Modern History and Culture Booster 2018

Cathedral architecture always exceptions. Let's start at the entrance.

The history of cathedral architecture begins When you walk through the main front door of the around the year 312 CE. When the Byzantine cathedral, generally called the West Door, you emperor, Constantine I, publicly converted to enter into the narthex. The narthex is a Christianity and legitimized Christianity as a formal congregating space, often separated from the religion, the Christian church as we know it was main worship area by another set of doors. The formally organized. Although there were narthex has changed quite a bit over the years. At impressive buildings long before, calling these times it was almost non-existent and at others it structures cathedrals would be misleading as was massive. Some medieval cathedrals had large bishops did not come into play until the 4th seating areas in an elevated narthex reserved for century. royal patrons, while others used the narthex to hold royal tombs. With the early Christian church based largely in Rome, their architecture was mostly also based on Past the narthex is the main part of the church. Roman precedents. In the Roman Empire, local Generally, this main part has three central aisles. magistrates would hold court in a long, The middle aisle is called the nave. The side aisles rectangular hall called a basilica. In one end of the were historically used for people passing through hall, the magistrate would legislate and at the the church to get to one of the chapels, while the other end was generally a small chapel-style nave was used for processionals. The front of the temple to worship the Roman gods. Basilicas were nave is intercepted by a long perpendicular important to Romans as they constituted an section called the transept. If you think of a unrestricted public space, something Romans cathedral like a lowercase t, the transept is the valued as a right of citizenship. This meant that horizontal line. Transepts often contain chapels, practically anybody could congregate in a basilica small areas meant for private worship. Chapels are to hold meetings, socialize, or discuss important often funded by a private donor or family, who matters. When early Christians started coming also may have had the option to decorate it. In together to practice their religion, they often did fact, some of the most important paintings in so in Roman basilicas. Western history were commissioned for private chapels. Parts of a Cathedral Bom Jesus-Old Goa Over time, cathedrals came to share a common adhere to a basic floor plan, although there are

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The Bom Jesus Basilica, perhaps Goa's most simplicity. It measures 183 ft in length,55 ft in famous church and among the most revered by breath, and 61 ft in height. The main altar is 54 ft Christians worldwide, is partially in ruins but still a high and 30 ft broad. The pillars and detail are model of simplicity and elegance, and a fine carved from basalt which was brought from example of Jesuit architecture.alt This is the only Bassein, some 300 kms away. The interior of the church in Old Goa, which is not plastered on the church is built in Mosaico-Corinthian style and is outside, the lime plaster having been stripped off remarkable for its charming simplicity. by a zealous Portuguese conservationist in 1950. The roof was originally tiled. The church is Located at Old Goa, 10 kilometres east of Panaji, cruciform on plan. The flying buttresses on the the Bom Jesus Basilica is a World Heritage northern side of the church are recent additions. A Monument. The foundation stone of this single-storeyed structure adjoining the church on remarkably large church was laid on 24 November its southern wing connects it with the Professed 1594 and the church was consecrated by Fr. Alexia House. de Menezes, the Archbishop of Goa and Primate The three-storeyed facade of the Church shows of India consecrated it when it was completed on Ionic, Doric and Corinthian Orders, and has a main 15 May 1605. In 1946 it was raised to the status of entrance flanked by two smaller ones, each having a minor Basilica. Corinthian columns supporting a pediment. There The Order of Jesuits was suppressed in 1759 and are two chapels, a main altar and a sacristy its property confiscated by the Portuguese State. besides a choir inside the Church itself. There is a The church was, however allowed to continue belfry is at the back. services. This magnificent edifice stands as a As one enters, beneath the choir, to the right is an superb example of Baroque architecture in Goa. altar of St. Anthony and to the left is an The church is called "Bom Jesus" meaning 'good exceedingly well-carved wooden statue of St. Jesus' or 'infant Jesus' to whom it is dedicated. The Francis Xavier. In the middle of the nave on the façade has on it, at the top, the letters, "HIS" northern wall is the cenotaph of the benefactor of which are the first three letters of Jesus in Greek. this church, Dom Jeronimo Mascarenhas, the Captain of Cochin, who died in 1593, bequeathing The imposing facade built out of black granite in the resources out of which this church was built. an exquisite combination of the Doric, Corinthian The two columns supporting the choir bear slabs and composite styles, is remarkable for its

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 inscribed in Portuguese and Latin the dates of The interiors of the church has depictions of the beginning of construction and the consecration. life of Saint Paul in pictures, posters and other documents that portray his holy deeds. The St. Paul’s- Kolkata ambience of the church is soothing and allows you St. Paul's Cathedral is rich in its history, culture to stay at peace with yourself, forgetting the noise and religious relevance. Being of the major and chaos around you. A special meditation point landmarks of the city, the church sees thousands has been set up in the church for those who wish of visitors every year from across the globe. to meditate.

The church is one of the finest examples of St. Thomas-Chennai buildings built using Gothic Revival style of San Thome Basilica is a Roman Catholic (Latin Rite) architecture. Though the cornerstone of the minor basilica in Santhome, in the city of Chennai church was laid in 1839, the structure was (Madras), India. It was built in the 16th century by complete only by 1847. St. Paul's Cathedral, the Portuguese explorers, over the tomb of Saint largest cathedral in Kolkata, is also the first Thomas, one of the twelve apostles of Jesus. In cathedral that was built in the overseas territory 1893, it was rebuilt as a church with the status of a of the British Empire. cathedral by the British. The British version still The church has a close resemblance to the stands today. It was designed in Neo-Gothic style, Norwich Cathedral in England. Though the favoured by British architects in the late 19th structure had witnessed earthquake twice and century. This church is one of the only three ruined partially, the structure was soon rebuilt to known churches in the world built over the tomb the cathedral we see today. of an apostle of Jesus, the other two being St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City and Santiago de It is believed that the church was built to replace Compostela Cathedral in Galicia, Spain. St. John's Church due to the increasing European population in the city. Designed by the famous It is claimed that St. Thomas’s apostolic ministry in English architect Major W. N. Forbes, the church is India took place specifically at Cranganore along a beautiful piece of art with its slender vertical the Malabar coast from 52 A.D to 68 A.D. His piers, pointed arches and counterbalancing journey through Kerala is said to have resulted in buttresses. numerous conversions. After spending 10 years on the Malabar coast he is said to have travelled Eastwards across the Deccan Plateau, arriving in

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Mylapore in 68 A.D. The cave at little mount is Concept of Decolonization, Nationalism and claimed to be his favourite preaching spot. A 2000 Socialism, Globalization and Concept of Modernity year old never drying, a miraculous stream of water on a rock face are said to be examples of Concept of Decolonization the apostle’s divine exploits. A church atop St. Decolonization refers to the undoing Thomas mount was built by Portuguese in 1547 to of colonialism, the establishment of governance or authority through the creation of settlements by mark the spot. It was on this St. Thomas Mount another country or jurisdiction. The term generally that the apostle was said to be killed by a lance refers to the achievement of independence by the which pierced through his back. various Western colonies and protectorates in Asia and [Africa]] following World War II. This His mortal remains were believed to be buried in conforms with an intellectual movement known as Post-Colonialism. A particularly active period of the location over which the present day decolonization occurred between 1945 to 1960, Santhomes Cathedral Basilica stands. Sometime in beginning with the independence of Pakistan and the 10th century A.D a group of Nestorian the Republic of India from Great Britain in 1947 Christians from Persia founded the Christian and the First Indochina War. Some national liberation movements were established before the village of San Thomes and proceeded to build a war, but most did not achieve their aims until church over the burial site of St. Thomas. This after it. Decolonization can be achieved by structure fell to ruins between 14th and 15th attaining independence, integrating with the administering power or another state, or century. In 1522 the Portuguese moved the establishing a "free association" status. The United apostle’s remains to a new tomb and church Nations has stated that in the process of which attained the status of Cathedral in 1606. decolonization there is no alternative to the principle of self-determination. ecolonization was Pope Pius XII honored the Cathedral Church of the overseen by the United Nations, with UN membership as the prize each newly independent Archdiocese of Madras - Mylapore raising it to the nation cherished as a sign of membership in the rank of Minor Basilica by apostolic brief dated community of nations. The United Nations 16th March 1956. Massive followings and the Trusteeship Council was suspended in 1994, immense devotion of people to a very ancient after Palau, the last remaining United Nations trust territory, achieved independence. From 1945 image of the Blessed Virgin also known as “Our and the end of the twentieth century, the number Lady of Mylapore” was among the motives that of sovereign nation-states mushroomed from 50 prompted the Pope to bestow this honour. to 192 and few stopped to ask if this was the right direction for human political organization to be moving. Decolonization may involve peaceful negotiation, non-violent protest or violent revolt

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 and armed struggle. Or, one faction pursues one The American and French revolutions may be strategy while another pursues the opposite. regarded as its first powerful manifestations. After Some argue because of neocolonialism many penetrating the new countries of Latin America it former colonies are not truly free but remain spread in the early 19th century to central Europe dependent on the world's leading nations. No one and from there, toward the middle of the century, of principle wants to deny people their freedom, to eastern and southeastern Europe. At the or perpetuate oppression, injustice and inequality. beginning of the 20th century nationalism many celebrate decolonization in the name of flowered in the ancient lands of Asia and Africa. freedom and realization of the basic human rights Thus the 19th century has been called the age of of self-determination, others question whether nationalism in Europe, while the 20th century has equality, justice, peace, the end of poverty, witnessed the rise and struggle of powerful exploitation and the dependency of some on national movements throughout Asia and Africa. others can be achieved as long as nation-states Concept of Socialism promote and protect their own interests, interests that are not always at the expense of others' but Socialism is an economic system where the ways which often are. As freedom spreads around the of making money (factories, offices, etc.) are world, as more people gain the liberty to owned by a society as a whole, meaning the value determine their own futures, some people hope made belongs to everyone in that society, instead that a new world order might develop, with the of a group of private owners. People who agree nation state receding in significance. Instead, with this type of system are called global institutions would consider the needs of the socialists. There are two ways socialists think that planet and of all its inhabitants. society can own the means of making wealth: either the state (government of the country) is Concept of Nationalism used or worker-owned cooperatives are used. Nationalism, ideology based on the premise that Another important belief is that management and the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation- sharing are supposed to be based on public state surpass other individual or group interests. interests. Socialists believe that everything in society is made by the cooperative efforts of the Nationalism is a modern movement. Throughout people. history people have been attached to their native soil, to the traditions of their parents, and to There are many kinds of socialism, so no one established territorial authorities; but it was not definition can apply to all of them; however, in all until the end of the 18th century that nationalism types, the workers supposedly own the means of began to be a generally production. The major differences between the recognized sentiment molding public and private different varieties are the role of the free market life and one of the great, if not the greatest, single or planning, how the means of production are determining factors of modern history. Because of controlled, the role of management of workers its dynamic vitality and its all-pervading character, and the government's role in the economy. In nationalism is often thought to be very old; most Socialist Societies, corruption and lack of sometimes it is mistakenly regarded as a incentive for workers to produce reduce permanent factor in political behaviour.

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 production and therefore the average standard of is the most well-known creator of the theory of living socialism.

Social democracy is a kind of socialism that tries to Concept of Globalization mix parts of socialism with capitalism. In this The term `globalisation' means integration of system, the government takes wealth (money) economies and societies through cross country from the rich and gives it to the poor like in a flows of information, ideas, technologies, goods, Communist state, but despite there being more services, capital, finance and people. The essence government control and less chance to make a of globalisation is connectivity. Cross border very large amount of money, people can still run integration can have several dimensions - cultural, their own businesses and own private property. social, political and economic. In fact, some people In many countries that use social democracy, fear cultural and social integration even more than some services and industries are subsidized (given economic integration. However, the term money to help them run) and/or partly controlled globalisation is used here in the limited sense of by the government. economic integration which can happen through the three channels of (a) trade in goods and Another kind of Socialism is "Collectivization." In services, (b) movement of capital and (c) flow of this system, money and goods are shared more finance. Besides, there is also the channel through equally among the people, with the government in movement of people. Globalisation has been a control. In theory, this system results in the gap historical process with ebbs and flows. During the between classes getting smaller, with the poorest Pre-World War I period of 1870 to 1914, there was of a nation's people being helped by the state rapid integration of the economies in terms of while the richest agree to higher taxes and trade flows, movement of capital and migration of economic. Many countries see Socialism people. The inter-war period witnessed the differently. Socialist International is an erection of various barriers to restrict free organization dedicated to the cause of promoting movement of goods and services. Although after socialist ideals, and has ties with many Socialist 1945 there was a drive to increased integration, parties, especially Social Democratic parties. studies point out that trade and capital markets are no more globalise today than they were at the end of the 19th Century. However, there are more History of Socialism concerns about globalisation now than before because of the nature and speed of A Welshman, Robert Owen, was the first socialist. transformation. What is striking in the current His followers began calling themselves socialists in episode is not only the rapid pace but also the 1841. He is still regarded as a pioneer of the Co- enormous impact of globalisation on market operative Movement in Britain. He said that integration, efficiency and industrial organisation. workers should own the companies they worked The gains and losses from globalisation can be for. The workers would then share analysed in the context of the three types of the profits among themselves. He set up a new channels of economic globalisation identified model factory in New Lanark, Scotland. Karl Marx earlier. According to the standard theory,

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 international trade leads to allocation of resources A series of societal changes are implicit in the that is consistent with comparative advantage. process of modernisation. Agrarian societies are This results in specialisation which enhances characterised by the predominance of ascriptive, productivity. It is accepted that international particularistic and diffused patterns; they have trade, in general, is beneficial and that restrictive stable local groups and limited spatial mobility. trade practices impede growth. However, even in Occupational differentiation is relatively simple relation to trade in goods and services, there is and stable; and the stratification system is one concern. Emerging economies will reap the deferential and has a diffused impact. benefits of international trade only if they reach The modern industrial society is characterised by the full potential of their resource availability. This the predominance of universalistic, specific and requires time. That is why international trade achievement norms; a high degree of mobility; a agreements make exceptions by allowing longer developed occupational system relatively time to developing economies in terms of insulated from other social structures; a class reduction in tariff and non-tariff barriers. "Special system often based on achievement; and the and differentiated treatment," as it is described, presence of functionally specific, non- has become an accepted principle. It is this aspect ascriptive structures and associations. which needs to be stressed, while arguing the case of developing countries. Historically evolved institutions continuously adapt themselves to the changes dictated by the Concept of Modernity phenomenal increase in the human knowledge Modernity may be understood as the common that has resulted from the control humanity has behavioural system that is historically associated over its environment. with the urban, industrial, and literate and Modernisation, as a form of cultural response, participant societies of Western Europe and North involves attributes which are basically America. It is characterised by a rational and universalistic and evolutionary; they are pan- scientific world-view, growth and the ever humanistic, trans-ethnic and non-ideological. The increasing application of science and technology, essential attribute of modernisation is rationality. which is coupled with the continuous adaptation of the institutions of society to the imperatives of the world-view and the emerging technological ethos.

Modernity involves the rise of modern society Decline of handicrafts during British period (secularised societies with an institutional India’s traditional village economy was separation of the state from civil society, a much greater degree of social and technical division of characterised by the “blending of agriculture and labour, and the formation of nation-states uniting handicrafts”. But this internal balance of the cultural and political borders), a rationalistic village economy had been systematically epistemology, and an individualistic and slaughtered by the British Government. In the objectivistic ontology. process, traditional handicraft industries slipped

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 away, from its pre-eminence and its decline A. Decline of Indian courts: The disappearance started at the turn of the 18th century and of Indian courts struck the first blow at Indian proceeded rapidly almost to the beginning of the handicrafts. As native states passed under 19th century. This process came to be known as British rule, the demand for fine articles, for ‘de-industrialisation’—a term opposite to display in durbars and other ceremonial industrialisation. The use of the word ‘de- occasions disappeared. The ordinary demand industrialisation’ could be traced to 1940. Its did continue for sometime longer, but the dictionary meaning is ‘the reduction or destruction younger generation lacked the means and of a nation’s industrial capacity’. This term came inducement to patronise the arts and into prominence in India to describe the ‘process handicrafts. And they declined. of destruction of Indian handicraft industries by B. The Establishment of British Rule: The competition from the products of British establishment of British rule in India affected manufacture during the nineteenth century’. cottage industries both directly and indirectly. Directly it led to the establishment Industrialisation is associated with a relative shift of peace and order in the country which in the proportion of national income as well as adversely affected such handicrafts as the workforce away from agriculture. In other words, inlaying of arms, weapons and shields. This with the progress of industrialisation, proportion craft was common in the Punjab and Sindh. of income generated by and the percentage of By eliminating the need for such weapons population dependent on industry should decline. and by prohibiting their possession and use, While estimating the distribution of global output the British reduced the industry to producing of manufactured goods, P. Bairoch concluded that ornamental knick-knacks for European India’s share of manufacturing output in the world tourists. Similarly, the establishment of the was as high as 1.9.7 p.c. in 1800. In a span of 60 British rule made it neces•sary, through an years, it plummeted to 8.6 p.c. (in 1860) and to un-written order, for Indians to wear patent 1.4. p.c. in 1913. The declining share of industrial leather shoes when in the presence of British output in the’ world output could be attributed to superiors.This brought about the decay of the an absolute decline in manufacturing output per embroidered shoe industry. Indirectly, the person. British rule weekend the power of the guilds which regulated trade and supervised the quality of work done. As a consequence, evils Causes of Decline:

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such as the adulteration of raw materials and the Punjab which declined due to indiscreet poor work•manship crept in and artistic and European patronage. commercial value of the products E. Competition of Machine Made Goods: Apart deteriorated. from the abolition of Indian courts and the C. Western Education: The new system of introduction of foreign influences, it was the English education was another contributory superior manufacturing technique based on factor. In the early stages, the newly power and im•proved machinery which educated Indians were more westernized enabled the British manufacturers to drive than even the Europeans themselves. They the Indian artisans from out of their home blindly accepted European standards and market. It was what Ranade calls, the fashions and looked down upon everything competition of Natures’ powers against Indian. Matters came to such a sorry pass man’s labour’ which completed the ruin of that to follow European tastes was regarded Indian handicrafts. The invention of the as the hall mark of enlightenment. As a power loom in Europe brought about the ruin result, demand for the products of of the Indian textile industry and, by 1834- indigenous industries declined while that for 35,” the bones of the cotton-weavers were Europeans goods increased. bleaching the plains of India.” The same story D. Introduction of New Patterns: With the may be recounted of other Indian industries disappearance of Indian states, old rulers and such as the ship-building Iron smelting, glass, nobles also disappeared and their place was dyeing and paper manufacture. The Indian taken up by the European Officers and domestic and cottage handicrafts could not tourists. Indian craftsmen, however, did not possibly have withstood foreign competition clearly understand the forms and patterns which was backed by a powerful industrial which suited European tastes. They tried to organisation, big machinery, large-scale please their new customers by copying their production and complex division of labour. forms and patterns. Very often, the new The difficulties of the Indian industries were products were very poor copies of the further aggravated by the construction of the original and “lacked the vigour and life” of Suez canal, fall in freight rates and the the indigenous products. An instance of this reduction of transport costs which made kind is furnished by the Kaftgiri Industry in British goods more cheap in India.

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F. Policy of the British Govt.: In the beginning, emergence of dealers and financiers who the commercial interests of East India reduced the artisans to “hewers of wood and company led it to encourage Indian industries drawers of water” for their masters. The part because its exports from India were largely played by middlemen in bringing about this drawn from them. This policy, however, met stale of affairs is best illustrated by the with determined opposition from vested activities of the East India Company itself. interests in England which compelled the The company, being a dealer in the products company to concentrate only on the export of cottage industries, made advances in cash of raw- materials so necessary for the and raw-materials to buy the finished expanding British Industries. This policy of products. Having done so once, it held the making India subservient to the industries of craftsmen under its iron grip. For example, it Great Britain was followed with rare provided that a weaver, who had received determination and fatal success. Orders were advances from the company, “shall on no issued to force Indian artisans, especially silk- account give to any other person, European winders, to work in the company’s factories or native, either the labour or the produce and not in their homes; commercial residents engaged to the company” that, on his selling were vested with extensive legal powers over the cloth to others, the “weaver shall be villages and communities of Indian weavers. liable to be prosecuted in the Diwani Adalat” The use of dyed Indian calicoes was ; that weaver “shall be subject to a penalty of prohibited. Extensive use was made of 35% on the stipulated price of every piece of custom duties to crush Indian in•dustries. For cloth that he fails to deliver according to the instance, in 1813, cotton and silk goods of written agreement”. Whenever the artisans India could be profitably sold in the British were unable to carry out the agreements market at a price 50-60% lower than the price forced upon them, their goods were forcibly of cloth manufac•tured in England. However, seized and sold on the spot to make good the duties ranging from 70-80% on their value deficiency. Unable to resist this injustice, were imposed on Indian textiles in order to many weavers “cut off their thumbs to drive them out of the British market. prevent their being forced to weave silk.” G. Role of Intermediaries: Except the village Impact of decline of handicraft industry on india subsistence and rural art industries, in all others, the extension of the market led to the

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Cheap and machine-made imports flooded the This resulted in increased pressure on land. An Indian market after the Charter Act of 1813 overburdened agriculture sector was a major allowing one-way free trade for the British cause of poverty during British rule and this upset citizens. On the other hand, Indian products found the village economic set-up. From being a net it more and more difficult to penetrate the exporter, India became a net importer. European markets. After 1820, European markets were virtually closed to Indian exports. The newly introduced rail network helped the European Critical evaluation of deindustrialization products to reach the remotest corners of the Nationalists and Their Critique country. Nationalists, Dada Bhai Naoroji, M.G. Ranade and The loss of traditional livelihood was not R.C. Dutt, Rajni Palme Dutt etc. saw the accompanied by a process of industrialisation in destruction of Indian industry as a consequence of India, as had happened in other rapidly colonialism and they discussed deindustrialization industrialising countries of the time. This resulted process in context of the impact of colonial rule in in deindustrialisation of India at a time when India. In the beginning of the 19th century, Europe was witnessing a re-intensified Industrial exports of small-scale industry products came Revolution. This happened at a time when Indian down, while on the other hand, imports of British artisans and handicraftsmen were already feeling industrial products were on the increase. This the crunch due to loss of patronage by princes and decline could be traced in cotton textiles’ import the nobility, who were now under the influence of by Britain between the period 1860 (96 million new western tastes and values. Another feature pound sterling) to 1880 (1 billion 70 million pound of deindustrialisation was the decline of many sterling) and finally in 1900 (27 billion pound cities and a process of ruralisation of India. Many sterling). R.C. Dutt and others argue that the artisans, faced with diminishing returns and decline in imports shows that the demands for repressive policies (in Bengal, during the Indian textiles was coming down in foreign Company’s rule, artisans were paid low wages and markets in the beginning of the 19th century and forced to sell their products at low prices), increasing exports indicate that the Indian abandoned their professions, moved to villages handicrafts were thrown out from the indigenous and took to agriculture. market. This policy was pursued with the object of replacing the manufacturers of India, as far as

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 possible, by British manufacturers. was a lot cheaper. Morris also argued that in In 1960’s David Morris David questioned the spite of the imports from Birmingham, assumptions and arguments of the Nationalists. Manchester etc. Indian small-scale industry He said that there was not much evidence survived because Indian small-scale industry available to demonstrate deindustrialization produced its own market. Though there exists no process in India. Morris claimed that British evidence that Indian industry did not face any manufactured clothes did not harm the Indian destruction, but Morris gave a partial answer to industry because the population of India was this question by being surprised how Indian small increasing along with an increase of purchasing scale-industry survived in spite of oddities before power of the Indians that led to an increase in the nation and the arrival of competition, vide demand for Indian textiles in India; so the demand machine made cheaper imported commodities. for clothes was met by raising British imports, However, the reality is that despite adverse without damaging indigenous production. Bipin circumstances, the weavers did not abandon their Chandra, Toru Matsui and Tapan Roychaudhuri occupation because they had deep attachment have argued, in response to Morris, that evidence with caste-based occupations. The other reason points towards deindustrialization. Going by was that they had no other alternative to earn reports of famines, eye witnesses and traveler’s their livelihoods and many were trapped in debt. accounts, official enquiries and government The Nationalist faced a common criticism that reports of the British East India Company etc. they had not enough evidence to demonstrate were all pointers towards the worse possible deindustrialization, specifically in the period prior impact of British manufactured goods in India. to recordings made by the census. However later These thinkers said that there was not enough. historians, like Amiya Kumar Bagchi, managed to to woven cloth was very low. During 1849 to 1889 get some statistical evidence. Bagchi showed the the import of cloth increased by 25.5 million evidence provided by the survey conducted by sterling, while on the other hand, yarn imports Francis Buchanan- Hamilton in Gangetic Bihar increased by merely 1.8 million sterling. Indian between 1809-1813 and the census data of 1901. weavers, therefore, could not really benefit from According to Bagchi’s analysis, the percentage of the decline in yarn prices that was comparatively population dependent on industries was 18.6 in less fruitful as it did not bring about the required 1809-1813, which declined to 8.5 percent in reduction in the cost of their cloth to be able to subsequent findings Marika Vicziany pointed compete with British machine-woven cloth, which out that Buchanan- Hamilton’s survey could not be

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 regarded as very reliable as he gathered general labour-force and between industrial work- information from local people, who may have force and trade. In Daniel’s view, this hard given him incorrect information due to fear of the segregation was not possible in an agricultural motive of foreigners. Local people further economy like that of India which constrained suspected that the East India Company might use people, during seasonal periods, to shift from one the information to increase revenue or intervene industry to another. in their lives. Vicziany also argued that Buchanan- According to the Thorner, if these categories are Hamilton’s classification of spinners was not very merged then the picture looks different. Then the accurate because spinners could not have increase in the work-force in the primary sector, supported themselves only on the basis of i.e. agriculture works out to about 2% and the spinning; in her view spinners did not earn enough decline in industry and trade amounts to only and should be classified as part-time spinners. So about 3% between 1881-1931. Thorner also the estimate of spinners was erroneous. Bagchi dismissed the statistics on female labour on the responded and said even if spinning did not ground that census officials themselves regarded support spinners fully it constituted the principal them as inaccurate. Therefore in their view, which means of their livelihood . is somewhat controversial, the census figures do The Other Side of the Debate not provide evidence to support substantial de- industrialization. Nonetheless, Thorner, however, In the early 1960s Daniel Thorner argued that the conceded that there may have been de- censuses from 1881-1931 showed that there was industrialization in India before 1881. not much change in the proportion of population engaged in industrial occupations. He elaborated Some questions were raised by Tirthankar Roy and that on a first impression, the census figures others, who have objected to the exclusion of indicate that the male work-force in agriculture women from the analysis. Women’s participation was 65% and increased to 72% in 1931. In the declined dramatically during the census period. It same period their proportion in industry declined seems that in the Indian social context, women in from 16% in 1881 to 9% in 1931 suggestive de- many artisan families gave up artisanal work industrialization. However, Thorner questioned earlier than men to take up household or this by describing the census categories as agricultural work. Hence any exclusion of their erroneous because it assumed a clear-cut data would not show much change in occupational separation between agricultural work-force and structure while the inclusion of data related to

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 women will show a decline in the number of  Sheshadri Iyer (1883-1901) people engaged in industrial activity. Recent  P. N. Krishnamurthi (1901-1906)  V. P. Madhav Rao (1906-1909) research suggests that different regions and  T. Anand Rao (1909-1912) commodities experienced the impact of machine-  Sir M. Vishweshariah (1912-1918) made goods in different ways, depending on when  M. Kantaraj Ars (1918-1922) they came under colonial rule. Thus for example,  Sir A. R. Banerjee (1922-1926)  Sir Mirza Ismail (1926-1941) British-manufactured goods affected the economy  N. Madhav Rao (1941-1946) of eastern India far more than other regions.  Sir Arkot Ramaswami Mudaliyar (1946- Historians like Tapan Roychaudhury argue that the 1947) (Last Dewan) conditions of the artisans and weavers of eastern India started deteriorating soon after the Battle of  C. Rangacharlu (1881-1883) Plassey (1757) and their condition worsened in the 19th century. It has also been suggested that that  Setting up of People Representative Assembly. the Madras Presidency suffered less compared to  Bangalore - Mysore Railway Bengal and western India.  4000 acres of land was given to the white people for farming-later known as white Progress of Mysore under the Dewans field.

 Sheshadri Iyer (1883-1901) The post of the Dewan was created as the head of the administrative machinery. The Wodeyars of Mysore were fortunate enough to have wise and able men as Dewans. These Dewans worked hard to make the state progressive progressive and  Wise and talented administrator. model.  Achieved all round economic progress.  A graduate graduate of Madras University University.  Entered Mysore service as Judicial Shirastedar.  Later became the Deputy Commissioner.  Appointed as Dewan – 1883 .  Improved the finances of the state.

 Subsidy due from 1886 was waived for Dewans of Mysore further 10 years.

 C. Rangacharlu (1881-1883)

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 Bangalore-Gubbi, Harihar-Hindupur, Mysore-Nanjangud, Kolar Gold field, Birur-

Shimoga Railway lines completed.  Mysore civil service exam to select able candidates.  Shivanasamudra H ydro Electric Project : 1899 -1900.

 KGF received received electricity electricity – 1902.  Sir M. Vishweshariah (1912-1918)  Bangalore became the first Indian city to

have the electric facility -1905.  Number of small projects were undertaken to improve agriculture.  Widening the canals – Mari Halla Project.  Loans for digging the wells.  Architect of modern Mysore.  Directorate of Agriculture and statistics  An era of all round development formed.  Became the Dewan in 1912.  Agriculture and industrial exhibition held at  Head of a technical dept. hold the highest Mysore. office of Administration.  Agricultural Banks introduced.  Born in 15 September 1861 at  Gold Mining Started at Kolar-1886. Muddenahalli.  Bangalore became the centre for textile  Membership of the Legislative Council - trade. increased from 18 to 24 increased from 18  Mysore spinning and manufacturing mill at to 24. Bangalore.  Mysore Local Boards and Village Panchayat  Estd. Geological Survey Dept.-1894 Act – 1918.  Improved the efficiency of admn.  Elected members majority in Taluka and  Introduced British postal service. District Boards.  Founded Archaeological Dept.  Taluk and District Boards – constituted  Mysore Infant Marriage Act – 1894. through elections.  Education reachable to all sections.  Believed in Democracy  For female education started Empress Girls  Council to discuss the budget. H.S., Tumkur Maharani Maharani Girls H.S., Mysore Balika Pathashala, Bangalore. Economic Advancement:

 Encouraged Technical,Professional &  Mysore -Arasikere Railway. Higher Education.  Bowringpet-Chikkaballapura via kolar.  Introduced Scholarship scheme.  Anxious to develop Bhatkal as Sea Port and  Well known as Well known as “Rajya connecting it by railway. Durandhara”  Malnad improvement committee.  Estd. State Bank of Mysore – 1913.

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 Mysore Chamber of Commerce.  Priority to Women Education.  Dept. of Sericulture - 1916 .  Hostal for Harijans  Mysore Dasara Exhibition.  Introduced Scholarship Scheme. Industrialisation:  He wrote ‘Reconstructing India’, ‘Rapid Developments of Industries’, ‘Planned  Slogan – “Industrialise or Perish ”. Economy for India’ and ‘Memories of My  Aimed to make Mysore industrially working life’ advanced in India.  Govt of India awarded “Bharata Ratna” in  Bhadravati – Iron works and Wood 1955 Distillation Plant.  Mysore – Sandalwood Factory.  Bangalore – Govt. Soap Factory, The Metal  Sir Mirza Ismail (1926-1941) Factory, The Central Industrial Workshop, The Chrome & Tanning Factory.

Irrigation:

 KRS Dam at K annambadi.  Most outstanding outstanding Dewan of  Irrigation to 3 lakh acres of land in Mandya Mysore. & Malavalli  Followed the foot steps of Sir. M.V.  Maker of modern & model Mysore. Education  Graduate of the Bangalore Central College.

 Started various industries.  Encouraged technical education.  Expanded Bhadravati Iron works added  Technical Institutions were opened steel plant.  Chamarajendra Technical Institute  Cement and Paper factory at Bhadravati . Technical Institute of Mysore.  Match factory at Shimoga.  The Silk Research Center of  Khadi Unit (Kendra) at Badanval. Channapattana.  Sugar factory at Mandya.  Govt. Engineering College at Bangalore.  Chemicals and Fertiliser factory at  School of Agriculture at Hebbal - 1913 Shravanabelagola. (Gandhi 1913 (Gandhi Krishi Vijnana  Glass factory at Bangalore. Kendra – present Agri University).  Famous Hindusthan Aeronatics Ltd. at  Mysore University in 1916, Ist Vice Bangalore. Chancellor – V. Nanjundaih.  Agricultural equipment factory at Mysore,  Donation of 2 lacks to Banaras Hindu Bangalore and Hassan. University.  Krishnarajendra Electric Goods factory at  Estd. Kannada Sahitya Parishat at Bangalore. Bangalore - 1915.  Export of Sandal oil, Sandal Soap,  Public Libraries at Mysore & Bangalore. Agarbathi and Mysore silk.  Compulsory Primary Education.

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 Mirza had a good aesthetic aesthetic Development of Hindi and Urdu sense. Language  Beautification of Towns & Cities by

creating Parks and gardens.  Famous Brindavan Garden near KRS. Hindi and Urdu are two Hindustani Languages;  Mysore, Bangalore became garden cities. spoken mostly in the northern and Central India  Talks with Mahatma in 1927. and in Pakistan.  Persuaded Viceroy Irwin to reduce the annual tribute (34 lakhs to 24.5 lakhs). Hindi and Urdu are two different languages but  Attended the Round Table Conference in these languages have many common things. Both 1932. Hindi and Urdu are developed in a similar phase  Strengthening of Hydro Electric Projects. and adopted many changes.  Capacity of the power station of We will discuss about the development of both Shivanasamudra was increased. the languages one by one.  Estd. the Shimsha Power Station - 1940.  The Sharavti Project near Jogfalls -1938 (it led to establish the Mahatma Gandhi H Development of Hindi: ydro Electric Station – 1948).  Rural Electrification started Ist time in India Hindi in Khariboli form has been accepted as – 1940. * 180 villages electrified. official language of India. It is written in Devnagari  Built Kaveri high level Canal. script. It is listed in the 22 scheduled languages of  1,20,000 acres of land under irrigation in India in our Constitution. Mandya.  Railway offices at Mysore. Hindi is one of the youngest languages of India  Radio Station at Mysore. which come in literary only before 2-3 centuries  Craft Institute at Bangalore. back.  th Mental Hospital at Bangalore. Hindi is 4 the most speaking languages of the  Narasimharaja Hospital at Kolar. world after Mandarin, Spanish and English.  Mecgann Hospital at Shimoga. Now we will dig deep to find the foundation of Mirja Ismail was succeeded by Dewan N. Madhav Hindi language. Hindi is an Indo-Aryan Language Rao. Jayachamaraja Wodeyar was the last which find its root in various Prakrit languages in Maharaja of Mysore. He was the adopted son of India. There were various Prakrit was being KRW IV. The last Dewan of Mysore was Arcot spoken in various regions of like Magadhi, Ardha Ramaswamy Mudaliyar. The post o f Dewan was Magadhi, Himalayan Prakrit, Shaurseni Prakrit etc. abolished in 1949. This was around 500-600 century than these Prakrit were developed in their regions under the patron of their rulers. Although Sanskrit was used as official communication and for literary works,

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 yet regional languages were the languages of the have done a lot for the development of masses. Hindi. Bharatendu Harishchandra also known as father of Modern Hindi

Literature; did a lot for the development of Hindi and to shape it in standardized form. Hindi language was originally called Hindvi. It started taking shape around 10th century. It was mostly spoken in the present day Delhi. It was highly influenced by the Shaurseni Aprabhansha.

The vocabulary is derived mostly from the Sanskrit Language. Development of Urdu:

We can divide the development of Hindi language The early history of Hindi and Urdu is almost in 3 stages for our understanding: same. The invasion of foreigner from western part of India from Middle East brought many changes i) Early Stages in the Indian people. The changes was not only in ii) Middle Stage culture, lifestyle but was in the language as well. iii) Modern Stage The invaders patronized Persian and Arabic form of languages; which influenced the local languages and vice-versa. i) Early Stage: This was the making time of Hindi when it was finding its root in Urdu is also a Hindustani language which found its regional Prakrit. The time can be origin in various other languages. Urdu is mostly considered form 5th century to 1300 spoken in the northern parts of India and is official AD. In this time language of some states of India. After the partition of India, Urdu was accepted as national ii) Middle Stage: We can mark this time language of Pakistan. from 14th century to 1800 Century. In Urdu is developed from the medieval this stage various saints and other poet Apabhramsa of Shaurseni. wrote which was the basis of Modern day Hindi. Kabir, Ramananda, Tulsidas, Shaurseni is an Indo-Aryan language that is also Gurunanak, Meerabai , Amir Khusrau the ancestor of other modern languages, including had much impact on this. the Punjabi and Hindi dialects.

Around 99% of Urdu verbs have their roots iii) Modern Stage: This was the time when in Sanskrit and Prakrit. Hindi language developed fully. A lot of Urdu developed under the influence of development happened during this the Persian and Arabic languages, both of which time from grammar to modern novel have contributed a significant amount of writing. A lot of writers and scholars vocabulary to formal speech.

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The development of Urdu can be summarized in Development of Railway, Industralization and three stages: constitutional development during British period

i) Early Stage ii) Middle Stage Railway iii) Modern Stage

The British created the Indian Railways. They envisioned it, planned it, engineered it and i) Early Stage: The early stage of Hindi and Urdu is almost same where it was instructed poor Indian laborers how to build it. finding its source in regional Prakrit There is a common misconception that the British languages. Invaders of Muslim rulers “gifted” India the Railways. Nothing could be more from West also brought development to initial stages. This period can be wrong. The British did not build the Railways out marked from 500-1300 AD. of love for India or seeing the need to “prosperify”

vast masses of poor Indians. They couldn’t have ii) Middle Stage: With the upcoming of Muslims rulers from west in India cared less. In order to govern this huge, Persian language become prominent. disconnected and diverse country efficiently, they Persian language itself has its roots in needed stuff to be moved around the country Arabic language. Urdu was influenced by the Perso-Arabic language duo and quickly, like the mail of the Empire, materials, marked its tremendous development. officials, laborers, troops and so on. During that Period: 1400AD -1800 AD time, the revolutionary new “Railway technology”

in England was accelerating industrialization and iii) Modern stage: British had played development of the Kingdom. The British realized important role in developing Modern that an extensive railway network was exactly day Urdu language. Persian was the official language of many ruler’s court, what they needed in India to consolidate their British were not happy with this and power, control the local population, reach into the they tried developing Urdu to counter hinterlands and exploit the country to the Persian language. Modern writers also maximum. And this was what led to the beginning played an important role in development of Urdu language. of the Indian Railways. Letting the local populace use the trains was just a generosity extended on

their part. Yes, the British built their Indian empire

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 not on the power of gunpowder, but on the power line. Meanwhile, GIPR was also hard at work trying of steam. to cross the Khandala (Bhore) Ghat to reach Pune from Mumbai. Between 1854 and 1899, several railway companies were incorporated and each began This huge railway network altered India’s work on their own lines, pushing further and transport system. As a result, transport costs were further inland from the coast. The biggest greatly reduced thereby permitting new companies were GIPR (Great Indian Peninsular opportunities for profit. Regional specialisation Railway) Bombay, EIR (East India Railway) Calcutta, began to occur and trade (both domestic and MRC (Madras Railway Company) Madras, BB&CI foreign) flourished. India became a nation with its (Bombay Baroda & Central India) Surat and others. local centres linked by rail to each other arid to EIR completed construction of the Calcutta – Delhi the world. Railways made possible the line via Allahabad in 1864 after 9 years of work establishment of a well-knit market. Railways, by and the first train rolled into Delhi Junction (DLI) establishing these links, had an impact throughout the same year. But a regular train began running the economy. Karl Marx observed that the railway from Calcutta to Delhi only in 1866, was the system in India would become “truly the precursor of today’s Howrah – Kalka Mail. BB&CI forerunner of modern industry”. “It was believed completed construction of a line from Ahmedabad that railways would assist the economic to Bombay in 1867 and started a service from development of India and help the import and Virar to Bombay Backbay (present day distribution of manufactures and the collection Churchgate), probably marking the beginnings of and export of raw materials and agricultural what is today Mumbai’s most famous local train. produce. The official view was that the “the By 1854, the very next year after the inaugural benefits covered by railways were at all-time run, the Bombay – Thane line was doubled and great.” extended up to Kalyan on the way to Igatpuri. But But nationalists lambasted against this official seemingly impossible Ghats obstructed the easy claim and pinpointed that it was the railway which construction of a line out of Mumbai, and it took was responsible for the eclipse of some important GIPR 10 years to finish the line across the Thal industries of India. Despite massive investment in (Thull) Ghat section to reach Igatpuri. By 1870, the nature of a ‘big push’ in railways rather than that line had extended to Jabalpur via Manmad irrigation, ‘take off’ stage was hard-to come by. and Itarsi, where it met EIR’s Allahabad – Jabalpur branch line, completing the Bombay – Calcutta

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But this was too much for nationalists. Railways the country. In the time of 1st World War some did certainly help the process of industrialisation. goods, acquired by the people were reduced in India. This gave some industrial progress in our The impact of railways was felt in all sectors of the country. Indian economy. Both people and goods made an extensive use of the railways. Vera Anstey, the Textile and cloth industries were established. distinguished British authority on economic Consumer goods receieved high demand, on development of India, argued that the account of trade relation with British. During the construction of railways in India undoubtedly period of war Indian industries were encouraged extended and revolutionised trade—both internal to produce goods. After the first world war and external. industries in India took up the production of machines goods in preference to consumer goods. Before the advent of the railways in India, only a As such key industries like Iron, Steel, Textiles and very small proportion of agricultural output was Sugar Industries came under tarrif protection. exported as agriculture was carried on only for During the second world war the industries in subsistence. But railways transformed its very England, America and Japan were engaged in the nature by commercializing it. Railways made production of war materials. At that time our India’s agriculture internationally competitive and, industries increased the production of Consumer as a result, a floodgate of exports of agricultural goods at a large scale and achieved great progress. products such as wheat, rice, jute oilseeds, and During the freedom struggle " Swadeshi " cotton was opened up. Movement in India was very much useful for the Industralization production of native goods, as the British goods were boycotted. A movement to protect the Before the British rule, India was self-sufficient in native goods and their indigenous industries, textile and Cotton products but during the British helped to keep up the country's economy. rule, India fell down to the position of importing cloth from England. In the 19th century A.D. Reasons for Low Industrial Development in India British government abolished the tarrif protection  Inadequate capital accumulation of Indian goods. The country was reduced to the  Mobilisation of unproductive investment; position of supplier of raw material to British (Keynes castigated inordinate love for industries. In 1850 Jute mills were established in liquidity of Indians. Male people were India but there was no economic development in

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desirous of seeing jewellery in the neck of 1773, the East India Company [EIC] was in deep their female counterparts) financial trouble. The EIC owed money to both the  Undue preference for quick-return Bank of England and the Government. The yielding commerce and trading activities Company was important to Britain because it was of the Indian capitalist classes; and a monopoly company in India and in the east and  Concentration of entrepreneurship in the many influential people were shareholders. The hands of a few small sections of Indians. Company failed to pay its dues to Government to maintain its monopoly. Constitutional developments during British rule Provisions of the Regulating Act are as follows: When the officials of the East India Company acquired control over Bengal in 1765 they had  A Court of Directors was created at little intention of making any innovations in its London to oversee the affairs of EIC in administration. They only desired to carry on India. profitable trade and to collect taxes for remission  The Governor of Bengal/Fort William was to England .From 1762 to 1772 Indian officials elevated to the statue of Governor General were allowed to function as before but under the of Bengal /Fort William [Warren Hastings overall control of the British governor and British was first Governor-General of Bengal] and officials. In 1772 the company ended the dual governors of Madras and Bombay government and undertook to administer Bengal presidencies were brought under the directly through its own set of officials. The East control of Governor General of Bengal. India Company was at this time a commercial body  The institution of Governor General-in- designed to trade with the East. But during the council was created with Governor General period that elapsed between the Pitt’s India Act as head and with four other members to (1784) and the Charter Act of 1833 the company carry out Legislative & Executive functions. was gradually relieved of its long held trading  A Supreme Courtof Calcutta was provided privileges in the east. with one chief justice and three puisne judges. It was constituted in 1774 with Sir Regulating Act of 1773 Ellijay Impey as chief justice. [It had The Regulating Act of 1773 was first act of British jurisdiction over Bengal, Bihar and Orissa Parliament to exercise indirect control over the &British judges were to be sent to India to affairs of East India Company's rule in India. By

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administer the British legal system that possessions in effect controlling the acts was used there]. and operations relating to the civil, military and revenues of the Company.] Pitt's India Act, 1784  The membership in Governor General-in- This was an Act of the Parliament of Great Britain council [governing council of the Company] intended to address the shortcomings of the was reduced to three members [1+ 3], and Regulating Act of 1773. The supervisory role of the governor-general, a crown appointee, British Parliament on the affairs of the EIC failed to was authorised to veto the majority control the nepotism and corruption among the decisions. officials of EIC and the system was not improving.

