production. There was a large duction in several countries in the early 1970s. scale shortage of food in much of the world, However, in the rush to get the advantage of and the@. threat of malnutrition and even increased protein quality to market, sufficient famine was of great concern. The lack of pro care was not taken to develop agronomically tein in the diet of many people in the develop desirable materials and they suffered a major ing world was also a major cause for concern. set back due to the lack of competitive per Because maize was then and is now the main formance with their normal counterparts. En staple in the diets of millions of people in the thusiasm and interest began to decline gradu developing world, crop researchers and nutri ally. By the mid 1970s the initial excitement

131

was overshadowed by disappointment and modifiers of the opaque 2 locus. The succes frustration. Many breeding programs drasti sive accumulation of the desired modifiers cally reduced research efforts on quality pro increased the hardness of the kernel thereby tein and others abandoned work on protein reducing the undesirable opaque appearance altogether. and associated problems, while the grain Because of the potential benefits of the maintained the high protein quality. end product, at CIMMYT we decided to con In 1974 CIMMYT research on quality tinue research on quality protein at the same protein switched over to this new breeding pace, in an effort to define and overcome the strategy and the breeding effort on quality problems that were limiting opaque 2 from protein became a parallel and integral part of being competitive at the production level. CIMMYT's regular maize improvement pro In 1970 CIMMYT initiated an intensive gram. The new strategy involved the use of and largescale effort to breed superior agro two genetics systems: a simple system involv nomic genotypes combined with highquality ing the opaque 2 gene to improve protein protein characteristics. The major emphasis quality and a more complex polygenic con was placed on converting normal maize geno trolled system to remedy the undesirable side types, from tropical, subtropical, temperate effects of the opaque 2 system. and highland populations, to opaque 2 with its To maximize our efficiency we decided to associated soft chalky endosperm. This work concentrate on a limited number of popula continued for five years, and the agronomic tions that represented the most widely and quality of the converted material was as good frequently used genotypes in the tropics and as the nonopaque 2 donors. subtropics. This new approach necessitated International testing of the converted ma the development of donor stocks of popula terial illustrated that although these materials tions that carried the opaque 2 gene, and were agronomically acceptable, there were therefore possessed the desired protein qual key problems, that acted as major obstacles to ity, with the necessary modifier genes, which the acceptance and promotion of the materi gave hard and vitreous endosperm to the ker als. These problems were reduced grain yield nels. By the end of three years we had estab in the order of 10 1 5%, unacceptable kernel lished, the fact that modifier genes existed and appearance due to dull soft chalky endosperm, could be accumulated to provide kernels that which gave greater vulnerability to rot organ looked like normal kernels with equal kernel isms, more damage by weevils during storage weight to normal kernels. and slower drying follow physiological matur During those three years we had to over ity of the grain. come several negative factors. We found that At this stage it was obvious to us that a some modifier genes gave an undesirable ap different strategy was now required. The ap pearance to the kernel; others gave cars with proach that appeared to be the most promising open kernel rows and still others gave kernels to remedy the problems encountered involved with a tendency to pop or split. After several the accumulation and exploitation of genetic cycles of selection, however, it was possible