In order to exercise direct control rather than having regulated role, the new Act was Charter Act of 1793 necessitated whereby Government can take a The East India Company Act 1793, also known as more active role in the affairs of the Company. the Charter Act of 1793, was an Act of the Provisions of the 1784 Act are as follows: Parliament of Great Britain which renewed the charter issued to the British East India Company,  It brought the affairs of EIC in India under and continued the Company's rule in India. the control of the British Government.  A Board of Control was created at London Provisions of act are as follows: with six members, two of whom were  The Company's trade monopoly was members of the British Cabinet and the continued for a further 20 years. remaining from the Privy Council. The  Salaries for the staff and paid members Board also had a president, who soon of the Board of Control were also now effectively became the minister for the charged to the Company. affairs of the East India Company.  The Governor-General was granted  This Act provided for a joint government of extensive powers over the subordinate British India by both the Company and the presidencies.The Governor-General's Crown with the government holding the power of over-ruling his council was ultimate authority.[The Board was given affirmed, and extended over the powers to superintend, direct and control Governors of the subordinate the government of the Company's presidencies.

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 Senior officials were forbidden from  It made the Governor-General of Bengal leaving India without permission.Royal as the Governor-General of India.[Lord approval was mandated for the William Bentinck (1828 to 1835) was the appointment of the Governor-General, first Governor-General of India. the governors, and the Commander-in- [Centralisation of Administration] Chief.  It Centralised the Legislature with the Governor General-in-council and thereby The Charter Act of 1813 laws passed by the Central Council in It renewed the charter issued to the British Calcutta would have automatic East India Company, and continued the application for Madras & Bombay Company's rule in India. provinces.  It ended Company's commercial monopoly  For the first time, a provision was made in India, except tea and opium.Indian trade for the appointment of a law member to was thrown open to Englishmen. the Governor General-in-council who  It made compulsory training for all civil would attend the council meetings as a servants. matter of right (only) when the legislative  It allotted Rs.100,000/- to promote functions are performed. education in India. The Charter Act, 1853  Christian missionaries were allowed to come to British India and preach their British Parliament was called upon to renew religion. the Charter of the Company in 1853.The  Financial provision was also made to Parliament had in the preceding year encourage a revival in Indian literature and appointed two committees to go into the for the promotion of science. affairs of the Company and on the basis of their reports the Charter Act of 1853 was Government of India Act 1833 framed and passed. This Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom Provisions of act are as follows: was also meant for an extension of the royal charter granted to the company for further by 20  The number of the members of the years. courts of Directors was reduced from 24 to 18 out of which 6 were to be It contained the following provisions:

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nominated by the crown. Power was representing four provinces-Bengal, given to the “Court of Directors” to Madras, Bombay and North Western constitute a new presidency and also Provinces. to alter and regulate from time to  It renewed the powers of the time the limits of the various company and allowed it to retain provinces. possession of Indian territories on the  The act ended the right of “Court of condition that company should Directors” for the recruitment and govern India in trust for the Crown. recalling. The recruitment for the Unlikeearlier charter Acts, no company jobs in the administration timeframe was fixed this time was transferred to “Board of Control”. The Government of India Act 1858 For the first time Written Competitive Exams were held for the jobs in the This Act was passed to better administer the administration. possessions of EIC in India under the backdrop of  The Governor General of India was Indian rebellion in 1857. It was deliberated the relieved from the additional complexities involved in the governing India under responsibility of being the Governor the existing system and therefore wanted to end of Bengal and a Lt. Governor of Bengal the company rule in India. was appointed for administering Provisions of the act are as follows: Bengal.  The Act of 1853 marked the beginning  This Act has ended the East India Company of a Parliamentary system in India. rule in India and the British Crown took The Act extended the machinery of over the administration of India. legislation. The law member was  It abolished the “Court of Directors” and made permanent/full member of the “Board of Control” and vested the powers GG executive council. This EC while in Queen's Principal Secretary of State, a sitting for legislative functions, has Minister in the British cabinet. Thus, the enlarged by the additions of 6 system of double government (one at members- the chief Justice and a London & another in India) introduced by puisne judge of Supreme court of the Pitt’s India Act of 1784 was abolished. Calcutta and 4 civil servants

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 The secretary/ Minister in the cabinet was military, law, finance, and (after 1874) re-designated as “Secretary of State” for public works. India, assisted by a council of 15 members  The GG-in-council was enlarged by adding was appointed to assist the Secretary of 6-12 members for legislative purpose. State for India. He was empowered to These members would be nominated by superintend, direct and control all the the Viceroy for a term of 2 years, but not governmental affairs of India. [Charles less than half of them would non-officials. Wood, the last president of Board of The Indian Councils Act 1892 Control, was made the first Secretary of State.] The Indian Councils Act 1892 was enacted by the  The Secretary of State for India was Parliament of the United Kingdom to increase the empowered to send some secret size of the various legislative councils in British despatches to India directly without India. This act was made in response to the consulting the Council of 15 members. He demand from the Indian National Congress to was also authorised to constitute special expand legislative councils. committees of his Council. Provisions of the Act are as follows:

 The number of additional members in the The Indian Councils Act 1861 “Imperial Legislative Council” at Calcutta The Indian Councils Act 1861 empowered the and “provincial Legislative Councils” were viceroy to make rules for more convenient enhanced. In the Imperial Legislative transaction of business. By using this provision council, there would be 10-16 non-officials. Lord Canning has transformed the Viceroy of In the provincial councils the members India's executive council into a cabinet run on the would be not less than 8, but not more “portfolio system”for easy legislation and than 20. administration.  Two fifths of the total members of the councils were to be non-officials. Some of  A fifth member was added to the them could be indirectly elected and “Viceroy’s executive Council” *1+5+. This others are nominated bythe Viceroy. Thus cabinet had six "ordinary members" who a system or an element of election, albeit each took charge of a separate department indirect was introduced for the first time. in Calcutta's government: home, revenue,

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 The non-official members to the Imperil It was fixed as 50 in the provinces of Legislative Council were (indirectly) elected Bengal, Madras and Bombay, and for the by the provincial legislatures. The non- rest of the provinces it was 30. official members of the provincial councils  The members of the Legislative Councils, were elected by the Local bodies such as both at the Centre and in the provinces, district boards, municipalities, universities were to be of four categories i.e. ex-officio and chambers of commerce. Thus was members (Governor General and the introduced the principle of representation. members of their Executive Councils), nominated official members (those The Indian Councils Act 1909 /Morley-Minto nominated by the Governor General and Reforms were government officials), nominated The Indian Councils Act 1909 commonly known as non-official members (nominated by the the Morley-Minto Reforms, was an Act of the Governor General but were not Parliament of the United Kingdom that brought government officials) and elected about a limited increase in the involvement of members (elected by different categories Indians in the governance of British India. John of Indian people). Morley, the Liberal Secretary of State for India,  .The most controversial provision in the and the Conservative Governor-General of India, act was separate communal electorate The Earl of Minto, believed that cracking down on was given to the Muslims [Only Muslims uprising in Bengal was necessary but not sufficient would vote for the Muslim candidates] for restoring stability to the British Raj after Lord and representation in excess of their Curzon's partitioning of Bengal. They believed that population. The income qualification for a dramatic step was required to put heart into Muslim voters [for voting] was kept at loyal elements of the Indian upper classes and the lower than that of Hindus. growing Westernised section of the population.

Provisions of the act are as follows: The Government of India Act, 1919 or Montagu-  The size of the Legislature both at Central Chelmsford Reforms and provinces was enlarged. The number Lord Montagu, the secretary of Stateannounced in of the members of the Legislative Council the House of Commons on 17th August 1917 that at the Centre was increased from 16 to 60. the goal of constitutional advance in India to be “

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 the gradual development of self governing their objections, a provision to assign them institutions with a view to the progressive 25% of the Income tax was made. realisation of responsible government as an  No bill of the legislature could be deemed integral part of British Empire”. It was called to have been passed unless assented to by “Montagu statement” or “August Statement” *not the governor general. The later could to be confused with August offer made by Lord however enact a Bill without the assent of Wawell in 1944]. The Montagu–Chelmsford the legislature. Report in 1918 has laid down a fourfold formula to  This Act made the central legislature implement the policy in first stage. bicameral. The lower house was the Legislative Assembly, with 145 members  This Act had a separate Preamble which serving three year terms (the model for declared that Objective of the British today's Lok Sabha); the upper house was Government is the gradual introduction of the Council of States with 60 members responsible Government in India. Diarchy serving five year terms (the model for was introduced as Provincial Level. today's Rajya Sabha) The Act provided for  Diarchy means a dual set of governments the establishment of a Public Service one is accountable another is not Commission in India for the first time. accountable. The provincial subjects were divided into two groups: One was reserved and another was transferred. The reserved Government of India Act 1935 subjects were kept with the Governor and transferred subjects were kept with the Act was passed by British Parliament in August Indian Ministers. This division of subjects 1935. With 321 sections and 10 schedules, this was basically what they meant by was the longest act passed by British Parliament introducing the Diarchy. so far and was later split into two parts viz.  The Government of India Act of 1919, Government of India Act 1935 and Government of made a provision for classification of the Burma Act 1935. The Government of India Act central and provincial subjects. The Act 1935 derived material from four key sources viz. kept the Income Tax as source of revenue Report of the Simon Commission, discussions at to the Central Government. However, for the Third Round Table Conference, the White Bengal and Bombay for which, to meet Paper of 1933 and the reports of the Joint select committees. This act ended the system of dyarchy

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 introduced by GOI Act 1919 and provided for of the Constitution Drafting Committee. The text establishment of a Federation of India to be made prepared by Ambedkar provided constitutional up of provinces of British India and some or all of guarantees and protections for a wide range of the Princely states. However, the federation never civil liberties for individual citizens, including came into being as the required number of freedom of religion, the abolition of untouchability princely states did not join it. and outlawing all forms of discrimination. Ambedkar argued for extensive economic and Salient Features of the Government of India Act social rights for women, and also won the 1935 were as follows: Constituent Assembly’s support for introducing a  Abolition of provincial dyarchy and system of reservations of jobs for members of the introduction of dyarchy at centre SC and ST. Ambedkar kept the clauses of the  . Abolition of Indian Council and Constitution flexible so that amendments could be introduction of an advisory body in its made as and when the situation demanded. He place. provided an inspiring Preamble to the Constitution  Provision for an All India Federation with ensuring justice, social, economic and political, British India territories and princely states. liberty, equality and fraternity. The creation of an  Elaborate safeguards and protective egalitarian social order, however, remains an instruments for minorities. unfulfilled wishful thinking to this day.  Supremacy of British Parliament. Increase Dr Ambedkar was not only a learned scholar and in size of legislatures, extension of an eminent jurist but also a revolutionary who franchise, division of subjects into three fought against social evils like untouch-ability and lists and retention of communal electorate. caste restrictions. Throughout his life, he battled Separation of Burma from India social discrimination while upholding the rights of Dr. Ambedkar and constitution the Dalits and other socially backward classes. He

Due to his seminal role in the framing of the Indian was not only a great national leader but also a Constitution, Dr Bhimrao Ambedkar is popularly distinguished scholar of international repute. He known all over India as the chief architect of the not only led various social movements for the Indian Constitution. His efforts to eradicate social upliftment of the depressed sections of the Indian evils were remarkable and that is why he is called society but also contributed to the understanding the “messiah” of the Dalits and downtrodden in of the socio-economic and political problems of India. Dr Ambedkar was appointed the Chairman India through his scholarly works on caste,

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 religion, culture, constitutional law and economic spectacular. Dr Ambedkar’s contribution to the development. As a matter of fact he was an evolution of free India lies in his striving for economist and his various scholarly works and ensuring justice—social, economic and political— speeches indicate his deep understanding of the for one and all. problems faced by the Indian society. He was Fundamental Rights appointed as the nation’s first Law Minister and was posthu-mously awarded the Bharat Ratna in Ambedkar was a champion of fundamental rights, 1990-91. and Part III of the Indian Constitution guarantees the fundamental rights to the citizens against the On August 29, 1947 Dr. Ambedkar was appointed state. Some of the fundamental rights contained the Chairman of the Drafting Committee that was in Articles 15(2), 17, 23, and 24 are also constituted by Constituent Assembly to draft a enforceable against individuals as they are very Constitution for independent India. The draft significant rights relating to the prohibition of Constitution was the result of the collective efforts discrimination on grounds of religion, race, caste, of a galaxy of great leaders and legal scholars in sex or place of birth etc. The text prepared by the Constituent Assembly such as Jawaharlal Ambedkar provided constitutional guarantees and Nehru, Rajendra Prasad, B.R. Ambedkar, Sardar protections for a wide range of civil liberties for Patel, B.N. Rao, Alladi Krishnaswamy Ayyar etc. individual citizens, including freedom of religion, The purpose of this paper is to examine the the abolition of untouchability and outlawing all contribution of Dr Ambedkar only to the Indian forms of discrimination. Ambedkar argued for Constitution. extensive economic and social rights for women. Dr Ambedkar played a seminal role in the framing According to Ambedkar, the most significant of the Indian Constitution. He used all his feature of the fundamental rights is that these experience and knowledge in drafting the rights are made justiciable. The right to move to Constitution. In his capacity as the Chairman of the Supreme Court for enforcement of the Drafting Committee, he hammered out a fundamental rights under Article 32 is itself a comprehensive workable Constitution into which fundamental right. Article 32 authorises the he incorporated his valuable views. He gave free Supreme Court to issue directions, orders or writs India its legal framework, and the people, the in the nature of habeas corpus, mandamus, basis of their freedom. To this end, his certioraris etc. or any other appropriate remedy, contribution was significant, substantial, and

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 as the case may be, for the enforcement of funda- Part XI, and Schedule V and VI dealing with the mental rights guaranteed by the Constitution. upliftment of the Scheduled Castes and Schedule Tribes speak clearly about the substantial and Parliamentary Democracy significant contribution of Ambedkar for the Dr. ambedkar was a strong advocate of the development of untouchables.5 Ambedkar made parliamentary form of government right from the it his life’s mission to uplift the untouchables and inception of the Government of India Act of 1935. other downtrodden masses from the unequal He firmly believed that the parliamentary system position of inferiority to that of equal position of of government alone can usher in an egalitarian parity in socio-economic status with high-caste society through the application of the principles of Hindus. For achieving this goal the reservation social democracy. Dr Ambedkar’s social policy or the scheme of protective discrimination democracy comprised politicians, political parties was advocated and implemented by him for ten with high standards of political morality, honesty years at least to ameliorate the conditions of the and integrity and strong and highly responsible various depressed and down-trodden sections of Opposition party or parties committed to the Hindu society. cause of the downtrodden and depressed classes.

The Preamble of the Indian Constitution echoes the principles of parliamentary democracy. Educational institutes- Taxila, Nalanda and vallabhi Protective Discrimination/Reservation Taxila university The real contribution of Ambedkar is reflected in By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be the protective discrimination scheme or the one of the earliest (or the earliest) universities in reservation policy of the government envisaged the world. Others do not consider it a university in under some provisions of Part III and many of Part the modern sense, in that the teachers living there IV dealing with the constitutional mandate to may not have had official membership of ameliorate the condition of the Scheduled Castes particular colleges, and there did not seem to have and Scheduled Tribes and the other backward existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential classes. Provisions like Article 17 prohibiting quarters in Taxila, in contrast to the later Nalanda untouchability, Article 30 dealing with the university in eastern India. Taxila became a noted protection of minorities are some of the notable centre of learning (including the religious examples. Articles 15(4) and16(4) of Part III and teachings of Buddhism) at least several centuries

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BCE, and continued to attract students from in Buddhist tradition since it is believed that the around the old world until the destruction of the Mahāyāna branch of Buddhism took shape city in the 5th century. It has been suggested that there.[citation needed] Jivaka, the court physician at its height, Taxila exerted a sort of "intellectual of the Magadha emperor Bimbisara who once suzerainty" over other centres of learning in India cured the Buddha, and the Buddhism-supporting and its primary concern was not with elementary, ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some important but higher education. Generally, a student entered personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied Taxila at the age of sixteen. The ancient and the at Taxila. most revered scriptures, and the Eighteen Silpas Nalanda university or Arts, which included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant lore, were taught, in Nalanda was an acclaimed Mahavihara, a large addition to its law school, medical school, and Buddhist monastery in the ancient kingdom of school of military science. Students came to Taxila Magadha (modern-day Bihar) in India. The site is from far-off places such as Kashi, Kosala and located about 95 kilometres (59 mi) southeast of Magadha, in spite of the long and arduous journey Patna near the town of Bihar Sharif, and was a they had to undergo, on account of the excellence centre of learning from the fifth century CE to of the learned teachers there, all recognised as c. 1200 CE. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The authorities on their respective subjects. highly formalized methods of Vedic learning helped inspire the establishment of large teaching Taxila had great influence on Hindu culture and institutions such as Taxila, Nalanda, and the Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known for Vikramashila which are often characterised as its association with Chanakya, also known as India's early universities. Nalanda flourished under Kautilya, the strategist who guided Chandragupta the patronage of the Gupta Empire in the 5th and Maurya and assisted in the founding of the 6th centuries and later under Harsha, the emperor Mauryan empire. Chanakya's Arthashastra (The of Kannauj. The liberal cultural traditions inherited knowledge of Economics) is said to have been from the Gupta age resulted in a period of growth composed in Taxila itself. The Ayurvedic healer and prosperity until the ninth century. The Charaka also studied at Taxila. He also started subsequent centuries were a time of gradual teaching at Taxila in the later period. Pāṇini, the decline, a period during which the tantric grammarian who codified the rules that would developments of Buddhism became most define Classical Sanskrit, has also been part of the community at Taxila. The institution is significant

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 pronounced in eastern India under the Pala patronage, only in the monasteries of Bihar and Empire. Bengal. By the time of the Palas, the traditional Mahayana and Hinayana forms of Buddhism were At its peak, the school attracted scholars and imbued with Tantric practices involving secret students from near and far with some travelling rituals and magic. The rise of Hindu philosophies in from Tibet, China, Korea, and Central Asia. the subcontinent and the waning of the Buddhist Archaeological evidence also notes contact with Pala dynasty after the 11th century meant that the Shailendra dynasty of Indonesia, one of whose Buddhism was hemmed in on multiple fronts, kings built a monastery in the complex. Much of political, philosophical, and moral. The final blow our knowledge of Nalanda comes from the was delivered when its still-flourishing writings of pilgrim monks from East Asia such as monasteries, the last visible symbols of its Xuanzang and Yijing who travelled to the existence in India, were overrun during the Mahavihara in the 7th century. Vincent Smith Muslim invasion that swept across Northern India remarked that "a detailed history of Nalanda at the turn of the 13th century. would be a history of Mahayanist Buddhism". Many of the names listed by Xuanzang in his Vikramshila university travelogue as products of Nalanda are the names Vikramashila was one of the two most important of those who developed the philosophy of centres of learning in India during the Pala Empire, Mahayana. All students at Nalanda studied along with Nalanda. Vikramashila was established Mahayana as well as the texts of the eighteen by King Dharmapala (783 to 820) in response to a (Hinayana) sects of Buddhism. Their curriculum supposed decline in the quality of scholarship at also included other subjects such as the Vedas, Nalanda. Atisha, the renowned pandita, is logic, Sanskrit grammar, medicine and Samkhya. sometimes listed as a notable abbot. It was The decline of Nalanda is concomitant with the destroyed by the forces of Muhammad bin disappearance of Buddhism in India. When Bakhtiyar Khilji around 1200. Vikramashila (village Xuanzang travelled the length and breadth of India Antichak, district Bhagalpur, Bihar) is located at in the 7th century, he observed that his religion about 50 km east of Bhagalpur and about 13 km was in slow decay and even had ominous north-east of Kahalgaon, a town in Bhagalpur premonitions of Nalanda's forthcoming district . It is approachable through 11 km long demise.[69] Buddhism had steadily lost popularity motorable road diverting from NH-80 at Anadipur with the laity and thrived, thanks to royal about 2 km from Kahalgaon.

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A number of monasteries grew up during the Pāla Tibetan Buddhism. Subjects like philosophy, period in ancient Bengal and Magadha. According grammar, metaphysics, Indian logic etc. were to Tibetan sources, five great Mahaviharas stood taught here, but the most important branch of out: Vikramashila, the premier university of the learning was tantrism. era; Nalanda, past its prime but still illustrious, Formation of Linguistic States:– Somapura, Odantapura, and Jagaddala. The five India is a land of many languages, each with its monasteries formed a network; "all of them were distinct script, grammar, vocabulary and literary under state supervision" and there existed "a tradition. In 1917, the Congress Party had system of co-ordination among them. It seems committed itself to the creation of linguistic from the evidence that the different seats of provinces in a Free India. After Congress's Nagpur Session in 1920, the principle was extended and Buddhist learning that functioned in eastern India formalized with the creation of provincial under the Pāla were regarded together as forming Congress Committee by linguistic zones. a network, an interlinked group of institutions," The linguistic reorganization of the Congress was and it was common for great scholars to move encouraged and supported by Mahatma Gandhi. easily from position to position among them. After the bitter partition on the basis of religion the then PM Nehru was apprehensive of dividing Vikramashila was founded by Pāla king country further on the basis of language. Dharmapala in the late 8th or early 9th century. It Dhar commission prospered for about four centuries before it was destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji along with the other During that time some Marathi speaking Congress members raised the pitches for separate major centres of Buddhism in India around 1200. Maharashtra State. Following this demand, other Vikramashila is known to us mainly through language speaking people too demands a separate Tibetan sources, especially the writings of state for them. Hence, Constituent Assembly in 1948 appointed the Linguistic Provinces Tāranātha, the Tibetan monk historian of the Commission, headed by Justice S.K. Dhar, to 16th–17th centuries.Vikramashila was one of the enquire into the desirability of linguistic provinces. largest Buddhist universities, with more than one The Dhar Commission advised against this at that hundred teachers and about one thousand time reason being it might threaten national unity students. It produced eminent scholars who were and also be administratively inconvenient. often invited by foreign countries to spread JVP Committee Buddhist learning, culture and religion. The most After some time the clamor for linguistic states distinguished and eminent among all was Atiśha again got momentum. To appease the vocal Dipankara, a founder of the Sarma traditions of votaries of linguistic states, the congress appoints

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 a committee (JVP) in December 1948 consisting of Ali, K.M. Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as Nehru, Sardar Patel and Pattabhi Sitaramayya to members, to examine "objectively and examine the question afresh. This JVP Committee dispassionately" the entire question of the revoked the seal of approval that the congress has reorganization of the states of the Union. The SRC once put on the principle of linguistic provinces. submitted its report in October 1955. It recognized for the most part on the linguistic principle and The demands for separate state on the linguistic recommended redrawing of state boundaries on basis didn't subside. There were renewed that basis. movements aimed at linguistic autonomy in 1948, 1949. There was the campaign for Samyukta The then government accepted the SRC's Karnataka, uniting Kannada speaking spread recommendations. Finally, the states across the states of Madras, Mysore, Bombay, Reorganization Act was passed by parliament in Hyderabad, Samyukta Maharashtra, Maha Gujarat November 1956. It provided for fourteen states movement. In case of Punjab, struggle brought and six centrally administered territories. SRC together both the factors language and religion opposed the splitting of Bombay & Punjab. (Sikh). Case of Bombay Andhra Movement Therefore, the strongest reaction against SRC's After Independence, the speakers of Telugu asked report came from Maharashtra, where the congress to implement its old resolution in widespread rioting took place. To fulfill their favour of linguistic states. demand of separate Marathi speaking people's state, there was the broad based Samyukta On 19 October 1952, a popular freedom fighter, Maharashtra Samiti and on the other hand in Potti Sriramulu undertook a fast unto death over Bombay state, there was Maha Gujarat Janata the demand for a separate Andhra and expired Parishad led the movement for Gujarati people. after fifty-eight days. After his death people were agitated and it was followed by rioting, After on years of the reorganization of states Act, demonstrations, hartals and violence all over the government finally agreed in May 1960, the Andhra. The Vishalandhra movement (as the bifurcate the state of Bombay into Maharashtra, movement for a separate Andhra was called) Gujarat with Bombay city being included in turned violent. Finally, the then PM, Nehru Maharashtra and Ahmedabad being made the announced the formation of a separate Andhra capital of Gujarat. State in December 1952. Case of Punjab State Reorganization Commission The other state where an exception was made to The formation of Andhra Pradesh spurred the the linguistic principle was Punjab. In 1956, the struggle for making of other states on linguistic state of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab, lines in other parts of the country. which remained a trilingual state having three language speakers-Punjab, Hindu and Pahari Hence Nehru appointed in August 1953 the states within its border. In the Punjabi speaking part of Reorganisation Commission (SRC) with justice Fazl the state, there was a strong demand for carving

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi Speaking deploring their rulers. Satara, Jhansi, Sambalpur, State). This demand got communal overtones. The Nagpur, etc. fill victim in his aggressive policy. All Akali Dal led Sikh Communalists, while the Jan these states came under British rule. In 1856, he captured Oudh on the plea of misrule. He looked Sangh, led Hindu communalists. the palaces of Nagpur and Oudh. Not only the SRC had rejected the demands in Punjab, as it ruling house, but also the employees and other dependent families were deprived of their livings would not solve either the language or the for the policy of Dalhousie. His maltreatment communal problem of Punjab. Finally in 1966, towards the Mughal emperor Bahadur Shah-II hurt Indira Gandhi agreed to the division of Punjab into the sentiment of the Muslim community. two Punjabi and Hindi speaking status of Punjab Discontinuation of the pension of the Peshwa and Haryana, with the Pahari speaking district of Nana Sahib shocked the Marathas. This discontent Kangra and a port of the Hoshiarpur district being of royal families, army men and common people merged with HP. jointly exposed in the Great Revolt of 1857.

Finally, after more than ten years of continuous Economic cause: The Great Revolt of 1857 was strife and popular struggles, the linguistic also an outburst of grievances due to the reorganization of India was largely completed. economic exploitation of the company. India’s traditional economy collapsed as a result of the The Great Revolt of 1857 (also Indian rebellion of British ‘investment’ policies and revenue 1857, the Great uprising of 1857, the Great administration. The company’s trade policy rebellion, Indian Sepoy mutiny) is regarded destroyed Indian handicrafts. Huge numbers of as India’s First War of Independence against the Indians were thrown out of employment. The British rule. It was the most remarkable single British, opened a new avenue of exploitation on event in the history of India after the the peasants By introducing permanent establishment of British rule. It was the result of settlement. Exploitation of the Zamindars gave the century-old British rule in India. In comparison rise 10 landless laborers who became restless by to the previous uprisings of the Indians, the Great and by. Thus out of discontent the artisans and Revolt of 1857 was of a greater dimension and it peasantry joined hands with the sepoys in the assumed almost an all-India character with mutiny. participation of people from different sections of the society. This Revolt was initiated by the sepoys Military cause: The sepoys of the company of the company. So it has been commonly termed regiment had been feeling dissatisfied with the as `Sepoy Mutiny‘. But it was not simply a revolt of English for various reasons. the sepoys.

1. Thus was a great disparity in salaries Causes between the Indian and European soldiers. 2. The Indian sepoys were treated with The causes of the Great Revolt of 1857 and Sepoy contempt by their European officers. Mutiny may be studied in the following heads: 3. The sepoys were sent to distant parts of the empire, but were not paid any extra Political cause: Major political cause for the allowance. outbreak of the Revolt was the policy of 4. Indian sepoys were refused promotion in annexation followed by Dalhousie. On application service as like their European counterparts. of the ‘Doctrine of Lapse’ or on the ground of mis- governance he annexed states after states

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Out of such discontent the Indian The British government came out with all the sepoys led to a mutiny. powers to suppress the revolt. The sepoys fought the battle with their limited strength for four Social cause: The English could not establish any months. Then, the sepoys had to retreat. On 25th social relationship with the Indians. The racial September British troops regained Delhi. Bahadur arrogance of the British created a difference Shah was arrested. Nana Saheb lost the battle of between the rulers and the ruled. Kanpur. His commander Tantia Topi continued the fight up to April, 1859 A.D. and surrendered to the Enactment of some Acts greatly offended the British force. Lakshmi Bai of Jhansi lost her life in sentiment of the people. Some of these acts were the battleground. Kunwar Singh, Bakht Khan of taken as deliberate blow at the Hindu religion, Bihar, Bahadur Khan, Moulavi Ahmed of Faizabad custom and right of inheritance. lost their lives one after the other. By the end of 1859 A.D. the British power was reestablished in troubled areas. Direct cause: At that time, Enfield rifles were introduced in the army. The bullets of these rifles were covered by paper with grease like thing. The Reason of failure of the revolt Sepoys were to cut the cover by teeth before There were several reasons behind the failure of using it. The Hindu and Muslim soldiers refused to this revolt. cut the covers. They protested against this and were arrested. That ignited the fire. 1. There was no central organization of the sepoys. There was no unified action also. Under the leadership of Mangal Pandey the agony Bahadur Shah, Nana Saheb, Lakshmi Bai, no of the Sepoys exposed at Barrackpore in Calcutta one had acceptance as a real leader. They (March, 1857 A.D.). But the planned revolt started had different goals and times again they had at Meerut (May, 1857 A.D.). Gradually it spread contradictions. from Punjab in the north to Narmada in south, 2. The British had a huge number of forces. from Rajputana in the west to Bihar in the east. As New groups of soldiers were sent to India the revolt was started by the Indian sepoys in the after the end of Crimean war. Fresh army British army, the revolt became known as Sepoy men came from Singapore. As a result of mutiny. When the sepoys of Meerut reached Delhi these, in the middle of the revolt the there was huge upsurge. They declared old strength of the British force was doubled. Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah as the Badshah of The chance of a win became remote. India. He was accepted as the symbol of Hindu- 3. The sepoys had no improved arms with Muslim unity. With the outbreak of mutiny among them. On the other hand, the British force Sepoys common men joined the revolt. Farmers had huge and improved armory. They could and artisans put further force behind the mutiny. not match improved guns and rifles with The second reason for this mass revolt was the their old model musket, spears and sword. unity among the Hindus and Muslims. On So the defeat was almost certain. observing this historians thought that, up to this 4. Further the leaders of this revolt could not period there was no communal feelings among get the support of several native states like the masses. Holker, Scindia and Rajput sardars and kings. They supported the British. Educated End of the Revolt middle-class people also were behind the British power.

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Nature of the Great Revolt of 1857 Importance and Outcome of the Great Revolt of 1857 There are differences of opinions amongst historians about the character of this great revolt. It can be said that the great revolt of 1857 A.D. Some historians are of opinion that the revolt in was a failure, but was not fruitless. the North-Western province was a lawless revolt by a group of sepoys. 1. United Effort: From this revolt, we can have a picture of India’s struggle for keeping the rights. On the other hand, some historians believe that it There were several revolts before this, but there was more than just a sepoy mutiny as it had a was no feeling of Indian-ness in those revolts. The large mass base. Though in the beginning it was revolt of 1857 A.D. was a collected effort of like sepoy mutiny, but later on it turned out to be different sections of people. a real mass upsurge. 2. Awakening of Peasants class: The peasants Karl Marx in his several essays described this joined this revolt which was out and out against revolt as nationalist fight for independence. the British. This was unique. Marxist writers looked at this event as uprising of peasants against feudal system of exploitation. 3. Development of National Feeling: Dr. K. M V.D. Savarkar, the great revolutionary, described Panikkar wrote that though the sepoys had this revolt as the first struggle for independence. limitations and weaknesses, but their efforts to M.N. Roy said that it was the reaction of the make India free from British rule feudal against capitalism. was patriotic work and a progressive step. If we do not consider any historical event on the basis of its On the centenary of the great revolt Dr. Ramesh success then the revolt of 1857 A.D. was never a Chandra Majumder wrote and published a book tragedy. Even inspite of failure that served a great entitled ‘Sepoy Mutiny’ and ‘Revolt of Eighteen purpose, it was a source of inspiration in India’s Fifty Seven’. Dr. Majumder thought that this was freedom struggle. nothing but a revolt of the sepoy. He also said that in some places few non-military persons came out 4. End of Company Rule: The political result of this in support of the sepoys but they were local great revolt was the end of company’s rule in landlords, talukdars and feudal leaders. In his India. By a new act introduced in the British opinion it was nothing better than feudalistic Parliament British government took the charge to reaction of the revolt. rule India. From then onward a Viceroy as a representative of British King ruled India. But many historians are of opinion that the Great movement of 1857 A.D. cannot be termed as 5. Queen’s proclamation: The Queen’s narrow, isolated and reactionary. The sepoys Proclamation showered many promises in 1858 established a symbol of Hindu-Muslim unity by A.D. Government service was promised electing Bahadur Shah as the Emperor of India. In irrespective of cast, religion and on the basis of the Ajamgarh declaration a call was given to merit only. Ill framed “doctrine of lapse” of Lord people of all classes of mass to unite against the Dalhousie was cancelled. New recruitment policy British rule. It may be righty that they had no idea of the army men was announced to see that they about national government, but nationalism was could not organize any revolt. In the important there. So it can be called a national movement. positions of the government no native people (Indian) was given any chance.

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contributed towards the rise and growth of Nationalism. One set of laws of British ORIGIN OF NATIONALISM Government across several regions led to political The rise of Nationalism is reflected in the spirit of and administrative unity. This strengthened the Renaissance in Europe when freedom from concept of citizenship and one nation among religious restrictions led to the enhancement of Indians. This economic exploitation by the British national identity. This expression of Nationalism agitated other people to unite and react against was furthered by the French Revolution. The British Government’s control over their lives and political changes resulted in the passing of resources. The social and religious reform sovereignty from the hands of an absolute movements of the 19th century also contributed monarch to the French citizens, who had the to the feeling of Nationalism. Swami Vivekananda, power to constitute the nation and shape its Annie Besant, Henry Derozio and many others destiny. The watchwords of the French Revolution revived the glory of ancient India, created faith - Liberty, Equality and Fraternity - inspired the among the people in their religion and culture and whole world. Many other revolutions like the thus gave the message of love for their American Revolution, the Russian Revolution, etc. motherland. The intellectual and spiritual side of also strengthened the idea of Nationalism. Nationalism was voiced by persons like Bankim Chandra Chatterji, Swami Dayanand Saraswati and Rise of Nationalism in India Aurobindo Ghosh. Bankim Chandra’s hymn to the Motherland, ‘Vande Matram’ became the rallying For India, the making of national identity was a cry of patriotic nationalists. It inspired generations long process whose roots can be drawn from the to supreme self-sacrifice. Simultaneously, it ancient era. India as a whole had been ruled by created a fear in the minds of the British. The emperors like Ashoka and Samudragupta in impact was so strong that the British had to ban ancient times and Akbar to Aurangzeb in Medieval the song. Similarly, Swami Vivekananda’s message times. But, it was only in the 19th Century that the to the people, “Arise, awake and stop not till the concept of a national identity and national goal is reached”, appealed to the Indians. It acted consciousness emerged. This growth was as a potent force in the course of Indian intimately connected to the anti-colonial Nationalism. movement. The social, economic and political factors had inspired the people to define and Around this time many organizations were being achieve their national identity. People began formed which raised their voices against British discovering their unity in the process of their rule. Most of these organizations were regional in struggle against colonialism. nature. Some of these organizations were very active such as Bengal Indian Association, Bengal The sense of being oppressed under colonial rule Presidency Association, Pune Public Meeting, etc. provided a shared bond that tied different groups However it was felt that if these regional together. Each class and group felt the effects of organizations could work jointly it would help the colonialism differently. Their experiences were Indian masses to raise their voices against the varied, and their notions of freedom were not British Rule. This led to the formation of Indian always the same. Several other causes also National Congress in the year 1885.

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EMERGENCE OF INDIAN NATIONAL CONGRESS Government always in the form of petitions and (1885) worked within the framework of law. It was for this reason that the early Congress leaders were The Indian National Congress was founded by referred to as ‘Moderates’ They asked for: (a) Allan Octavian Hume in 1885. Hume was a retired representative legislatures, (b) Indianization of Civil Service Officer. He saw a growing political services, (c) reduction of military expenditure, (d) consciousness among the Indians and wanted to education, employment and holding of the ICS give it a safe, constitutional outlet so that their (Indian Civil Services) examination in India, (e) resentment would not develop into popular decrease in the burden of the cultivators, (f) agitation against the British rule in India. He was defense of civil rights, (g) separation of the supported in this scheme by the Viceroy, Lord judiciary from the executive, (h) change in the Dufferin, and by a group of eminent Indians. tenancy laws, (i) reduction in land revenue and Womesh Chandra Banerjee of Calcutta was salt duty, (j) policies to help in the growth of elected as the first President. The Indian National Indian industries and handicrafts, (k) introduction Congress represented an urge of the politically of welfare programmes for the people. conscious Indians to set up a national organization Unfortunately, their efforts did not bring many to work for their betterment. Its leaders had changes in the policies and administration of the complete faith in the British Government and in its British in India. In the beginning, the Britishers had sense of justice. They believed that if they would a favourable attitude towards the Congress. But, place their grievances before the government by 1887, this attitude began to change. They did reasonably, the British would certainly try to not fulfill the demands of the Moderates. The only rectify them. Among the liberal leaders, the most achievement of the Congress was the enactment prominent were Firoz Shah Mehta, Gopal Krishna of the Indian Councils Act, 1892 that enlarged the Gokhale, Dada Bhai Naoroji, Ras Behari Bose, legislature by adding a few nonofficial members Badruddin Tayabji, etc. From 1885 to 1905, the and passing of a resolution for holding Indian Civil Indian National Congress had a very narrow social Services Examination simultaneously in London base. Its influence was confined to the urban and in India. Many leaders gradually lost faith in educated Indians. The early aims of this the Constitutional process. Even though the organization were limited only to communicate Congress failed to achieve its goal, it succeeded in with British government on behalf of the Indian creating national awakening and instilling in the people and voice their grievances. It was rightly minds of the Indian people a sense of belonging to called the era of the Moderates. one Nation. They provided a forum for the Indians Initial stages of Indian National Congress to discuss major national issues. By criticizing the government policies, they gave the people The congress placed its demands before the valuable political training. Though, They were not government always in the form of petitions and ready to take aggressive steps which would bring worked within the framework of law. It was for them in direct conflict with the Government. The this reason that the early Congress leaders were most significant achievement was the foundation referred to as ‘Moderates’. During its first twenty of a strong national movement. The Britishers who years the Congress made moderate demands. The were earlier supporting the Moderates soon members placed their demands before the

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 realized that the movement could turn into a realized the importance of boycott as a weapon National force that would drive them out of the that could be used to paralyze the whole British country. This totally changed their attitude. They administrative machinery in India. The boycott passed strict laws to control education and curb and Swadeshi movements were instrumental in the press. Minor concessions were given so as to the establishment of swadeshi enterprises - textile win over some Congress leaders. The British mills, banks, hosiery, tanneries, chemical works Viceroy, Lord Curzon was a staunch imperialist and and insurance companies. Swadeshi stores were believed in the superiority of the English people. opened. Volunteers supplied goods at the He passed an Act in 1898, making it an offence to doorstep of every household. The movement provoke people against the British rulers. He spread to all classes and groups of people. passed the Indian Universities Act in 1904, Everyone, including women and children, came imposing stiff control over Indian Universities. forward to take part. The most active were school Curzon was out to suppress the rising Nationalism and college students. This made the British in India. This was evident from what he did in reverse the partition of Bengal and unite it in 1905. 1911. During this time, the role of Radical Nationalists in the Indian National Congress, who PARTITION OF BENGAL (1905) were called the ‘Garam Dal’, came to be Curzon announced the partition of Bengal. The appreciated. They tried to involve people from all reason for partition was given as an attempt to classes and groups including peasants, worker, improve administration. But the real aim was to students as well as women. They succeeded in ‘Divide and Rule’. The partition was done in order uniting the Indian people against the common to create a separate State for Muslims and so enemy - the British. The young people were introduce the poison of communalism in the roused to the highest level of patriotism and zeal country. However the Indians viewed the partition to free their country. They helped in making as an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing people self confident and self reliant. They also national movement in Bengal and divide the revived the Indian Cottage industry. Hindus and Muslims of the region. Widespread THE RISE OF RADICAL NATIONALISTS agitation ensued in the streets and in the press. People of different parts of India opposed the The mild policies of the Moderates in the Congress partition of Bengal all over the country. This led to the rise of passionate, radical nationalists, opposition was carried on by organized meetings, who came to be called the ‘Garam Dal’. Thus the processions and demonstrations etc. Hindus and first phase of the nationalist movement came to Muslims tied ‘rakhi’ on each other’s hands to show an end with government reaction against the their unity and their protest. The use of Swadeshi Congress on the one hand and a split in the (made in our own country by our own people) Congress in 1907 on the other. That is why the goods, business, national education and Indian period after 1905 till 1918 can be referred to as languages were encouraged. The new nationalist the ‘Era of Passionate Nationalists or Garam Dal’. spirit of self reliance- shed the fear of repression Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak and Bipin including imprisonment and painful torture by the Chandra Pal (Lal-Bal-Pal) were important leaders British rule. It was Bal Gangadhar Tilak who of this Radical group. When the Moderates were

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 in the forefront of the action, they had maintained motivated Muslims to form a permanent political a low profile but now they swung into action. association of their own. In December, 1906, Their entry marked the beginning of a new trend during the Muhammadan Educational conference and a new face in India’s struggle for freedom. in Dacca, Nawab Salim Ullah Khan raised the idea According to them, the Moderates had failed to of establishing a Central Muhammadan define India’s political goals and the methods Association to take care of Muslim interests. adopted by them were mild and ineffective. Accordingly, on 30th December, 1906, the All India Besides, the Moderates remained confined to the Muslim League was founded. Another prominent upper, landed class and failed to enlist mass person, Aga Khan was chosen as its president. The support as a basis for negotiating with the British. main objective of the league was to protect and advance the rights of Muslims in India and The Garam Dal realized that the British were out represent their needs to the government. By to exploit Indians, destroy their self-sufficiency encouraging the issue of separate electorates, the and drain India of its wealth. They felt that Indians government sowed the seed of communalism and should now become free of foreign rule and separatism among Indians. The formation of the govern themselves. This group, instead of making Muslim League is considered to be the first fruit of petitions to the government, believed in the British master strategy of ‘Divide and Rule’. organizing mass protests, criticizing government Mohammad Ali Jinnah later joined the League. policies, boycotting foreign goods and use of Swadeshi (home-made) goods etc. They did not MORLEY-MINTO REFORMS (1909) believe in depending on the mercy of the The Council Act of 1909 was an extension of the Britishers, but believed that freedom was their 1892 reforms, also known as the Morley-Minto right. Bal Gangadhar Tilak gave a slogan ‘Freedom Reforms after the names of the then Secretary of is our birth right and we must have it’. In 1916 the State (Lord Morley) and the then Viceroy (Lord two groups were again united with the efforts of Minto). It increased the members of the Mrs. Annie Besant. She started working for the Legislative Assembly from sixteen to sixty. A few Home rule movement in 1914. She was convinced non-elected members were also added. Though that India should be granted Self-Government. In the members of the Legislative Council were 1916, Muslim League and Congress also came to increased, they had no real powers. They an understanding with each other and signed the remained mainly advisory in character. They could Lucknow Pact. Later, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawahar not stop any bills from being passed. Nor did they Lal Nehru, Subhash Chandra Bose became the have any power over the budget. eminent figures of Indian National Congress, who led the freedom movement of India forward. The British made another calculated move to sow the seed of communalism in Indian politics by FORMATION OF THE MUSLIM LEAGUE (1906) introducing separate electorates for the Muslims. As the radical movement grew stronger the British This meant that from the constituencies began to look for ways and means to break the dominated by Muslims only Muslim candidates unity among Indian. They tried to do this through could be elected. Hindus could only vote for the partition of Bengal and by sowing the seed of Hindus, and Muslims could only vote for Muslims. communalism among Indian people. They

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Many leaders protested against this communal emergence of Gandhi, the element of mass electorate policy of the British to ‘Divide and Rule’. mobilisation was introduced. Till the coming of independence three major mass movements were THE NATIONAL MOVEMENT DURING THE FIRST launched; Non-Cooperation (1920-22), Civil WORLD WAR disobedience (1930-34) and Quit The First World War started in the year of 1914. India(1942).Besides these mass movements the This War was fought among the nations of Europe revolutionary movement, peasants and working to get colonial monopoly. During war time, the class movements and state people's movements British Government made an appeal to the Indian also played a vital role in the struggle for freedom. leaders to join hands with them in their time of In this period sufficient emphasis was laid on the crisis. Indian leaders agreed but they put their socioeconomic content of Swaraj. The Communist own terms and conditions i.e. after the war was Party of India and the Socialist groups within the over, the British government would give Congress pointed out towards economic Constitutional (legislative and administrative) emancipation of the masses along with the powers to the Indian People. Unfortunately, the importance of the struggle for independence. steps taken by the British government during the Impact of First World War on the National World War I created unrest among the Indian Movement. people. This was because the British government had taken a huge loan during war time which they The First World War (1914-1918) had a great had to repay. They increased rent from the land, impact on the National Movement in India: i.e. lagan. They forcefully recruited Indians in the a) Resentment among the Indians: British Army. They increased the price of necessary goods and imposed taxes on personal The British government declared India as an ally and professional income. As a result, they had to and a belligerent. Indian people and resources face protest from the Indian society. Farmers and were used in this war.It created great resentment workers of Champaran, Bardoli, Kheda and among the Indians especially when they were not Ahmedabad actively protested against the even consulted before joining the war. exploitative policies of British government. Lakhs b) Anguish among the Muslims: of students left schools and colleges. Hundreds of lawyers gave up their practice. Women also The British were fighting against the Turkish significantly contributed in this movement and Empire which was ruled by the Caliph (Khalifa).The their participation became wider with the Muslims had great respect for the Caliph.The emergence of Gandhi. The boycott of foreign cloth Indian Muslims joined the Caliphate (Khilafat) Movement for the defence of Turkey against the became a mass movement, with thousands of British. bonfires of foreign cloth lighting the Indian sky.

c) Peasant's unrest: NATIONAL MOVEMENT-POST FIRST WORLD WAR

SCENARIO During the war, the peasant's unrest also grew. After the First World War the Indian National These movements helped prepare the ground for mass movement. Movement entered into a new phase. With the

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 d) Home Rule Movement: activists without trial and arresting any individual suspected of sedition and treachery and arresting Annie Besant joined the Congress in 1914. In 1916 individuals without any warrant. A nationwide she along with Bal Gangadhar Tilak started the protest was raised by calling a Hartal. Home Rule Movement. The Home Rule League demanded self government to the Indians. Mahatma Gandhi was extremely agitated by enactment of Rowlatt Act. He was extremely e) The Lucknow Pact (1916): critical about the act and argued that everyone cannot be punished for isolated political crime. In 1916, at the Lucknow Session, the 'moderates' The Act resulted in extensive outrage of political and the 'extremists' were united. Besides; a pact leaders as well as the common public and was made between the Congress and the Muslim Government adapted more repressive measures League to work unitedly for their demands of to dominate the Native people. Gandhi and other greater share and power for Indians in the leaders of national Congress found it futile to take Executive Council and election of members of the the measure of constitutional opposition and Legislative Councils. thereby called a `hartal` where Indians suspended all the business and fasted to show their hatred f) Emergence of Gandhiji: for the British legislation.

Gandhiji emerged as the leader of the nationalist However, the success of the Hartal in Delhi was movement in India during the First World War. dominated as the tension raise high and resulted in riot in Punjab and other provinces. Gandhi Rowlatt Act found that Indians were not ready yet for the protest in the path of `Ahimsa` (non-violence), In the year 1919, the British Government passed a which was integral part of Satyagraha and the new rule called Rowlatt Act, under which the Hartal, was suspended. Government had the authority and power to arrest people and keep them in prisons without The agitation reached the pinnacle in Amritsar of any trial if they are suspected with the charge of Punjab. The Rowlatt act was effective from 10th terrorism.The government also earned the power March, 1919. In Punjab the protest movement was to refrain the newspapers from reporting and vast and strong. On 10th April, two renowned printing news.The Act was ill famed as `Black Act` leaders of the Congress, Dr. Satya Pal and Dr. by the people and Indians revolt in protest against Saifuddin Kithlew were arrested and were taken to the Rowlatt Act. unknown place.A public meeting was held on 13th April at Jallianwala Bagh in a small park enclosed The positive aspect of reform by British by buildings on all sides to protest against the Government was subjected to severe sabotage by arrest. the Rowlatt act of 1919.The act was named after the recommendations made in the previous year The meeting was absolutely peaceful and was also to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt attended by women and children.Brigadier- Commission.The Rowlatt Commission was General Reginald Dyer with his British troops appointed to investigate the `seditious conspiracy` entered the park, closed the entrance of the park of the Indian people.The Law passed empowered and commanded his army to fire on the gathered the Viceroy people without any warning. The firing lasted for Government with extraordinary power to stop all ten minutes and sixteen hundred rounds, killing violations by silencing the press, confining political about thousand people and more than two

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 thousand people were left wounded and denounce many social tribulations. The British unattended. This massacre of Jaliwanwalabagh police arrested him on the charge of creating was the worst incidence of British rule and people unrest. lost their trust on British Government. However, the impact of reformation changed after MAHATMA GANDHI this act and hundreds of people protested and rallied outside the police stations and courts. They The role of Mahatma Gandhi in Indian Freedom demanded his release, which the court unwillingly Struggle is considered the most significant as he granted. Gandhi led planned protests against all single-handedly spearheaded the movement for the landlords, who were exploiting the poor Indian independence. The peaceful and non- farmers. Finally Mahatma Gandhi became violent techniques of Mahatma Gandhi formed successful in forcing the British to agree with his the basis of freedom struggle against the British demands of reforming the farmers. During this yoke. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was born on agitation people addressed Mohandas 2nd October 1869. After he came back to India Karamchand Gandhi as from South Africa, where he worked as a barrister, Bapu. Rabindranath Tagore accorded Mahatma Gopal Krishna Gokhale, who led the Congress (Great Soul) title to Gandhi in the year 1920. party, introduced Mahatma Gandhi to the concerns in India and the struggle of the people. Non Cooperation Movement. The Indian independence movement came to a head between the years 1918 and 1922.A series of The Gandhi Era in the Indian Freedom Struggle non-violence campaigns of Civil Disobedience took place with the Non Cooperation Movement was launched by the Indian National Movement.This movement was led by Mahatma Congress under the leadership of Mahatma Gandhi and the Indian National Congress. This was Gandhi. The focus was to weaken the British the first-ever series of nationwide movement of government through non cooperation. The nonviolent resistance. The movement took place protests were mainly against abolition of salt tax, from September 1920 until February 1922.In the land revenue, reducing military expenses etc. fight against injustice, Gandhi`s weapons were non-cooperation and peaceful resistance. But Champaran and Kheda Agitations. after the massacre and related violence, Gandhi focused his The Kheda Satyagraha and Champaran agitation in mind upon obtaining complete self-government. 1918 was one of Gandhi`s first significant steps to This soon transformed into Swaraj or complete achieve Indian independence. Mahatma Gandhi political independence. Thus, under the leadership went to Champaran (Bihar) in 1917 at the request of Mahatma Gandhi, the Congress Party was re- of the poor peasants to enquire about the organised with a new constitution, with the aim of situation as they were compelled by British indigo Swaraj. Mahatma Gandhi further extended his planters to grow indigo on 15% of their land and non-violence policy to include the Swadeshi Policy, part with the whole crop for rent. In the sufferings which meant the rejection of foreign-made goods. of a devastating famine, the British levied an oppressive tax which they insisted on increasing. Mahatma Gandhi addressed all the Indians to At the same time, Kheda in Gujarat was also wear Khadi (homespun cloth) instead of British- experiencing the same problem. Hence, Mahatma made textiles. He strongly appealed to all Indians Gandhi started reforming the villages, building of to spend some time spinning khadi for supporting schools, clean-up of villages, construction of the independence movement of India. This was a hospitals and encouraging the village leadership to policy to include women in the movement, as this

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 was not considered a respectable activity. of thousands were arrested. He called on all Moreover; Gandhi also urged to boycott the Congressmen and Indians to maintain discipline British educational institutions, to resign from via non violence and Karo Ya Maro (Do or Die) in government jobs, and to leave British titles. order to achieve ultimate freedom.

Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore resigned the On 9th of August, 1942, Mahatma Gandhi and the title knight from the British soon after the entire Congress Working Committee were Jalianwalabagh Massacre as a protest. When the arrested in Mumbai. In view of his deteriorating movement reached great success, it ended health, he was released from the jail in May 1944 unexpectedly after the violent clash in Chauri because the British did not want him to die in Chaura, Uttar Pradesh. Following this, Mahatma prison and enrage the nation. The cruel restraint Gandhi was also arrested and sentenced to 6 years of the Quit India movement brought order to India imprisonment. Indian National Congress was by the end of 1943 although the movement had divided into two segments. Furthermore, support modest success in its aim. After the British gave among the Hindu and Muslim people was also clear signs of transferring power to the Indians, breaking down. However; Mahatma Gandhi only Gandhi called off the fight and all the prisoners served around 2 years and was released. were released.

Dandi March. Partition and Indian Independence.

Mahatma Gandhi returned to the forefront again In 1946, upon persuasion of Sardar Vallabhbhai in 1928. On March 12, 1930 Gandhi launched a Patel, Mahatma Gandhi reluctantly accepted the new Satyagraha against the tax on salt. He started proposal of partition and independence offered by the historic Dandi March, by walking from the British cabinet, in order to evade a civil Ahmedabad to Dandi, to break the law that had war.After independence, Gandhi`s focus shifted to deprived the poor of his right to make his own peace and communal harmony. He fasted for salt. Gandhi broke the Salt law at the sea beach at abolition of communal violence and demanded Dandi. This movement stimulated the entire that the Partition Council compensated Pakistan. nation and it came to be known as Civil His demands were fulfilled and he broke his fast. Disobedience Movement. On 8th May, 1933, he Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was, thus, able to started a 21-day fast of self-purification in order to bring the whole nation under one umbrella to help the Harijan movement. fight the British.Gandhi developed and improved his techniques gradually to assure that his efforts Quit India Movement made significant impact.

Mahatma Gandhi again became active in the Khilafat Movement political arena after the outburst of World War II in 1939. On August 8, 1942 Gandhi gave the call During the First World War, Turkey joined the for Quit India Movement or Bharat Chhodo central powers against Britain. The symapathy of Andolan. Soon after the arrest of Gandhi, Indian Muslims, who regarded the Sultan of disorders broke out immediately through out the Turkey as their spiritual leader or Khalifa, was country and many violent demonstrations took naturally with Turkey. After the war with defeat of place.Quit India became the most powerful Turkey, the Allied power removed the Khalifa from movement in the freedom struggle. Thousands of power in Turkey which aggrieved the Indian freedom fighters were killed or injured by police Muslims against the British Government. Hence gunfire, and hundreds the Muslims started the Khilafat movement in

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India for the resumption of Khalifa's position. A Committees, was a truly remarkable feature of the Khilafat Committee was formed under the non-cooperation movement in Kerala, in its early leadership of Mahammad Ali, Shaukat Ali, stages. The speed with which the Khilafat agitation Maulana Azad and Hasrat Mohini to organise a spread, especially in the Eranad and Valluvanad country-wide agitation. The main object of Khilafat taluks, created alarm in official circles. A perplexed Movement was to force the British Government to officialdom clamped down prohibitory orders in change its attitude towards Turkey and to restore the two taluks. Meetings were banned and many the Sultan. October 17, 1919 was observed as people were arrested in the name of law and Khilafat Day, when the Hindus alongwith Muslims order. A tragic episode then ensued, namely the in fasting observed hartal on that day. An All India Moppila Rebellion or the Malabar Rebellion of Khilafat Conference was held at Delhi on 1921.Police attempted to arrest the secretary of November 23, 1919 with Gandhi as its president. the Khilafat Committee of Pokottur in Eranad on a The Conference resolved to withdraw all charge of having stolen a pistol.A crowd of 2000 cooperation from the Government, if the Khalifat Moppilas from the neighbourhood foiled the demands were not met. Congress leaders, like attempt. The next day, a police party in search of Lokamanya Tilak and Mahatma Gandhi, viewed Khilafat rebels entered the famous Mambaram the Khalifat Movement as an opportunity to bring mosque at Tirurangadi. They seized some records about Hindu-Muslim unity against British. A joint and arrested a few Khilafat volunteers. A rumour Hindu- Muslim deputation met the Viceroy on the spread that the mosque was desecrated.Hundreds Khalifat issue, but it failed to yeild any of rustic Moppilas converged on Tirurangadi and result.The central Khalifat Commettee met at besieged the local police station. The police Allahabad from 1st to 3rd June, 1920 which was opened fire. The mob reacted in a mad fury. attended by a number of congress leaders. In this Violence spread and engulfed Eranad and meeting a programme of Non-Cooperation Valluvanad taluks and neighbouring areas for over towards the Government was declared. It was to two months. Congress leaders tried in vain to include boycott of titles, can oferred by the check the violence. Towards the later stages of the Government, boycott of civil services, army and rebellion, owing to unfounded rumour of Hindus police and non-payment of taxes to the having helped the police or sought police help, Government. Gandhi insisted that unless the there were instances of atrocities perpetrated on Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were undone, there Hindus. This marred the relations between the was to be non-cooperation with the Government. two communities. Meanwhile British and Gurkha regiments were rushed to the area. Martial law was clamped. A series of repressive measures Malabar Rebellion followed and by November, the rebellion was practically crushed. Relief operations in the The non - co - operation movement was in full ravaged areas, undertaken mostly by voluntary swing during this period of time. It was particularly agencies which received help and funds from strong in Malabar, where the Moppilas were Gandhiji, lasted for over six months. agitated over the Khilafat issue. The Gandhian movement had a tremendous impact in Kerala, Wagon Tragedy. with large numbers joining the satyagrapha campaign. Gandhiji visited Malabar in 1921, giving The epilogue (in the sense that it came to be a further impetus to the movement. Khilafat known only later) was the "Wagon Tragedy" in Committees sprang up in large numbers and the which 61 of the 70 Moppila prisoners packed in a fraternity between the Hindus and Muslims, closed railway goods wagon and carried to through the work in Congress-Khilafat Coimbatore jails, died of suffocation on November

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10, 1921.In the wake of the suppression of the duties, Durbars and other functions, withdrawing Malabar Rebellion and until almost the end of the children from government schools and colleges decade, struggle purely for political freedom was and establishment of national schools and on a low key. colleges. The people of India were instructed to boycott the British courts and establish the private Non-Cooperation Movement judicial courts. The Indians should use Swadeshi cloth and boycott the foreign clothes and other Non-Cooperation was a movement of passive things. Gandhiji strictly advised the Non- resistance against British rule, which was initiated Cooperators to observe truth and non-violence. by Mahatma Gandhi.To resist the dominance of The decision taken in Calcutta Session was the British Government and advance the Indian supported in the Nagpur Session of the Congress nationalist cause, the non-cooperation movement on December; 1920. The decision was also taken was a non-violent movement that prevailed for the betterment of the party organization. Any nationwide by Indian National Congress under the adult man or woman could take Congress leadership of Mahatma Gandhi. This movement membership for 4 annas as subscription. This took place from September 1920 to February 1922 adoption of new rules gave a new energy to the and initiated Gandhi era in the Independence Non- Movement of India. Cooperation movement and from January of 1921 the movement gained a new momentum. Gandhi The Rowlatt Act, Jaliwanwala Bagh massacre and along with Ali Brothers went to a nationwide tour Martial Law in Punjab caused the native people during which he addressed the Indians in not to trust the British Government anymore. The hundreds of meetings. In the first month of the Montagu- Chelmesford Report with its diarchy movement, about nine thousand students left could satisfy a few only. Until then Gandhi schools and colleges and joined the national believed the justice and fair-play of the British institutions. During this period about eight Government, but after this incidences he felt that hundred national institutions were established all Non-cooperation with the Government in a non- over the country. The educational boycott was violent way must be started. In the meantime the most successful in Bengal under the leadership of Muslims in India also revolted against the harsh Chitta Ranjan Das and Subhas Chandra Bose. In terms of the Treaty of severes between Allies and Punjab also the educational boycott was extensive Turkey and they started Khilafat movement. under the leadership of Lala Lajpat Rai.The other Gandhi also decided to stand beside them. active areas were Bombay, Bihar, Orissa, Assam, Gandhiji`s idea of winning over Muslim support Uttar Pradesh. The movement also affected also helped in Non-Cooperation Movement of Madras. The boycott of lawcorts by the lawyears India. Gandhi had given a notice to the Viceroy in was not as successful as the educational boycott his letter of 22nd June in which he had affirmed was. The leading lawyers like, Motilal Nehru, CR the right recognized `from time immemorial of the Das, Mr Jayakar, V Patel, Asaf Ali Khan, S Kitchlew subject to refuse to assist a ruler who misrules. and many others gave up their lucrative practices After the notice had expired the Non-Cooperation and many followed their path inspired by their movement was launched formally on 1st August of sacrifice. Bengal again led in this matter and 1920. At the Calcutta Session on September, 1920 Andhra, UP, Karnataka and Punjab followed the the program of the movement was stated. The state.However the most successful item of the programs of Non-cooperation involved the Non-Cooperation was the boycott of foreign surrender of titles and offices and resignation clothes. It took such an extensive form that value from the nominated posts in the government of import of the foreign clothes reduced from body. It included not attending Government hundred and two crores in 1920-21 to fifty-seven

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 crores in 1921-22. Although some of the veteran The other example was the Anti-Union Board political leaders like the Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Bipin agitation in Midnapur led by Birendranath Chandra Pal, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Annie Besant Sashmal. opposed Gandhiji`s plan but the younger generation supported him fully. Muslim leaders As the Non-Cooperation movement proceeded like Maulana Azad, Mukhtar Ahmed Ansari, Hakim the woman of India, especially from Bengal Ajmal Khan, Abbas Tyabji, Maulana Mohammad wanted to take active part in the protest Ali and Maulana Shaukat Ali also supported him. movement. The women nationalists were assembled under the Mahila Karma Samaj or the In the month of July 1921, the Government had to Ladies organization Board of the Pradesh Congress face a new challenge. Mohammad Ali and other Committee of Bengal. The ladies members of that leaders believed that it was `religiously unlawful organization arranged meeting and circularized for the Muslims to continue in the British army` the spirit of Non-Cooperation. Women volunteers and they were arrested for their view. Gandhi and were enlisted to take part in the movement. The other Congress leaders supported Mahammad Ali ladies from many respected families led them.CR and issued a manifesto. The next dramatic event Das`s wife Basanti Devi and sister Urmila Devi, JM was visit of Prince of Wales on 17th November, Sengupta`s wife Nellie Sengupta, Mohini Devi, 1921. The day on which Prince boarded on Labanya Prabha Chanda played significant role in Bombay Port the day was observed as a `Hartal this movement. Picketing of foreign wine and Divas` all over India. The Prince was greeted with cloth shops and selling of Khaddar in the streets empty streets and closed shops wherever he were the point of attention of this movement. went. The Non-Cooperators gained more and more energy at their success and became more The Government proclaimed Sections 108 and 144 aggressive. The congress volunteer corps turned of the code of criminal procedure at various into a powerful parallel police. They used to march centers of agitation. The Congress Volunteer in formation and dressed in uniform. Congress had Corpse was declared illegal. By December 1921 already granted permission to the Provincial More than thirty thousand people were arrested Congress Committees to sanction total from all over the India. Except Gandhiji, most of disobedience including non-payment of taxes. The the prominent leaders were inside jail. In mid- Non-Co operational movement had other effects December Malaviya initiated a negotiation, which also which are not very direct. In UP it became was futile. The conditions were like that it offered difficult to distinguish between a Non-Co sacrifice of Khilafat leaders, which Gandhiji could operational meeting and a peasant meeting. In never accept. Malabar and Kerala the Muslim tenants roused against their landlords. In Assam the labors of tea- At that time Gandhiji was also under a pressure plantation went with strike. In Punjab the Akali from the higher leaders of Congress to start the Movement was considered as a part of Non- mass civil disobedience. Gandhiji gave an Cooperation movement. The Non-Cooperation ultimatum to the Government but the British movement particularly strengthened in Bengal. Government paid no attention to it. In response, The movement was not only seen in Kolkata but it Gandhiji initiated a civil disobedience movement also agitated the rural Bengal and an elemental in Bardoli Taluqa of Surat district of Gujrat. awakening was observed. The movement reached Unfortunately at this time the tragedy of Chauri a climax after the Gurkha assault on coolies on the Chaura occurred that change the course of the river port of Chandpur (20-21st May).The whole movement, where a mob of three thousand Eastern Bengal was under the lash of the people killed twenty-five policemen and one movement under the leadership of JM Sengupta. inspector. Gandhi was in support of complete

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 nonviolence and this incident was too much for reform showed that the British were still unwilling him to bear. He ordered to suspend the to grant responsible government. movement at once. Thus, on February 12th, 1922 the Non-Cooperation movement totally stopped. Chittaranjan Das and Motilal Nehru decided that the way to combat this situation was to enter the There were limitations in achievements of Non- provincial legislative councils. Central legislative Cooperation Movement as it apparently failed to assembly carries out a policy of uniform, achieve its object of securing the Khilafat and continuous and consistent obstruction, with a changing the misdeeds of Punjab. The Swaraj view to make government through the assembly could not be achieved in a year as it was promised. and councils impossible would force the British to The retreat of the February 1922 was only grant real reforms. In a special session of congress temporary. The movement slowed down held in Delhi in September 1923, a compromise gradually. The part of Battle was over but the war between no-changers and pro-changers was continued. reached. The former would continue with the constructive programme, whereas the latter could Swaraj Party contest the upcoming elections. Gandhiji gave his Swaraj Party was established to fight the mighty blessings to this arrangement. Although they had force of British head-on. Mahatma Gandhi was little time for campaigning, the swarajists did well released from jail in 1924.He and his close in the elections. They became the largest party in followers, such as Chakravarti Rajagopalachari and the central assembly and the dominant party in Rajendra Prasad, occupied themselves with the two provinces. For the next few years swarajist constructive programme, such as hand-spinning politicians obstructed official business in the on the charkha, uplift of the harijans or members assembly and the councils as well. But there were of the depressed class. But not all the positive gains too. congressmen were willing to abandon political action. In 1922 a group had formed around Motilal In 1925 the swarajist leader Vithalbhai Patel was Nehru and C. R. Das that wished to enter the elected president of the central legislative government`s legislative councils and wreck them assembly. C. R. Das, who had refused to form a front within. They were opposed by the `no- ministry in Bengal, was elected mayor of Calcutta changers` who insisted that the 1920 programme, (now Kolkata). In this position `Deshbandhu` did which called for the boycott of council elections, much valuable service for his countrymen. The should not be altered. At the Gaya congress in tragic death of C. R. Das in 1925 removed a great December 1922, matters came to a head. The patriot from the scene at a critical moment. The `nochangers` prevailed, but early the next year the Swaraj Party, which had already begun to break `pro-changers` formed their own party. This party up, disintegrated quickly. As usual, the people of was at first known as the congress-Khilafat Swaraj discord were religion. Communalminded Muslims Party and later simply the swarajya or swaraj isolated themselves, while the so-called social party. The new councils were inaugurated in activist began to cooperate with the government 1921.The non-congress parties which had entered with a desire to safeguard Hindu interests. By them had not been successful in influencing March end the swarajists day in the sun had government policy. And eventually diarchy proved ended. Block in their attempt to effect change; to be a failure. Provincial minister could not act they walked out of the legislative assembly.It has effectively even in `transferred` subjects because become a history in and out of India. the new safeguards made the governors more autocratic even than before. Only the Montford

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MONTAGUE- CHELMSFORD REFORMS (Act of 'separate electorates for Sikhs, Anglo-Indians, 1919) Christians and Europeans.

The Home Rule movement and the rise of The Act of 1919 introduced Diarchy in the revolutionary terrorism mainly led the British provinces. Accordingly, the Rights of the Central authority to pacify the rising tide in India. and Provincial Governments were divided in clear- Chelmsford, the Viceroy of India and Montague; cut terms. The central list included rights over the Secretary of Indian Council submitted a defence, foreign affairs, telegraphs, railways, proposal in 1918 to the British Parliament. As a postal and foreign trade. The provincial list dealt result, the Act of 1919 was passed. Accordingly; with the affairs like health, sanitation, education, the number of members of the Council of the public work, irrigation, jail, police and justice. The Secretary of State (Indian Council) was fixed at 12. powers which were not included in the state list Among them 3 were to be Indians and half of its vested in the hands of the Centre. In case of any total members were to be chosen from among conflict between the 'reserved' and 'unreserved' those who must have resided in India at least for powers of the State (the former included finance, ten years. It limited the powers of the Secretary of police, revenue and publication of books and the States. The Viceroy was empowered to nominate latter included health, sanitation and local-self as many members to his Executive Council as· he government).The Governor had its final say. The wished. The Councilors were nominated for five Diarchy was introduced in 1921 in Bengal, Madras, years. Bombay, U.P., M.P., Punjab, Bihar, Orissa and Assam. In 1932, it was extended to the North- The Central Legislature consisted of the Council of West Frontier Province. States and Legislative Assembly. The Upper House or Council of States consisted of 60 members. No doubt, the Act of 1919 reformed some of the Among them 33 were to be elected and 27 were maladies of the Morley-Minot Reforms of 1909, to be nominated by the Viceroy. Each province in and introduced .Diarchy. Still it was not free from India was allotted a fixed number of short- comings. Limited franchise, no clear-cut representatives to represent in the Council of division of powers between the Centre and the States for 5 years. The Legislature Assembly or the States, Viceroy's authority over every matter etc. Lower House consisted of 144 members out of were some of the defects of the Act of 19.19 which 103 were to be elected and the rest of the which brought dissatisfaction among the Indians. members were to be nominated. The life of the Legislative Assembly was for 3 years. The franchise Simon Commission of both the Houses was restricted which differed in different provinces. The Viceroy was The Indian Statutory Commission was a group of empowered to summon, prorogue and dissolve seven British Members of Parliament that had the Chambers. The first Speaker was to be been dispatched to India in 1927 to study nominated by the Viceroy and after that the constitutional reform. The Commission was speakers would be elected. The provincial named Simon Commission, following the name of Legislature consisted of only one House known as the chairperson of the Commission Sir John Simon. the Legislative Council. The number increased now The Government of India Act 1919 had introduced what was a beforehand. The power of the Councils the system of dyarchy to govern the provinces of also increased a little. British India. However, the Indian public However, the Viceroy had control over the demanded for revision of the difficult dyarchy Councils. The communal electorate system was form of government. Moreover the Government further enhanced. It created provision for of India Act 1919 itself stated that a commission

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 would be appointed after ten years to investigate operate with the commission. But however it the progress of the governance scheme and refused to do so. As a whole, Simon Commission in suggest new steps for reform.In the late 1920, the India was a complete failure. Conservative government, which was in power in Britain feared imminent electoral defeat at the Working Class Movement and the Formation of hands of the Labour Party. They also feared the AITUC effects of the consequent transference of control of India to such an inexperienced body. Hence, in The trade union movement in India forms a study November of 1927, Prime Minister Stanley of the working class, their demands, response of Baldwin appointed seven MPs (including Chairman their owners and redressal measures of the Simon) to constitute the commission. government. In spite of the drain of wealth from India and British apathetic attitude, the factories The Simon Commission of 1919 was entrusted grew on this soil. The cotton mills in Bombay, the with the charge to look into the state of Indian jute mills and tea industry grewup. The poor constitutional affairs. The growth of the education Indian mass got employment in these factories as and the development of the representative workers.Low wages, long working hours, institution in British India were the significant unhygienic conditions, exploitation at the hands of responsibilities vested with the Simon native and foreign capitalists made their condition commission. The Simon commission was to give more miserable. The first Factory Act of 1881 and report as to whether or what extent the principle the Acts of 1891, 1909, 1911 etc. could not end of responsible government could be established in the plights of the working class people India. The Simon commission was also asked to . enquire the fact that how far it was desirable to The Russian Revolution of 1917 exerted establish Second Chambers of the local legislature. tremendous influence over the working class During the enquiry, the Simon commissions did people of the world. By the efforts of the leaders snot however taken into accounts the relation of like N.M. Joshi, Lala Lajpat Rai and Joseph, the All- the British Government with the Indian states and India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was found the British Government extremely established in 1920. Nationalist leaders like C.R. constitutional. The Simon Commission created Das and V. V. Giri also joined their hands with this extreme dissatisfaction throughout the whole union. With the emergence of socialistic and India. This was so because no Indian Members communist ideas, the left wing within the Indian were included in the Commission. National Congress became active and leaders like Subhas Chandra Bose and Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru The Simon Commission was an all-White also presided over the sessions of AITUC.With the Composition. Lords Birkenhead justified the recognition of the trade unions by the Trade Union exclusion of the Indians members from the Simon Act of 1926, the trade union movements in India Commission. He opined that since the Commission gained momentum. The fourth Congress of the was composed by the Parliament, it was necessary Communist International sent a message to the that the members of the Commission should be AITUC to overthrow capitalism and imperialism. from the parliament. The Simon Commission The left wing within the AITUC also became very created enough disaffection allovers the country active. The revolutionary of Muscovite group and everywhere it was hailed with black flags. A wanted to affiliate the AITUC with the Red Labour general hartal was observed throughout the Union framed at Moscow. In the power struggle, Country on the day the commission landed in the liberal leader N.M. Joshi left the AITUC and India. In such circumstance, the Central Assembly formed another organisation named' Indian Trade was invited to form a joint Committee to co- Union Federation. Under the Leftist direction, the

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AITUC launched vigorous programmes against the he is an inspiration source for the patriotic people capitalist class. It foreshadowed a socialist State in of our motherland. It is important today to study India with socialisation and nationalisation of the the contributions of Bhagat Singh and his means of production. It organised meetings for comrades when our country is again falling under protecting the freedom of speech, association, participation in national struggle etc.The the grip of imperialism and its designs. Communist Party also flared up the flame. Though Unfortunately Bhagat Singh did not have much the government passed several Acts to satisfythe place in the history textbooks. There was a workers, still they carried on their programmes of concerted effort to underestimate the strike and protest. The trade union activities were contributions of revolutionaries who sacrificed so rampant that in 1928 Viceroy Lord Irwin everything for the liberation of our motherland. arrested the prominent leaders and brought them to Meerut for trial. After trial, S.A. Dange, Bhagat Singh came from a family of patriots and Muzaffar Ahmed, Joglekar, Spratt etc. were given freedom fighters. His uncle, Ajit Singh was a transportation or rigorous pioneer in opposing the Colonization Act 1905 and imprisonment.It aroused worldwide sympathy for the union leaders. However, it hurled a terrible had to remain in exile till the country gained blow on the trade union activities in India. Now independence. His father also was an active the Leftists and Rightists joined their hands and participant in the struggle for the liberation of the defended the case. country from the colonial rule. While as a student Bhagat Singh came under the influence of the During the Non-Cooperation Movement, the revolutionaries. The October revolution led by British Government suppressed the trade union Lenin attracted Bhagat Singh and he started to leaders with iron hand. The Socialist Party formed in 1934 wanted to cement coherence between the collect and read the literatures about socialism moderate and the radical trade unions. During the and socialist revolution. The years of the twenties popular governments between 1937-1938 the in general and those of 1928-30 in particular were trade unions increased to 296. During Quit India of great significant in the history of India's Movement, the Trade Union Movement went on freedom struggle. as usual. The nationalist leaders failed to capture the AITUC but the Communists had their hold over Due to the failure of first non-cooperation it. After independence, the trade unions are movement, the revolutionaries of that period performing their rule as usual. were frustrated and started to think about some REVOLUTIONARY TERRORISTS alternative action plan. The formation of the BHAGAT SINGH Hindustan Republican Association, the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army and the Naujawan The name Bhagat Singh has become a synonym of Bharat sabha (All India Youth League) all revolution. He was one of the great happened during this period. Bhagat Singh and his revolutionaries who made supreme sacrifice for comrades were imbued with the ideas of the nation. Thousands of young people sacrificed revolution and socialism. The manifesto of HRA their lives in the altar of India's liberation struggle says “The immediate object of the revolutionary but the name Bhagat Singh has a special place in party in the domain of politics is to establish a the history of our independence. No other young federal republic of the United States of India by an revolutionary of India got much empathy in the organized and armed revolution. The basic minds of the people of India like Bhagat Singh. Still

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 principle of this republic shall be universal suffrage them. Intent upon every aspect of British Court, and the abolition of all system, which makes the justice and jail administration, they fought against exploitation of man by man possible. In this every humiliating restriction, every discriminatory republic the electors shall have the right to recall rule and demanded proper status for freedom their representatives if so desired, otherwise the fighters in jail. They refused to be treated as democracy shall be a mockery”. India could not common criminals and demanded treatment in think about such ideas even after sixty years of consonance with dignity and prestige of the independence! freedom struggle. During the trial days Bhagat Singh and his comrades were asked to refrain from The protest against the visit of Simon Commission raising revolutionary slogans in the court. But they turned into violence. Lala Lajpath rai died due to continued to shout 'Inqilab Zindabad'. They were police lathicharge. The country witnessed beaten and handcuffed in the court; they were unprecedented protest rallies. Bhagat Singh and assaulted with lathis till they bled profusely and his associates threw bombs in Central Assembly. A fell unconscious. Bhagat Singh and his comrades few days' later bombs exploded in the Central succeeded in completely exposing the anti-Indian Assembly they were arrested. The trial began in and arbitrary character of British justice in India 1929 July. The farcical trial ended in October 1930 and the barbarities of the British Indian jails. This awarded death sentence to Bhagat Singh, Rajguru was the aim of their fight for which they prepared and Sukhdev. The charge was conspiracy to to undergo all the tortures. They turned their trial overthrow the British rule and murder of a British into a public trial of the British government. official. They accepted the verdict with raising slogans. A few days before the execution Bhagat In a joint statement before the trial court, Bhagat Singh wrote a letter to the British authorities Singh and Batukeswar Dutt explained why they demanding that as he and his two condemned threw the bombs in the Central Assembly. They comrades were prisoners of war, they should not said their purpose was not to harm anyone but to be hanged but that the sentence should be expose the dependent character of the Legislative executed by a firing squad of the British army. This assembly which was being paraded by the British was the unconquerable spirit and stuff of which as a Parliament create the belief that India was Bhagat Singh was made. being democratically governed. The statement further says'A radical change, therefore, is The conduct of Bhagat Singh and his comrades necessary and it is the duty of those who realize during their historic trial at Lahore created new this to reorganize society on a socialistic basis. precedents of revolutionary behaviour. They were Unless this thing is done and exploitation of man making use of the British courts as a forum to by man and nation by nations is brought to an address the people, broadcast their revolutionary end, sufferings and carnage with which humanity views and ideology. This was something different is threatened cannot be prevented. All talk of from the nationalist tradition set by Mahatma ending war and ushering in an era of universal Gandhi. They appeared everyday in the nationalist peace is undisguised hypocrisy”. In the statement press and every activity of theirs was watched by they explained about their concept about lakhs of people. Their revolutionary declarations revolution. They said that” By revolution, we mean were also denied publicly but this did not restrain the ultimate establishment of an order of the