132

to eliminate these negative and undesirable Role of QPM in Nutrition traits. Thanks to our ability to do two cycles While the breeding efforts had proved of selection a year we could speed up this successful, there had been a reversal in the process. scientific opinion on the role of protein in the During all these years of work with qual alleviation of malnutrition. ity protein we had the services of a first class Before 1970 most nutritionists had viewed cereal chemistry laboratory that did chemical malnutrition in developing countries primarily analysis on our selections each cycle. Once as a problem of protein deficiency, and that we had developed material that had hard and produced symptoms of the disease known as vitreous kernels we could no longer rely on Kwashiorkor. Children with Kwashiorkor the physical appearance of the kernels to indi symptoms were a common sight before 1970 cate the presence of protein quality. It was and are common in many communities in Af therefore absolutely necessary to rely on labo rica today. Because maize is a staple crop in ratory analysis after each harvest to verify the these communities, QPM could provide great protein quality of our selections. health benefits. If protein deficiency were the Eventually CIMMYT had produced four problem, QPM maize could be substituted for tropical and three subtropical gene pools that the normal maize that these children consume, had the desired protein quality, the hard desir and the symptoms of protein malnutrition able endosperm, good agronomic characters could be alleviated and even eliminated. and yield ability equal to normal counterparts. However, in 1973 a report from the These pools served several important func United Nations (FAO/WHO) dramatically tions. They formed excellent donor stocks to lowered the previous protein requirement fig convert normal maize genotypes to opaque 2 ures recommended in human diets. Soon quality protein. Superior fractions could be strongly worded papers appeared condemning extracted and introgressed into appropriate the focus on protein. They claimed that opaque 2 populations for continuous improve 'malnutrition was due to lack of calories and ment. They were source materials that were not to a lack of protein. Many leading nutri provided to cooperating national programs, tionists supported the view that Marasmur, and they provided new populations for the extreme energy deficiency, rather than international testing program. Kwashiorkor was really the main problem of Despite the successful conversions we global malnutrition. found that the name opaque 2, even with a This view greatly diminished the per hard endosperm carried a stigma because the ceived role of QPM in the alleviation of mal original opaque 2 kernels were opaque and nutrition. Interest in QPM declined and many had associated problems. To get away from research institutions eliminated QPM from this negative stigma we changed the name of their research agenda. Having observed the our desirable materials to Quality Protein results of experiments which compared QPM Maize (QPM). with nonQPM maize in diets of chickens, pigs and children; all of which showed the

133

great benefits of QPM, CIMMYT adhered to developed by CIMMYT, and by some col its view that protein was of prime importance, laborating national programs. There had been and continued its effort with QPM. enough field trials and farmer production to The argument over calories versus protein eliminate any concern about the competitive continued into the late 1980s. Then, in 1987 productivity of QPM in many different ge three nutritionists Vemon Young, Dennis M. netic backgrounds. (" materials werefully Mier and Peter L. Pellett stated that FAO/ competitive in all aspects with normal maize. WHO had been wrong. They came to the Several national programs, Brazil, China, conclusion that the requirements for lysine, Guatemala and Ghana for example continued leucine, valine and theonine are probably two research with QPM and continued to develop to three times higher than the figures recom varieties and hybrids. mended in 1985. They also concluded that In 1989 SG 2000 held a review seminar in lysine is a limiting factor in diets characteris Ghana. Dr Norman Borlaug, Mr. Ryoichi tic of a number of countries such as Nigeria, Sasakawa and President Jimmy Carter took Guatemala and Ghana. Thege are major the opportunity to introduce the concept of maize producing countries, where QPM could QPM as a nutritious food to the president of be a prime supplier of increased protein in the Ghana, despite the continuing debate in people's diets, . and there are many other Ghana and elsewhere over the relevance and maize producing countries that use very simi usefulness of QPM. After much deliberation lar diets. by the various stakeholders Ghana decided to move ahead with an intensified research pro Changing Strategy of QPM gram on QPM. They received technical and In 1988 a panel representing the U.S. Na financial assistance and encouragement from tional Research Council published the results SG 2000, the CIMMYT resident scientist and of its review of CIMMYT's QPM program. from the Associate Director of the CIMMYT They recommended that it was time to move maize program. ahead with QPM. In spite of this recommen In 1994 an international symposium on dation, however, and contrary to the better QPM was held in Brazil. SG 2000 sponsored judgment of those scientists working with the African scientists that were working on QPM crop, in 1991 CIMMYT's administration, to to attend the symposium. This, together with gether with some Board members decided to a change in the political environment, influ stop its QPM research program. This was a enced CIMMYT to seek funds to reestablish disaster for the moral of the QPM researchers its QPM program. They were very fortunate and for the immediate future of QPM. Fortu to receive a grant from the Nipon Foundation nately the QPM genetic material was put in that would support research on QPM for five cold storage and made available to any re years. searcher that requested it. Since this time they have resumed their By the time, C~YT stopped its program work on QPM population and hybrid develop many QPM varieties and hybrids had been ment, and with collaborating countries, have