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 society which may not be threatened by such slogans rose by Bhagat Singh and his comrades breakdown and in which the sovereignty of the Long live revolution, long live proletariat and own proletariat should be recognized and a world with imperialism -are still relevant. federation should redeem humanity from the Surya Sen (1894-1934) bondage of capitalism and the misery of imperial wars” Bhagat Singh symbolized his struggle in the Surya Sen(March 22, 1894 – January 12, 1934) slogan he raised after he threw a bomb in the (also known as Masterda Surya Sen) was a Legislative Assembly of Delhi- “Long Live prominent Bengali freedom fighter, an Indian revolution” (Inquilab Zindabad), a slogan totally independence activist and the chief architect of unfamiliar at that time to the Indian people. anti-British freedom movement in Chittagong, Bengal (now in Bangladesh).He was born on 22 Bhagat Singh was not content with slogans. He March 1894 in Chittagong district now in embodied the indomitable courage, the death- Bangladesh. He participated in nationwide non- defying spirit, the capacity to sacrifice everything cooperation movement as a revolutionary. He was and unflinching courage in the face of torture. In arrested in February 1933 by British and was 1930 July Bhagat Singh told some of his fellow hanged on 12 January 1934.The Government of comrades in jail said, “This is the highest award for India released a commemorative stamp on him in patriotism and I am proud that I am going to get it. 1977. Bangladesh issued a commemorative stamp They think that by destroying my terrestrial body on him in 1999. they will be safe in this country. They are wrong. They may kill me, but they cannot kill my ideas. Early life They can crush my body, but they will not be able to crush my spirit. My ideas will haunt the British His father's name was Ramaniranjan. A resident like a curse till they are forced to run away from of Noapara in Chittagong, he was a teacher by here. But this is one side of the picture. The other profession. He was initiated into revolutionary side is equally bright. Bhagat Singh dead will be ideas in 1916 by one of his teachers while he was more dangerous to the British enslavers than a student of Intermediate Class in the Chittagong Bhagat Singh alive. After I am hanged, the College and joined the renowned revolutionary fragrances of my revolutionary ideas will group Anushilan. But when he went to permeate the atmosphere of this beautiful land of Behrampur College for BA course, came to know ours. It will intoxicate the youth and make him about Jugantar and became more inspired with mad for freedom and revolution and that will their ideas. On his return to Chittagong in 1918, he bring the doom of the British imperialist nearer. organized Jugantar there. All revolutionary groups This is my firm conviction. I am anxiously waiting were using Indian National Congress as umbrella for the day when I will receive the highest award to work. Consequently in 1929, Surya Sen became for my services to the country and my love for my the president of the Chittagong district committee people”. Now this is the duty of the present day of the Indian National Congress. He continued to youth to fulfill the dreams and aspirations of organize the hardline patriotic organisations and Shaheed-eAzam Bhagat Singh by organizing first became a teacher of the National school in revolutionary movement against neo imperialism Nandankanan and then joined the Umatara School and neo colonialism. In this context the three

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 at Chandanpura. Hence, he was known as killed by the revolutionaries. This is how it Mastarda (teacher brother). happened. Netra Sen's wife was all for Surya Sen, and she was horrified by her husband's deed. She By 1923 Surya Sen spread the revolutionary felt mortified by her husband's betrayal of Surya organization in different parts of Chittagong Sen. One evening she was serving her husband district. Aware of the limited equipment and other food when a great admirer of Surya Sen came into resources of the freedom fighters, he was the house. He was carrying a very big knife, which convinced of the need for secret guerrilla warfare is called a "daa". With one stroke of the dal he against the colonial Government. One of his early chopped off the head of Netra Sen in the presence successful undertakings was a broad day robbery of his wife. Then slowly and stealthily he went at the treasury office of the Bengal Assam Railway away. at Chittagong on December 23, 1923. When the police arrived to investigate, they asked Chittagong armoury raid and its aftermath. Netra Sen's wife if she had seen who the murderer His major success in the anti-British revolutionary was. She said, "I saw with my own eyes, but my violence was the Chittagong Armoury Raid on April heart will not permit me to tell you his name. I am 18, 1930. Subsequent to the raid, he marched to sorry. I feel miserable that I was the wife of such a the Jalalabad hills along with his fellow treacherous man, such an undivine man as Netra revolutionaries. After the battle with the British Sen. My husband betrayed the greatest hero of troops on April 22, he escaped from there. Surya Chittagong. My husband betrayed a great son of Sen, being constantly followed up by the police, Mother India. My husband cast a slur on the face had to hide at the house of Sabitri Devi, a widow, of India. Therefore; I cannot tell the name of the near Patiya. A police and military force under person who took his life. He has definitely done Captain Cameron surrounded the house on 13 the right thing. You can do anything with me. You June 1932. Cameron was shot dead while can punish me, you can even kill me, but I shall ascending the staircase and Surya Sen along with never tell the name of the person who killed my Pritilata Waddedar and Kalpana Datta escaped to husband. Our Master-da will be hanged, I know, safety. but his name will forever be synonymous with India's immortal freedom-cry. Everybody loves Surya Sen was always in hiding, moving from one him. Everybody adores him. I, too, love him and place to another. Sometimes he used to take a job adore him, for he is the brightest sun in the as a workman; sometimes he would take a job as a firmament of Chittagong. Surya means sun and he farmer, or milkman, or priest, houseworker or is truly our sun. "Tarakeswar Dastidar, the new even as a pious Muslim. This is how he used to president of the Chittagong Branch Jugantar Party, avoid being captured. Either because of money, or made a preparation to rescue Surya Sen from the out of jealousy, or because of both, Netra Sen told Chittagong Jail. But the plot was unearthed and the British Government that Surya Sen was at his consequently frustrated. Tarakeswar and Kalpana house. As a result, the police came and captured along with others were arrested. Special tribunals him on February 16, 1933. This is how India's tried Surya Sen, Tarakeswar Dastidar, and Kalpana supreme hero was arrested. But before Netra Sen Datta in 1933. was able to get his 10,000-rupee reward he was

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Surya Sen along with his Tarekeshwar Dastidar Ganguly, Narendra Mohan Sen and Sachindra Nath was hanged by the British rulers on January 12, Sanyal were present at the meeting. The 1934. Before the death sentence Surya Sen was association was formed as an outgrowth of the brutally tortured. It was reported that the British Anushilan Samiti. The party was established with executioners broke all his teeth with hammer and the aim to organise armed revolution in order to plucked all nails and broke all limbs and joints. He end the colonial rule and establish a Federal was dragged to the rope unconscious. After his Republic of the United States of India. The name death his dead body was not given any funeral. Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was The prison authority, it was found later, put his implicative after a similar revolutionary body in dead body in a metallic cage and dumped into the Ireland. Bay of Bengal. During that period Gandhiji had declared to cancel His last letter to his friends, written on 11 January, the Non-cooperation movement after the Chauri stated, "Death is knocking at my door. My mind is Chaura incident. This decision of his created a lot flying away towards eternity ...At such a pleasant, of rancour amongst the youngsters. Some of them at such a grave, at such a solemn moment, what had jeopardised their careers for the shall I leave behind you? Only one thing that is my movement.As HSRA was a revolutionary group, dream, a golden dream-the dream of Free India.... they attempted to loot a train. They were Never forget the 18th of April, 1930, the day of informed that the train was transferring the eastern Rebellion in Chittagong... Write in red government money.On 9th August 1925, the letters in the core of your hearts the names of the revolutionists ransacked the train. This now patriots who have sacrificed their lives at the altar famous incident is known as the Kakori train of India's freedom. robbery.As a result of the Kakori train robbery case, Ashfaqullah Khan, Ramprasad Bismil, Roshan Hindustan Socialist Republican Association Singh, Rajendra Lahiri were hanged to death. It Hindustan Socialist Republican Association before was an important setback for the Hindustan 1928 was known as the Hindustan Republican Socialist Republican Association. Association. It is reckoned as one amongst the Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was Indian independence associations during the time aiming to create a Federal Republic of the United of freedom struggle. Bhagat Singh, Yogendra States of India. But later they changed their focus Shukla and Chandrasekar Azad were the key towards creating an India based on the Socialist functionaries of Hindustan Socialist Republican ideals of Lenin and Marx. Bhagat Singh declared Association. The group is also considered one of this at the Ferozshah Kotla Ruins in Delhi on 9th the first socialist organisations in India. HSRA was September 1928. Afterwards, the association was invigorated by the ideologies of the Bolsheviks renamed Hindustan Socialist Republican involvement in the Russian Revolution of 1917. Association, from Hindustan Republican Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was Association. HSRA in non-violent protest first launched during a meeting in Bholachang advancement against the Simon Commission at village, Brahamabaria subdivision, East Bengal. Lahore decided to support Lala Lajpat Rai. But in Praiseworthy freedom fighters like- Pratul the protest procession, the police plunged into a

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 mass lathicharge and the wounds imposed on arouse public opinion. Bhagat Singh and Lalaji proved life-threatening to him. This incident Batukeshwar Dutt offered to carry out the was witnessed by Bhagat Singh and he swore to bombing and get arrested. The ideology behind take revenge. the bombing was `to make the deaf government hear the voices of its oppressed people`. Bhagat It was decided by Hindustan Socialist Republican Singh also believed that `the only way to Association that the attempt would be taken successfully convey his message to the public of against J.A Scott, who had ordered the unlawful India was to propaganda from Court`. He believed lathi-charge. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru, Chander that since all statements were registered in Court Shekhar Azad and Jai Gopal were given the charge and then promulgated, they could benefit support to execute the plan. It was designed that Jai Gopal for their crusade. would signal Bhagat Singh and Rajguru when J.A Scott would come out of his office. At the On April 8th 1929 when Vitthal Bhai Patel, appointed time, on 17th December 1928 at President of the Central Assembly, moved up to Lahore, a British official J. P.Saunders, the A.S.P., a give his ruling on failing to get an authority from youngman of 21 but a probationer stepped out of the government that the bill would not be his office. Raj Guru swooped on the British official imposed retrospectively, a bomb was detonated with a pistol at Jai Gopal`s signal. The bullet near the empty treasure benches, followed by perforated through his neck and almost killed him. another bomb explosion. Panic predominated Bhagat Singh also rushed and pounced on him and everywhere. Nobody got killed as it was not fired four or five shots.J.P.Saunders died on the thought of. The hall got filled with smoke. Bhagat spot. Incidentally it was a terrible miscalculation Singh and BK Dutt started crying out "Long Live on the part of Jai Gopal. He failed to differentiate Revolution, Down with Imperialism" as the smoke between Scott and Saunders. Chanan Singh- a cleared. They also threw red leaflets on the floor, head constable came forth to chase Bhagat Singh which began with the slogan of a French and Raj Guru, but Chandra Shekhar Azad shot revolutionary "It needs a loud voice for a deaf to Chanan down. The next day, Hindustan Socialist hear". Republican Association came forward in public On April 15th 1929, police raided the bomb and in their proclamation said, "Inquilab Zindabad factory of HSRA. As a result Kishori Lal, Sukhdev (Long Live Revolution). We don`t enjoy killing an and Jai Gopal were arrested. The Assembly Bomb individual, but this individual was ruthless, mean Case trial was started following this raid.On 23rd and part and parcel of an unjust system. It is March 1931 Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Rajguru necessary to destroy such a system. This man has were hanged. The great nationalist Baikuntha been killed; because he was a cog in the wheel of Shukla was also hanged for murdering British rule. This government is the worst of all Phanindrananth Ghosh who had become a governments." Another significant action carried government approver which later on led to the out by the Hindustan Socialist Republican hanging of Bhagat Singh, Sukhdev and Association was the Assembly Bomb Case. The Rajguru.Baikuntha Shukla joined the freedom association adjudicated to burst a blank bomb in struggle at a young age and took active part in the the Central Assembly in Delhi, in order to express `Salt Satyagraha` of 1930.He was also associated opposition against the tyrannical legislation and

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 with revolutionary organisations like the along with Master Da and Tarekeshwar Dastidar Hindustan Seva Dal and Hindustan Socialist from their hiding place after a fierce battle with a Republican Association. police/military squad, Kalpana was transported to the Andaman’s. After her release from the penal Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev were executed colony, Kalpana joined the communist party and in 1931, as a result of their trial in the `Lahore married PC Joshi a prominent communist leader. conspiracy case`. Their death penalty gave birth to tremendous agitation throughout the country. 2. Bina Das Bhaumik (1911) Phanindrananth Ghosh was a key figure of the An arts graduate, Bina was connected with Hindustan Socialist Republican Association. By Calcutta Chhatri Sangha, a quasi revolutionary turning into an approver, he betrayed the cause of organization for young girls. She was sentenced to the party. Baikuntha Shukla was given the charge nine years imprisonment for her failed attempt on to execute Phanindrananth Ghosh as an act of the life of the Governor of Bengal, Stanley Jackson, ideological revenge. He completed it in a in 1932 at the annual convocation meeting of successful manner on 9th November 1932.As a Calcutta University. Following her release in 1938, result Baikuntha Shukla was arrested and tried for Bina joined the Congress party and was elected murder. On May 14th 1934; Baikunth was the secretary of South Calcutta Congress convicted and hanged in Gaya Central Jail only at a Committee. Later Bina became a member of West young age of 28. Bangla Rajyo Sobha. Bina married Jyotish Chandra Another key revolutionary of Hindustan Socialist Bhaumik, her comrade at arms and a college Republican Association, Chandrasekar Azad was teacher. killed on 27th February 1931 in a gunfight with the INFLUENCE OF RUSSIAN REVOLUTION police. With the death of Chandrashekar Azad and the hanging of its popular activists, Bhagat Singh, The socialist movement began to develop in India Sukhdev and Rajguru, the fate of the association with the Russian Revolution. However, in 1871 a was yet indecipherable. Hindustan Socialist group in Calcutta had contacted Karl Marx with Republican Association was always in the forefront the purpose of organising an Indian section of the of revolutionary movements in the northern parts First International. It did not materialise. The first of India. The association consisted of younger article in an Indian publication (in English) that generations of U.P, Bihar, Punjab, Bengal and mentions the names of Marx & Engels printed in Maharashtra. The group possessed ideals, which the Modern Review in March 1912.The short were directly opposite to Mahatma Gandhi`s biographical article titled Karl Marx – a modern Congress. Rishi was written by the German-based Indian revolutionary Lala Har Dayal. The first biography of Women in Liberation war Karl Marx in an Indian language was written by R. 1. Kalpana Datta Joshi (b.1913) Rama Krishna Pillai in 1914.

Born in Chittagong, Kalpana became an active Marxism made a major impact in India media at member of Chittagong Jugantar party after the the time of the Russian Revolution. Of particular famous armory raid led by Master Da. Arrested interest to many Indian papers and magazines was

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 the Bolshevik policy of right to self-determination comparative study of the approaches of both the of all nations. Bipin Chandra Pal and Bal leaders with Lenin coming out as better of the Gangadhar Tilak were amongst the prominent two. Together with Ranchoddas Bhavan Lotvala, a Indians who expressed their admiration of Lenin local mill-owner, a library of Marxist Literature and the new rulers in Russia. Abdul Sattar Khairi was set up and publishing of translations of and Abdul Zabbar Khairi went to Moscow, Marxist classics began. In 1922, with Lotvala's immediately on hearing about the revolution. In help, Dange launched the English weekly, Socialist, Moscow, they met Lenin and conveyed their the first Indian Marxist journal. greetings to him. The Russian Revolution also had Regarding the political situation in the colonised an impact on émigré Indian revolutionaries, such world, the 1920 second congress of the as the Ghadar Party in North America. Communist International insisted that a united The Khilafat movement contributed to the front should be formed between the proletariat, emergence of early Indian communism. Many peasantry and national bourgeosie in the colonial Indian Muslims left India to join the defence of the countries. Amongst the twenty-one conditions Caliphate. Several of them became communists drafted by Lenin ahead of the congress was the whilst visiting Soviet territory. Even some Hindus 11th thesis, which stipulated that all communist joined the Muslim muhajirs in the travels to the parties must support the bourgeois-democratic Soviet areas. The colonial authorities were clearly liberation movements in the colonies. Some of the disturbed by the growing influence of Bolshevik delegates opposed the idea of alliance with the sympathies in India.A first counter-move was the bourgeoisie, and preferred support to communist issuing of a fatwa, urging Muslims to reject movements of these countries instead. Their communism. The Home Department established a criticism was shared by the Indian revolutionary special branch to monitor the communist M.N. Roy, who attended as a delegate of the influence. Customs were ordered to check the Communist Party of Mexico. The congress imports of Marxist literature to India. A great removed the term 'bourgeois-democratic' in what number of anti-communist propaganda became the 8th condition. publications were published. The Communist Party of India was founded in The First World War was accompanied with a Tashkent on 17 October 1920, soon after the rapid increase of industries in India, resulting in a Second Congress of the Communist International. growth of an industrial proletariat. At the same The founding members of the party were M.N. time prices of essential commodities increased. Roy, Evelina Trench Roy (Roy’s wife), Abani These were factors that contributed to the build Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof (Abani’s wife), Mohammad up of the Indian trade union movement. Unions Ali (Ahmed Hasan), Mohammad Shafiq Siddiqui were formed in the urban centres across India, and M.P.B.T. Acharya. The CPI began efforts to and strikes were organised. In 1920, the All India build a party organisation inside India. Roy made Trade Union Congress was founded. contacts with Anushilan and Jugantar groups in Bengal. Small communist groups were formed in One Indian impressed with developments in Bengal (led by Muzaffar Ahmed), Bombay (led by Russia was S. A. Dange in Bombay. In 1921; he S.A. Dange), Madras (led by Singaravelu Chettiar), published a pamphlet titled Gandhi Vs. Lenin, a

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United Provinces (led by Shaukat Usmani) and rejoined the organisation in 1940 when the policy Punjab (led by Ghulam Hussain). However, only was revised. He was then sent to Aligarh, where Usmani became a CPI party member. he had the opportunity of meeting several educationists and nationalists, including Reverend On 1 May 1923 the Labour Kisan Party of Wigram (his principal), Gandhi Jawaharlal Nehru Hindustan was founded in Madras, by Singaravelu and Abul Kalam Azad. After returning to his own Chettiar. The LKPH organised the first May Day province (NWFP of British India), he worked for celebration in India, and this was also the first inculcation of ideas of nationalism in the minds of time the red flag was used in India. On 25 Pathans. December 1925 a communist conference was organised in Kanpur. Colonial authorities Apart from being an ardent freedom fighter, Abdul estimated that 500 persons took part in the Ghaffar Khan was a dedicated social reformer. conference. The conference was convened by a Realising the need for social reconstruction, he man called Satyabhakta, of whom little is known. propagated Gandhian principles—principles which Satyabhakta is said to have argued for a ‘national he had himself adopted. He firmly believed in the communism’ and against subordination under cult of khadi, non-violence, the need for Comintern. Being outvoted by the other development of village industries and delegates, Satyabhakta left both the conference emancipation of depressed classes and women. venue in protest. The conference adopted the For the purpose of bringing about positive social name ‘Communist Party of India’. changes he set up an organisation, Khudai Khidmatgars (Servants of God) in 1929. Abdul Ghaffar Khan & Khudai Khidmatgars The organisation which was also known as 'Red Born in village Uttamazai (now in Pakistan) in a Shirts’ comprised non-violent revolutionaries who Pathan family, Abdul Ghaffar Khan had his early were also devoted social workers and played an education in Peshawar. His meaningful political active role in the nationalist movement. Because career began in 1919 during agitations against of his socialistic zeal, Ghaffar Khan was given the Rowlatt Act and Khilafat Movements. Thereafter, title Fakhar- e-Afghan (the pride of Afghan). In from 1920 to 1947, he took a prominent part in 1940, he founded another Khudai Khidmatgar on the activities of the Congress. He was involved in the banks of Sardaryab and named it Markar-e- all major political movements such as Non- Allai-e-Khudai Khidmatgar. Cooperation, Civil Disobedience, Satyagraha and Quit India. For several years, he was a member of Ghaffar Khan also advocated national education. Congress Working Committee but declined the He was instrumental in the establishment of a offer of presidentship of the organisation. During number of national schools in his province, this period (1920- 1947), he was arrested several especially the Azad High School of Uttamanzai and times and spent around fourteen crucial years of the Anjuman-ul-Afghanie. In 1928, he started a his lifetime in jail. In the 1920s, he came to be monthly journal in Pushto, Pakhtoon, which was known as 'Frontier Gandhi' because of his close stopped in 1931. However, it resumed publication association with Gandhi. Abdul Ghaffar Khan a few years later as Das Roza. Although a pious resigned from the INC in 1939 because of his Muslim, Ghaffar Khan believed in secularism. He disapproval of the war policy of the Congress. He

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 condemned the communal politics of the Muslim 3rd of February, 1928 in various parts of the League and argued against the idea of partition. region. Widespread demonstrations were held in Kolkata on 19th of February, 1928, the day of After partition, he started a struggle for Simon`s arrival to the city. Further, on 1st of establishment of Pakhtoonistan for Pathans and March, 1928, meetings were held simultaneously was jailed several times by successive Pakistani in all 32 wards of the city, spurring people to governments. He lived in exile in Afghanistan for restore the movement for boycott of British several years. In 1969, he was invited to India on goods. the occasion of Gandhi centenary celebrations. In 1987, he was presented the Bharat Ratna. Ghaffar Mahatma Gandhi was arrested on 5th of May, Khan passed away in 1988. 1930, just days before his projected raid on the Dharasana Salt Works. The Dandi March and the Purna Swaraj Resolution resultant Dharasana Satyagraha drew worldwide In December 1929, the Congress held its annual attention to the Civil Disobedience Movement session at Lahore. Jawaharlal Nehru was the through widespread newspaper coverage. It president at this session. In this session, the continued for almost a year, ending with the Congress declared ‘Purna Swaraj’ or Complete release of Mahatma Gandhi from jail and after the Independence as its ultimate goal. It asked all discussions at the Second Round Table Conference Congressmen and nationalists not to participate in with Viceroy Lord Irwin. The crusade had a elections to the legislatures and to resign from the significant effect on changing British attitudes legislatures. It was decided that 26 January would toward Indian independence and caused huge be henceforth observed as the Independence Day numbers of Indians to aggressively join the fight every year. To achieve the aim of complete for the first time. The Salt March to Dandi and the independence, the Congress decided to launch flogging of hundreds of non-violent protesters in another mass movement – the Civil Disobedience Dharasana, marked the efficient use of civil Movement. disobedience as a method for fighting social and political injustice. Civil Disobedience Movement Civil Disobedience Movement, launched under the leadership of On 8th of April 1929, members of the Hindustan Mahatma Gandhi, in 1930, was one of the most Socialist Republican Association attacked the significant phases of Indian freedom struggle. The assembly chamber of the Imperial Legislative Simon Commission, which was formed in Council in Delhi. In response, Lord Irwin published November 1927 by the British Government to a Public Safety Bill. Moreover, on 31st of October, chart and conclude a Constitution for India, Lord Irwin announced that the natural included members of the British Parliament only. constitutional progress of India was the As a result, the Commission was boycotted by attainment of Dominion Status. The Congress every section of the Indian social and political Party indicated its willingness to cooperate in platforms as an `All-White Commission`. The formulating a Dominion constitution. In opposition to the Simon Commission in Bengal November, measures were accepted in such a way was noteworthy. In disapproval against the that Congress rejected the declaration. Commission, a `Hartal` or Strike was observed on

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On 23rd of December, Lord Irwin met with Between February to March, 1931, Lord Irwin and Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar Gandhi met in a series of talks seeking settlement Vallabhbhai Patel, Mohammad Ali Jinnah and Tej of the issues originating from the civil Bahadur Sapru in New Delhi. Erwin however, could disobedience movement. In the agreement not arrive at an agreement for framing a reached on 5th of March, Gandhi agreed to constitution under Dominion Status. At the discontinue Civil Disobedience as it embraced ensuing 1930 annual meeting of the Congress defiance of the law, non-payment of land revenue, Party held at Lahore, the Congress declared itself publication of news-sheets, termination of its for independence rather than Dominion Status boycott of British goods and the restraint of and authorised a campaign of Civil Disobedience. aggressive picketing. The Government of India Gandhi`s Civil Disobedience Movement came out agreed to cancel ordinances opposing the as a march to Dandi, in objection to the tax on movement, to release Indian prisoners, return salt. Gandhi reached Dandi on April 6th, and fines and property. explicitly violated the salt law. Gandhi-Irwin Pact On 18th of April, around one hundred This pact was signed between Mahatma Gandhi revolutionaries attacked police and railway and the then Viceroy of India, Lord Irwin on 5 armouries at Chittagong. Mahatma Gandhi March 1931. condemned the raid, which had made a deep impression throughout India. On 5th of May, the Salient features of this act were as following: Government of India had Gandhi arrested and lodged at Yervada Jail near Pune. Following the 1. The Congress would participate in the Round arrest of Mahatma Gandhi, the British faced the Table Conference. full programme of Civil Disobedience as composed 2. The Congress would discontinue the Civil of Indian raids on salt depots, refusal to pay taxes Disobedience Movement. in chosen areas, spirits and avoidance of business with all British firms, disobedience of forest laws 3. The Government would withdraw all ordinances and boycott of foreign cloth. issued to curb the Congress.

On 30th of June, the Government of India 4. The Government would withdraw all outlawed the All-India Congress Committee and prosecutions relating to offenses other than the Congress Working Committee. Further, on violent one. The Government would release all 23rd of July, Lord Irwin facilitated visits to persons undergoing sentences of imprisonment Mahatma Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru by two for their activities in the civil disobedience Indian Liberals, Sir Tej Bahadur Sapru and Mukund movement. Ramrao Jayakar, for the purpose of finding ways to Salt Satyagraha succeeded in drawing the end civil disobedience movement. On 25th of attention of the world. Millions saw the newsreels January 1931, Lord Irwin authorised Gandhi`s showing the march. Time magazine declared release from prison and withdrew prohibition of Gandhi its 1930 Man of the Year, comparing illegality against the Congress Working Gandhi's march to the sea "to defy Britain's salt Committee. tax as some New Englanders once defied a British

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 tea tax." Civil disobedience continued until early federal Legislature, according to the agreement. 1931, when Gandhi was finally released from The provincial autonomy was also demanded by prison to hold talks with Irwin. It was the first time the Congress in the Round Table Conference. the two held talks on equal terms, and resulted in However, Ramsay MacDonald, the British Prime the Gandhi–Irwin Pact. The talks would lead to the Minister, made a momentous declaration on Second Round Table Conference at the end of behalf of His Majesty`s Government. According to 1931. the view of His Majesty`s government it was declared that the responsibility of the government In the March of 1930, Gandhi met with the should be placed upon legislatures, Central and Viceroy, Lord Irwin and signed an agreement Provincial with certain provisions as was known as the Gandhi-Irwin Pact. The two main considered necessary. clauses of the pact entailed; Congress participation in the Round Table Conference and The absence of the Congress representations in cessation of The Civil Disobedience Movement. Round Table conference led to a second session of The Government of India released all satyagrahis the Round Table conference, where the Congress from prison. representatives would participate. Several efforts were made in that direction by Sir Tej Bahadur Round Table Conferences Sapru and Sir M.R. Jayakar, which led to the The Simon Commissions in India induced the famous Gandhi-Irwin Pact, which was signed in dissatisfaction throughout India. It met a violent March 1931. According to the Poona Pact, all resistance in India and later the British political prisoners were released and the Civil Government organized for the Rounds Table Disobedience Movement was called off. conferences in order to take into consideration In the second Round Table Conference, Gandhiji the demands and grievances of the Indians was appointed as the representative of the directly. Demands for Swaraj, or self-rule, in India Congress, which was convened from 1st had been growing increasingly strong. By the year September to 1st December in the year1931.But 1930, many British politicians believed that India the significant issue of the Second Round Table needed to move towards dominion status. As conference was to solve the communal problem, announced by the viceroy on behalf of the which was not solved. This was because; Government of England on October 31, 1929, Mr.Jinnah inflexibility was secretly supported by Round Table Conference was convened in London. the British statesman like the Secretary of State After lengthy discussions, three basic principles for India; Sir Samuel Hoare. Disappointed by the were agreed in the Conference and the British result of the session of the Second Round Table Government was made to accept those principles. Conference, Gandhiji returned to India and Three basic principles were put forwards in the subsequently arrested on his arrival in the Round Table Conference. According to the country. agreement, it was demanded that form of the new Ramsay Macdonald announced that in default of government of India was to be an All India an agreed settlement as regards the respective federation. The federal government, subject to quanta of representation of different some reservations would be responsible to the communities, the British Government would have

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 to arbitrate their claims. Subsequently, on August violence and peace. The philosophy and ideology 4, 1932, Macdonald`s infamous "Communal is relevant still today.The philosophy of Gandhi Award" came into existence. The concept of was based on truth, sacrifice, non- violence Communal Award was related to the selfless service and cooperation. In modern times, representation of different communities in the nonviolent methods of action have been a provincial legislatures. However the "Communal powerful tool for social protest. According to Award" declared by Ramsay Macdonald was Gandhi one should be brave and not a coward. He partially modified by the Poona Pact. This was should present his views, suggestions and accepted by the Hindu rulers due to Gandhiji, who thoughts without being violent. One should fight a wanted to prevent a political breach between the war with the weapons of truth and non violence. so-called caste Hindus and the Scheduled Castes. Gandhi said that ‘There is no god higher than truth’. According to Gandhi’s thoughts Consequently the third Round Table Conference nonviolence is ultimate solution of every kind of was again convened in London on November 17th problem in the world. Gandhi was single person to December 24th in the years 1932. A White who fought against the British with the weapons paper was issued in the year March 1933. The of truth and Non-violence by persuading details of the working basis of the new countrymen to walk on the path of non-violence. constitution of India were enumerated in the Gandhi leading a decades-long nonviolent struggle White Paper. It was declared that according to the against British rule in India, which eventually new constitution, there would be dyarchy at the helped India, wins its independence in 1947. By Center and the responsible governments in the the efforts of Gandhi India became independent. center. In February 1935, a bill was introduced in Gandhi initiated non violence activities like Quit the House of Commons by the Secretary of State India movement and non-operation movement. for India, which subsequently passed and enacted Gandhi could never have done what he did alone, as the government of India Act, 1935. but with his ability to identify a seed here, a seed Thus the Government of India Act came into there and nurture it, he was able to create a forest existence in the Third Round Table Conference. of human change. He understood that it was not The Government of India Act drew its materials enough to be a leader, but to create leaders. from the Simon Commission, the report of the All- In quite simple and clear words, Gandhism Parties conference i.e. the Nehru Report, the consists of the ideas, which Mahatma Gandhi put discussions at the three successive Round Table forth before human world. Along with that, to the Conferences, the detail enumerated in the White maximum possible extent, Mahatma Gandhi Paper and the reports of the Joint Select treated his individual life in accordance with these Committees. ideas. Clearly; Gandhism is a mixture of Gandhi’s Gandhian Methods of Struggles-Strategies concepts and practices. The basic ground ship of Gandhism happens to be non-violence. The non- Introduction violence is the most ancient eternal value. This non-violence is the ground of ancient-most Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was ‘a man of civilization and culture of India.Mahatma Gandhi millennium’ who imparts the lesson of truth, Non- said on this very account while making his

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 concepts and practices based on non-violence: ‘I resistance, non-violent resistance, and civil have nothing new to teach you’ Truth and non- revolution. Mahatma Gandhi had to struggle in his violence are as old as hill. As we know, non- whole life, but he never disappointed, he violence and truth are two sides of the same coin. continued his innate faith in non-violence and his After knowing Gandhism, it is imperative for us to belief in the methods of Satyagraha. The know clearly the concept of non-violence also as it significance of Satyagraha was soon accepted accords the ground for Gandhism. Gandhi’s worldwide. Martin Luther King adopted the importance in the political world scenario is methods of Satyagraha in his fight against the twofold. First, he retrieved non-violence as a racial discrimination of the American authorities in powerful political tool and secondly manifestation 1950. Gandhism is very much contextual today on of a higher spiritual goal, culmination in world this accord. It is significant. We should grasp peace. For Gandhi, means were as important as importance of Gandhism while analyzing it. the end and there could be only one means - that Presently a big portion of the world happens to be of non-violence. under Democratic system of Government. As a situation opposite to violence is non-violence, Theoretically, this system stands out to be the we can firmly state, total nonviolence consists in best up to now. This is a truth. It is the best not hurting some other one’s intellect, speech or because people are connected with it directly or action per own thought, utterance or deeds and indirectly at every level. Not only this, it is this very not to deprive some one of his life. Mahatma system, which provides maximum opportunities of Gandhi fully agrees with above-mentioned public progress and development. People can derivation of non-violence. He himself has said, themselves decide in this system the mode of Non-violence is not a concrete thing as it has their welfare. However, even though being generally been enunciated. Undoubtedly, it is a theoretically the best system of government, if we part of non-violence to abstain from hurting some peruse the democratic nations, we first of all find living being, but it is only an iota pertaining to its that there is non-equal development of the identity. The principle of nonviolence is shattered citizens. We subsequently find that these nations by every evil thought, false utterance, hate or are more or less victimized by regionalism. They wishing something bad unto someone. It is also have problem relating to language. They are under shattered per possession of necessary worldly clutches of terrorism and communalism. There is things. In this chain Mahatma Gandhi clarified in also the problem of negation of human rights in an edition of Young India: ‘To hurt someone, to these nations. There are other vivid problems akin think of some evil unto someone or to snatch to mention above and peace is far away so long as one’s life under anger or selfishness, is violence. In these problems exist. All citizens must have equal contrast, purest non-violence involves a tendency development and they should have communal and presuming towards spiritual or physical harmony towards making all citizens collective and benefit unto every one without selfishness and unified partners in progress. But, in reality, it is not with pure thought after cool and clear so. It is essential that the nations of democratic deliberations’. The ultimate yardstick of violence system of government should be free from above- or non-violence is the spirit behind the action. mentioned problems, must be capable of ensuring There are many examples of their use like equal development of their all citizens and the

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 citizens concerned must march forward on path of dignity for hard labor and mutual respect. In the progress in unified way along with rendering traditional Indian society torn apart by caste and contribution to world peace. creed based discriminations, Satyagraha stated that no work was lowly. It championed secularism Gandhi demonstrated to a world, weary with wars and went a long way in eradicating untouchability and continuing destruction that adherence to from the heart of India's typically stratified Truth and Non-violence is not meant for society. Satyagraha glorified the role of women as individuals alone but can be applied in global an important member of the society. All in all, affairs too. Gandhi’s vision for the country and his Satyagraha instilled in the Indian mind a dignity dreams for the community as a whole still hold and a self respect that is yet unprecedented in its good for India. He got the community to absorb modern history. Gandhi’s system of Satyagraha and reflect true values of humanity and to was based on nonviolence, non-cooperation, truth participate in tasks that would promote the and honesty. Gandhi used non violence in India’s greater good. These issues are still relevant to freedom struggle as main weapon and India what free India is and represents. The main cause became independent from British rule. of worry today is intolerance and hatred leading to violence and it is here the values of Gandhi need Truth - The most powerful weapon. to be adhered to with more passion. Gandhism is more about the spirit of Gandhi’s Gandhian Strategy journey to discover the truth, than what he finally considered to be the truth. It is the foundation of Gandhian strategy is mainly comprised with: Gandhi’s teachings, and the spirit of his whole life Satyagraha to examine and understand for oneself, and not take anybody or any ideology for granted. Gandhi Truth and honesty said: ‘The Truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction’. Truth or 'Satya' was Non-violence the sovereign principle of Mahatma Gandhi's life. Co-operation The Mahatma's life was an eternal conquest to discover truth and his journey to that end was Peace and love marked by experiments on himself and learning Satyagraha - A holistic approach towards life, from his own mistakes. Fittingly his autobiography based on the ideals of truth and moral courage. was titled 'My Experiments with Truth.' Gandhi strictly maintained that the concept of truth is Satyagraha’s goal is winning over people’s hearts, above and beyond of all other considerations and and this can be achieved only with tremendous one must unfailingly embrace truth throughout patience, Satyagraha is more than a political tool one's life. Gandhi pioneered the term Satyagraha of resistance. The similarities of the Satyagraha to which literally translates to 'an endeavor for truth some of the greatest philosophical and religious . 'In the context of Indian freedom movement, tenets of the world have been observed and much Satyagraha meant the resistance to the British written about. However, in the specific context of oppression through mass civil obedience. The India, Satyagraha was an immense influence. It tenets of Truth or Satya and nonviolence were went a long way in instilling among the Indians a

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 pivotal to the Satyagraha movement and Gandhi thought the sensible approach would be to ensured that the millions of Indians seeking an confront the ideas and alleviate the conditions end to British rule adhered to these basic that motivated people to undertake such principles steadfastly. desperate operations in the first place. As we know, non-violence and truth go side by side. Non-violence is ever lasting. After knowing Gandhism, it is imperative for us to Gandhian strategy is the collection of inspirations, know clearly the concept of non-violence also as it principles, beliefs and philosophy. The accords the ground for Gandhism. fundamentals of Gandhi’s non violence theory, For Gandhi, means were as important as the end Jainism and Buddhism were the most important and there could be only one means- that of non- influence. Both Jainism and Buddhism preached violence. What is non-violence? Ordinarily, we non-violence as the basic principal of existence. attribute nonviolence as a dictum that prescribes Gandhi was also influenced By Bhagvad Gita with non-snatching of anyone’s life. Really, this is not its stress on non attachment and selfless action, complete derivation pertaining to the concept of Christianity, along with its massage of love and non-violence. Non-violence is quite opposite to compassion, extended even to one’s enemies, was violence. As such, it would be better to know the another important influence on Gandhi’s life. position relating to violence in order to know non- Gandhi’s life was based on truth, honesty and violence and to be in knowledge of its meaning. moral courage. According to a Jain scholar: ‘Whenever, we hurt Mahatma Gandhi was great national hero, who some other living being through our thought, served the nation with truth and non violence. utterance or action under non-cordial stipulation Gandhi was against violence. He always disliked and non-apt learning, such an impure spirit or act war on the ground of its violent nature. That’s why of destroying life of some other one, including the when the Second World War began in 1939; he impure tendency, utterance or presuming, is taken opposed the stand of British government dragging to be full of vice of violence. In such a situation, India into war without consulting Indian leaders. even if there is no sort of violence externally, it Gandhi was in favor of non violence; therefore he intrinsically ipso facto remains a tendency of was against in any cooperation in war efforts. violence’. There are three categories of violence:- According to Gandhi the use of non violence When we hit physically anybody. consists of anger, selfishness, hatred and enmity. According to him violence cannot do anything When we think wrong and feel jealous with good to human beings. A Gandhian strategy for anybody. confronting terrorism, therefore, would consist of When we aggressively speak and abuse to the following: anybody. Stop an act of violence in its tracks. The effort to All these categories create negative energy in do so should be nonviolent but forceful. To focus human body. The negative energy has adverse solely on acts of terrorism, Gandhi argued, would affect on human body. Gandhi criticized violence. be like being concerned with weapons in an effort It is a body of ideas and principles that describes to stop the spread of racial hatred. Gandhi

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 the inspiration, vision and the life work of Gandhi. only through love an enemy could be permanently It is particularly associated with his contributions won. Non violence is not passive. It is active, to the idea and practice of non violence creative, provocative and challenging. Gandhi resistance, sometimes also called civil resistance. described non-violence as ‘A force more powerful The term "Gandhism" also encompasses what than all the weapons of world combined’. Non Gandhi's ideas, words and actions mean to people violence is the greatest and most active force in around the world, and how they used them for the world. Gandhi wrote, It is mightier than the guidance in building their own future. Gandhism mightiest weapon of destruction devised by the also permeates into the realm of the individual ingenuity of humanity. When we tap into the spirit human being, non-political and nonsocial. A of non-violence, it becomes contagious and can Gandhian can mean either an individual who topple empires. In relation to violence, there are follows, or a specific philosophy which is two options in the world. These options are, we attributed to, Gandhism. fight back or run away. Non violence gives us third option: creative active, peaceful resistance to In context of non-violence being perpetual, injustice. Non violence means standing unmoving Mahatma Gandhi states, ‘When we peruse the era against injustice until injustice is transformed into from beginning unto now relating to the period for justice. Non-violence dose not harm to others and which we gain historical evidence, we find that does not adversely affect other directly .but it man has been ultimately treading path of works internally. Instead of killing others, we nonviolence’. It is, as such, that non-violence came should do in the nonviolent struggle for justice into existence along with man. In case it has not and human rights. Non-violence begins in the been with man from the very beginning, there heart then it moves out to our families, local might have been self-doom by man. As Martin communities, cities, nation and world. Luther King Jr. said: "The choice is not between violence and nonviolence but between Gandhi thought, debased those who adopted it. A nonviolence and non-existence." violent posture adopted by public authorities could lead to a civil order based on coercion. For However, it has not been that and not only human this reason Gandhi insisted on means consistent race is alive in such a huge number but there has with the moral goals of those engaged in the been gradual enhancement in development and conflict. nearness in spite of presence of various obstacles and nuisances. This could never have been, but Conclusion because non-violence is perpetual, it happened. Gandhi dreamed of a new world of non-violence Mahatma Gandhi was against any form of with overall peaceful environment. Non-violence exploitation and injustice. According to him, evils is a universal phenomenon and it has great must be opposed at any cost. But he insisted that relevance and significance. It is the ultimate the weapons must be non violent and moral ones. solution of all kinds of problems and conflicts in The adoption of peaceful method made one the society, nation and world. However, its result superior and put the enemy at a disadvantage but depends upon its understanding and proper the condition is the opponent must be dealt with application. The present scenario of violence and mutual respect and love. Gandhi believed that exploitation all over the world has raised an

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 important issue. Any nation which has been all citizens collective and unified partners in suffered with communalism, dictatorship, progress. But, in reality, it is not so. corruption and power games really needs to go It is essential that the nations of democratic back to Gandhi’s conviction of nonviolence and system of government should be free from above- truth as his mission. By adopting nonviolence, mentioned problems, must be capable of ensuring social, political, economic and religious conflicts equal development of their all citizens and the shall be removed. Undoubtedly, the social citizens concerned must march forward on path of doctrine of non violence that has emerged from progress in unified way along with rendering Gandhian ideas has now become the key to forge contribution to world peace. Gandhism is very and sustain the new social and political order. much contextual today on this accord. It is Today, there is need to adopt Ghandhian significant. philosophy and ideology in overall world to remove all kind of problems and creating peaceful Gandhi inspires an alternative vision of politics and environment. Gandhi is not the past, he is the resistance at a time when oppression is not only future. He is an early sign of what we can be. getting more overt and physical but also more insidious. His ideology of nonviolence is a good Presently a big portion of the world happens to be point to start from. It may not succeed, but it under Democratic system of Government. opens a world of possibilities and encourages us to Theoretically, this system stands out to be the think outside the box. His life also illustrates how best up to now. This is a truth. It is the best radical ideas are first dismissed, only to be tested because people are connected with it directly or and embraced later. Gandhi demonstrated to a indirectly at every level. Not only this, it is this very World, weary with wars and continuing system, which provides maximum opportunities of destruction that adherence to Truth and Non- public progress and development. People can violence is not meant for individuals alone but can themselves decide in this system the mode of be applied in global affairs too. Gandhi’s vision for their welfare. However, even though being the country and his dreams for the community as theoretically the best system of government, if we a whole still hold good for India. He got the peruse the democratic nations, we first of all find community to assimilate and reflect true values of that there is non-equal development of the humanity and to participate in tasks that would citizens. We subsequently find that these nations promote the greater good. These issues are still are more or less victimized by regionalism. They relevant to what free India is and represents. The have problem relating to language. They are under main cause of worry today is intolerance and clutches of terrorism and communalism. There is hatred leading to violence and it is here the values also the problem of negation of human rights in of Gandhi need to be adhered to with more these nations. There are other vivid problems akin passion. He is relevant not yesterday or today but to mention above and peace is far away so long as forever!! these problems exist. These nations should get themselves rid of these problems, all citizens of EMERGENCE OF LEFT WING them must have equal development and they should have communal harmony towards making Jawaharlal Nehru

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Nehru's Nationalism and his role in the Freedom return from the British shores in 1912, the job of a Movement are closely interrelated, since it was lawyer was the last of Nehru's priorities. As a the nature of Nehru's Nationalist ideas that student he already felt himself closely attached to dictated his course of action in the freedom the cause India's freedom, and had his sympathies movement of India. Nehru's Nationalism: Nehru's with the Extremist leaders of Congress. After his nationalism was not one of mindless jingoism. He return, he involved himself directly into the was able to reach a common ground between an political scenario of the country. erudite internationalism and a very keen However, Nehru was still comparatively without a understanding of the Indian condition. Nehru's firm direction in these early years, not sure which nationalism was marked by a fiery pride in the path was the right path that would lead towards heritage of the country. But he was willing to India's freedom. His father's moderate ideologies temper this pride with his readings and his and elitist way of life disturbed him, as he thought rationalist views that he received from his him, like many other Congressmen of his Western education in the West. generation, to be much dissociated from the Jawaharlal Nehru's role in the freedom movement ground realities of the land and the lives of the of India has probably not received as much common people of India. He also realized that the historical attention as it deserves. That is, of direct application of Socialist measures would not course no surprise, as Jawaharlal Nehru's suit India's socio-economic profile. It was at that astounding success as a statesman who ushered in time that he found a direction in the mode of civil a new era of international relations through the resistance as preached by Gandhi. Gandhi's formation of the NAM, and his stature as the first success in Champaran and Ahmedabad renewed prime minister of independent India often and established his belief in Satyagraha. He was adumbrate his position as a significant figure in not slow to adopt the cultural aspects of the freedom movement of India. With his charm, Satyagraha as well. He read the Indian scriptures highly impressive educational background, and of India, and dressed in home-spun clothes selfless service to the nation, Nehru presented the becoming a staunch Gandhian in all senses. face of a new and active India to thousands of Motilal and his entire family adopted the Indians who looked up to him as a role model and Gandhian way of life. Nehru traveled across India, a guide. and was warmly received by the masses. This filled him with a renewed sense of self-confidence. It Early Years of Nehru in the Freedom Movement was time he decided to whole-heartedly commit of India: himself to the cause of Indian freedom. Jawaharlal Nehru was born into politics. His father Jawaharlal Nehru and the Non-Cooperation Motilal Nehru was a veteran Congressman and Movement: committed to the cause of India's freedom for a very long time. Nehru spent much of his The first big involvement of Jawaharlal Nehru educational years in England studying first at came at the onset of the noncooperation Harrow and then at Trinity College, Cambridge. movement in 1920. Nehru joined in whole- However, the freedom of India was always on his heartedly in this Satyagraha based movement that mind. It was therefore no surprise that after his stormed India. Nehru was arrested on charges of

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 anti governmental activities and was released a and insisted on more stern and immediate few months later. In the rift formed within the measures to realize the goal of India's freedom. Congress following the sudden closure of the non- Nehru and the last days of Indian Freedom cooperation movement after the Chauri Chaura Struggle: incident, Nehru remained loyal to Gandhi's camp and denied to join the Swaraj Party formed by The Government of India Act of 1935 called for Motilal Nehru and CR Das. After his release, nation-wide elections. Nehru campaigned Nehru's fame as a dynamic Congress leader was vigorously for Congress, although he himself did well-established. He soon became the President of not contest directly in the elections. With Gandhi the Allahabad Congress Committee in 1923. concentrating on the spiritual development of his However, towards the end of the decade, Nehru followers and gradually dissociating himself from grew increasingly impatient with the pacifist direct political action, the stature of Nehru within nature of the senior Congressman. Along with the Congress ranks was now more than ever. He Subhas Chandra Bose, Nehru was intent on became the Congress President in the consecutive complete freedom and believed in giving an years of 1936 and 1937.By 1938, the rift in ultimatum to the British Government to grant Congress was clear. With Bose and Gandhi forming India dominion status. The senior leaders were the two feuding camps, Nehru was once more bent on a slower and more patient approach. The faced with a political dilemma. However, he Calcutta Congress of 1928 brought the rift into the decided to side with Gandhi and his methods. open. Jawaharlal openly decried the Nehru Bose resigned as the Congress president, and Commission framed by Motilal Nehru, and it Nehru's status in the Congress reached a height needed the intervention of Mahatma Gandhi to previously unattained. This year started a new persuade Nehru to abandon his fiery stance of phase in Nehru's career, especially after his denial more direct action. to come to a compromise with the Muslim League.

Nehru and the Civil Disobedience Movement: With the clouds of World War II looming large in the horizon, Nehru's skill in international relations The Lahore Congress of 1929 was monumental in would be tested once more. Nehru did not the political career of Nehru as well as the history support Bose's policy of siding with the Axis of India's freedom struggle. Nehru was elected the forces, and intended to extend support to the president of Congress for the first time at a young Allies. In the mean time, the Second Round Table age of forty. He used the platform of the Lahore conference failed and Gandhi launched the Quit conference to declare the goal of complete India movement in 1942. Nehru was arrested and freedom or Purna Swaraj. The Civil Disobedience was released only in 1945. By the time the World movement was formally launched after the Lahore War II was over and the new Labor Government of Congress, and Nehru whole heartedly plunged Britain seemed willing to grant India it’s long himself in the non-violent protests and picketing deserved freedom. However, the British that took the nation by storm. Nehru was arrested Government wanted to adopt a policy of waiting again in 1930, beginning the second and the and watching the result of the general elections of longest phase of his prison stays. On his release, 1945. he formed the Socialist party within the Congress

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Nehru was once again at the center of activities. which he was imprisoned for the first time. Bose He was arrested. His refusal to comply with was elected to the post of Chief Executive Officer Jinnah's claims made partition inevitable, as of the newly constituted Calcutta Corporation in Jinnah called for direct action. Although his fight April 1924. That same year in October, Bose was for Indian freedom stood on the verge of success, arrested on suspicion of terrorism. At first, he was Nehru knew his work was far from over. He had to kept in Alipur Jail and later he was exiled to build a new India and had to guide the nascent Mandalay in Burma. Bose was once again arrested economy towards success. on January, 1930. After his release from jail on September 25, he was elected as the Mayor of the Subhas Chandra Bose City of Kolkata. Netaji was imprisoned eleven Subhas Chandra Bose was most dynamic leader of times by the British over a span of 20 years either India`s struggle for independence. He is more in India or in Rangoon. During the mid 1930s he familiar with his name Netaji. His contribution was exiled by the British from India to Europe towards India`s Freedom struggle was of a where he championed India`s cause and aspiration revolutionary. Subhas Chandra Bose was born on for self-rule before gatherings and conferences. 23rd Jan, 1897 in Cuttack, Orissa, India. From his Throughout his stay in Europe from 1933 to 1936, childhood he was a bright student and was a he met several European leaders and thinkers. He topper in the matriculation examination from the travelled extensively in India and in Europe before whole of Kolkata province. He graduated from the stating his political opposition to Gandhi. Subhash Scottish Church College in Kolkata with a First Chandra Bose married Emilie Schenkl, an Austrian Class degree in Philosophy. Influenced by the born national, who was his secretary, in 1937 in teachings of Swami Vivekananda, he was known German. Bose wrote many letters to Schenkl of for his patriotic zeal as a student. He went to which many have been published in the book England to fulfil his parents` desire to appear in "Letters to Emilie Schenkl", edited by Sisir Kumar the Indian Civil Services. He stood fourth in order Bose and Sugata Bose. of merit. But he left civil Service`s apprenticeship Subhas Chandra Bose became the president of the and joined India`s freedom struggle. Haripura Indian National Congress against the During his service with the Indian National wishes of Gandhiji in 1938. He was elected as the Congress, he was greatly influenced by Bal president for two consecutive terms. Expressing Gangadhar Tilak and Sri Aurobindo. He did not his disagreement with Bose, Gandhi commented agree with Gandhiji`s methods of achieving "Subhas` victory is my defeat". Gandhi`s continued Independence through non-violence. He believed opposition led to Netaji`s resignation from the that the only way of achieving Independence was Working Committee. He was left with no by shedding blood. He therefore returned to alternative but to form an independent party, the Kolkata to work under Chittaranjan Das, the "All India Forward Bloc". Bengali freedom fighter and co-founder of the In his call to freedom, Subhas Chandra Bose Swaraj Party. He was imprisoned for his encouraged full participation of the Indian Masses revolutionary activities on various occasions. In to strive for independence. Bose initiated the 1921, Bose organized a boycott of the celebrations concept of the "National Planning Committee" in to mark the visit of the Prince of Wales to India for

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1938. His correspondence reveals that despite his amongst them Jawaharlal Nehru. However, as the clear dislike for British subjugation, he was deeply Communist International entered its 'Third Period' impressed by their methodical and systematic phase, the communists deserted the WPP project. approach and their steadfastly disciplinarian The WPP was wound up, as its leadership was outlook towards life. The contrast between arrested by the British authorities in March 1929. Gandhi and Bose is captured with reasonable Founding of the party The party was founded in measure in a saying attributable to him ""If people Bengal on November 1, 1925, as the Labour slap you once, slap them twice". Having failed to Swaraj Party of the Indian National Congress. The persuade Gandhi for the mass civil disobedience founding leaders of the party were Kazi Nazrul to protest against Viceroy Lord Linlithgow`s Islam, Hemanta Kumar Sarkar, Qutubuddin Ahmad decision to declare war on India`s behalf without and Shamsuddin Hussain. The founding manifesto consulting the Congress leadership, he organised was signed by Kazi Nazrul Islam.During the first mass protests in Kolkata. The disobedience was three month of existence, the party organisation calling for the `Holwell Monument` was very provisional. At the All Bengal Praja commemorating the Black Hole of Kolkata. He was Conference, held at Krishnagar on February 6, thrown in Jail and was released only after a seven- 1926, a resolution was moved by Faizuddin day hunger strike. Bose`s house in Kolkata was Hussian Sahib of Mymensingh for the creation of a kept under surveillance by the British. With two workers-peasants party. The move was seconded pending court cases; he felt that the British would by Braja Nath Das of Bogra. The resolution was not let him leave the country before the end of passed by the conference, and in accordance with the war. This set the scene for Bose`s escape to this decision the name of the party was changed Germany, via Afghanistan and the Soviet Union. In to 'Workers and Peasants Party of Germany he instituted the Special Bureau for India Bengal'.Dr.Naresh Chandra Sengupta was elected under Adam von Trott zu Solz, broadcasting on the party president and Hemanta Kumar Sarkar and German-sponsored Azad Hind Radio. Here he Qutubuddin Ahmad were elected as joint founded the "Free India Centre" in Berlin, and secretaries. created the Indian Legion consisting of some 4500 soldiers who were the Indian prisoners of war. The Build-up of the WPPs of Bengal and Bombay soldiers had previously fought for the British in North Africa prior to their capture by Axis forces. As of 1926, the WPP of Bengal had only 40 members, and its growth in membership was very Workers and Peasants Party slow.A two-room party office was set up at 37, Harrison Road, Calcutta. British intelligence The Workers and Peasants Party (WPP) was a perceived that the Bengal Jute Workers political party in India, which worked inside the Association, the Mymensingh Workers and Indian National Congress 1925-1929. It became an Peasants Party (with branch in Atia), the important front organisation for the Communist Dhakeswari Mill Workers Union, the Bengal Glass Party of India and an influential force in the Workers Union, the Scavengers' Union of Bengal Bombay labour movement. The party was able to (with branches in Howrah, Dacca and muster some success in making alliances with Mymensingh) and the Workers Protection League other left elements inside the Congress Party, were led by the party. Soon after the 1926

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 conference of the WPP of Bengal, the Trade union struggles underground Communist Party of India directed Particularly the WPP of Bombay was successful in its members to join the provincial Workers and mobilising trade union work. It built unions Peasants Parties. All open communist activities amongst printing press, municipal and dock were carried out through Workers and Peasants workers. It gained influence amongst the workers Parties. The Comintern organiser M.N. Roy took of the Great Indian Peninsular Railway. During part in the build-up of the WPP. A WPP was 1928 the WPP led a general strike in Bombay, formed in Bombay in January 1927.D.R.Thengdi which lasted for months. At the time of the strike, was elected president and S.S.Mirajkar general the Girni Kamgar Union was founded. secretary. The WPPs gained influence within the Bombay and Bengal Pradesh Congress Anti-Simon struggle Committees. From the WPP of Bombay, K.N. Joglekar, R.S. Nimbkar and D.R. Tengdi were During the protests against the Simon elected to the All India Congress Committee. From Commission, the WPP played a major role in the WPP of Bengal, two party representatives organising manifestations in Calcutta and Bombay. were elected to the AICC. The WPP In Bombay it also mobilised 'hartal' (general strike) representatives together with Nehru were able to in protest against the Simon Commission. convince the AICC to make the Indian National 1928 Bengal party conference Congress an associate member of the League against Imperialism. The WPP of Bengal held its third conference in Bhatpara, in March 1928. After the conference the Madras Congress executive of the party published the conference At the 1927 annual Congress session in Madras a documents in a book titled A Call for Action. In the leader of the WPP of Bombay, K.N.Joglekar book an argument is presented that national presented a proposal for a resolution in the independence was not possible as long as Subjects Committee, that the Indian National capitalists dominated the freedom struggle. British Congress should demand full independence for intelligence sources claimed that Philip Spratt had India. The proposal was seconded by Jawaharlal been the author of the book. Nehru. At the open session of the Madras Formation of WPPs in Punjab and UP Congress, Nehru moved the resolution and Joglekar seconded it. The resolution was passed At a conference in Lyallpur in September 1928 the unanimously. This was the first time in history that Punjab Kirti Kisan Party (Workers and Peasants the Indian National Congress officially demanded Party of Punjab) was formed by the Kirti group. full independence from British rule. During the Chabil Das, a Lahore propagandist of the Madras session, the WPP functioned as a fraction. Naujawan Bharat Sabha, was elected president of Directly after the Madras Congress, the WPP took the party. In October 1928 two WPPs were formed part in a 'Republican Congress' meeting together in the United Provinces. One of them was the with other left elements of the Congress Party and Bundelkhand Workers and Peasants Party, with radical trade unionists. Nehru chaired the N.L.Kadam as its secretary and headquartered in meeting. Jhansi. The party held its founding conference in

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Jhansi on October 28-October 29, 1928.Jhavwala The political fortune of the WPP was to be from Bombay presided over the conference. The terminated by changes in policy of the Communist other was the U.P. Peasants and Workers Party International. The July 1928 sixth congress of the which was founded at a conference in Meerut. Communist International declared that 'The Union P.C. Joshi was elected president and Dharamvir of all communist groups and individuals scattered Singh was elected general secretary The Meerut throughout the country into a single, illegal, conference was attended by Philip Spratt, independent and centralized party represent the Muzaffar Ahmed and Kedar Nath Sahgol. first task for Indian communists.' This was a statement made in opposition to the building of All India WPP conference the 'multi-class' WPP. The new line was promoted In late November 1928 the WPP of Bengal at the congress by the Finnish communist Otto executive committee met with Philip Spratt and Kuusinen. In his report, he stated that it was Muzaffar Ahmed. They decided to appoint Sohan 'necessary to reject the formation of any kind of Singh Josh of the Punjab Kirti Kisan Party to chair bloc between the Communist Party and the the All India Workers and Peasants Conference, to national-reformist opposition' in the colonies. be held in Calcutta in December. The provincial Moreover, he claimed that parties like WPP could WPPs attended All India Workers and Peasants develop into petty bourgeois parties. Leon Trotsky Conference in Calcutta on December 22- concurred with this view. In June 1928, he had December 24, 1928, at which the All India Workers submitted a document which called WPP an and Peasants Party was formed. A 16-member invention of Joseph Stalin and that the party was a national executive was elected. The Bengal, 'thoroughly anti-Marxist formation'. Abani Bombay, Punjab and United Provinces were Mukherji, a founding member of CPI, had allocated four seats each in the national executive. described WPP as a 'Kuomintang Party' and that Out of these 16, ten were either identified as CPI WPP 'is accumulating by itself the elements of members or as 'communists'.R.S. Nimbkar was the future Indian Fascism.'. S.N.Tagore and the general secretary of the party. The conference delegates of the Communist Party of Great Britain discussed an affiliation of the party with the argued for retaining the WPP. This declaration League against Imperialism. Spratt and Ahmed created confusion amongst the communist ranks urged the conference to approve the affiliation of in India. On December 2, 1928, the Executive the party to the League. The conference decision Committee of the Communist International had to postpone a decision on the issue to a later drafted a letter to the WPP, which singled out the occasion. WPP as consisting '...largely of petit-bourgeois intellectuals, and they were tied up with either the 1929 Bombay municipal election system of landlordism and usury or straight away capitalist interests.' The letter did however take The party contested the January 1929 Bombay long time to reach the WPP. The Tenth Plenum of municipal election, mustering around 12,500 the ECCI, July 3-July 19, 1929, directed the Indian votes. communists to break with WPP. When the Comintern turns against the WPP communists deserted it, the WPP fell apart.

Meerut Conspiracy case

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On March 20, 1929, arrests against WPP, CPI and basis of class struggle, for the liberation of the other labour leaders were made in several parts of masses. The party combined demand for full India, in what became known as the Meerut independence with socio-economic demands. In Conspiracy Case. Most of the WPP leadership was 1927, the WPP of Bombay presented a now put behind bars. The trial proceedings were programme of action to the All India Congress to last for four years, thus outliving the WPP. Committee. The programme proposed struggle for Tengdi, the WPP of Bombay president, died whilst full independence combined with active socio- the trial was still going on.S.S. Mirajkar stated in economic policies for the toiling classes. The WPP his defense that:"It has already been pointed out of Bengal had submitted a manifesto the Madras to the Court that the Workers' and Peasants' Party Congress session, which sought that the Congress was a party inaugurated with a view to establish should engage in mass struggles for full national independence through revolution." Abdul independence and that a Constituent Assembly Majid on his behalf stated that:"If there is any should determine the constitution of an resemblance between the Communist Party and independent India. The party also worked for the the Workers' and Peasants' Party is that the abolishment of 'zamindari' system in agriculture. immediate programme of the former and the Publications ultimate programme of the latter is one and the same ... As both are revolutionary bodies it is The organ of the Labour Swaraj Party, and later necessary that their national revolutionary the WPP of Bengal, was Langal ('Plough'). The programme should resemble each other." chief editor of Langal was Kazi Nazrul Islam and the editor was Manibhusan Mukhopadhaya. The judgement in the case was ended with the Langal stopped publication after 15 issues. On following passage: August 12, 1926 it was substituted by Ganavani. In "As to the progress made in this conspiracy its 1928, the party also had a weekly Hindi organ, Lal main achievements have been the establishment Nishan ('Red Flag'). A weekly newspaper in of Workers and Peasant Parties in Bengal, Bombay Kushtia, Jagaran (‘awakening'), was politically and Punjab and the U.P., but perhaps of deeper close to the party.In Punjab the publication Kirti gravity was the hold that the members of the ('Worker') had been started in 1926 by Santokh Bombay Party acquired over the workers in the Singh of the Ghadar Party. Soon it became the textile industry in Bombay as shown by the extent organ of the Punjab Kirti Kisan Party and managed of the control which they exercised during the by Sohan Singh Josh. strike of 1928 and the success they were achieving COMMUNAL AWARD in pushing forward a thoroughly revolutionary policy in the Girni Kamgar Union after the strike When the Indian leadership failed to come up with came to an end."After the arrests of its main a constitutional solution of the communal issue, leaders, the WPP was dissolved. the British Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald announced his own formula for solving the Policies problem. He said that he was not only a Prime The founding manifesto of the Labour Swaraj Minister of Britain but was also a friend of the Party stressed that the party was organised on the Indians and thus wanted to solve the problems of

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 his friends. After the failure of the Second Round Conference in which they demanded for the Table conference, Mr. MacDonald announced the replacement of separate electorates by joint ‘Communal Award’ on August 16, 1932. According electorates. Many nationalist Muslims and Sikhs to the Award, the right of separate electorate was also participated in the conference. The Congress not only given to the Muslims of India but also to also rejected the Award in Toto. Gandhi protested all the minority communities in the country. The against the declaration of Untouchables as a Award also declared untouchables as a minority minority and undertook a fast unto death. He also and thus the Hindu depressed classes were given a held meetings with the Untouchable leadership number of special seats, to be filled from special for the first time and try to convince them that depressed class electorates in the area where they were very much part of the mainstream their voters were concentrated. Under the Hindu society. He managed to sign the Poona Pact Communal Award, the principle of weightage was with Dr.B.R. Ambedker, the leader of also maintained with some modifications in the Untouchables in which the Congress met many of Muslim minority provinces. Principle of weightage the Untouchables’ demands. was also applied for Europeans in Bengal and Poona Pact of 1932 Assam, Sikhs in the Punjab and North West Frontier Province, and Hindus in Sindh and North Poona Pact of 1932 is an agreement between the West Frontier Province. untouchables or depressed classes of India and the Hindus. Dr. B.R.Ambedkar led the depressed Though the Muslims constituted almost 56 class. The Poona Pact took place at Yerawada Jail percent of the total population of Punjab, they in Pune, Maharashtra on 24th September, were given only 86 out of 175 seats in the Punjab 1932.During the first Round Table Conference, Assembly. The Muslim majority of 54.8 percent in Ambedkar favored the move of the British Punjab was thus reduced to a minority. The Government to provide separate electorate for formula favored the Sikhs of Punjab and the the oppressed classes as was done in case of other Europeans of Bengal the most. The Award was not minorities like Muslims, Sikh etc. The British popular with any Indian party. Muslims were not invited various Indian leaders in Round Table happy with the Communal Award, as it has Conferences during 1930-32 to draft a new reduced their majority in Punjab and Bengal to a constitution involving self rule for native Indians. minority. Yet they were prepared to accept it. In Mahatma Gandhi did not attend the first Round its annual session held in November 1933, the All Table but was present in the later ones. Gandhiji India Muslim League passed a resolution that strongly opposed the proposal of separate reads; “Though the decision falls far short of the electorate for the depressed classes as he thought Muslim demands, the Muslims have accepted it in that it would disintegrate Hindu society. He went the best interest of the country, reserving to for an indefinite hunger strike starting from themselves the right to press for the acceptance September 20,1932 against the decision of the of all their demands.” On the other hand, the then British Prime Minister J.Ramsay Mac Donald. Hindus refused to accept the awards and decided Mr. Ramsay granted communal award to the to launch a campaign against it. For them it was depressed classes as he gave them separate not possible to accept the Untouchables as a minority. They organized the Allahabad Unity

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 position in the constitution for governance of taken into consideration then. The legislature British India. pointed out that the method of the single vote and four persons getting the highest number of The whole country was agitated at the health votes in such primary elections shall be the concern of Mahatma Gandhi. A mass upsurge candidates for election by the general electorate. generated in India to save the life of Gandhiji. Ambedkar was put in a great pressure and he was 3. The symbol of the Depressed Classes in the forced to soften his stand. The compromise Central Legislature shall be based on the principle between the leaders of caste Hindu and the of joint electorates and reserved seats by the depressed classes were achieved when Dr. method of primary election in the manner B.R.Ambedkar signed the Poona Pact on provided for in clause above for their September 24, 1932.The resolution was representation in the provincial legislatures. announced in a public meeting on September 25 4. In the Central Legislature eighteen per cent of in Bombay, which confirmed-" henceforth, the seats allotted to the general electorate for amongst Hindus no one shall be regarded as an British India in the said legislature shall be untouchable by reason of his birth and they will reserved for the Depressed Classes. have the same rights in all the social institutions as the other Hindus have". This was a landmark step 5. The system of primary election to a panel of for Dalit movement in India that gave share to the candidates for election to the Central and Dalits in the political empowerment of democratic Provincial Legislatures as herein-before mentioned India. shall come to an end after the first ten years, unless terminated sooner by mutual agreement The following text represents the agreement under the provision of clause 6 below. achieved between the leaders acting on behalf of the oppressed classes and of rest of the 6. The system of representation of Depressed community, regarding the position of that Classes by reserved seats in the Provincial and particular class in the legislature and certain other Central Legislatures as provided for in clauses (1) matters involved with their welfare. and (4) shall continue until determined otherwise by mutual agreement between the communities 1.There shall be reserved seats for the depressed concerned in this settlement. classes out of general electorate seats in the provincial legislature as follows- Madras 30; 7. The Franchise for the Central and Provincial Bombay with Sind 25; Punjab 8; Bihar and Orissa Legislatures of the Depressed Classes shall be as 18; Central Provinces 20; Assam 7; Bengal 30; indicated, in the Lothian Committee Report. United Provinces 20. Total 148.These figures are based on the Prime Minister`s (British) decision. 8. There shall be no disabilities attached to any one on the ground of his being a member of the 2. Election to these seats shall be by joint Depressed Classes in regard to any election to electorate subjects by the following procedures - local bodies or appointment to the public services. the members of the depressed classes formed the Every endeavour shall be made to secure a fair Electoral College, which was in liberty to elect the representation of the Depressed Classes in these panel of the depressed classes. Voting system was respects, subject to such educational qualifications

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 as may be laid down for appointment to the Public Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani, Services. Singaravelu Chettiar, Ghulam Hussain and R.C. Sharma were charged, in Cawnpore (now spelt 9. In every province out of the educational grant Kanpur) Bolshevik Conspiracy case. The specific an adequate sum shall be earmarked for providing charge was that they as communists were seeking educational facilities to the members of "to deprive the King Emperor of his sovereignty of Depressed Classes. British India, by complete separation of India from Emergence of the Communist Party of India imperialistic Britain by a violent revolution."Pages of newspapers daily splashed sensational The Communist Party of India was founded in communist plans and people for the first time Tashkent on October 17, 1920, soon after the learned such a large scale about communism and Second Congress of the Communist International. its doctrines and the aims of the Communist The founding members of the party were M.N. International in India. Singaravelu Chettiar was Roy, Evelina Trench Roy (Roy's wife), Abani released on account of illness. M.N. Roy was in Mukherji, Rosa Fitingof (Abani's wife), Mohammad Germany and R.C. Sharma in French Pondicherry, Ali (Ahmed Hasan), Mohammad Shafiq Siddiqui and therefore could not be arrested. Ghulam and M.P.B.T. Acharya. The CPI began efforts to Hussain confessed that he had received money build a party organisation inside India. Roy made from the Russians in Kabul and was pardoned. contacts with Anushilan and Jugantar groups in Muzaffar Ahmed, Nalini Gupta, Shaukat Usmani Bengal.Small communist groups were formed in and Dange were sentenced for various terms of Bengal (led by Muzaffar Ahmed), Bombay (led by imprisonment. This case was responsible for S.A. Dange), Madras (led by Singaravelu Chettiar), actively introducing communism to a larger Indian United Provinces (led by Shaukat Usmani) and audience. Dange was released from prison in Punjab (led by Ghulam Hussain). However, only 1925. Usmani became a CPI party member. On December 25, 1925 a communist conference During the 1920s and beginning of 1930s the party was organized in Kanpur. Colonial authorities was badly organized, and in practice there were estimated that 500 persons took part in the several communist groups working with limited conference.The conference was convened by a national coordination. The British colonial man called Satyabhakta. At the conference authorities had banned all communist activity, Satyabhakta argued for a 'national communism' which made the task of building a united party and against subordination under Comintern. Being very difficult. Between 1921 and 1924 there were outvoted by the other delegates, Satyabhakta left four conspiracy trials against the communist both the conference venue in protest.The movement; First Peshawar Conspiracy Case, conference adopted the name 'Communist Party Second Peshawar Conspiracy Case, Moscow of India'. Groups such as LKPH dissolved into the Conspiracy Case and the Cawnpore Bolshevik unified CPI. The émigré CPI, which probably had Conspiracy Case. In the first three cases, Russian- little organic character anyway, was effectively trained muhajir communists were put on trial. substituted by the organization now operating However, the Cawnpore trial had more political inside India. Soon after the 1926 conference of the impact. On March 17, 1924, M.N. Roy, S.A. Dange, Workers and Peasants Party of Bengal, the

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 underground CPI directed its members to join the was reorganised in 1933, after the communist provincial Workers and Peasants Parties. All open leaders from the Meerut trials were released. A communist activities were carried out through central committee of the party was set up. In 1934 Workers and Peasants Parties. the party was accepted as the Indian section of the Communist International. When Indian The sixth congress of the Communist International leftwing elements formed the Congress Socialist met in 1928. In 1927 the Kuomintang had turned Party in 1934, the CPI branded it as Social Fascist. on the Chinese communists, which led to a review In connection with the change of policy of the of the policy on forming alliances with the national Comintern toward Popular Front politics, the bourgeoisie in the colonial countries. The Colonial Indian communists changed their relation to the theses of the 6th Comintern congress called upon Indian National Congress. The communists joined the Indian communists to combat the 'national- the Congress Socialist Party, which worked as the reformist leaders' and to 'unmask the national left wing of Congress. Through joining CSP the CPI reformism of the Indian National Congress and accepted the CSP demand for Constituent oppose all phrases of the Swarajists, Gandhists, Assembly, which it had denounced two years etc. about passive resistance'. The congress did before. The CPI however analysed that the however some differentiation between the demand for Constituent Assembly would not be a character of the Chinese Kuomintang and the substitute for soviets. Indian Swarajist Party, considering the latter as neither a reliable ally nor a direct enemy. The In July 1937, the first Kerala unit of CPI was congress called on the Indian communists to founded at a clandestine meeting in Calicut.Five utilize the contradictions between the national persons were present at the meeting, E.M.S. bourgeoisie and the British imperialists. The Namboodiripad, Krishna Pillai, N.C.Sekhar, K. congress also denounced the WPP. The Tenth Damodaran and S.V. Ghate. The first four were Plenum of the Executive Committee of the members of the CSP in Kerala. The latter, Ghate, Communist International, July 3, 1929 – July 19, was a CPI Central Committee member, who had 1929, directed the Indian communists to break arrived from Madras. Contacts between the CSP in with WPP. When the communists deserted it, the Kerala and the CPI had begun in 1935, when P. WPP fell apart. Sundarayya (CC member of CPI, based in Madras at the time) met with EMS and Krishna Pillai. On March 20, 1929, arrests against WPP, CPI and Sundarayya and Ghate visited Kerala at several other labour leaders were made in several parts of times and met with the CSP leaders there. The India, in what became known as the Meerut contacts were facilitated through the national Conspiracy Case. The communist leadership was meetings of the Congress, CSP and All India Kisan now put behind bars. The trial proceedings were Sabha. In 1936-1937, the cooperation between to last for four years. As of 1934, the main centres socialists and communists reached its peak.At the of activity of CPI were Bombay; Calcutta and 2nd congress of the CSP, held in Meerut in January Punjab. The party had also begun extending its 1936, a thesis was adopted which declared that activities to Madras. A group of Andhra and Tamil there was a need to build 'a united Indian Socialist students, amongst them P. Sundarayya, were Party based on Marxism-Leninism'. At the 3rd CSP recruited to the CPI by Amir Hyder Khan. The party congress, held in Faizpur, several communists

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 were included into the CSP National Executive the party. The conference adopted the Committee. 'Programme of Democratic Revolution'. This programme included the first mention of struggle In Kerala communists won control over CSP, and against caste injustice in a CPI document. for a brief period controlled Congress there. Two communists, E.M.S. Namboodiripad and Z.A. In several areas the party led armed struggles Ahmed, became All India joint secretaries of CSP. against a series of local monarchs that were The CPI also had two other members inside the reluctant to give up their power. Such insurgencies CSP executive. On the occasion of the 1940 took place in Tripura, Telangana and Kerala. The Ramgarh Congress Conference CPI released a most important rebellion took place in Telangana, declaration called Proletarian Path, which sought against the Nizam of Hyderabad. The Communists to utilize the weakened state of the British Empire built up a people's army and militia and controlled in the time of war and gave a call for general an area with a population of three million. The strike, no-tax, no-rent policies and mobilising for rebellion was brutally crushed and the party an armed revolution uprising. The National abandoned the policy of armed struggle.BTR was Executive of the CSP assembled at Ramgarh took a deposed and denounced as a 'left adventurist'. decision that all communists were expelled from In the general elections in 1957, the CPI emerged CSP. as the largest opposition party.In 1957, the CPI In July 1942, the CPI was legalised. Communists won the state elections in Kerala. This was the first strengthened their control over the All India Trade time that an opposition party won control over an Union Congress. At the same time; communists Indian state.E.M.S.Namboodiripad became Chief were politically cornered for their opposition to Minister. At the 1957 international meeting of the Quit India Movement.CPI contested the Communist parties in Moscow, the Communist Provincial Legislative Assembly elections of 1946 Party of China directed criticism at the CPI for of its own. It had candidates in 108 out of 1585 having formed a ministry in Kerala. seats. It won in eight seats. In total the CPI vote A serious rift within the party surfaced in 1962. counted 666 723, which should be seen with the One reason was the Sino-Indian War, where a backdrop that 86% of the adult population of India faction of the Indian Communists backed the lacked voting rights. The party had contested position of the Indian government, while other three seats in Bengal, and won all of them. One sections of the party claimed that it was a conflict CPI candidate, Somanth Lahiri, was elected to the between a socialist and a capitalist state, and thus Constituent Assembly. In 1946 the party launched took a pro-Chinese position. There were three the Tebhaga movement in Bengal, a militant factions in the party - "internationalists", campaign against feudalism. During the period "centrists", and "nationalists"."Internationalists", around and directly following Independence in including B.T.Ranadive, P.Sundarayya, P.C.Joshi, 1947, the internal situation in the party was Makineni Basavapunnaiah, Jyoti Basu, and chaotic. The party shifted rapidly between Harkishan Singh Surjeet, supported the Chinese leftwing and right-wing positions. In February, stand. The "nationalists", including prominent 1948, at the 2nd Party Congress in Calcutta, B.T. leaders such as S.A. Dange, A.K.Gopalan backed Ranadive (BTR) was elected General Secretary of India."Centrists" took a neutral view; Ajoy Ghosh

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 was the prominent person in the centrist faction. its banner. Soon, its leaders became increasingly In general, most of Bengal Communist leaders distant with Congress and repeatedly came in supported China and most others supported India. confrontation with Congress governments, in Hundreds of CPI leaders, accused of being pro- Bihar and United Province. Chinese, were imprisoned. Some of the In the subsequent years, the movement was nationalists were also imprisoned, as they used to increasingly dominated by Socialists and express their opinion only in party forums, and Communists as it moved away from the Congress. CPI's official stand was pro-China. Ideological By the 1938 Haripura session of the Congress, differences lead to the split in the party in 1964 under the presidency of Netaji Subhash Chandra when two different party conferences were held, Bose, the rift became evident and, by May 1942, one of CPI and one of the Communist Party of the Communist Party of India, which was finally India (Marxist). legalized by the government in July 1942, had FORMATION OF ALL INDIA KISAN SABHA taken over AIKS all across India, including Bengal where its membership grew considerably. It took All India Kisan Sabha is the peasant or farmers' on the Communist Party's line of People's War and wing of the Communist Party of India. The Kisan stayed away from the Quit India Movement which Sabha movement started in Bihar under the started in August 1942, though this also meant leadership of Swami Sahajanand Saraswati, who losing its popular base. Many of its members had formed in 1929 the Bihar Provincial Kisan defied party orders and joined the movement. Sabha (BPKS) to mobilise peasant grievances Prominent members like N.G. Ranga, Indulal against the zamindari attacks on their occupancy Yagnik and Swami Sahajananda soon left the rights. Gradually the peasant movement organization, which increasingly found it difficult intensified and spread across the rest of India. All to approach the peasants without the watered- these radical developments on the peasant front down approach of pro-British and pro-war, and culminated in the formation of the All India Kisan increasing its pronationalist agenda, much to the Sabha (AIKS) at the Lucknow session of the Indian dismay of the British Raj which always though National Congress in April 1936, with Swami Communists would help them in countering the Sahajanand Saraswati elected as its first president. nationalist movement. The Communist Party of The other prominent members of this Sabha were India (CPI) split into two in 1964; following this, so N.G. Ranga, Ram Manohar Lohia, Jayaprakash did the All India Kisan Sabha, which each faction Narayan, Acharya Narendra Dev and Bankim affiliated to the splinters. Mukerji, and it involved prominent leaders like N.G. Ranga, E.M.S. Namboodiripad, Pandit Government of India Act, 1935 Karyanand Sharma, Pandit Yamuna Karjee, Pandit The Montague-Chelmsford Reforms of 1919 had Yadunandan (Jadunandan) Sharma, Rahul brought a large scale discontentment among the Sankrityayan, P. Sundarayya, Ram Manohar Lohia, people of India. The Non-Cooperation Movement and Bankim Mukerji. The Kisan Manifesto, launched by Gandhi had fanned the fire of this released in August 1936, demanded abolition of discontentment. In order to give some concession the zamindari system and cancellation of rural to Indians in the field of administration, the debts; in October 1937 it adopted the red flag as Government of India Act, 1935 was designed on

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 the basis of the recommendation of Simon Reserved Subjects which were looked after by Commission. It envisaged an administrative set-up Viceroy through Executive Councilors and for India such as: transferred Subjects through the Indian ministers, not more than 10 in number selected from the 1. A Federal government would be established in Legislature. Thus, this system of Diarchy was fully India with the inclusion of the native States. introduced in the Centre. At the Centre the 2. Diarchy introduced by the Act Of 1919 should Federal Legislature consisted of two Houses, the be abolished from the State and established in the Council of States and Federal Assembly consisting Centre. of 260 and 375 members respectively. The Council of States (Upper House) was permanent body 3. The provinces would be given complete whose one-third members retired every year. autonomy and the administrative subjects divided into three lists i.e. Federal List that included the In case of the Provincial Government, the subjects assigned to the Central Government; the Governor carried on the administration with the Provincial List that consisted of all the subjects help of a Council of Ministers selected by him from under the sole jurisdiction of the provinces and among the members of the Provincial Legislature. finally, the Concurrent List upon whose subjects Of course, the composition of the Provincial both the Centre and Provinces would exercise Legislature was different in several Provinces. The their combined authority. Legislatures of U.P., Bihar, Assam, Bengal, Madras and Bombay consisted of two Houses - the 4. A Federal Court was established at the Centre. Legislative Assembly and the Legislative Council whereas in other provinces, it consisted of one Besides these main provisions, it also contained House i.e.Legislative Assembly. The members of the provisions of the formation of the provinces of these Houses varied from Province to Province. Sindh and Orissa, separate and communal electorate system with reduction of the The India Act of 1935 was sugarcoated quinine as qualification of voters; separation of Burma and was apparent from the very beginning. Though it Aden from India and so on. Accordingly, the Home introduced Diarchy in the Centre and autonomy in Government in England was reformed. The Indian the Province but the power of the elected or Council was abolished and a few advisers varying nominated members were limited. Further, it from 3 to 6 were appointed to advise the fanned the fire of communalism by retaining Secretary of States in his policy formulation separate reserved electorates. In actual practice, towards India. The Secretary was normally not this Act did not create scope for the self- expected to poke his nose in the Indian affairs experience of the Indian Legislators as they which were to be carried on by Governors. enjoyed only limited powers. On the other hand, the India Act, 1935 had its merits too. It Further, a High Commission was to be appointed introduced Diarchy in the Centre and granted by the Viceroy of India for a period of five years. provincial autonomy. It also created field for some Coming to the Federal Government, the Viceroy practical experiences on the part of Indian leaders. remained its head. He exercised a wide range of In the ensuing election of 1936-37, the All-India power concerning administration, legislation and Congress gained majority in Madras, Bombay, finance. The Act had created provisions for