134

identified outstanding QPM hybrids that have Every kernel that is the product of a pollen often shown a yield advantage of one to ' n or grain from a normal maize plant will be het more per hectare over the best normal maize erozegous for the opaque 2 gene and therefore hybrids. They have supported research in have no enhanced protein quality. This is, other countries and trained world scientists in because the kernel must be homozygous to techniques of breeding and seed production. produce this protein. Perhaps the best indicator of their success is Because several genes control the physi that last year they received 180 requests for cal quality of the endosperm. it would not be QPM seed, and shipments were made to 29 as drastically affected by contaminant pollen. countries. The initial grant term is about to However the standard required for seed pro end and CIMMYT is seeking funding for a duction should be appropriate for the charac further five years. ter that would be most affected by contamina Today there is an adequate range of geno tion. types with quality protein to meet the germ This is especially important for seed pro plasm needs of most if not all of the environ duction of the inbred lines that are the parental ments of the world. With the wealth of material. In hybrid seed production, contami gennplasm available to maize breeders world nation of one of the inbred parents will result wide it is possible and necessary to vigorously in a number of heterozygous plants in that develop and promote QPM varieties and hy line. If used as the female line these heterozy brids. In Africa, the immediate effort should gous plants will produce normal gametes. go into the improvement of yield and the de These normal female gametes will be polli velopment of streak and striga resistant mate nated by opaque 2 pollen and produce het rial. As this is accomplished, other limiting erozygous plants that will be sold for food factors can be identified and pursued. production. In the farmers field the heterozy gous plants will produce 25% opaque 2 ker Seed Production nels and 75% normal kemels. The method of seed production used for a For open pollinated varieties also, to pos crop depends on its breeding system and the sess the desired protein quality, precaution genetics of the characters involved. Maize is must be taken to eliminate contamination a crosspollinated crop, and as 1 have men throughout the seed production process. To tioned, the quality of the protein in QPM is illustrate: if one percent contamination takes controlled by a single recessive gene. The place in the breeder seed production then one physical quality of the endosperm is con Kg (equivalent to seed which will produce trolled by a complex system involving many 3000 plants) per 100 kg of seed will be het modifying genes. erozygous for protein quality. That one kg To maintain the protein quality and any will not express any visual signs that will dis character controlled by a single recessive tinguish it from the other 99 kg of seed. The gene, great care should be taken to isolate the 100 kg will plant 5 hectares for foundation seed field from contaminant normal maize seed production of which 3000 plants will be

135

heterozygous and distributed at random most as good (90%) as skimmed milk. This is through the 5 hectares. One half of the pollen what makes the difference in the human diet shed from the 3000 contaminated plants will and is particularly advantageous. for the de be normal pollen and one half will be opaque velopment of children. This is what will 2 pollen. Each of the normal pollen grains make swine and poultry gain more weight per that fertilize an opaque 2 female gamete will unit time and is so desirable to the industry. result in a kernel that is heterozygous for the Five tons of QPM maize per hectare with opaque 2 gene and therefore be normal for its 1 0% protein of superior quality will give protein quality. Also remember that one half 500 kgs of protein equal to 450 kgs of milk of the female gametes produced by the 3000 protein. The infusion of this quality protein heterozygous plants will also be normal and into the human diet will have a very positive when fertilized with opaque 2 pollen will pro effect on the health of the population and in duce a kernel that is heterozygous. The fe generating income in the poultry and swine male gametes that are normal will, when fer industry. tilized by a normal pollen grain, produce a When farmers see the results of feeding kernel that will be homozygous normal. None QPM over regular maize they will demand of these kernels will have the desired protein QPM in preference to regular maize. Farmers quality. will not see a difference between contami In many if not most situations farmers nated QPM and regular maize. There will be will save their own seeds share with their no difference. They will be cheated out of the neighbours. It is easy to visualize how a small very significant benefits of QPM. amount of con the breeder seed level will re 1 cannot emphasize enough that the genet sult in a very diluted and badly contaminated ics of QPM necessitates its purity. We must QPM in just a few years. give the farmer what he deserves and take all Since this contamination cannot be seen precautions to guard against contamination. with the naked eye, there is no way that the As 1 have already mentioned, because fanner can know that he is planting seed that QPM kernels cannot be identified visually, is inferior with regard to protein quality. any breeding program has to rely on labora therefore the responsibility for pure seed falls tory analysis for appropriate selections. It is back on the seed producer at each level or essential to have a service laboratory that will, stage of seed production. on a timely basis analyze the selections for protein quality to make sure that as other char The Importance of Genetic Purity acters are improved the value of the protein is Genetic purity is important because those maintained. The importance of chemical kernels contaminated with normal germplasm analysis applies to seed production also. will not have the desired protein quality, and Every producer of QPM seed should have ac it is this protein quality that is the very es cess to a laboratory that will check the quality sence of QPM. of the protein at each step of the seed produc The quality of the opaque 2 protein is al tion process.