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Central Provinces, U.P., Bihar and Orissa. In Assam legislature will form the ministry that will function and northwestern frontier, it became the largest on collective responsibility. single party. Similarly, the Muslim League got The Outcome of the Provincial Election in 1936- absolute majority in Sindh. The legislators got 1937 experience in forming ministry in these provinces. The most important fact regarding the The Provincial Elections which came as an achievement of the Act can be stated that the outcome of the Government of India Act of 1935 political experience ingenerated in the minds of was contested by both the parties with an the Indian leaders went a long way in making the expectation to have a chance for creating one`s people of India conscious for their political liberty own government with their own representatives. which they achieved in 1947. In spite of their personal contentions over the provisions of Government of India Act, 1935 these PROVINCIAL ELECTIONS parties decided to prepare the agenda for The Provincial Elections of 1936-37 was a leading elections and contest it with utmost sincerity. The event which highlighted the clashing powers of election manifesto of both the parties showed a both Indian National Congress and the Muslim lot of differences. While the manifesto of Muslim League. Though the terms of the Government of League was vague and could hardly impress its India Act was not acceptable to both the parties community with any particular promise except the yet both chose to contest the election which concern showed towards the Muslim community would help them to assess the view of the for their religious rights which it claims to protect, common mass and the popular acceptance of the further asks for the repeal of all the repressive parties. As such the parties depended on the laws, reduction of cost of administration, social, outcome of the election to read the reaction of economic as well as political upliftment of the the common man towards the prevailing political Muslim communities. upheaval. The election manifesto of the Congress, on the Provisions of the Government of India Act, 1935 other hand, had been quite clear. As drafted by Jawaharlal Nehru it was more specific in which it The provincial elections came as a result of the rejected `the new constitution to its entirety`. It provision made in the Government of India Act of further presented the growing mass support of 1935 which stated that an electorate of nearly 36 the people and the role played by them in million as compared to 7 million in 1920, participating in the freedom struggle. The election representing 30 percent of the adult population, showed the popular strength of Indian National would elect 1585 representatives for the Congress all over the country. Out of 1161 seats it provincial legislature. This created excitement won 716 seats and secured a clear majority in among all the Indian political parties who almost six provinces out of eleven provinces in considered it to be the first constitutionally British India. It emerged as one of the largest party responsible effort made by the British government winning the majority of three large states of India. towards India making India constitutionally more Congress fared best in the state of Uttar Pradesh responsible .The Act envisaged that the party where it secured 133 out of 288 seats, in Bihar 95 which will win the majority of seats in the out of 152, in Bombay (now Mumbai) 88 out of

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175 ,in Central Province 71 out of 112, in Madras South East Asia. These developments led to the (now Chennai) and Orissa it gained 150 out of 215 widening of the war into a world war. seats and 36 out of 60 seats respectively. The Indian national leaders were opposed to fascism success of Congress in North West Frontier and condemned it as the enemy of the freedom. Province shattered the Muslim League. The Many countries, allies against fascism, put League also fared badly in Muslim majority pressure on the British government to concede provinces like Bengal. Out of 117 seats it won 38, the demand of the Indian people. In March 1942, in Punjab 2 out of 84 and in Sindh 3 out of 33. Sir Stafford Cripps came to India to hold talks with Thus the election results exhibited the popularity the Indian leaders, which failed because the of the Congress where the Muslim League could British were not willing to promise independence stand in no competition. However, even after to India. At last, in August, 1942, Gandhiji gave winning popularity none of the parties could claim forth the slogan 'Quit India'. The Congress passed the Muslim representation as in case of Congress a resolution on 8th August 1942, which mentioned the election results could only show its popularity the 'immediate ending of British rule in India'. The but not popular representation. day after the resolution was passed, the Congress was banned and all the important leaders were pushed behind the bars. SECOND WORLD WAR AND INDIAN NATIONALISTS After the arrest of the leaders, there were spontaneous demonstrations all over India. The In September 1939, the Second World War broke government tried to suppress the demonstrations. out. Indian opinion was not sought but the British Hundreds of people were killed and over 70,000 government dragged India in the war as a party. persons arrested. In 1941, Subhash Chandra Bose Britain which claimed to be fighting for freedom had escaped from India and had reached had destroyed the freedom of the Indian people Germany. In July 1943 he came to Singapore. The and had dragged India into the war. But India Indian National Army was organised from among cannot associate herself in a war said to be for the Indian soldiers who had been taken prisoner democratic freedom, when that very freedom is by the Japanese. In 1944, three units of Indian denied to her. The Congress demanded the National Army along with Japanese troops moved establishment of an Indian government into the Imphal Kohima. Though the attempt to responsible to the Central Legislative Assembly. liberate India failed, the activities of Subhash The British government did not agree even to this. Chandra Bose and the INA served to strengthen In November 1939, the Congress resigned in the anti-imperialist struggle in India. protest. In October 1940, the Individual Quit India Movement Satyagraha was launched by Gandhiji. Vinoba Bhave was chosen as the first person to offer the Quit India Movement which took place in the Satyagraha. Within six months about 25,000 month of August has been one of the most persons were in jail. At this time Germany popular mass movements during the freedom attacked U.S.S.R and Japan attacked the U.S. naval struggle of India. With the failure of Cripps Mission station at Pearl Harbor, and started advancing in the political situation had worsened leaving every

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 individual with full of frustration and disgust. The July Resolution was purposely neglected by People in total frustration eagerly waited for one the government who now blamed the demands as such popular movement which could bring a wrong timed. This forced the Indian National complete end to Imperialism in India. It was at this Congress to pass another resolution in August moment when Congress under the leadership of 1942, which took the July resolution as the basis Mahatma Gandhi called for Quit India Movement for the new resolution. The Resolution for Quit which turned out to be the most popular mass India was made in the Bombay (now Mumbai) movement engulfing every section of the society. session of Congress held in 8th August, 1942 .The Quit India Movement was one of the active agenda of the resolution declared that the actions taken by the Indian National Congress committee resolves to sanction for the vindication passed through the resolutions of July and August of India`s alienable right to freedom and 1942 insisting for an immediate independence for independence, the starting of a mass struggle on India. Against the background of Cripps Mission the non - violent lines on the widest possible scale and the compulsive inclusion of India in the war so that the country must utilize all non violent the political scenario in India had worsened .As strength which it has gathered since last twenty such if Congress was to keep its promises for an years. The committee placed the entire movement independent India , the time has come when under Gandhi`s leadership and it was expected Congress was to give a final blow to British that with launching of the movement every man paramount in India. and woman who will be participating the movement must function within four general In July, Congress passed a resolution demanding instruction of the party. In his famous `Do or Die` immediate end of British rule in India. The speech Gandhi declared four parameters of the resolution gave a brief account of the efforts made Quit India Movement - firstly forget the by the congress to convince the British Rulers of differences between the Hindus and the Muslims the necessity to make India free not only for the and think yourself as an Indian only; secondly benefit for India but for the safety of the world as realize that our quarrel is not with the British well as the end of Nazism, Fascism, militarism and people but with Imperialism under which they other forms of imperialism all over the world. It function; thirdly feel from today that you are a further claimed that it had no intentions to free man and not a dependent; and fourthly Do or humiliate the Allied Powers and so appealed the Die, either free India or in the attempt. British Rule to withdraw its rule from India as soon as possible. It further reiterated its efforts to solve In spite of his passing of the resolution he declared the ever existing the communal drifts and that the struggle has yet not started and it will cooperate with the efforts of United Nations to commence only after he meets the Viceroy with create a peaceful world .As such if the government these demands. He appealed to all the journalists, fails to grant the demands of the Congress then it civil servants, princes, soldiers and students to will compel the party to go for a mass movement realize their responsibility towards the nation and on the non violence basis which will gather all its participate if they wish to see India free on the non violent strength as collected since 1920 and non - violent means. organize a mass civil disobedience movement. Reaction of British to the Movement

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The attitude of the British Government had also On the other side the war also came in favour of changed which now wanted to suppress every Allied powers .This made the secretary of State to movement which will hamper its war image .As a condemn the Congress as growing revolutionary result the quit India resolution was passed on 8th under Gandhi which aimed at crippling the August and by 24 hours on 9 August Gandhi and government. As the government continued to all prominent leaders were arrested. Congress was blame Mahatma Gandhi for the violence taking declared an illegal party and simultaneous arrests place after the declaration of Quit India took place all over the country. Quit India Movement, Gandhi gave an ultimatum with a 21 Movement has been popularly divided into three days fasting which began in 10th February 1943 phases .The first phase started from the day of and ended in 3rd March. Its main purpose was to Gandhi`s arrest. The news of Quit India Movement draw world`s attention towards India cause. and Gandhi`s arrest took the people unaware but Overall the Quit India Movement was successful in the reaction was spontaneous. All the major cities breaking the myth o f the government that it was of India which included Bombay (now Mumbai), the most popularly accepted government and that Calcutta (now Kolkata), Bangalore, Ahmedabad, it was run by the majority of people who were Patna and many more cities faced hartals and the loyal to the crown. Turning out to be the most entire nation came to a standstill. Government`s popular movement in the freedom struggle for reaction was repressive which began with India this movement saw participation from all indiscriminate firing and mass arrest. sections of people. The second phase began from the middle of Indian National Army August when the, focus shifted from the center to the out skirts where mobs began to attack the Indian National Army, also known as the Azad court buildings. Places like Eastern parts of Uttar Hind Fauj, was formed for the liberation of India Pradesh, Bihar and Midnapore in West Bengal , from the British rule. It was formed in South-East parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Orissa where Asia in the year 1942 by pioneering Indian infuriated mobs tried to set up parallel Nationalists and prisoners who wanted to throw governments though short lived and unsuccessful. off the yoke of foreign domination and liberate The large suppressions executed by the the country. The INA was initially formed under government helped the people to organize the Mohan Singh, after the fall of Singapore, the third phase of the movement which entered its captain in the 1/14th Punjab Regiment in the longest and most formidable phase. This was British Army. However, the first INA under Mohan characterized by the terrorist activities of the Singh collapsed and finally it was revived under educated youth and was directed against the leadership of Subash Chandra Bose in 1943. communications and police confrontations, Bose`s army was declared as the Azri Hukumat e occasionally rising to the level of guerrilla warfare. Azad Hind. Indian National Army emerged along In Bombay (now Mumbai), Poona, Satara, Baroda, with Mahatma Gandhi`s peaceful resistance parts of Kerela, Karnataka and Uttar Pradesh movement within India. In contrast to Mahatma underground organizations became active. Gandhi, Bose advocated a more aggressive Government atrocities crossed all limits but failed confrontation with the British authorities. to restrict the movement from reaching its climax.

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Origin of Indian National Army Battles of Indian National Army

INA was formed during the first world war when The battles that were fought by the Indian the Ghadar Party and the emergence form of the National Army during World War II were fought in Indian Independence League planned to rebel in the South-East Asian region. The operations the British Indian Army from the Punjab through include Malayan Campaign in 1942 as well as Bengal to Hong Kong. However, this plan met with Burma Campaign. The operations of the INA failure after the information was leaked to British involved the battle of Imphal, Kohima, Pokoku and Intelligence. During the Second World War, the Irrawady River operations. It began a long march plan to fight the British found revival and a over land and on foot towards Bangkok, along number of leaders and movements were initiated. with Subash Chandra Bose. At the time of Japan`s These included the various "liberation armies" surrender in September 1945, Bose left for which were formed in as well as with the help of Manchuria to attempt to contact the advancing Italy, Germany as well as in South-east Asia. Thus Soviet troops, and was reported to have died in an in South East Asia the concept of the Indian air crash near Taiwan. On the other hand the INA National Army emerged. It was supported by the fighters were imprisoned. The prisoners faced the Japanese 15th army and led by Bose. death penalty, life imprisonment or a fine as punishment if found guilty. Composition of the Indian National Army Women in Indian National Army Indian National Army had many valued freedom fighters that helped in the battles. They all had a Indian National Army was structured in a way that brilliant background and fought for a similar cause, lodged active participation from women. A freedom of India. The INA freedom fighters were women regiment was formed in 1943. INA had from every sphere ranging from barristers to John Thivy, Dr. Lakhsmi Sehgal, Narayan plantation workers. The revival of the Indian Karruppiah as well as Janaki Thevar as its National Army was done by Subhash Chandra members. Among the masses attending Bose`s Bose. Most of the people who joined the army had rally on 9 July, Dr.Lakshmi, responded immediately no prior military experience and thus to ensure a to his appeal to form a Women`s Regiment. She well-trained army, Bose established an Officers visited many families to persuade the women to Training School for INA officers and the Azad join the INA. Many were reluctant; however, she School for the civilian volunteers Many youth managed to gather twenty enthusiastic girls who were also sent to the Imperial Military Academy in were willing to break the traditional barriers. The Japan for advanced training. Every soldier was girls presented the guard-of-honour to Bose. He required to spend about six to eight hours of was impressed and invited Dr. Lakshmi to lead the training daily. The training included physical Women`s Regiment. On 12 July 1943, Bose training, army drill and handling arms such as announced the formation of the Women`s rifles, pistols, hand grenades and bayonets. The Regiment, naming it "Rani of Jhansi Regiment" soldiers also attended lectures of Indian and world which in later years was considered to be a special history and military subjects like map reading as characteristic of the INA. INA fighters were not well as signaling. invited to join the Indian Army after India`s independence. However, a few ex-INA members

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 later have seen prominent public life or held states would be free to join, and in any case their important positions in independent India. The treaty arrangements would be revised to meet the Indian National Army thus rose to power under new situation. the able leadership of Bose. Though it was The offer dominated Indian politics for the rest of ultimately disbanded, its heroic attempts at the war. Although the British official circles forming an army and taking a radical step towards claimed that the Cripps offer marked a great Indian Independence marked a significant step in advance for its frankness and precision, it was the Indian Independence Movement. plagued throughout, and ultimately torpedoed, by Cripps Mission numerous ambiguities and misunderstandings. The Congress was very critical of the clauses Cripps Mission was deputed by British parliament regarding nomination of the states' in early 1942 to contain the political crisis representatives by the rulers and the provincial obtained in India. The mission was headed by Sir option Jawaharlal Nehru had desperately sought a Stafford Cripps, a Cabinet Minister. Cripps, a settlement largely because of his desire to radical member of the Labour Party and the then mobilize Indian support in the anti-fascist war, Leader of the House of Commons, was known as a while most Congress working Committee strong supporter of Indian national movement. members and Gandhi himself had been apathetic. Cripps Mission was prompted by two This embittered Congress-British relations and considerations. First, Gandhi's call for the things were then rapidly moving towards a total Satyagraha (literally 'insistence on truth', generally confrontation in the form of quit India movement. rendered 'soul force') movement in October 1940 But Cripps blamed the Congress for the failure of was designed to embarrass Britain's war efforts by the Plan, while the Congress held the British a mass upheaval in India and needed to be ended government responsible for it. A chance of in the British interest. Secondly, the fall of establishing a united independent India was thus Singapore (15 February 1942), Rangoon (8 March), lost. and the Andamans (23 March) to the Japanese was threatening the entire fabric of British colonial The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny (RIN Mutiny) empire. In the face of these crises, the British felt The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny or the Bombay obliged to make some gestures to win over Indian Mutiny was the revolt of the Indian sailors. The public support. sailors who belonged to the Royal Indian Navy on The Cripps offer reiterated the intention of the board ship and shore establishments at Bombay British government to set up an Indian Union harbour went for a strike and organised a mutiny within the British Commonwealth as soon as on 18th February 1946.The whole mutiny involved possible after the war, and proposed specific steps 78 ships, 20 shore establishments and 20,000 towards that end. A constituent assembly would sailors. This revolt subsequently came to be be elected by the provincial legislatures acting as known as the RIN revolt. It started as a protest an Electoral College. This body would then against their general conditions. The immediate negotiate a treaty with the British government. reason for the outbreak of the mutiny was their The future right of secession from the pay and food. In addition to that there were more Commonwealth was explicitly stated. The Indian elementary matters such as racist behaviour by

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Royal Navy personnel towards Indian sailors, and National Army between November 1945 and May disciplinary measures taken against the sailors 1946 variously for treason, torture, murder and who demonstrated nationalist sympathy. The R.I.N abetment to murder. The first, and most famous, revolt started electing a Naval Central Strike of the approximately ten trials was held in the Red committee, Signalman M.S Khan and Telegraphist Fort in Delhi, hence deriving the name. In total, Madan Singh were elected as the President and approximately ten courts-martial were held. The Vice-President respectively. first of these, and the most celebrated one, was the joint court-martial of Colonel Prem Sahgal, The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was widely Colonel Gurubaksh Singh Dhillon and Major supported by the Indian population. The one day General Shah Nawaz Khan. The three had been strike spread to other cities from Bombay and the officers in the British Indian Army and taken POW Royal Indian Air Force and local police forces also in Malaya or Singapore. They had, like a large joined this mutiny. Furthermore, in Madras and number of other troops and officers of the British Pune, the British garrisons had to face revolts Indian Army, joined the Indian National Army and within the ranks of the Indian Army. The later fought in Imphal and Burma alongside the mutinying ships hoisted three flags which were Japanese forces in allegiance to Azad Hind. These tied together those of the Congress, Muslim three came to be the only defendants in the INA League, and the Red Flag of the Communist Party trials who were charged of "Waging War against of India (CPI). The flags signified the unity and the King Emperor" (The Indian Army act of 1911 demarginalisation of communal issues among the did not have a separate charge for treason) as well mutineers. The Royal Indian Navy Mutiny was as Murder and abetment of Murder. Those called off following a meeting between the charged later only faced trial for torture and President of the Naval Central Strike Committee murder or abetment of murder. The trials covered (NCSC), M. S. Khan, and Vallab Bhai Patel of the arguments based on Military Law, Constitutional Congress. Vallab Bhai Patel was sent to Bombay to Law, International Law, and Politics. These trials settle the crisis. Thus; Patel put forth a statement attracted much publicity, and public sympathy for calling on the strikers to end their action. the defendants who were perceived as patriots in Mohammed Ali Jinnah on behalf of the Muslim India, and outcry over the grounds of the trial, as League also supported the statement of Patel. As a well as general emerging unease and unrest within result, the strike ended and in spite of assurances the troops of the Raj ultimately forced the then of the good services there were widespread Army Chief Claude Auchinleck to commute the arrests of the Congress and the Muslim League. sentences of the three defendants in the first trial. Furthermore, there were incidents of courts martial and large scale dismissals from the service. Cabinet Mission However, after independence none of the Cabinet Mission which arrived on 24th March dismissed returned into either of the Indian or 1946 was mainly aimed at devolution of power Pakistani navies. from the British crown to India giving India INA Trials independence under Dominion Status in the Commonwealth of Nations. On 28th January 1946, The INA trials or the Red Fort Trials refer to the the Viceroy, announced in the legislative courts martial of a number of officers of the Indian

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Assembly, his intention to establish a new Abdur Rab Nishtar. The Government of India executive council with political leaders and to invited Mahatma Gandhi to come and stand by if create a constitution -making body in India. Plans needed for consultation. The agenda treated the were finalised and devised with the sole grouping of provinces, nature of a union and the enterprise of Clement Attlee, Prime Minister of constitution making process. Cripps` Union of All- the United Kingdom. On 19th February 1946, in India Plan failed to win the acceptance of either Parliament, the British Government announced the Congress or Muslim League. On May 12th, it the forwarding of a team of three Cabinet became evident that no solution was possible and Ministers to India to seek agreement on how to the Mission announced the failure of the enact self-determination and Independence with conference. the Indian political leaders. The Cabinet Mission Proposals made by Cabinet Mission included Lord Pethick Lawrence (1871-1961) the Secretary of State for India, Sir Stafford Cripps Cabinet Mission, on its arrival in India, aimed at (1889- 1952), President of the Board of Trade and fulfilling three wide spectrum issues. Firstly, it A.V.Alexander (1885-1965), First Lord of the came to hold a preparatory discussion with the Admiralty. Cabinet Mission also received the boost elected members of British India and the Indian of Lord Wavell, the Viceroy of India during the states in ordered to secure maximum agreement time. over the issue of framing a new constitution; secondly, to set up a constitution -making body; Meetings held by the Cabinet and thirdly, to establish a full self-government in On its arrival on 24th march 1946 the mission India. Along with this regarding the minorities it aimed at having talks with all the major parties of claimed that they had full knowledge of the India who had marked themselves on the political minorities but could not allow the minorities to canvas of Indian politics. This included parties like place veto on the advance of majority party. The Indian National Congress, Muslim League, The cabinet then sought to answer some of the vital Sikhs, scheduled Casts and liberal leader Sir Tej questions which were engulfing Indian politics for Bahadur Sapru. All the members surrounded long. On the issue of accepting an independent around 472 members in total. The cabinet began Pakistan, the Cabinet Mission completely rejected its discussion on 16th to 18th April when it met the idea on communal grounds and claimed that it Muslim League leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah to would not solve the problem. As the committee outline two plans, comprising a small Pakistan estimated that the Hindu and Muslim population with sovereignty or a big Pakistan in an All India on the western zone were at a ratio of 62:38 and Union. Jinnah avoided making a choice. Further, in on the eastern zone it was 51.7:48.3.On the basis the days of 5th to 12th May 1946, in Shimla, the of these calculations the Cabinet came to a Cabinet Mission convened a conference, including conclusion that a separate state of Pakistan was four members each from the Congress Party and not viable. Secondly, the mission also raised Muslim League. They included for the Congress: question regarding the level of communication to Nehru, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Sardar Vallabhbhai be established with the new state falling under Patel and Abdul Ghaffar Khan and for the Muslim Pakistan .Even in case of distribution of Army also League: Jinnah, Liaqat Ali Khan, Ismail Khan and it will turn out to be a trouble. On a positive side

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 the mission suggested creation of a federal Union independence of the two new nations of India and consisting of British India and Indian states. The Pakistan. union will deal with the foreign affairs, defense Formation and communication and authority to raise finances for these subjects After the end of the Second World War, the British authorities in India released all political prisoners Reaction of the All India Parties to Cabinet who had participated in the Quit India movement. Mission The Indian National Congress, the largest Indian The Cabinet Mission was received with a multiple political party, which had long fought for national reaction. As the Mission announced on16th May independence, agreed to participate in elections its three tier scheme for forming a Union of All- for a constituent assembly, as did the Muslim India consisting of Hindu-majority provinces, League. The newly elected government of Clement Muslim majority Provinces and the Indian States. Attlee dispatched the 1946 Cabinet Mission to On 25th June, the Congress Working Committee India to India to formulate proposals for the passed a resolution to accept the Cabinet formation of a government that would lead an Mission`s plan and to enter the Constituency independent India. Assembly. The Sikhs on other side were in favour The elections for the Constituent Assembly were of a united India. The scheduled castes were not direct elections, as the members were elected against the partition and wanted to guarantees of from each of the provincial legislative assemblies. their human rights. The Hindu Mahasabha insisted In the event, the Indian National Congress won a on the favour of immediate transfer of power and majority of the seats, some 69 per cent, including indivisible India. Thus, the Cabinet Mission can be almost every seat in areas with a majority Hindu regarded as the most effective step adopted by electorate. The Congress had clear majorities in the British government to reach India towards eight of the eleven provinces of British India. The Independence. The mission for the first time made Muslim League won the seats allocated to the a public declaration of its intension to grant India Muslim electorate. free from subjugation. Though this mission only talked of an interim government with a dominion Viceroy's Executive Council status it was later on condemned for this. Nevertheless it paved the way for the Indian The Viceroy's Executive Council became the leaders to experience the running of a nation as a executive branch of the interim government. whole. Originally headed by the Viceroy of India, it was transformed into a council of ministers, with the The interim government of India powers of a prime minister bestowed on the vice president of the Council, a position held by the The interim government of India, formed on 2 Congress leader Jawaharlal Nehru. After September 1946 from the newly elected independence all members would be Indians, Constituent Assembly of India, had the task of apart from the Viceroy, in August to become the assisting the transition of India and Pakistan from Governor-General, Lord Mountbatten, who would British rule to independence. It remained in place hold only a ceremonial position, and the until 15 August 1947, the date of the

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Commander-in-Chief, India, Sir Claude Auchinleck, In October, 1943 Lord Wavell who had succeeded replaced after independence by General Sir Rob Lord Linlithgow as Governor General, made an Lockhart. The senior Congress leader Vallabhbhai attempt resolve the stalemate the deadlock in Patel held the second-most powerful position in India. He went to England for consultations in the Council, heading the Department of Home March 1945.The result of Governor`s Affairs, Department of Information and consultations was soon revealed. He broadcast to Broadcasting. The Sikh leader Baldev Singh was the people of Indian the proposals of the British responsible for the Department of Defence and Government to resolve the deadlock in India on Chakravarthi Rajagopalachari was named to head 14th June. the Department of Education and arts. Asaf Ali, a Mr. Amery, he was the Secretary of State for India. Muslim Congress leader, headed the Department On 14th June made a similar statement in the of Railways and Transport. Scheduled Caste leader House of Commons: "The offer of March 1942 Jagjivan Ram headed the Department of Labour, stands in it’s entirely without change and while Rajendra Prasad headed the Department of qualification." He also proposed the renovation of Food and Agriculture and John Mathai headed the the Governor General`s Executive Council pending Department of Industries and Supplies. the preparation of a new constitution. With the Upon the Muslim League joining the interim expectation of the Governor-General and the government, the second highest-ranking League Commander-in-chief all other member of the politician, Liaquat Ali Khan, became the head of Executive Council would be nominated from the Department of Finance. Abdur Rab Nishtar amongst leaders of Indian Political life. This headed the Departments of Posts and Air and Council would have "a balanced representation of Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar headed the Department the main communities, including equal of Commerce. The League nominated a Scheduled proportions of Muslims and caste Hindus. It would Caste Hindu politician, Jogendra Nath Mandal, to work, if formed, under the existing constitution. lead the Department of Law. Though the Governor-General`s veto would not be abolished, it would not be used unnecessarily. The Activities portfolio of external Affairs was to be transferred Although until August 1947 British India remained from the Governor-General to an Indian member under the sovereignty of the United Kingdom, the of Council. A Conference of representatives interim government proceeded to establish chosen by the Viceroy was to be convened with a diplomatic relations with other countries, view to obtaining from the leaders of the various including the United States. Meanwhile, the parties a joint list or failing it, separate lists of Constituent Assembly, from which the Interim worthy people to constitute the new Executive Government was drawn, struggled with the Council”. It was also expected "that provincial challenging task of drafting a constitution for ministers in Section 93 Province would resume independent India. office and that there would be coalition."

Wavell Plan, 1945 The Congress Working Committee members were let out of jail. Their high hopes prevailed on all sides as invitations for the planned Simla

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Conference went out to the leaders including Direct Action Day hartal called by the Muslim Gandhiji. The conference was adjourned after League on August 16, 1946 to get rid of 'British three days of discussion and the meeting was held slavery and contemplated future caste-Hindu on June 25, 1945. Mr. Jinnah had a short interview domination'. The backdrop of the Direct Action with the Viceroy on 11th July. In this interview he Day was not only the Muslim League's acceptance seems to have made it clear to the latter that the of the cabinet mission plan, but also the loss of league, wishing to be regarded as the sole face it had to experience because of the plan's representative of Indian Muslims. That was firmly rejection by the Congress. The 'British betrayal', as opposed to the inclusion of any long league the Muslim League branded the Cabinet Mission's Muslims in the Viceroy`s list. But the Viceroy could successive failed proposals to placate the not agree to this point of view. Lord Wavell wound obstinate Congress, made Jinnah bid good-bye to up the Conference by declaring a failure of the constitutional methods and resort to a talks. The responsibilities for the failure lie partly programme of 'direct action for the achievement on Lord Wavell himself and partly on Mr.Jinnah. of Pakistan', to quote a resolution of the Muslim Mr. Maulana Azad, the Congress President put the League Council meeting (27-29 July 1946) in blame for the break down directly on the Bombay. shoulders of Mr. Jinnah. Lord Wavell should have On the heels of this resolution the League Working taken the leaders into confidence as regards the Committee declared 16 August as 'Direct Action composition of his own list of members of the Day'. Directives were issued to League leaders and Executive Council. Possibly the Congress leaders the Muslim masses of the provinces to suspend all might have been persuaded to accept that list business on the 16 August and observe complete either as a whole, or with minor modifications hartal on that day. As the architect of the mutually agreed upon. He should not have reorganised Muslim League in Bengal, huseyn allowed the league practically to veto the whole shaheed suhrawardy, the Chief Minister, felt that plan and thus alone to block the path of progress. the Bengal hartal of the Day ought to be the most It must be noted in this connections that the effective one. His immense preparations to make Viceroy had assured the Congress President that the Day a success led to communal carnage, "no party to the conference could be allowed to something that he perhaps never intended to obstruct settlement out of wilfulness", but it happen. But things went beyond his control and seems that as in the parallel case of Cripps, brutal communal violence ensued. A great portion Wavell`s hands were stayed at the last moment. of Calcutta was on fire for a couple of days. 'The The tangible result of the failure of the Simla Direct Action' riot in Calcutta soon spread Conference was to strengthen the position of throughout the country, and was particularly Mr.Jinnah and the Muslim League Which was destructively in Bihar and Noakhali. Both Hindus clearly manifested in the elections of 1945-46. and Muslims fought each other more or less evenly in Calcutta, but the encounter was mostly

one sided elsewhere. In Bihar, mostly Muslims Direct Action Day (1946) were killed and in Noakhali, Hindus. But on the whole Muslim casualties were heavier. Ironically 'Direct Action Day' had a direct result. The fate of

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India was decided on that day, and on that day Union.' This view was based on a report, which was sealed the fate of the united Bengal. Direct claimed that a future Pakistan would have no Action Day made the partition of Bengal manufacturing or industrial areas of importance: inevitable. no ports, except Karachi, or rail centres. It was also argued that the connection between East and Inshort, following continued rejection by the West Pakistan would be difficult to defend and Indian Congress of the proposal to divide India, maintain. The report concluded: 'It is hard to resist the Muslim League planned a protest which began the conclusion that taking all considerations into with a "Day of Direct Action"(16th August 1946) to account the splitting up of India will be the reverse assert the right of the Muslims to a separate of beneficial as far as the livelihood of its people is homeland. The protests triggered riots in Calcutta concerned'. in which 4,000 people lost their lives (known as the “great Calcutta Riots"). Lord Mountbatten replaced Lord Wavell as Viceroy of India in 1947. Mountbatten's first Mountbatten plan proposed solution for the Indian subcontinent, The British government sent a Cabinet Mission to known as the 'May Plan', was rejected by Congress India in March 1946 to negotiate with Indian leader Jawaharlal Nehru on the grounds it would leaders and agree to the terms of the transfer of cause the 'balkanisation of India'. The following power. After difficult negotiations a federal month the 'May Plan' was substituted for the solution was proposed. Despite initial agreement, 'June Plan', in which provinces would have to both sides eventually rejected the plan. An interim choose between India and Pakistan. Bengal and government with representatives of all the Indian Punjab both voted for partition. On 3 June 1947, parties was proposed and implemented. However, Lord Mountbatten announced his plan. The salient it soon collapsed through lack of agreement. features were:- Mountbatten's formula was to While the Muslim League consented to join the divide India but retain maximum unity. The interim government the Indian National Congress country would be partitioned but so would Punjab refused. By the end of 1946 communal violence and Bengal, so that the limited Pakistan that was escalating and the British began to fear that emerged would meet both the Congress and India would descend into civil war. The British League's position to some extent. The League's government's representative, Lord Wavell, put position on Pakistan was conceded to the extent forward a breakdown plan as a safeguard in the that it would be created, but the Congress position event of political deadlock. Wavell, however, on unity would be taken into account to make believed that once the disadvantages of the Pakistan as small as possible. Whether it was Pakistan scheme were exposed, Jinnah would see ruling out independence for the princes or unity the advantages of working for the best possible for Bengal or Hyderabad's joining up with Pakistan terms inside a united India. He wrote: instead of India, Mountbatten firmly supported 'Unfortunately the fact that Pakistan, when Congress on these issues. The Mountbatten Plan soberly and realistically examined, is found to be a sought to affect an early transfer of power on the very unattractive proposition, will place the basis of Dominion status to two successor states, Moslems in a very disadvantageous position for India and Pakistan. For Britain, Dominion Status making satisfactory terms with India for a Federal offered a chance of keeping India in the

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 commonwealth for India's economic strength and leaders also felt that the continuance of British defense potential were deemed sounder and rule never was and never could be in the good Britain had a greater value of trade and interest of Indians. Sooner they quit, the better it investment there. would be.

The rationale for the early date for transfer of Partition of India power was securing Congress agreement to Partition of India was one of the historical steps Dominion status. The additional benefit was that taken on the basis of religion dividing the nation the British could escape responsibility for the into two parts namely Union of India (also known rapidly deteriorating communal situation. A as Republic of India) and Dominion of Pakistan referendum was to be held in NWEP to ascertain (further divided into Islamic Republic of Pakistan whether the people in the area wanted to join and Peoples` Republic of Bangladesh) on 14th and India or not. The princely states would have the 15th of August 1947. With the dissolution of option of joining either of the two dominions or to British India the Partition of India was remain independent. The Provinces of Assam, incorporated through the division of two Punjab and Bengal were also to be divided. A provinces of Bengal and Punjab as Bengal was boundary commission was to be set up to divided into East Pakistan and West Bengal and determine the boundaries of these states. Punjab was further divided into West Punjab and Reasons for the acceptance of "Partition" by the East Punjab. Congress Origin of Partition of India By accepting the Mountbatten Plan/Partition, the The partition of India had been the real instance of Congress was only accepting what had become peoples` demand through their representatives. inevitable because of the long-term failure of the The initial demand for a separate state was made Congress to draw in the Muslim masses into the by an eminent writer and philosopher Allama Iqbal national movement and stem the surging waves of who raised his voice for a separate electorate for Muslim communalism, which, especially since the less represented group of Muslim 1937, had been beating with increasing fury. The Communities. With the passage of time this claim Congress leaders felt by June, 1947 that only an became the base of the newly emerging state of immediate transfer of power could forestall the Pakistan. Among other reasons division of Indian spread of Direct Action and communal subcontinent was important for various reasons. disturbances. Sardar Patel rightly said, "a united One such reason had been the old British policy of India even if it was smaller in size was better than divide and rule which came into action in case of a disorganised and troubled and weak bigger division of India and Pakistan. Also with the India." Difficulties created by the obstructionist communal awards the hatred rather differences policies and tactics of the League proved to the increased on both sides which could only be Congress that the leaders of the Muslim League pacified through division of state. It was further were concerned only with their own interests and claimed that the British wanted to make the the future of India would not be safe with them in Muslims their allies to oppose the apparent threat the government. They would act as a stumbling of the Hindu educated class. In order to gain block in the path of India's progress. The Congress

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 support from the Muslims, the British supported Officially, Pakistan became a Dominion on 15 the All-India Muslim Conference. They infused the August 1947, Jinnah was sworn in as Governor- notion that the Muslims were a separate political General and Liaqat Ali Khan was sworn in as the entity. In addition to that the Muslims were given new Pakistan Cabinet. The effect of Partition was separate electorates in local government all over deep rooted which raised some major issues of British India by 1900s. With such moves the British the day. One such issue had been the issue of followed a divide-and-rule policy in India. Hindus refugees which remained the most painful result and Muslims were two separate identities which of Partition for both the nations. The city of Delhi needed to be separated. All this growing anxiety received the maximum numbers of refugees and only brought India closer to division. As a result overall 35000 refugees landed up in the northern such demand got its shape in the 1935 session part of India including areas of Panipat and when a formal resolution was passed claiming the Kurukhshetra which were further used as camps separation. for them. Huge expansion of cities took place which brought new areas in every city of northern The partition took place at the midnight of 14th India. Thus, the Partition of India did not remain a and 15th August 1947. Mainly based on Famous historical event only but came out as the most Mountbatten Plan, the partition included division painful event of passed history. It affected not of geographical areas, population exchange, only the physical location of people but their administrative structure and army, navy and air psychology as well. Ending up into brutal riots all force as well. The main affected areas were over the country the partition of India is regarded Bengal, Punjab, Sindh and Jammu & Kashmir. the bitterest experience of modern India. Geographically the division included the division of rivers as well as land areas; the exchange of Indian Independence Act, 1947 population meant movement of 14.5 million The Indian Independence Act 1947 was the people crossing the borders with a total of legislation passed and enacted by the British 7,226,000 Muslims and 7,249,000 Hindus from Parliament that officially announced the each side. At the midnight of 14th august the Independence of India and the partition of India. ceremony of independence was organized a day The legislation of Indian Independence Act was after the birth of new state of Pakistan with New designed by the Prime Minister Clement Attlee as Delhi as India`s capital. Indian Political Parties agreed on the transfer of Impact of Partition of India power from the British Government to the independent Indian Government and the Partition On 7th August Mohammad Ali Jinnah along with of India. This act received royal assent on 18th his old associations went to Karachi. The July, 1947.The Agreement was made with Lord Constituent Assembly of Pakistan met on 11th Mountbatten, which was known as the 3 June Plan August and elected Jinnah as its President. Lord or Mountbatten Plan. Indian Independence Act Mountbatten went to Karachi on 13 August and was passed in June 1947, which specified the on the following day addressed the Pakistan follows: Constituent Assembly. He attended the inauguration ceremony at Karachi. The birth of * The British rule of India should be over on the Pakistan was an eventful occasion in history. midnight of August 15, 1947.

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* An independent dominion of India shall be Lord Mountbatten was the last Viceroy of India created out of the United Provinces, Central under British rules and became the Governor Provinces, Bombay Presidency, Madras General of Independent India. Jawaharlal Nehru Presidency, the Carnatic, East Punjab, West became the Prime Minister of India, Dr. Rajendra Bengal, Assam and the Northeast Frontier Agency. Prasad was the President and Sardar Vallabhbhai The territories of the Andaman and Nicobar Patel was the Deputy Prime minister of India. Five Islands and the Lakshadweep Islands are also hundred and sixty princely states were annexed turned over to the Indian Dominion. with India, among which Junagadh and Hyderabad was took over after military action. * An independent dominion of Pakistan shall be created out of the provinces of West Punjab, After-effects of Indian Independence Act North West Frontier Province, Sindh and East After passing the act some religion based riots Bengal. were there. The situation was much violent. The * The all Princely states that were officially related Muslims had to migrate from the `Would be India` to British Empire were made free from all the and Hindus had to migrate from the `Would be treaties and relationships and they could decide Pakistan`. All of their possessions and properties which dominion to join. Lord Mountbatten were left behind. thought that if the princely state remained POST INDEPENDENT ERA independent within the dominion that may lead to chaos and thus made their accession a necessity of The era after India’s independence from colonial the Indian Independence Act. rule starts with its partition into two halves - India and Pakistan. Lord Mountbatten became the first * Both the Indian and Pakistan Dominions would Governor General of free India and M.A. Jinnah be members of the British Commonwealth and that of Pakistan. The transition was violent, with was allowed to leave whenever they pleased. blood curling massacres all over the country, * Both Dominions of India and Pakistan were ample proof to the historic acrimony that the completely self-governing in their internal affairs, Indians shared within themselves. foreign affairs and national security but the British This bitterness continues till today with India and monarch will continue to be their head of state, Pakistan having fought three wars since represented by the Governor-General of India and independence. Events since independence have a new Governor-General of Pakistan. Both not quite been stable for both the countries. With Dominions shall convene their Constituent both of them marred by sectarian clashes and Assemblies and write their respective violent terrorist attacks, which by now has claimed constitutions. the lives of more than a million people throughout * The British monarch shall be permitted to the sub-continent. India on its part has been remove the title of Emperor of India from the successful in establishing a vibrant democracy and Royal Style and Titles. King George VI has ever looked forward towards positive subsequently removed the title by Order in council directions. But Pakistan is still struggling to on June 22, 1948. establish itself as a state and has not been able to

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 overcome the colonial hang over. With its history Gandhiji at Birla house, just before his evening marred by failed democratic experiments and prayers. The whole nation was shocked and successful military takeovers. People of Pakistan stricken with grief and communal violence are struck with a Herculean task of choosing retreated from the minds of men and women. between democratic farce and autocratic misrule. Expressing the nation’s sorrow, Nehru spoke over It is not just Pakistan that has corrupt politicians the All India Radio: ‘Friends and comrades, the and ambitious military. India too has its share of light has gone out of our lives and there is problems with politicians and bureaucracy but the darkness everywhere . . . The light has gone out, I best thing in India is that people out there know said, and yet I was wrong. For the light that shone their limitations. With 1 billion people having in this country was no ordinary light . . . that light successfully tasted democracy for the past fifty represented something more than the immediate years, they have successfully reaffirmed their faith present; it represented the living, the eternal time and again in the institution. At the doorsteps truths, reminding us of the right path, drawing us of the 20th century both of them provide a from error, taking this ancient country to contrasting picture. Both of them have their fare freedom’. share of problems, but on one side India is looking REHABILITATION OF REFUGEES forward to solving them on other side Pakistan is getting messed up with it. The government had to stretch itself to the maximum to give relief to and resettle and ASSASSINATION OF GANDHI rehabilitate the nearly six million refugees from Rejoicing in August 1947, the man who had been Pakistan who had lost their all there and whose in the forefront of the freedom struggle since world had been turned upside down. The task 1919, the man who had given the message of non- took some time but it was accomplished. By 1951, violence and love and courage to the Indian the problem of the rehabilitation of the refugees people, the man who had represented the best in from West Pakistan had been fully tackled. The Indian culture and politics, was touring the hate- task of rehabilitating and resettling refugees from torn lands of Bengal and Bihar, trying to douse the East Bengal was made more difficult by the fact communal fire and bring comfort to people who that the exodus of Hindus from East Bengal were paying through senseless slaughter the price continued for years. While nearly all the Hindus of freedom. In reply to a message of birthday and Sikhs from West Pakistan had migrated in one congratulations in 1947, Gandhiji said that he no go in 1947, a large number of Hindus in East longer wished to live long and that he would Bengal had stayed on there in the initial years of invoke the aid of the all-embracing Power to take 1947 and 1948. However, as violence against me away from this ‘vale of tears’ rather than make Hindus broke out periodically in East Bengal, there me a helpless witness of the butchery by man was a steady stream of refugees from there year become savage, whether he dares to call himself a after year until 1971. Providing them with work Muslim or a Hindu or what not. and shelter and psychological assurance, therefore became a continuous and hence a difficult task. The celebrations of independence had hardly died Unlike in Bengal, most of the refugees from West down when on 30th January 1948; a radical Punjab could occupy the large lands and property minded Hindu, Nathuram Godse, assassinated

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 left by the Muslim migrants to Pakistan from instruments of accession with a number of small Punjab, U.P. and Rajasthan and could therefore be states of Orissa with the Province of Orissa. On resettled on land. This was not the case in West 18th December, the Chattisgarh rulers merged Bengal. In addition, because of linguistic affinity, it with the Central Provinces. Between the periods was easier for Punjabi and Sindhi refugees to of 17th to 21st January 1948, Menon acquired the settle in today’s Himachal Pradesh and Haryana agreement for scores of minor states in Kathiawar and western U.P., Rajasthan and Delhi. The to form the Union of Kathiawar, which began to resettlement of the refugees from East Bengal govern on February 15. This set the pattern for the could take place only in Bengal and to a lesser subsequent accession and merger of many tiny extent in Assam and Tripura. As a result; a very remaining states over the next five months. large number of people who had been engaged in For geographical and administrative reasons, agricultural occupations before their displacement Baroda and Kolhapur were annexed to the then were forced to seek survival in semi-urban and Bomaby Province; Gujarat states were also urban contexts as the underclass. merged with the Bombay Province. A second form INTEGRATION OF PRINCELY STATES of integration of 61 states was the formation of the seven centrally administered areas. Thus the Indian Independence Act, 1947 contains the states of Himachal Pradesh, Vindhya Pradesh following provision regarding Indian States: All (present day Madhya Pradesh), Tripura, Manipur, treaties, agreements, etc between His Majesty`s Bhopal, Kutch and Bilaspur were formed. Apart Government and the rulers of the Indian States from these the states of United States of Matsya, shall lapse. The words ‘Emperor of India’ shall be Union of Vindhya Pradesh, Madhya Bharat, Patiala omitted from Royal Style and Titles. The Indian and East Punjab States Union, Rajasthan and states will be free to accede to either of the new United states of Cochin-Travancore were also Dominion of India or Pakistan. Monarchy was integrated to the India. However, the unification abolished and hence, the princely states were to of India was still incomplete without the French be annexed. In the National Provisional and Portuguese enclaves. The French authorities Government, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel headed the were more realistic when they ceded Pondicherry State Department. Patel and his chief aide, VP (Puducherry) and Chandannagore to India on 1st Menon appealed to the sense of patriotism of the November, 1954.However, the Portuguese Indian princes and persuaded them to join the Government maintained that since Goa was part Indian union. The annexations were to take place of the metropolitan territories of Portugal, it could on the basis of surrender of three subjects of be in no way affected by the British and French Defence, Foreign Affairs and Communication. Lord withdrawal from India. When negotiations and Mountbatten aided Patel in his mission too. As a persuasions did not move the Portuguese result by 15th August, as many as 136 government, units of Indian army had to be jurisdictional states acceded to the Indian union. mobilized and Goa, Daman and Diu were liberated Kashmir`s Maharaja Hari Singh signed the and annexed to India on 19th December, 1961. Instrument of Accession on 26th October, 1947 Thus, after much toil Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel and and the Nizam of Hyderabad in 1948. V P Menon, his aides successfully integrated the Indian states on the other hand, successfully negotiated to form a unified country.