136

WORK SHOP PARTICIPANTS S.B. Mc Carter Seed Co Limited Dr. Malami Buwai P.O. Box WGT 64, Former Minister of Agriculture and Rural De velopment, Westgate Zimbabwe AbujaNigeria M.A. Hussaini Alhaji Ahmed Mohammed Makarfi Executive Governor of Kaduna State S.S. Abubakar, Director, Mallam Adamu Bello FCIB NAERLS ABU, Zaria Hon. Minister Federal Ministry of Agri culture & Rural Development J.G. Akpoko Abuja

J.E. Onyibe. Chief Chris Agbobu Extension Specialists Honourable Minister of State for Agric. & NAERLS, Rural Development ABU—Zaria Abuja C.K. Dauda, J. Ahmad, J.B.R. Findlay Extension Specialists Agricultural Resource Consultants, NAERLS, P.O. Box 3474, Parklands, 2121 ABU—Zaria South Africa R.A. Ghadegeshin A.Y. Kamara Extension Specialists International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Extension Specialists (IITA), NAERLS, Ibadan, Nigeria. ABU—Zaria

N. Sanginga H. Abubakar International Institute of Tropical Agriculture Department of Biochemistry, (IITA), Faculty of Medicine Ibadan, Nigeria Bayero University, Kano

Kelvin Pixley R.A. Boxall CIMMYT, Zimbabwe Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, S.G. Ado Kent, National Coordinator UK Maize Research Programme Institute for agricultural Dr. Abebe Menkir, Maize Breeder, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. IITA, Ibadan. (The Role of Hybrid Maize in increasing T.O. Okolo productivity in marginal areas, National Seed Service, Maize Breeder, Dr. Abebe Menkir, IITA, Abuja. Ibadan.) 137

Abdulahi, Ango Addo, A.A. (Mrs) Special Adviser Food Security, Prof. and Head of Agricultural Extension, The Presidency, Federal University of Agriculture, Abuja. Abeokuta.

Abdulahi, Dauda Ahmed,Ben Deputy Programme Manager, Programme Leader, Bauchi State Agricultural Dev. Programme, Farming System Research Programme, Dass Road, Institution for Agriculture Research, P.M.B. 050, Ahmadu Bello University Bauchi. Zaria

Abdullahi, J. (Mrs) Ahmed,Hassan U. Regional Head, Dir. Ext. Res. And Training, Project coordinator Unit Federal Dept. of Agric. Science, Unguwar Rimi, Kinshasha Road Plot434 Zambesi Crescent, P.M.B. 2277, Maitama District Kaduna Abuja.

Abubakar, Ibrahim Umar Ahmed, Mohammed Khurshid Lecturer, Prof. And Department of Agronomy, Head of Agronomy, Ahmadu Bello University, Department of Agronomy, Zaria. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Abubakar, Salihu Santalma The Director, Akpa, Dominic Abubakar National Agric. Ext, and Res. Liaison Ser The Head, vices, Department of Crop Protection, Ahmadu Bello University, Ahmadu Bello University Zaria. Zaria