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THE MAKING OF THE CONSTITUTION legislators were to elect their quota based on their population. The Constitution of India came into force on 26 January 1950. Since then, the day is celebrated as It was only after this process had been completed Republic Day. However, before 1950, 26 January that the representatives of all the provinces and was called Independence Day. Since 26 January those of the princely states were to meet again to 1930, it was the day on which thousands of settle the Constitution of the Union. The Congress people, in villages, in mohallas, in towns, in small responded to the Cabinet Mission scheme by and big groups would take the independence pointing out that in its view the Constituent pledge, committing themselves to the complete Assembly, once it came into being, would be independence of India from British rule. It was sovereign. It would have the right to accept or only fitting that the new republic should come into reject the Cabinet Mission's proposals on specifics. being on that day, marking from its very inception The Constituent Assembly was to have 389 the continuity between the struggle for members. Of these, 296 were to be from British independence and the adoption of the India and 93 from the princely Indian states. Constitution that made India a Republic. The Initially, however, the Constituent Assembly process of the evolution of the Constitution began comprised only of members from British India. many decades before 26 January 1950 and has Elections of these were held in July-August 1946. continued unabated since. Its origins lie deeply Of the 210 seats in the general category Congress embedded in the struggle for independence from won 199. It also won 3 out of the 4 Sikh seats from Britain and in the movements for responsible and Punjab. The Congress also won 3 of the 78 Muslim constitutional government in the princely states. seats and the 3 seats from Coorg, Ajmer Merwara, On 19 February 1946, the British government and Delhi. The total Congress tally was 208. The declared that they were sending a Cabinet Mission Muslim League won 73 out of the 78 Muslim to India to resolve the whole issue of freedom and seats. At 11 a.m., on 9 December 1946, the constitution making. The Cabinet Mission, which Constituent Assembly of India began its first arrived in India on 24 March 1946, held prolonged session. For all practical purposes, the chronicle of discussions with Indian leaders. On 16 May 1946, independent India began on that historic day. having failed to secure an agreement; it Independence was now a matter of dates. The real announced a scheme of its own. It recognized that responsibility of deciding the constitutional the best way of setting up constitution-making framework within which the government and machinery would 'be by election based on adult people of India were to function had been franchise; but any attempt to introduce such a transferred and assumed by the Indian people step now would lead to a wholly unacceptable with the convening of the Constituent Assembly. delay in the formulation of the new constitution. Only a coup d'etat could now reverse this Therefore, it was decided that the newly-elected constitutional logic. 207 members attended the legislative assemblies of the provinces were to first session. The Muslim League, having failed to elect the members of the Constituent Assembly on prevent the convening of the Assembly, now the basis of one representative for roughly one refused to join its deliberations. Consequently, the million of the population. The Sikh and Muslim seventy-six Muslim members of the League stayed away and the four Congress Muslim members

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 attended the session. On 11 December, Dr alternative was discarded decisively in favour of a Rajendra Prasad was elected the permanent centralized parliamentary constitution. Chairman; an office later designated as President Adult Suffrage of the Assembly. The third session was held from 28 April to 2 May 1947 and the League still did not The Congress had demanded adult suffrage since join. On 3 June, the Mountbatten Plan was the twenties. It was hardly likely to hesitate now announced which made it clear that India was to that it had the opportunity to realize its dreams. A be partitioned. With India becoming independent few voices advocated confining of adult suffrage on 15 August 1947; the Constituent Assembly to elections to the panchayats at the village level, became a sovereign body, and also doubled as the and then indirect elections to higher-level bodies, legislature for the new state. It was responsible for but the overwhelming consensus was in favour of framing the Constitution as well as making direct elections by adult suffrage not a small ordinary laws. The work was organized into five achievement in a Brahmanical, upper-caste stages: first, committees were asked to present dominated, male-oriented, elitist, largely illiterate, reports on basic issues; second, B.N. Rau, the society! constitutional adviser, prepared an initial draft on the basis of the reports of the reports of these Preamble committees and his own research into the The basic philosophy of the Constitution, its constitutions of other countries; third, the drafting moving spirit, is to be found in the Preamble. The committee, chaired by Dr Ambedkar presented a Preamble itself was based on the Objectives detailed draft constitution which was published Resolution drafted by Nehru and introduced in the for public discussion and comments; fourth, the Assembly in its first session on 13 December 1946 draft constitution was discussed and amendments. and adopted on 22 January 1947.The Preamble Salient features of the constitution states that the people of India in the Constituent Assembly made a solemn resolve to secure to all The Constitution of India lays down a set of rules citizens, Justice, social, economic and political; to which the ordinary laws of the country must Liberty of thought, expression, belief, faith and conform. It provides a framework for a democratic worship; Equality of status and of opportunity; and parliamentary form of government. The and to promote among them all, Fraternity Constitution also includes a list of Fundamental assuring the dignity of the individual and the unity Rights and Directive Principles, the first, a of the nation. guarantee against encroachments by the state and the second, a set of directives to the state to Fundamental Rights and Directive Principles introduce reforms to make those rights effective. The Fundamental Rights are divided into seven Though the decision to give India a parliamentary parts: the right of equality, the right of freedom, system was not taken without serious debate, yet the right against exploitation, the right to freedom the alternative of panchayat-based indirect of religion, cultural and educational rights, the elections and decentralized government did not right to property and the right to constitutional have widespread support. Espoused by some remedies. These rights, which are incorporated in Gandhians, notably Shriman Narayan, this Articles 12 to 35 of the Constitution, primarily

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 protect individuals and minority groups from though the terms secular (and socialist) were arbitrary state action. But three of the articles added only by the 42nd Amendment in 1976, the protect the individual against the action of other spirit embodying the Constitution was secular. private citizens: Article 17 abolishes RE-ORGANISATION OF STATES untouchability, Article 15(2) says that no citizen shall suffer any disability in the use of shops, The reorganization of the states based on restaurants, wells, roads, and other public places language, a major aspect of national consolidation on account of his religion, race, caste, sex, or place and integration, came to the fore almost of birth; and Article 23 prohibits forced labour, immediately after independence. The boundaries which, though it was also extracted by the colonial of provinces in pre-1947 India had been drawn in a state and the princely states, was more commonly haphazard manner as the British conquest of India a characteristic of the exploitation by big, semi- had proceeded for nearly a hundred years. No feudal landlords. These rights of citizens had to be heed was paid to linguistic or cultural cohesion so protected by the state from encroachment by that most of the provinces were multi-lingual and other citizens. Thus, the state had to not only multi-cultural. The interspersed princely states avoid encroaching on the citizen's liberties; it had had added a further element of heterogeneity. to ensure that other citizens did not do so either. The case for linguistic states as administrative A citizen whose fundamental right has been units was very strong. Language is closely related infringed or abridged could apply to the Supreme to culture and therefore to the customs of people. Court or High Court for relief and this right cannot Besides, the massive spread of education and be suspended except in case of declaration of growth of mass literacy can only occur through the Emergency. The courts have the right to decide medium of the mother tongue. Nehru appointed whether these rights have indeed been infringed in August 1953 the States Reorganization and to employ effective remedies including issuing Commission (SRC), with Justice Fazi Ali, of writs of habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, K.M.Panikkar and Hridaynath Kunzru as members, quo warranto and certiorari. to examine ‘objectively and dispassionately’ the entire question of the reorganization of the states The Directive Principles have expressly been of the union. Throughout the two years of its excluded from the purview of the courts. They are work, the Commission was faced with meetings, really in the nature of guidelines or instructions demonstrations, agitations, and hunger strikes. issued to future legislatures and executives. While the Constitution clearly intended Directive Different linguistic groups clashed with each Principles and Fundamental Rights to be read other; verbally as well as sometimes physically. together and did not envisage a conflict between The SRC submitted its report in October 1955. the two, it is a fact that serious differences of While laying down that due consideration should interpretation have arisen many times on this be given to administrative and economic factors, it issue. recognized for the most part the linguistic principle and recommended redrawing of state A Secular State boundaries on that basis. The Commission, The constitution declares India to be a sovereign, however, opposed the splitting of Bombay and socialist, secular and democratic republic. Even Punjab. Despite strong reaction to the report in

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 many parts of the country, the SRC's in the Central Cabinet, resigned from his office on recommendations were accepted, though with this question. The Gujaratis felt that they would be certain modifications, and were quickly a minority in the new state. They too would not implemented. The States Reorganization Act was agree to give up Bombay city to Maharashtra. passed by parliament in November 1956. It Violence and arson now spread to Ahmedabad provided for fourteen states and six centrally and other parts of Gujarat. Sixteen persons were administered territories. The Telengana area of killed and 200 injured in police firings. In view of Hyderabad state was transferred to Andhra; the disagreement over Bombay city, the merging the Malabar district of the old Madras government stuck to its decision and passed the Presidency with Travancore-Cochin created Kerala. States Reorganization Act in November 1956. Certain Kannada speaking areas of the states of However, the matter could not rest there. In the Bombay, Madras, Hyderabad and Coorg were 1957 elections the Bombay Congress scraped added to the Mysore state. Merging the states of through with a slender majority. Popular agitation Kutch and Saurashtra and the Marathi speaking continued for nearly five years. As Congress areas of Hyderabad with it enlarged Bombay state. president, Indira Gandhi reopened the question and was supported by the President, S. The strongest reaction against the SRC's report Radhakrishnan. The government finally agreed in and the States Reorganization Act came from May 1960 to bifurcate the state of Bombay into Maharashtra where widespread rioting broke out Maharashtra and Gujarat, with Bombay city being and eighty people were killed in Bombay city in included in Maharashtra, and Ahmedabad being police firings in January 1956.The opposition made the capital of Gujarat. parties supported by a wide spectrum of public opinion students, farmers, workers, artists, and The other state where an exception was made to businesspersons organized a powerful protest the linguistic principle was Punjab. In 1956, the movement. Under pressure, the government states of PEPSU had been merged with Punjab, decided in June 1956 to divide the Bombay state which, however, remained a trilingual state having into two linguistic states of Maharashtra and three language speakers ‘Punjabi, Hindi and Gujarat with Bombay city forming a separate, Pahari’ within its borders. In the Punjabi-speaking centrally administered state. This move too was part of the state, there was a strong demand for strongly opposed by the Maharashtrians. Nehru carving out a separate Punjabi Suba (Punjabi- now vacillated and, unhappy at having hurt the speaking state). Unfortunately, the issue assumed feelings of the people of Maharashtra, reverted in communal overtones. The Sikhs, led by the Akali July to the formation of bilingual, greater Bombay. Dal, and the Hindus, led by the Jan Sangh, used This move was, however, opposed by the people the linguistic issue to promote communal politics. both of Maharashtra and Gujarat. The broad- While the Hindu communalists opposed the based Samyukta Maharashtra Samiti and Maha demand for a Punjabi Suba by denying that Gujarat Janata Parishad led the movements in the Punjabi was their mother tongue, the Sikh two parts of the state. In Maharashtra, even a communalists put forward the demand as a Sikh large section of Congressmen joined the demand demand for a Sikh state, claiming Punjabi written for a unilingual Maharashtra with Bombay as its in Gurmukhi as a Sikh language. Finally, in 1966, capital; and C.D. Deshmukh, the Finance Minister Indira Gandhi agreed to the division of Punjab into

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 two Punjabi- and Hindi-speaking states of Punjab Patel invoked the patriotism of India's monarchs, and Haryana, with the Pahari-speaking district of asking them to join in the freedom of their nation Kangra and a part of the Hoshiarpur district being and act as responsible rulers who cared about the merged with Himachal Pradesh. Chandigarh, the future of their people. He persuaded the princes newly built city and capital of united Punjab, was of 565 states of the impossibility of independence made a Union Territory and was to serve as the from the Indian republic, especially in the joint capital of Punjab and Haryana. Thus, after presence of growing opposition from their more than ten years of continuous strife and subjects. popular struggles linguistic reorganization of India He proposed favorable terms for the merger, was largely completed, making room for greater including creation of privy purses for the political participation by the people. descendants of the rulers. While encouraging the rulers to act with patriotism, Patel did not rule out force, setting . deadline of 15 August 1947 for Integration of Princely States them to sign the instrument of accession Under the plan of 3 June, more than 562 princely document. All but three of the states willingly states were given the option of joining either India merged into the Indian union—only Jammu and or Pakistan, or choosing independence. Indian Kashmir, junagadh and Hyderabad did not fall into nationalists and large segments of the public basket. feared that if these states did not accede, most of Integration of Junagadh: The West Gujarat known the people and territory would be fragmented. as Saurastra constituted a number of small states The Congress as well as senior British officials which did not have much potential from the point considered Patel the best man for the task of of view of economic and political independence. In achieving unification of the princely states with all, 327 such States existed in Gujarat. Sardar the Indian dominion. succeeded in bringing the small states together Patel asked v.p.menon a senior civil servant with and it was a very important step towards national whom he had worked over the partition of India to solidarity although the states were in theory free become his right-hand as chief secretary of the to choose whether they wished to accede to India States Ministry. On 6 May 1947, Patel began or Pakistan, Mountbatten had pointed out that lobbying the princes, attempting to make them "geographic compulsions" meant that most of receptive towards dialogue with the future them must choose India. Government and trying to forestall potential In effect, he took the position that only the states conflicts. Patel used social meetings and unofficial that shared a border with Pakistan could choose surroundings to engage most monarchs, inviting to accede to it. The Nawab of Junagadh, a princely them to lunch and tea at his home in Delhi At state located on the south-western end of Gujarat these meetings, Patel stated that there was no and having no common border with Pakistan, inherent conflict between the Congress and the chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring princely order. Nonetheless, he stressed that the Mountbatten's views, arguing that it could be princes would need to accede to India in good reached from Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two faith by 15 August 1947. states that were subject to the suzerainty of

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Junagadh— Mangrol and Babariawad—reacted to India or Pakistan, as either would have provoked this by declaring their independence from adverse reactions in parts of his kingdom. He Junagadh and acceding to India. In response, the signed a Standstill Agreement with Pakistan and Nawab of Junagadh militarily occupied the states. proposed one with India as well, but announced The rulers of neighboring states reacted angrily, that Kashmir intended to remain independent. sending their troops to the Junagadh frontier and However, his rule was opposed by Sheikh appealed to the Government of India for Abdullah, the popular leader of Kashmir's largest assistance. political party, the National Conference, who demanded his abdication. A group of Junagadhi people, led by Samaldas Gandhi, formed a government-in-exile, the Aarzi Pakistan, attempting to force the issue of Hukumat ("temporary government"). India Kashmir's accession, cut off supplies and transport believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to links. The chaos in Punjab resulting from Partition Pakistan, the communal tension already had also severed transport links with India, simmering in Gujarat would worsen, and refused meaning that Kashmir's only links with the two to accept the accession. The government pointed dominions was by air. Rumours about atrocities out that the state was 80% Hindu, and called for a against the Muslim population of Poonch by the plebiscite to decide the question of accession. Maharajah's forces caused the outbreak of civil Simultaneously, they cut off supplies of fuel and unrest. Shortly thereafter, Pathan tribesmen from coal to Junagadh, severed air and postal links, sent the North-West Frontier Province of Pakistan troops to the frontier, and reoccupied the crossed the border and entered Kashmir. The principalities of Mangrol and Babariawad that had invaders made rapid progress towards Srinagar. acceded to India. The Maharaja of Kashmir wrote to India, asking for military assistance. Pakistan agreed to discuss a plebiscite, subject to the withdrawal of Indian troops, a condition India India required the signing of an Instrument of rejected. On 26 October, the Nawab and his family Accession and setting up an interim government fled to Pakistan following clashes with Indian headed by Sheikh Abdullah in return. The troops. On 7 November, Junagadh's court, facing Maharaja complied, but Nehru declared that it collapse, invited the Government of India to take would have to be confirmed by a plebiscite, over the State's administration. The Government although there was no legal requirement to seek of India agreed. such confirmation. Indian troops secured Jammu, Srinagar and the valley itself during the First A plebiscite was conducted in February 1948, Kashmir War, but the intense fighting flagged with which went almost unanimously in favour of the onset of winter, which made much of the state accession to India. impassable. Kashmir conflict: Kashmir was also a problem. At Prime Minister Nehru, recognizing the degree of the time of the transfer of power, Kashmir was international attention brought to bear on the ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh, a Hindu, although dispute, declared a ceasefire and sought UN the state itself had a Muslim majority. Hari Singh arbitration, arguing that India would otherwise was equally hesitant about acceding to either have to invade Pakistan itself, in view of its failure

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 to stop the tribal incursions. The plebiscite was attacking Congress groups. Attempts by never held, and on 26 January 1950, the Mountbatten to find a negotiated solution failed Constitution of India came into force in Kashmir, and, in August, the Nizam, claiming that he feared but with special provisions made for the state. an imminent invasion, attempted to approach the India did not, however, secure administrative UN Security Council and the International Court of control over all of Kashmir. The northern and Justice. western portions of Kashmir came under India now insisted that if Hyderabad was allowed Pakistan's control in 1947, and are today Pakistan- to continue its independence, the prestige of the administered Kashmir. In the 1962 Sino-Indian Government would be tarnished and then neither War, China occupied Aksai Chin. Hindus nor Muslims would feel secure in its realm. Hyderabad Operation Polo: Sardar’s greatest role The date for the attack was fixed as 13 September, in the integration of states was his able handling even though General Sir Roy Bucher, the Indian of the Hyderabad crisis. Most of the states chief of staff, had objected on grounds that acceded to India, Hyderabad was a landlocked Hyderabad would be an additional front for the state that stretched over 82,000 square miles Indian army after Kashmir. (over 212,000 square kilometres) in southeastern On 13 September, the Indian Army was sent into India. While 87% of its 17 million people were Hyderabad under Operation Polo on the grounds Hindu, its ruler Nizam Osman Ali Khan was a that the law and order situation there threatened Muslim, and its politics were dominated by a the peace of South India. The troops met little Muslim elite. The Muslim nobility and the Ittehad- resistance and between 13 and 18 September ul-Muslimeen, a powerful pro-Nizam Muslim took complete control of the state. The Nizam was party, insisted Hyderabad remain independent retained as the head of state in the same manner and stand on an equal footing to India and as the other princes who acceded to India.He Pakistan. Accordingly, the Nizam in June 1947 thereupon disavowed the complaints that had issued a firman announcing that on the transfer of been made to the UN and, despite vehement power, his state would be resuming protests from Pakistan and strong criticism from independence. The situation deteriorated further other countries, the Security Council did not deal in 1948. The Razakars ("volunteers"), a militia further with the question, and Hyderabad was affiliated to the Ittehad-ul-Muslimeen and set up absorbed into India. under the influence of Muslim radical Qasim Razvi, assumed the role of supporting the Muslim ruling Other States: Regarding the accession of the other class against upsurges by the Hindu populace, and states, Sardar acted like a magic-stick. In no time, began intensifying its activities and was accused of he could merge the States of Orissa, Chhatishgarh, attempting to intimidate villages. Rajasthan, Punjab and so on. He realized that the people of states were supreme and by organizing The Hyderabad State Congress Party, affiliated to the States’, people for establishment of popular the Indian National Congress, launched a political government, he could achieve success. He had, agitation. Matters were made worse by with him, able workers and supporters who had communist groups, which had originally supported worked untiringly to bring such a merger in record the Congress but now switched sides and began time. There are innumerable instances where

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Sardar could bring down the rulers of the States to Up to 1793 A.D., The East India Company terms and agree them to accession to India as per continued to follow the revenue farming system in the terms and conditions stipulated by the Bengal Presidency. In 1782, Sir John Shore Government of India. Sardar had to deal with Committee was appointed to draft a new land diversified Kings having different attitude with revenue policy. The policy was approved by caution and applying varied, human, social, Michael Dundas, The President of Board of political and psychological approach. Control and William Pete the P.M. of England.

Land Revenue System under British Rule Permanent Settlement

Since the grant of diwani for Bengal, Bihar and The Permanent Settlement or Zamindari Sysem Orissa in 1765, the major concern of the East India was introduced by Lord Corniwallis in 1793. In Company's administration in India was to collect Bengal, North Cauvery Delta in Madras Presidency as much revenue as possible. Agriculture was the and Varanasi division. It covered altogether 19% of main basis of economy and the main source of the total cultivable land under company rule. income and hence, although the nawabi Terms and Conditions of the System administration was retained with Muhammad Reza Khan acting as the Naib Diwan for the  Zamindars were recognized as owner of the Company, several land revenue experiments were lands. Zamindars were given the rights to introduced in haste to maximise extraction. collect the rent from the peasants. In 1772, Warren hastings introduced a new  The realized amount would be divided into 11 system, known as the farming system. European parts. 1/11 of the share belongs to Zamindars District Collectors, as the nomenclature suggested, and 10/11 of the share belongs to East India were to be in charge of revenue collection, while Company. the revenue collecting right was farmed out to the  The Zamindars were also given Judicial powers highest bidders. About the periodicity of the  The Sunset Law come into force in the event settlements, a number of experiments were made. of Zamindars becoming defaulters.  The system was introduced for a period of 10 But the farming system ultimately failed to years. improve the situation, as the farmers tried to extract as much as possible without any concern for the production process. The burden of revenue Effect of the system demand on th peasants increased as a result and  The effects of this system both on the often it was so onerous that it could not be zamindars and ryots were disastrous. As collected at all. The net outcome of this whole the revenue fixed by the system was too period of rash experimentation was the ruination high, many zamindars defaulted on of the agricultural population. In 1784, Lord payments. Their property was seized and Cornwallis was therefore sent to India with a distress sales were conducted leading to specific mandate to streamline the revenue their ruin. The rich zamindars who led administration. luxurious lives left their villages and

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migrated into towns. They entrusted their  The cultivating peasants were, therefore, rent collection to agents who exacted all gradually impoverished, and increasingly kinds of illegal taxes besides the legal ones indebted and could not invest for the from the ryots. extension of cultivation.  The Ryorwari system did not also eliminate village elites as inter mediaries between  This had resulted in a great deal of misery the government and the peasantry. As amongst the peasants and farmers. privileged rents and special rights of the Therefore Lord Cornwallis’ idea of building mirasidars were recognised and caste a system of benevolent land-lordism failed. privileges of the Brahmans respected. Though initially the Company gained financially, in the long run the Company Mahalwari System suffered financial loss because land productivity was high, income from it was Mahalwari system was introduced in 1833 during meagre since it was a fixed sum. It should the period of William Bentick. It was introduced in be noted that in pre- British period a share Central Province, North-West Frontier, Agra, on the crop was fixed as land tax. Punjab, Gangetic Valley, etc of British India.The Mahalwari system had many provisions of both Ryotwari Settlement the Zamindari System and Ryotwari System. In this system, the land was divided into Mahals. Each The Ryotwari experiment was started by Mahal comprises one or more villages. Ownership Alexander Reed in Baramahal in 1792 and was rights were vested with the peasants. The villages continued by Thomas Munro from 1801 when he committee was held responsible for collection of was asked to take charge of the revenue the taxes. administration of the Ceded Districts. Instead of zamindars they began to collect revenue directly Effects of the Land Revenue Policy from the village , fixing the amount each village had to pay. After this they proceeded to assess  Land become a Commodity for the first each cultivator or ryot separately and thus evolved time in Indian history the Ryotwari System. It created individual  Property rights in the land created for first proprietary right in land, but it was vested in the time peasants, rather than in the zamindars.  New rural classes were formed- The absentee landlords, money lenders and Effects of System age earning working class.  Commercialisation of agriculture  It raised the revenue income of the encouraged. As a result , shortage of food government, but put the cultivators in crops took place causing famines. The 1832 great distress. Ganjan famine(Orissa) and 1875 deccan  In many areas no surveys were carried out famine were the worst famines. and the tax of a ryot was assessed on an  The revenue policy was the single most arbitrary basis, based on village accounts. important cause for all the major civilian

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rebellions in modern India, against the Bangladeshis had one language and were proud of British. their ancestry; their language and literature were older than Urdu, the national language of West Pakistan, used by minority. Yet Mohammad Ali Jinnah stated in a public speech in March 1948 that Urdu would remain the state language of Pakistan. This infuriated all the non-Urdu speaking

people of East Pakistan. On February 21, 1952, students and other civilians came out in the streets in protest but the police cracked down on Liberation War of Bangladesh the unarmed civilians. For East Pakistan, the language movement was the first stepping stone The Liberation War of Bangladesh in 1971 was the to independence. culmination of a 25-year tumultuous relationship between East and West Pakistan. The British failed Provincial Elections–1954 to keep a united India as riots started between the Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims in 1946. The riots were The first provincial elections were held in East so widespread that on August 14, 1947 India was Pakistan in 1954. In this election, Suhrawardy’s portioned into two separate states. newly organized Awami League (Peoples’ League) allied with Fazlul Huq’s Peasants’ and Workers’ Thus partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947 Party and a coalition of other Bangladeshi- divided British India into two independent dominated parties to form the United Front. In countries of India and Pakistan. Pakistan was this election, the people of East Pakistan voted composed of two wings–East and West Pakistan. unilaterally for the alliance. As a result, the United The two wings were united emotionally, but the Front had the maximum number of seats. Nurul marriage of the two wings was artificial as they Amin’s Muslim League, the dominant party in had little in common other than religion. Their West Pakistan, won just 10 seats in East Pakistan; speech, thought, food habits, dress, living and and thus, the Urdu-speaking people in East generally speaking, their respective way of life, Pakistan’s ability to dictate policy was essentially were totally different. finished. Fazlul Huq also became the chief minister of East Pakistan. The fine showing of the United These differences, in course of time, gave rise to a Front convinced the politicians, civil servants, and tumultuous relationship that failed to keep the the military at the center that they had to two wings united. The flawed relationship ended constrain Bangladeshi nationalism. in a brutal war in 1971. As such, it is imperative to learn the background of the Liberation War of Ayub Khan’s Declaration of Martial Law–1958 Bangladesh in 1971. In 1957 and 1958 governments rose and fell in Causes of War Dhaka as the result of both instability in the assembly alignments and of intervention by the Language Movement–1952 central government.43 As a sequel to the uncertainty, the deputy speaker of the house was

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 killed in a riot. In such a dilapidated condition, There is no doubt that the creation of an president Mirza abrogated the constitution and independent Bangladesh was in India’s interest for declared martial law. General Ayub Khan many reasons. remained as the chief martial law administrator. In  Firstly, the Indo–Pakistan War in 1965 over 1962 Ayub Khan promulgated the new Kashmir was one of the tipping points in constitution of Pakistan, primarily giving this regard. India spent a huge amount of enormous power to the president. Unfortunately, money to keep armed forces at a constant nothing addressed the concerns of East Bengal; state of readiness along the border of her and as such, anger, resentment and Bengali hostile neighbor. A warm relationship with nationalism continued to grow. an independent Bangladesh would reduce Awami League’s Six-Point Program–1966 this big expenditure.  Secondly, India also wanted to start trading Before the resignation of Ayub Khan, several with East Pakistan for mutual benefit. But events took place in the political spectrum. Among due to several political deadlocks, it was those, the Awami League’s Six-Point Program was not a foregone conclusion. viewed as a foundational document in  Thirdly, Pakistani rulers created a problem Bangladesh’s struggle for independence. This was for India by training and militarily not an instant memorandum developed within a equipping the Naga rebels of Assam short time. Rather, it was an outcome of (northeastern part of India), who claimed a Bangladeshi grievances accumulated for a long portion of India to establish an time. The initiation of the Six-Point Program independent Nagaland. started as a sequel to several events. However,  Apart from these issues, millions of East the election of 1965 played an important role in Pakistanis had religious, cultural, and formulating the program linguistic ties with India. West Pakistani National Election–1970 rulers also demeaned the Hindus of East Pakistan; whereas India was a Hindu- As Yahya Khan received the Six-Point Program dominated country. from the Awami League, he opined that he was not in a position to implement them. He reiterated For all these reasons and more, India preferred an his prime task was to hold a general election in independent Bangladesh as a tonic to all these 1970 and hand over power at that point. However, problems. The Indian government expected that if in the December 1970 elections, the Awami Bangladesh became independent, it would League won 160 of 162 seats from East Pakistan. cooperate with India in a much wider form. Bhutto’s Pakistan Peoples’ Party was successful in Course of War the west, winning 81 of 83 seats. Yahya Khan opened talks with both the leaders but failed to On March 25, 1971, Yahya Khan, Bhutto and other reach a consensus, and thus failed to hand over members left for West Pakistan without giving any the power to an elected government. message or warning to the Awami League leaders. The West Pakistani military launched its sudden India’s Perspective attack on March 25, 1917 at 11 p.m.it used

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 automatic rifles, automatic weapons, bayonets and tanks. Yahya Khan appointed General Tikka

Khan as the overall commander, and he was given 48 hours to suppress Bangladeshi nationalist Literary and Scholarly studies during british India movement. Within 34 hours, approximately 10,000 unarmed civilians were killed. Bengali Literature

Until November 21, 1971, mostly Bangladeshi Before the impact of the West, the Bengali regular forces along with the Mukti Bahini literature had two distinct sources—that of the operated in different parts of the country. Besides, learned and the well-to-do, and of the common there were few naval and air assets utilized to complement the war effort. However, on people. The aristocratic type of literature, that is November 21, 1971 all the forces–Bangladesh the former type, was patronised by the Courts, the Army, Navy, Air Force as well as the Mukti Bahini– Chiefs, the landlords. launched their joint offensive against Pakistani military. The poets who wrote for the common people Pakistan launched the war against India on were kabiwals, Kirtanias, Yatras, lappa, Panchi, December 3, 1971, the UN took a more vigorous Dhop etc. But the difference in the form and approach to the problem. While Soviet Union was content of the aristocratic and the common types supporting India, the U.S. and Chine stood by Pakistan. On December 5, 1971 Moscow vetoed a of literature was not radical. U.S. resolution urging the Security Council to call upon India and Pakistan to carry out a cease fire From the beginning of the nineteenth century a and military withdrawal. new order began to emerge and a fresh era was

The Russians exercised another veto within 24 inaugurated in Bengali literature. It was, in fact, hours when on December 7, 1971, the General after the establishment of the Fort William College Assembly voted 104 against 11 to call upon India that important steps towards the development of and Pakistan to cease fire immediately and withdraw their forces to respective territories. modern Indian languages were taken.

While the UN was debating, the war on the In order to teach the young English officials Indian ground was going in favor of India. In the langu•ages the college had to undertake meantime, U.S. dispatched a naval task forces led compilation works in different sub•jects and in by the nuclear-powered carrier Enterprise from U.S. seventh fleet. By the time the naval task force different languages for the instruction of the was close to Chittagong port of East Pakistan, all students. Dr. Gilchrist was responsible for Pakistani forces surrendered unconditionally. If production of books in Hindustani, Persian and the UN espoused cease fire would be in effect, Bangladeshis’ hope for independence was not to Arabic while William Carey was for Bengali and be materialized. other languages. Bengali scholars who wrote text

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 books were Mrityunjay Vidyalankar. Ramram Virginia, Lamb’s Tales from Shakespeare and Basu, Chandi Charan Munshi, Rajib Lochan Elizabeth’s the Exiles of Siberia, the different types Mukhopaydhyaya etc. of movements such as social, religious and political gave a great impetus to the production of The Christian missionaries, were another agency in litera•ture. the develop•ment of Bengali prose—Carey, Marshman and Ward were the pioneers in this In James Long’s catalogue of Bengali Works 1400 regard. Their main contributions were works on Bengali books and pamphlets have been listed as Bengali gram•mar, Dictionary, Translation from have been produced in the first half of the English. Felix Carey was respon•sible for the nineteenth century. Of the writers of the period production of the first volume of an encyclopaedia Ram Mohan must be reckoned as the precursor dea•ling with Physiology and Anatomy. Kalimohan and leader. His claim to be recognised as the Banerjee an early con•vert to Christianity edited father of, the Bengali prose literature rests on his an encyclopaedia in thirteen volumes called Vidya originality in composing Bengali in lucid, simple Kalpadruma. Works on history, philosophy, style “at the same time persuasive, orderly and science etc, were also brought out. suave, unruffled by winds of emotion or pas­sion”. His works were mainly in prose but he was also a The development of the Bengali language was master in poetical composition. He translated largely helped by the contributions of the journals Bhagavad Gita in verse and composed many like Samachar Darpan, of the Serampore religious songs. missionaries, Sambad Kaumudi of Ram Mohan Roy, Tattwabodhini Patrika of Devendranath Gujarati Tagore – Sambad Prabhakar of Iswar Chan•dra The progress of English education, foundation of Gupta. Organisations like School Book Society edu•cational newspapers and associations, and established in 1817 arranged for the supply of the efforts of the Christian missionaries gave a cheap books for the schools, and pub•lication of great impetus to Gujarati language. In 1814 The translation of books in Bengali on subjects like Society for Promoting the Education of the Poor history, geography etc. within the Government of Bombay was founded The Vernacular Literature Society founded in 1851 by Archdeacon Barnes which gradually set up six published books meant for use as rewards and schools four in Bombay city one in Surat and one prizes. Among its publications were translation of in Broach; in 1826 it set up another school at Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe, St. Pierre’s Paul and Ahmadabad. Under the patronage of this society

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Ranchhorbhai Girdharbhai who had learnt English His principal works are on Gujarati prosody, produced first series of Gujarati text books and Gujarati figure of speech, Gujarati dictionary and a became the guide of almost all the aspiring Dictionary my•thology. He is regarded as the youngmen who took to literature and social father of modern Gujarati prose. The only other reform. The work was carried forward by the important prose writer of this period was students of Elphinstone College founded in 1827 Navalram Laksh- miram who was a friend of and of the Bombay University founded in 1857. Narmada Shankar. Other important writers were Mahipatram Rupram Nandshankar Tuljashankar. Kinloch Forbes, an Assistant Judge at Ahmadabad took interest in the study of Gujarati language and Marathi Literature history and secured the services of poet With the passing of the Peshwa’s kingdom into the Dalpatram Dayabhai who collected old hands of the British in the first quarter of the manuscripts and folk•songs and folk-tales. In 1848 nineteenth century, a situation similar to that had Forbes founded at Ahmadabad the Gujarat developed in Bengal began to rise in ‘the Bombay Vernacular Society later named Gujarat Vidya Presidency and factors—political, social and Sabha and started the first Gujarat fortnightly economic began to operate as they did in Bengal. called the Buddhiprakas. After his transfer to Surat The Marathi language and literature began to be he set up a similar society there and started a transformed in the way similar to that of Bengal. literary journal called Surat Samachar. Dalpatram’s zeal for social reforms found expression in his Marathi literature in the eighteenth century and poems. earlier was large•ly in verse expressing folk sentiments of love and heroism as well as Some of his poems found place in the school text conveying religious and moral teachings. A new books and had an influence over the young minds literary deve•lopment began with Eknath and for nearly forty years. His poem Hunnarkhanni followed by writers like Tukaram, Mukteswar Chadai (1850) dealt with the evil effects of modern Ramdas etc. In the eighteenth century Marathi industries on Indian crafts, and was regarded as literature, mainly poetry, had two distinct the first expression of Swadeshi. Narmada Sankar divisions, one secular and the other reli•gious and Lal-shankar was the most outstanding literary classical. figure of the second half of the nineteenth century. In the secular literature were the love lyrics, histori•cal ballads etc. while in religious and

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 classical group, composition in imitation of Sikandamama etc. were listed for translation by Ramayana and Mahabharata, legends of Puranas the Society. In this way the foundations of the new etc. appea•red. In prose there was not much Maratha Prose were laid through which secular excellence to start with and there were and scientific knowledge was propagated. adaptations from Sanskrit fables and lores like In 1833 the government took a retrograde step by Betal Panchaishi, Singhasan Battisi etc. Letters, setting up the Bombay Board of Education despatches and official records cons•tituted the presided over by Sir Erskine Perry, which became a third form of prose. strong protagonist of English and began to The new trend in literature made its appearance discourage pub•lication in local varnacular. But Bal from the begin•ning of the nineteenth century. Sastri Jambhekar, Dadoba Pan-duranga took up The Christian missionaries were pioneers in the the challenge and wrote a number of Marathi new Marathi language and literature and Carey books. pub•lished the first Marathi grammar with the An urge and taste for reading Marathi had been help of Marathi Pandit Vaijnath in 1805. In 1814 created by the Maratha journals that came out at the Serampore Press published the first Marathi that time. In 1832 Bombay Darpan the first book Singhasan Battisi. Under the patronage of Marathi journal was established by Jambhekar and Monstuart Elphinstone, the first governor of a second journal Digdarshan came out in 1840. Bombay Presidency Bombay Na•tive Education Bhau Maharaja brought out Prabhakar in 1841. Society was founded in 1920 which undertook Likewise Dnyanodaya, Dnyan Prakash, Vicharlahari preparation of text books in local vernacular. etc. came out in subsequent years. These Marathi English treatises on sur•veying, mensuration, journals gave a great stimulus to Marathi writing anatomy nosology and materia medica were as well as reading Marathi literature. tran•slated in Marathi. Urdu & Hindi Literature School Book Society founded in 1822 encouraged production of books for schools boys as well as Under the new conditions Urdu and Hindi began adults and Goldsmith’s History of Rome, to make rapid progress. While Urdu followed the Malcolm’s Persia, Wilk’s History of the Arabs and normal course of progress, Hindi was hampered History of the Chinese, works on Physics, by a hesitancy as to whether Braja Bhasa or Khari Chemistry, Ethics, History of Gujarat, Orme’s Boli should be adopted as literary language. While Account of Hindusthan. Ain-i-Akbari, Braja Bhasa possessed considerable treasure of

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 literature both prose and poetry, Khari Boli was by many others and the Khari Boli became the not considered to be sufficiently elegant as a main medium of the new Hindi poetical medium of poetical composition. lite•rature.

But after the establishments of the Fort William Urdu developed with even pace and had already College books were being produced in Khari Boli made great pro•gress. It was in the writings of and the language was shown to have the Ghalib that Urdu prose and poetry showed new, capability of serious writings. But in the hands of modern trends. Ghalib’s style of prose in his Sadasukhlal, Lalluji Lai, Sadal Misra and Insallaih letters-simple yet rich conversational style became Khan Khari Boli was used in prose composition to a model for modern expression. In poetry Ghalib’s excellent effect. preference to meaning and thought, spontaneity of style and expression, originality in use of simile As to the dialect to be used in Hindi poetry the and metaphors marked a great advance in Urdu controversy continued. Develop•ment of Hindi as a literature. vigorous language took place in the nineteenth cen•tury. Hindi journals, historical treatises, essays The foundations of the new school of Urdu and dramas prepared the ground for subsequent literature were laid by Md. Husain Azad and Altaf development of Hindi language and litera•ture. Husain Hali at Lahore to promote progressive Urdu literature. Md. Husain Azad composed poems in Some of the important Hindi prose writers such as new style and in new themes such as Sham ki Raja Shiva Prasad, (1823-95) who was responsible Amad, i.e. Advent of Evening, Mathnavi Hubbi for writing a history of India in three volumes used Watan i.e. Love of Mother land, Dad-i-lnsaf, i.e. many Persian words in his work. Raja Lakshaman Praise of Jus•tice, Zanustan i.e. Winter, and Singh based his composition on highly elegant Khwab-i-Amn, i.e. Dream of Peace. Hali’s Sanskrit style while Bharatendu Harish Chandra contribution was even greater. He was equally followed a middle course, and based his dramas great poet, prose- writer and a critic. His poems on English models. dealt themes of patriotism, social re•forms Nature, Hindi poetry composed in Braja Bhasa was largely elegy etc. revivalist in nature. It was not until Sridhar Pathak Maha gujarat andolan (1859-1928) made use of Khari Boli in Hindi poetry that the tradition of exclusive use of Braja Bhasa During British rule in India, sections of the western for Hindi poetry was broken, His lead was followed coast of India were the part of the Bombay Presidency. In 1937, Bombay Presidency was

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 included as a province of British India. After Andhra State, died on 16 December 1952 after independence of India in 1947, the demand for undertaking a fast-unto-death. Subsequently, linguistic states came up. On 17 June 1948, Andhra State was formed in 1953. This sparked Rajendra Prasad set up the Linguistic Provinces agitations all over the country demanding Commission to recommend whether or not the linguistic states. In December 1953, Prime states should be reorganized on a linguistic basis. Minister Jawaharlal Nehru appointed the States The commission included S. K. Dhar (retired Judge Reorganisation Commission (SRC) to prepare of the Allahabad High Court), J. N. Lal (lawyer) and report on the creation of linguistic states. The Panna Lall (retired Indian Civil Service officer), and commission was headed by Justice Fazal Ali so it so it was called Dhar commission. In its 10 was called Fazal Ali Commission. The commission December 1948 report, the Commission reported in 1955 to reorganise states of India. recommended that "the formation of provinces on exclusively or even mainly linguistic considerations is not in the larger interests of the Indian nation".