Achor, Mathew A. Akpoku, J. Area Manger (North), Extension Specialist, Norvatis Nigeria Limited Nat, Agric. Ext. Res. Liaison Services, 3,Ali Akilu, Ahmadu Bello University P.O. Box 1050, Zaria Kaduna. Alawa,John P. Achuemu, George A. Prof. And Head, Projects Coordinating Unit, Department of Animal Science, Fed. Min. of Agric. And Rural Development, Faculty of Agriculture, Sheda, Km. 31 SulejaLokoja Highway, Ahmadu Bello University, P.O.Box 325, Gwagwalada, Zaria. Abuja FCT Ali, Kabir Adamu, M.A. Managing Director, Deputy Director, Jigawa Agric. And Rural Dev. Authority, National Animal Production Research Inst. Dutse. Ahmadu Bello University—Zaria

138

Aliyu Shehu Usman, The Director, Babandi, Aminu Muhammad Audu Bako School of Agriculture, National coordinator Crops Adaptive Re Dambatta, search, Kano. Projects Coordinating Unit, Fed. Min. of agric. Rural Development, Sheda Amans, Ezra Bako Km 29 AbujaLokoja Highway, The Dean, P.O. Box 325, Gwagwalada, Faculty of Agriculture, Abuja F.C.T. Ahmadu Bello University Zaria Bagoja, Yahaya U. GSADP/SG2000 Coordinator, Amapu, I.Y. Gombe State agric. Dev. Project, Soil Scientist, P.M.B 0046, Department of Soil Science, Gombe. Ahmed Bello University, Zaria. Bolorunduro, Paul Extension Specialist Nat. Agric. Ext. Res. Li Ammani, Alhaji Garba aison Services, Large Scale Farmer, Ahmadu Bello University, Ammani Farms Limited, Zaria. Funtua. Dadari, Salihu Adamu Arokoyo, Tunji The Provost, The Director, Samasu College of Agriculture, Division of Agricultural Colleges, Ahmadu Bello University, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Zaria. Danbaba, Abdulrahman, Atala, T.K. Maigana SG2000/KADP Zonal Coordinator, The Head, Kaduna Agric. Dev. Project, Department of Agric. And Econs Rur. Sociol No.11 Race Course Road, ogy, P.M.B. 2269, Ahmadu Bello University, Kaduna. Zaria. Dodo, Yakubu Auta, S.J (Mrs) Agricultural Extension Editor, Head of Cooperative Programme, Agric. Extension Services, National Agric. Ext. Res. Liaison Services, Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Zaria.

Edachie, A.O. The Director of Agriculture, Babaji, Bashir Ahmed Fed. Min. of Agric. And Rural Development, Lecturer, Area 11 Garki, Department of Agronomy, Abuja. Amhadu Bello University, Zaria. Eduvie, L.O.

139

The Director, Ibrahim, Rufai National Animal Production Res. Institute, Lecture in Agronomy, Ahmadu Bello University, Department of Agronomy, Zaria. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Fadare S.O. Vice Principal, Idachaba, B.I.J. Leventis Foundation Agricultural School, The Librarian, Dagon –Dawa, Agricultural Library, Zaria. Institute for Agricultural Resources, Ahmadu Bello University, Falaki, Abdullahi Mustapha Zaria Head of Agric. Extension / Nat. Co ord.SG2000, Ingawa, Salisu Ahmed Institute for Agricultural Research, Head of Unit, Ahmadu Bello University, Project and Coordinating Unit, Zaria Fed. Min. of Agric. And Rural Development, Sheda Km. 31, Suleja – Lokoja Highway, Gada, Abdulahi P.O. Box 325, Gwagwalada, Deputy Programme Manager, Abuja F.C.T. Zamfara Agricultural Development Project, Zaria Road, Samaru – Gusau, Jacob, Daniel E. P.M.B. 1020, Deputy Programme Manager, Gusau. Kaduna Agricultural Dev. Project, No.11 Race Course Road, Galmaka, Bitrus P.M.B. 2269, Information and Protocol Unit, Kaduna. Vice Chancellor’s Office, Ahmadu Bello University, Jaryum, Joseph Zaria. Senior Technical Officer, Sasakawa Global 2000 (Nigeria) Garba, Abubakar KNARDA building, Extension Radio Programme, P.M.B.3130, Agricultural Extension Services, Kano. Institute for Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Joshua A. Zaria. Managing Director, Hamidu, Hassan Premier Seed Nigeria Ltd, SG2000 / KADP Coordinator, Chikaji Industrial Estate, Kaduna Agric. Development Project, P.O. Box 1673, No.11 Race Course Road, Zaria P.M.B. 2269, Kaduna. Kassim, Abdulahi A The Programme Manager, Gital, Iliyasu Kaduna Agricultural Dev. Project, SG2000 / BSADP Coordinator, No.11 Race course Road, Bauchi State Agric. Dev. Project, P.M.B. 2269, P.M.B. ‘050, Kaduna. Bauchi.

140

Kwanashie George Ndahi, Paul The Deputy Vice Chancellor (Academics), Cartographic Section, Ahmadu Bello University, Agricultural Extension Services, Zaria. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Mahadi, Abdulahi The Vice Chancellor, Nwoke, Collins Ahmadu Bello University, Senior Agrochemical Representative, Zaria. The Candel Company Limited, 8B Suleiman Crescent Nassarawa GRA, Mahmud, Muktar, P.O. Box 11636, Department of Agronomy, Kano. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Nyako, Murtala A. Hamman Yaro (GCON) Vice – Admiral (Rtd), Mani, Hamza, The President, Department of Agronomy, All Farmers Apex Association of Nig. Ahmadu Bello University, (ALFAAN) Zaria. Plot 868 Asaba Close, Area 11 Garki, Miko, Sani Abuja. Department of Agronomy, Ahmadu Bello University, Olarewaju, Joseph Durojaiye Zaria Department of Plant Science, Faculty of Agriculture, Mu’azu, Saidu Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria Visiting Scientist, Project Coordinating Unit, Ogungbile, Abraham O. Federal Min. of Agric. & Rural Dev. Deputy Director, Sheda Km. 31 Suleja – Lokoja Highway, Institute for Agricultural resources, P.O. Box 325, Gwagwalada, Ahmadu Bello University, Abuja FCT. Zaria.

Mustapha, Shetima Omotayo, A. Vice Chairman, Senior Lecturer, ALFAAN, Department of Agricultural Extension, Plot 868 Asaba Close, University of Agriculture, Area 11, Garki, Abeokuta. Abuja Ononiwu, G. Mustapha, Abdullahi Project Coordinating Unit, Deputy Vice – Chancellor (Administration) Fed. Min. of Agric. & Rural Development, Ahmadu Bello University, Sheda, Km. 31 Suleja – Lokoja Highway, Zaria P.O. Box 325, Gwagwalada, Abuja FCT. Namakka, Abdullahi SG2000 Sponsored Student, Onu, Isah Kaduna Agric, Dev. Project, Programme Leader, No.11 Race course Road, Fibre Research Programme, P.M.B. 2269, Kaduna. Institute for Agricultural Research,

141

Ahmadu Bello University Umar, Imam Zaria. Progamme Officer, Food and Agricultural Organization, Rahman, Shehu A. 17, Ontatario Crescent, Maitama District, Department of Agric. Econs and Rural Sociol P.M.B. 396, Garki, ogy, Abuja. Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria. Umar, Usman SG2000 / JARDA Coordinator, Shuaibu, Musa Jigawa Agric. And Rural Dev. Authority, SG2000 / KTARDA Coordinator, Dutse. Katsina Agric. And Rural Dev. Authority, IBB Way, Kano Road, Usman, Hassan Argungu P.M.B.2006, Deputy Director (Crops), Katsina Raw Materials Research and Dev. Council, Aguiyi Irosin Street, Suleiman, Iro Abuja. Agricultural Extension Editor, Agricultural Extension Services, Usman, Sunusi Dambatta Institute for Agricultural Research, Managing Director Ahmadu Bello University, Kano Agric. And Rural Dev. Authority, Zaria. Yankaba Hadejia Road, P.M.B. 3130, Tukur, M. Kano. Dean, Faculty of Agriculture, Voh, Jacob P. Usmanu Danfodiyo University, The Director, Sokoto. Institute of Agricultural Research, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria

142