The Mahagujarat conference was held in 1948 to Agitation include all Gujarati speaking people under one SRC considered to form states on linguistic basis administration which finally resulted in formation but recommended that Bombay state should stay of Gujarat. According to the autobiography of as a bilingual state. It was further enlarged by the Indulal Yagnik, Bombay state chief minister B. G. addition of Saurashtra State and Kutch State, the Kher and the then home minister Morarji Desai Marathi-speaking districts of Nagpur Division of visited Dang in May, 1949. B. G. Kher stated that Madhya Pradesh, and the Marathawada region of tribal people of Dang spoke Marathi and focus Hyderabad. The southernmost districts of Bombay should be on that. Indulal Yagnik and others state were included in Mysore State. So it had visited Dang to examine this. Gujarati Sabha also Gujarati-speaking population in north and sent a committee for examination and agitate on Marathi-speaking population in southern parts. negligence by government. The committee Both Gujarati and Marathi people opposed the reported that Dang is more related to Gujarat. SRC’s recommendation and strongly demanded By 1952, the demand for separate Telugu-majority separate linguistic states. The situation became Andhra State had started in Madras State. Potti complicated because both of them wanted to Sreeramulu, one of the activists demanding include Bombay city (now Mumbai) in their own

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 states due to its economic and cosmopolitan solved through discussions. Gandhian activist values. Jawaharlal Nehru also suggested to form Ghelubhai Nayak actively lobbied for accession of three states; Maharashtra, Gujarat and centrally Dang in Gujarat. Mumbai went to Maharashtra governed city-state of Bombay to solve conflict. and Dang went to Gujarat.

Protest broke out in Bombay and other Marathi- speaking districts later known as Samyukta Missionary activities in India Maharashtra Movement demanding separate There are two views among scholars about the Marathi state. Morarji Desai, then the Chief origin of Christianity in India. According to one, Minister of Bombay State, was against it. On 8 the foundation of the Christian church in India was August 1956, some college students of laid by Saint Thomas, one of the twelve Apostles Ahmedabad went to local Congress House near Lal of Jesus. The other view would ascribe the arrival Darwaza to demand separate state. Morarji Desai of Christianity in India to the enterprise of did not listen them and police repression resulted Christian merchants and missionaries belonging to in death of five to eight students. It triggered the East Syrian and Persian churches. But it has massive protests across the state. Indulal Yagnik been widely believed that India was St. Thomas’ came out of his retirement from politics and sphere of work. As Cardinal Tisserant says there founded Mahagujarat Janata Parishad to guide was a very ancient evangelization started by St. movement. Many protesters including Indulal Thomas, the Apostle and mainly in South India. Yagnik and Dinkar Mehta, Dhanvant Shroff were arrested and kept at Gaekwad Haveli in The Charter act of 1833 approved the permanent Ahmedabad for a few days and later imprisoned in presence of missionaries in India and made Sabarmati Central Jail for three and half months. provision for Anglican hierarchy at Calcutta. With Protest also spread in other parts of the state the expansion of the British Empire missionaries which forced Morarji Desai to go on week-long began to arrive and Christianity began to spread fast. People did not turned up to support him by establishing dioceses at Madras and Bombay. during fast and stayed in home following self- Ever since there existed a renewed cooperation imposed curfew, Janata Curfew. Just before the between the missionaries and the colonial power declaration of carving three states as Nehru in helping one another in their missions. suggested, 180 members of Parliament suggested By the end of the eighteenth century a new wave return to bilingual Bombay state together. There of the spirit of evangelization permeated was conflict over Mumbai and Dang which was

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Protestant Churches. In 1792 the English Baptists stories, created a very distorted image about the organised the first Anglican mission Baptist people and culture in India. They were imbued Missionary Society. with the western ‘imperial sentiments’ and the sense of cultural superiority and agreed with Later Protestant missionary operations were Charles Grant, the spokesman of the Evangelicals undertaken on a large scale by LMS ( London in England, that it was not any inborn weakness missionary society) and CMS ( Church mission that made Hindu degenerate but the nature of society). Alongside the older societies there have their religion. For the evangelicals India was in come into the field a bewildering number of darkness and would need the light present in the missionary organisations. The characteristic western world. feature of nineteenth century missions was the enthusiasm for the multiplication of missionary The Evangelicals and other mission societies made efforts. The priority of the colonial missions was a combined attempt to change the policy of the conversion. Conversion of individual souls was British Government and demanded the considered the sole end of mission. To a European introduction of legal and social reforms in India. It missionary non-Christian religions and Eastern was thus that William Bentick in March 1835 cultures were non-slavific and that Christianity issued his resolution intended mainly to promote alone would redeem them. The British rule had European literature and science and utilize funds provided favourable atmosphere and necessary mainly for English education. The study of Indian infrastructure for the missions to work even in the literature and oriental works was admitted to be remotest mountain villages without confronting of little intrinsic value and the opinion was that much opposition. Julius Richter says that, it would these literatures inculcate the most serious errors be hard to find any land possessing so great an on the subjects. Also the customs and traditions attraction for the missionary societies. and the religious beliefs of the subject people were considered by the missionary educators and After the Charter of 1833 was renewed, their societies in England as a sign of depravity and missionaries were allowed freely to come to India. futility. The remedy was the introduction of Missionary teams became powerful and their style English education. of work changed. By this time a new set of missionaries rooted in ‘the iconoclastic zeal of Alexander Duff, Scottish missionary and leading extreme Protestantism’43 began to arrive. These educator whose ideas can be considered missionaries, soon through letters, reports and representative of the majority of missionaries in

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 the nineteenth century, thought that though was a means towards this goal. That is to facilitate Hindu philosophical discourse contained lofty change from exterior to interior, from trade to terms in its religious vocabulary what they religion, a cultural revolution for the betterment conveyed were only vain, foolish and wicked of the natives by disseminating knowledge of conceptions. According to Duff, Hinduism spread Christianity and make them loyal to the British like a dark universe where all life dies and death The comment of Arthur Mayhew is worth lives. The Christian task for him was to do mentioning: “The evangelical supporters of everything possible to demolish such a gigantic Anglican mission were far more interested in the fabric of idolatry and superstition. Needless to say, dissemination of the Bible and baptismal statistics such an attitude prevented any positive encounter than in any measure for the general between Christianity and Indian culture. Duff, enlightenment of India”50. The primary interest of Buchanan, Trevelyan, Macaulay and others had the Raj was to keep control over India. The great influence on the missionary thinking. The dominant interest of missions was to work for the missionaries and civil servants who came to India conversion of Indians to Christianity. But in the were so prejudiced that they did not see anything colonial situation they found themselves in need good in India society. of one another and so mutual support was but natural. The missionaries and their societies subscribed to the view that civilizing the Indian people would Although the missionaries worked hard and prepare the primitive religious people to embrace suffered a lot for bringing education and Christianity. Nineteenth century Protestant awareness of social justice to the people living in missiology could be understood against the the rural areas of India, as they were associated background of Christianisation and civilizing as with the colonialimperial powers, the significance two sides of the same coin. Missions were of their selfless service was either overlooked or unwilling to understand the complexities of Indian misunderstood. cultural variants. Deeply entrenched in them was a sense of superiority of European civilization and that coloured their approach to people of other National women’s commission cultures and religious faiths. The missions and It is said that the best way to know about society, colonial administrators asserted that Hinduism a civilization and a culture, try to know as much would die away soon and the whole nation could possible about the women. In India, women have be civilized and Christianised. English education come a long way from the rare women scholars

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 and sages of the Vedic age to the women in Women as a class neither belong to a minority different sectors of society and civilization today, group nor are they regarded as a backward class. such as the armed forces, arts, information India has traditionally been a patriarchal society technology, politics and a number of similar and therefore women have always suffered from sectors which have traditionally been male social handicaps and disabilities. It thus became dominated, while simultaneously balancing the necessary to take certain ameliorative steps in roles of wife, mother and daughter. While Indian order to improve the condition of women in the women have fought against the patriarchal Indian traditionally male dominated society.The society and triumphed at many levels, cases of Constitution does not contain any provision rape, dowry deaths, female infanticide, sexual specifically made to favor women as such. Though harassment at workplaces, female illiteracy, and Art. 15 (3), Art. 21 and Art. 14 are in favor of similar problems are still rampant in Indian women; they are more general in nature and society. It was in this backdrop that the provide for making any special provisions for Committee on the Status of Women in India women, while they are not in themselves such (CSWI) the establishment of the National provisions. The Supreme Court through Commission for Women to fulfill the surveillance interpretive processes has tried to extend some functions and to facilitate redressal of grievances safeguards to women. Through judgments in cases and to accelerate the socio-economic such as Bodhisattwa Gautam v. Subra Chakraborty development of women. . and the Chairman Rly Board v. Chandrima Das case, where rape was declared a heinous crime, as The National Commission for Women was set up well as the landmark judgment in Visakha v. State as statutory body in January 1992 under the of Rajasthan. the courts have tried to improve the National Commission for Women Act, 1990 ( Act social conditions of Indian women. But these have No. 20 of 1990 of Govt.of India) to review the hardly sufficed to improve the position of women Constitutional and legal safeguards for women; in India. Thus, in light of these conditions, the recommend remedial legislative measures, Committee on the Status of Woman (India) as well facilitate redressal of grievances and advise the as a number of NGOs, social workers and experts, Government on all policy matters affecting who were consulted by the Government in 1990, women. recommended the establishment of a apex body Importance of The Commission for woman.

The Mandate of the Commission

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Broadly speaking the Commission’s mandate can was set up in order to deal with these functions. be divided under four heads: The activities of this cell can be divided into three categories: (a) legal amendments proposed (b)  safeguard of rights of women granted by new laws and bills proposed and (c) court the constitution and laws, interventions.  study problems faced by women in the current day and make recommendations to Research Functions: The research cell of the eradicate these problems, Commission is that organ of the Commission that  evaluating the status of Indian women looks into the emerging problems of Indian from time to time and women due to discrimination and gender bias.  funding and fighting cases related to This cell is also responsible for educating women women’s rights violations. about their rights through a variety of seminars, workshops, conferences and public hearings. This Functions of commission cell has also organized various special studies and Complaint And Counseling Functions: The “core” set up expert committees to look into and suggest unit of the Commission is considered to be the remedies for problems, which have evolved Complaint and Counseling Cell and it processes recently. Currently the cell is dealing with issues the complaints received oral, written or suo moto related to Gender and Law Enforcement, Impact under Section 10 of the NCW Act. The complaints of Displacement of Women, Sexual Harassment at received relate to domestic violence, harassment, Workplace, Issues concerning Prostitution and dowry, torture, desertion, bigamy, rape and Political Empowerment of Women. refusal to register FIR, cruelty by husband, derivation, gender discrimination and sexual harassment at work place. During 1999, the Controversies: Critical analysis

Commission received 4329 complaints related to Section 497 of the Indian Penal Code the above types of crimes against women. In December 2006 and January 2007, the NCW Legal functions: A large part of the Commission’s found itself at the center of a minor controversy mandate is related to legal research for safeguards over its insistence that Section 497 of the Indian of women, legal interventions, recommendations Penal Code not be changed to make adulterous on bills and similar matters relating to the legal wives equally prosecutable by their husbands. But system of India. The legal cell of the Commission the grounds on which Chairperson of commission

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 resists the logic of making this a criminal offence protected themselves. Venkatesh said, "If the girls — particularly for women, as often recommended feel they were not doing anything wrong why are — are not as encouraging. She is averse to holding they afraid to come forward and give a the adulterous woman equally culpable as the statement?" On 6 February, the NCW said they adulterous man because women, she believes, are decided not to accept Venkatesh's report but never offenders. They are always the victims. The would not be sending a new team to Mangalore. NCW has demanded that women should not be On 27 February, the Prime Minister's Office punished for adultery, as a woman is "the victim approved the removal of Nirmala Venkatesh on and not an offender" in such cases. They have also disciplinary grounds. advocated the amendment of Section 198 of the

CrPC to allow women to file complaints against unfaithful husbands and prosecute them for their Non Alignment Movement promiscuous behaviour. This was in response to One of the basic tenets of our foreign policy has "loopholes" in the Indian Penal Code that allowed been non-alignment. As an element of foreign policy non-alignment m e a n s i n d e p e n d e n t men to file adultery charges against other men o f b l o c s , peaceful coexistence, global peace, who have engaged in illicit relations but did not disarmament, struggle against all manifestations allow women to file charges against their of injustices like imperialism, colonialism, husbands. apartheid etc. After India's adoption of non-alignment as the core element of its foreign policy, it also became a model for other newly independent countries. Mangalore pub attack controversy Most of them adopted it as an instrument for independence in international relations. Soon The NCW came under sharp criticism for their non-alignment, in addition to a significant response to the attack by forty male members of perspective of foreign policy, became a movement the Hindu right-wing Sri Ram Sena on eight of solidarity and cooperation among the newly liberated countries of Asia, Africa and Latin women in a bar in Mangalore in late January 2009. America. Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) was thus Video from the attack shows the women were founded as a solidarity movement for giving voice punched, pulled by their hair, and thrown out of to Third World Countries. the pub. NCW member Smt Nirmala Venkatesh Its essential purpose was to maintain equidistance was sent to assess the situation, and said in an in cold War rivalries and advocate principles for interview that the pub did not have adequate the promotion of world peace and cooperation. In due course of time, NAM became the largest security and that the women should have

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 membership movement as also the largest peace they evolved a coherent outlook and position on movement in the history of humanity. In both, in Non-Alignment. its founding and later consolidation and These leaders were largely instrumental in development, India played a significant role. In channelling the emerging changes towards the fact, in many ways India has been considered as a liberation of the people of the world and towards non-formal leader of the NAM. evolving a new vision of the world order. They ORIGIN OF NAM AND INDIA'S ROLE rejected outright the notion that East- West relations alone constituted international affairs Though as a formal organised movement NAM and asserted their own role in shaping these started with the holding of the Belgrade Summit affairs. On the initiative of these leaders the of Non- Aligned countries in 1961, its seeds were conference of Afro-Asian Nations was held in sown by India, particularly by Jawaharlal Nehru Bandung (Indonesia) in April 1955. even before attainment of India's independence. It is quite clear that Nehru was articulating the ideas The participants from 23 Asian and 6 African of decolonisation, national independence, non- States represented mainly the people of young bloc politics, peaceful coexistence, eradication of States which had been setup as a result of the new racialism and the need for the developing balance of forces of democracy and freedom on countries to play an active role in international the one hand and of colonialism and oppression affairs. It was at the initiative of Jawaharlal Nehru on the others. The states participating in the that India became the venue of the first forum of conference did not belong to any military or the liberated nations, when representatives of 28 political blocs, arid they had taken clear and countries met in New Delhi in March 1947 (before definite positions the problems facing mankind. formal declaration of independence of India) at Despite their different perspectives, the countries the Conference on Regional Cooperation among represented at the Bandung Conference arrived at the Asian Countries known as Asian Relations a common position in the larger interest of world Conference. peace. One of the most important achievements of the Bandung Conference was the Declaration The Asian Relation Conference thus can truly be on World Peace and Cooperation. This declaration called the foundation stone for NAM. embodied the principles of Panchsheel which BANDUNG CONFERENCE were first stated in the Preamble to the agreement between India and China in April 1954. Along with Nehru some other leaders in the world were also projecting these perceptions of newly INDIA’S PIVOTAL ROLE AT NAM independent countries. President Josip Broz Tito It is quite clear that in the founding of NAM India of Yugoslavia, President Gamel Abdul Nasser of not only played an active role as one of the Egypt (then called United Arab Republic), founders but in many ways it was the initiator of President Kwarne Nkrumah of Ghana and the Movement. As we have already seen non- President Ahmed Soekarno of Indonesia were alignment as a concept of global politics, as a prominent among these. Together with Nehru foreign policy premise and as a perspective of maximising national interest of the newly

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 liberated countries was a vision Indian national system of international economic and political leadership had developed during its freedom relations. From its founding India has remained struggle itself. one of the most active members of NAM and has played a pivotal role in its various activities and The vision became the core element of India's developments. foreign policy after independence rand of other countries which attained independence from that Printing press in india during british rule period onwards. The press as we know it today was, however, The non-aligned movement, thus, emerged from brought to India in the wake of British rule. Under India's initiative for formulating an independent the rule of the East India Company, there was the foreign policy. This independent foreign policy was based on a solid moral and sound political possibility of interesting news and some foundation. It was a non-partisan foreign policy. enterprising journalists set up printing presses in India's moral approach to international politics India to expose the misdeeds of the Company. No was further projected through the Panchsheel in 1954. newspaper was published until 1780 because the Company’s establishments in India were a close Within three years, eighteen countries had endorsed the Panchsheel principles in joint preserve, and the Company’s servants by common communiqués with Indian leaders. These consent wished to withhold the evils and principles were practically incorporated in the Ten malpractices arising from “private trading” in Principles declared at Bandung. In addition during its initial years of independence itself, India played which all of them, almost without exception, a very active role in peaceful resolution of some illegally indulged. The first newspapers were complex international issues and persistently started by disgruntled ex-employees of the lobbied in United Nations for disarmament. Company. They were aided and abetted by All these made the idea of non-alignment, the servants of the Company who used these initial basic tenet in India's foreign policy, a mechanism providing link between the newspapers for furtherance of their personal coordinated actions of the anti- imperialist and rivalries and jealousies. anti-colonial forces, as an assertion of independence in foreign affairs, as a process of It is significant to mention that even though the weakening of power blocs, as a symbol of defiance first printing press set up in the third quarter of against big power domination and as a diplomatic the 16th century, publication of a newspaper was innovation in the phase of politics of confrontation and cold war. delayed by more than two centuries. The absence of a newspaper must have created a vacuum in Over decades of its existence the NAM has been developing a comprehensive political philosophy, the field of communication. However, this a programme of action, and a new and positive deficiency could overcome when James Augustus

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Hicky, who may rightly be called the father of Another aspect of journalism in India during this Indian journalism, published, printed and edited period was that it contained material exclusively the first newspaper of India in Calcutta, bearing of interest to and relating to the activities of the the title The Bengal Gazette or the Calcutta European population in India. The early General Advertiser. Bengal Gazette was intended newspapers were thus started by ex-servants of to operate as an organ for the local British settler the Company who had incurred its displeasure and population. The circulation of the printed interests their columns were devoted to the exposure of and views of the British Indian population would the evils and malpractices of the time. come to represent a public opinion that countered The first two decades of the 19th century saw the the absolute rule of the colonial authorities. Much imposition of rigid control on the press by the like the growing power of the British press, the Marquess of Wellesley. This attitude to the press English press in India came to be associated with a was the result of personality and values of this liberal, reform-minded agenda that challenged the governor general. The press regulations required a authorities both to justify their own actions and to newspaper to carry in imprint the name of the respond to public demands. For the very reason, printer, the editor and proprietor, to declare the authorities treated the press with distrust and themselves to the Secretary to the Government imposed stringent licensing and registration laws and to submit all material published in the paper for the publication of newspapers. to his prior scrutiny. Publication on Sunday was The turn of the 18th century marked the end of a prohibited. The prescribed punishment for breach phase in journalism in India. It was a period of of these rules was immediate deportation. The control on the press. If the person intending to Secretary was vested with the powers of a censor. start a paper was already persona non grata with By a separate set of rules he was required to the government or with influential officials, he exclude from newspapers information in regard to was deported forthwith. the movement of ships or the embarkation of troops, stores or specie, all speculation in regard If a newspaper offended and was unrepentant, it to relations between the Company and any of the was first denied postal privileges; and if it Indian kingdoms, the information likely to be of persisted in causing displeasure to the use to the enemy and comments likely to excite government, it was required to submit part of or alarm or commotion within the Company’s the entire newspaper to pre-censorship; if the territories. In addition, he was to exclude all editor was found “incorrigible”, he was deported. comments on the state of public credit, or

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 revenues, or the finances of the Company, or on to affect the British power or reputation in the conduct of Government offices, as also private India. scandal or libels on individuals. He was also  Private scandals and personal remarks on required not to permit the publication of extracts individuals, tending to excite dissension in from European newspapers which were likely to society. These regulations were hailed in constitute a breach of the above restrictions. India and the newspaper press once again breathed free air. People again got busy Censorship was abolished in 1818, but the starting new journals, when a few days ago Directors in England didn’t like it. So to appease none dared to do such a thing. These new them Lord Hastings had to promulgate the regulations opened the way to a free press. following rules: -“The editors of newspapers Later on the same regulations were prohibited from publishing any matter coming promulgated in Bombay also. under the following heads: The new Governor General Lord Metcalf, the  Animadversions on the measures and successor of Bentink came to power in 1835. Like proceedings of the Hon’ble Court of Bentink, he was a liberal and held strong views in Directors, or other public authorities in favour of freedom of the press. When appointed, England connected with Government of he invited Lord Macaulay, the renowned liberal India, or disquisitions on political scholar, historian and politician, who was then the transactions of the local administration; or legislative member of the Supreme Council, to offensive remarks leveled at the public draft a Press Act presumably to be incorporated conduct of the Members of Council, of the into the code which was being drafted by the Law judges of the Supreme Court, or of the Commission. Macaulay, who favoured the new Lord Bishop of Calcutta. act, pointed out that the existing licensing  Discussions having a tendency to create regulations were wrong and the press in India alarm or suspicion among the native should be free. The proposed Act, was intended to population or any interested interference establish a perfect uniformity in the laws with their religious opinions or regarding the press throughout the Indian Empire. observances. Every person who chooses will be at liberty to set  The republications, from English or other up a newspaper without applying for a previous newspapers, of passages coming under any permission. But no person will be able to print or of the above heads or otherwise calculated publish sedition or calumny without eminent risk

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 of punishment. Macaulay’s new Act found favour in India, permitted the “Gagging Act” to expire on with Metcalfe. On August 3, 1835, Metcalfe the June 13, 1858. successor of Bentink with the unanimous support Convinced that the vernacular newspapers were of the Council passed the Press Act of 1835- the spreading national consciousness, Lord Lytton on most liberal Press Act in Indian history. The new March 1, 1878 passed the Vernacular Press Act, an law was made applicable to the entire territories Act for more stringent control of publications in of the East India Company. The law favoured the vernacular languages. One of the most growth of the Indian press. comprehensive and rigorous acts, this act Lord Auckland succeeded Metcalfe, holding the furnished the Government with more effective position of Governor General until 1842. Auckland means to punish and repress seditious writings is remembered by the Indian press as favouring calculated to cause disaffection with the freedom of the press and supporting Metcalfe’s Government among the ignorant population. It liberal legislation. During his regime, cordial empowered any Magistrate of a district, or a relations existed between him and the editors of Commissioner or Police in a Presidency town to various Calcutta newspapers. force the printer and publisher of a newspaper to agree not to publish certain kinds of material, to A revolt known as the Mutiny broke out in 1857 demand security, deeming it forfeited at their against British rule. It was the last armed attempt discretion, and to confiscate any printed matter it to throw out the British by force. As soon as the deemed to be objectionable in accordance with revolt broke out, the Government gagged the this Act. No printer or publisher against whom press with an ordinance akin to the press laws of such action had been taken could have recourse to Adam’s in 1823. This was the notorious Gagging a court of law. Act by Lord Canning, who was the then Governor General, under which restrictions were imposed The Vernacular Press Act excluded English- on the newspapers and periodicals. A permit was language publications. It elicited strong and necessary for launching any paper or periodical sustained protests from a wide spectrum of the and the Government observed utmost discretion vernacular newspapers. In the year 1880, it was in granting such a permit. The ordinance was noticed that some improvement had taken place equally applied to the Indian and the Anglo-Indian in the style and language of the vernacular papers. The censorship was limited for one year. newspapers since the introduction of the Lord Canning, wanting to improve his reputation Vernacular Press Act. The Act was accordingly

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 repealed by Act III of 1882 which retained power improvements which he thought were necessary to the Post Office authorities to search for and without considering public opinion. The Official seize any vernacular publications of a seditious Secrets Act of 1903 was passed. It was nothing but nature, the importation of which had been an additional fetter to curb the liberty of the prohibited under the Sea Customs Act, 1878. press. It was a grave peril to the independence of journalism. The Anglo-Indian press joined the The press played a vital role in the building of Indian press in condemning this measure. Indian nationalism. The national movement emerged from the fact that leaders like Raja Ram Another measure taken by Lord Curzon without Mohan Roy to Keshab Chandra Sen, Gokhale, considering public opinion and on the pretext of Tilak, Pherozshah Mehta, Subash Chandra Bose, improving the administration of a large province C.R. Das, Dadabhai Naoroji, Surendranath like Bengal was the partition of that province in Banerjee, C.Y. Chintamani, Moti Lal Nehru, Madan 1905. There was a massive agitation in Bengal Mohan Malaviya, M.K. Gandhi and Jawaharlal against its partition because it was considered to Nehru used it as a medium for arousing and be a measure designed to weaken the national mobilizing nationalist public opinion. consciousness of which Bengal was the centre. It was during this movement against the Bengal The dawn of a new century resulted in increased partition that the repressive measures of the number of newspapers, particularly vernacular British led to the rise of the revolutionaries and newspapers which supported the growing national their journalism. Barindra Kumar Ghose, younger consciousness. The Anglo-Indian papers always brother of Aurobindo Ghose, founded Yugantar in supported Government measures and policies. 1906 as the journal of the revolutionaries. Lajpat This strengthened the distinction between the Rai in Punjab started a newspaper called Bande Indian and the Anglo-Indian press with the former Mataram, the rallying cry of the movement favouring Indian nationalism and the latter against Bengal’s partition. Aurobindo Gose favouring the government. The Government was attracted the adverse notice of the authorities for also showing favouritism to the Anglo-Indian his writings in Bande Mataram. papers and opposing the Indian papers. When Lord Minto succeeded Lord Curzon, he There was also a swing to control of the press and inherited a turbulent situation and tried to meet it imposition of restrictions at the dawn of the new by widening the scope of the Press Act. A number century. Lord Curzon took office in 1899 as of ordinances and circulars abridging the right of Viceroy of India. He immediately began to make

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 free speech and free criticism were issued. Lord Irwin-Gandhi Pact in which Gandhi agreed to Minto passed the Newspapers (Incitements to discontinue the Civil Disobedience Movement. Offences) Act of June 1908, which empowered the In April, 1931, Lord Willington became the Viceroy authorities to take judicial action against the of India. Unsympathetic to the Nationalist editor of any newspaper which published matter Movement, he declared the Indian Nationalist which, in the view of the Government, amounted Congress illegal and took measures to suppress to incitement to rebellion. Simultaneously, the the Civil Disobedience Movement. The first of the Governor of Bombay made a declaration in the repressive measures was the passage of the Indian Legislative Council at Poona, that the Government Press (Emergency Powers) Act of 1931. was determined to put down seditious agitation in the province. Similar to the 1908, 1910 and 1930 legislation, this act empowered local magistrates at their The six-year of administration of Lord Irwin (1925- discretion to require publishers and printers to 1931) was a turbulent period. The Indian leaders deposit security of up to 1000 rupees. The local were dissatisfied with Lord Irwin’s proclamation to Government was empowered to take action give dominion status to India and declared at the against any publisher or printer suspected of Lahore Session that the goal of the Indian National printing or publishing material which may be Congress was complete national independence. constructed as incitement to commit crime. The Soon after that, in April 1930, Gandhi began his local Governments were empowered to declare Civil Disobedience Movement with the march to securities for forfeit and demand additional Dandi to break the salt law. The movement spread security, and to direct a Magistrate to issue a throughout the country, creating turmoil. Thus, warrant to search property where copies of this period is marked by a greater government newspapers and books declared forfeit were control and restrictions on the press. The 1930 suspected of being stored for distribution. This Indian Press Ordinance, one of the six Ordinances was an act which gave wide ranging powers to aimed to better control of the press similar to the local Governments, the effect of which was to 1910 Press Act, was passed by the British prohibit the printing of names or portraits of well- Government. On March 6, 1931, the Government known leaders of the Nationalist Movement as withdrew the Indian Press Ordinance of 1930 well as notices and advertisements of meetings of along with other ordinances passed that year the Congress Party or any political events. because Irwin met with Gandhi and signed the

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With the beginning of World War II, the proclamation declared the future policy of the Government found it necessary to pass Defence of British Rule in India. India Act, bolstering the authority of the Central The Queen's Proclamation of 1858 assured the Government to deal with seditious material. Indian Princes that their territories will not be Censorship machinery with a Chief Censor, a annexed by the British Governments and they Director of Public Information, and other censors shall be given the right to adoption. A Durbar was and advisory committees in each province, began held by Lord Canning at Allahabad on 1st to operate. Printed material came under the November, 1858 to declare the assumption of the scrutiny of the Government. On October 25, 1940, Government of India by the Crown. On that the Government of India issued an order which occasion Lord Canning also had read out the prohibited “the printing or publishing by any Queen's proclamation to the princes and people of printer, publisher or editor in British India of any India. matter calculated, directly or indirectly, to foment opposition to the prosecution of the war to a The British Government ordered its servants in successful conclusion, or of any matter relating to India not to interfere in the religious affairs of the the holding of meetings or the making of speeches Indians. In framing and administering law in India, for the purpose, directly or indirectly, of due regard was to be shown to the customs, fomenting such opposition as aforesaid: provided ancient rites and usages of the Indians. Indian that nothing in this order shall be deemed to apply subjects of Her Majesty were declared equal with to any matter communicated by the Central the British subjects in other parts of the Empire. Government or a provincial government to the Equal rights and opportunities were guaranteed to press for publication. the Indians along with other British subjects. Pardon and amnesty were offered to all those

Indians who were still in arms against the British Queen Victoria Proclamation Government and who were not guilty of murder of

British subjects. The treaties of the English East India Company were declared to be in force. The On November 1, 1858, a grand Darbar was held at proclamation contained the following declaration Allahabad. Here Lord Canning sent forth the royal about the Indians: "In their prosperity will be our proclamation which announced that the queen strength, in their contentment our security and in had assumed the government of India. This their gratitude our best reward".

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The proclamation of 1858 was a great landmark in often than not the women did not volunteer for the Constitutional History of India. This such brutality and had to be forced or even declaration of policy remained the basis of Indian drugged to comply. Administration up to 1917 when a new declaration Raja Ram Mohan Roy was abhorred by this cruel was made by the British Government with regard practice and he raised his voice against it. He to India. The declaration tried to remove the fears spoke freely and took his views to the higher ups of Indian princes by guaranteeing to them their in the East India Company. His passionate position. It also gave an assurance to the Indians reasoning and calm perseverance filtered through that the Englishmen will not interfere in their the ranks and ultimately reached the Governor religious affairs. General Lord William Bentinck. Lord Bentinck sympathised with Roy’s sentiments and intentions and amid much outcry from the orthodox religious Raja ram mohan roy community, the Bengal Sati Regulation or During the late 18th century (what was known as Regulation XVII, A. D. 1829 of the Bengal Code was the Dark Age), the society in Bengal was burdened passed. The act prohibited the practice of Sati with a host of evil customs and regulations. Daha in Bengal Province, and any individual caught Elaborate rituals and strict moral codes were practicing it would face prosecution. Raja Ram enforced which were largely modified, and badly Mohan Roy’s name is thus etched forever as a true interpreted ancient traditions. Practices like child benefactor of women not just for helping abolish marriage (Gouridaan), polygamy and Sati were the custom of Sati, but also raising his voice prevalent that affected women in the society. The against child marriage and polygamy, while most brutal among these customs was the Sati demanding equal inheritance rights for women. Pratha. The custom involved self-immolation of He was also a great opponent of the rigid caste widows at their husband’s funeral pyre. While the divisions of his time. custom in its original form gave choice to the women to do so, it gradually evolved to be a Ram Mohan Roy vehemently opposed the mandatory custom especially for Brahmin and unnecessary ceremonialism and the idolatry higher caste families. Young girls were married to advocate by priests. He had studied religious much older men, in return for dowry, so that scriptures of different religions and advocated the these men could have the supposed karmic fact that Hindu Scriptures like Upanishads upheld benefits from their wives’ sacrifice as Sati. More the concept of monotheism. This began his quest

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 for a religious revolution to introduce the Tagore and Bankim Chandra also followed the doctrines of ancient Vedic scriptures true to their footsteps of Ram Mohan Roy. essence. He founded the Atmiya Sabha in 1928, Swami vivekanand and the first meeting of this new-found religion as held on August 20 that year. The Atmiya Sabha The most famous disciple of Ramakrishna was reorganised itself into the Brahma Sabha, a Nerendranath Dutta. Who became renowned as precursor organisation of the Brahmo Samaj. The Swami Vivekananda. After the death of primary facets of this new movement were Ramakrishna in 1866 Vivekananda came forward monotheism, independence from the scriptures to fulfil his mission. Vivekananda was born in and renouncing the caste system. Brahmo Calcutta in 1863 in a Kayasta family. He was well religious practices were stripped bare of the Hindu educated in school and college. First he was ceremonialism and were set up following the attracted towards Brahmo Samaj and then drank Christian or Islamic prayer practices. With time, deeply into the philosophy of John Stuart Mill, the Brahma Samaj became a strong progressive Hume and Herbert Spencer. Then he was force to drive social reforms in Bengal, especially persuaded to visit Ramakrishna. women education. Vivekananda realized the value of Western Ram Mohan viewed education as a medium to materialism. The scientific achievements and the implement social reforms so he came to Calcutta material happiness of the West impressed him in 1815 and the very next year, started an English deeply. He desired for the combination of Indian College by putting his own savings. He wanted the spiritualism and Western materialism for a students to learn the English language and happier life of a man. He then made it a mission of scientific subjects and criticized the government's his life to awaken the Indians from the slumber to policy of opening only Sanskrit schools. According a new life. He believed that man had divinity and to him, Indians would lag behind if they do not get the spark of spirituality in him. Every individual to study modern subjects like Mathematics, therefore should give up fear and rise from Geography and Latin. Government accepted this degradation and be a noble man. By preaching idea of Ram Mohan and also implemented it but about spiritual unity he advocated for a sense of not before his death. Ram Mohan was also the national unity which attracted millions of Indians first to give importance to the development of the to his side. To organize social service and to infuse mother tongue. His 'Gaudiya Byakaran' in Bengali a sense of unity among men he founded an order is the best of his prose works. Rabindranath

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 to the Sanyasis or monks called Rammakrishna “Our religion is in the kitchen, our God is in the Mission in 1897. cooking-pot, our religion is: do not touch me, I am holy”. He narrated that superstitions had Vivekananda condemned blind beliefs. He wanted destroyed much of Hindu spirituality. By to see every Indian as a modern man with a reminding those of their spiritual value modern and rational outlook. He therefore said Vivekananda generated the spark of self- that I would rather see every one of your rank confidence among the Indians which indirectly atheists than superstitious fool, for atheist is alive infused a sense of democratic consciousness as and you can make something of him. But if democracy rested on self-respect and individuality superstition enters, the brain is gone, the brain is of every man. softening, and degradation has seized upon the life. Vivekananda drew the attention of Indians towards the values of Western ways of life. He Vivekananda told his countrymen to be tolerant opened the link between Indian minds and towards each other. “We reject none, neither external things. The West appeared to him as the theist, nor pantheist, monist, polytheist, agnostic, land of material civilization. The spirit of that nor atheist, the only condition of being a disciple is civilization to him was essential for Indian modelling a character at once the broadest and progress. Therefore he declared “From the great the most intense”, he said. He further said, “I shall dynamo of Europe, the electric flow of that enter to the mosque of the Mohammedan; I shall tremendous power vivifying the whole world, we enter the Christian’s church and kneel before the want that energy, that love of independence, that crucifix; I shall enter the Buddhist temple where I spirit of self-reliance, that immovable fortitude, shall take refuse in Buddha and his law, I shall go that dexterity in action, that bond of unity of into the forest land sit down in meditation with purpose that thirst for improvement”. the Hindu who is trying to see the light which enlightens the heart of everyone. Not only shall I Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel do these but I shall keep my heart open for all that Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel handled effectively the may come in the future.” integration of the princely states with his

Through these words he could impress upon every diplomatic skills and foresightedness. The problem Indian a sense of brotherhood that resulted in of amalgamating 562 independent states with a strengthening the unity of Indians. Vivekananda democratic self-governing India was difficult and condemned the Indian orthodox in harsh terms delicate. But it was essential to save India from

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 balkanization, once the Paramountcy of British for the emancipation of backward communities crown would lapse. Sardar Patel took charge of and women and bring about Hindu- Muslim unity the states department in July 1947. He sensed the through the Gandhian constructive programme urgent and imperative need of the integration of and skillfully utilised the higher castes for social princely states. He followed an iron handed policy. integration and political mobilisation. Thus, he He made it clear that he did not recognize the strengthened the plural basis of the nation-state right of any state to remain independent and in by bringing electoral participation as effective isolation, within India. political mobilisation. He saw a nation as ‘democratic in structure, nationalistic in Sardar vallabhbhai Patel always raised his voice on foundation and welfarist in spirit and function’. several issues against exploitation and criticized the high-handedness of authority, the exploitative The process of the integration of the various revenue policy of the Government and states and the part played by Sardar in it, we maladministration in the Princely states. He not realize the important role that Sardar had in the only criticized the arbitrary policies of confiscation integration of the country. The states included of movable and immovable properties, but also Saurastra (including Junagadh) Hyderabad, insisted on guarded regulations on land reforms Travancore, Cochin, Kashmir and other small and nationalization of key industries. His efforts to states. Sardar’s role in each of these states was reform the Hindu religion and protect the people vital. The continuation of a divided and weak of other faiths reflected his longing for the right to central government would in Patel's mind, result religion. He encouraged the duly elected authority in the wider fragmentation of India by to bring restrictions through various legislative encouraging more than 600 princely states measures to freedom for all. Thus, his political towards independence. Between the months of value system was a fine synthesis of liberalism, December 1946 and January 1947, Patel worked conservatism and welfarism. with civil servant V.P. Menon on the latter's suggestion for a separate dominion of Pakistan His vision of State was in tune with the pattern of created out of Muslim-majority provinces. his political values. In his concept, the State was Communal violence in Bengal and Punjab in founded and held together by a high sense of January and March 1947 further convinced Patel nationalism and patriotism. Individual liberty was of the soundness of partition. Patel, a fierce critic to be in conformity with the provisions of the of Jinnah's demand that the Hindu-majority areas Constitution, to create a Nation-State, he pressed of Punjab and Bengal be included in a Muslim

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 state, obtained the partition of those provinces, principles and cult are counterproductive as far as thus blocking any possibility of their inclusion in true devotion is concerned as all these things Pakistan. By August 15, 1947 all except breed dogmatism and fanaticism, which ultimately Hyderabad, Junagarh and Kashmir acceded to do not allow humankind to see the truth as it is. India. He thereafter carried three fold processes of That is why, probably, many of his poems appear assimilation, centralization and unification of to urge to discard creeds and beliefs that embrace states. The states were amalgamated to form a without any rational thinking. union and that union was merged with the Union Besides, Kabir appears to talk of the God that does of India. He handled the Junagarh and Hyderabad not live at a holy shrine or a temple but within crisis as a seasoned statesman. Nawab of Junagarh man. However, Kabir seems to say that ironically wanted to accede to Pakistan.The integration of that is why people cannot notice God and the princely states thus acted as a synchronizing oblivious of their real self they keep thronging at phenomenon and established a State of balance Kashi and Kaba: between chaos and segmentation and solidarity of the newly born Indian Union. How funny!

In the midst of water,

Kabir A fish thirsts for water,

Scholars differ about Kabir’s parentage, his family, The thing lies at home, the place of his birth, the time and place of his But searching for it, death etc. Instead of concentrating on various beliefs about Kabir’s life, the scholar deems it In the woods, they roam. appropriate to side with the beliefs that are widely Without self knowledge, accepted. Scholars agree with the fact that Kabir belonged to the time of Sikandar Lodi and was a The world is false, disciple of Swami Ramanand. Apropos this fact, Be it Mathura or Kashi. most scholars believe that Kabir was born in 1455 Here, Kabir seems to believe that as a fish lives in and died in 1575. water and is surrounded by water, human beings At a very early stage, Kabir seems to have realised live in God and are surrounded by God but they the fact that any kind of tenets, dogmas, precepts,

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 are still away from God because in vain they seek bitching about others, he will alienate a lot of Him outside. people and lose his friends. As a result, a person will be left alone and the loneliness will tear him Kabir’s devotion looks to be not a blind devotion asunder. Thus, being polite in our speech is very born of an impulse. Rather it seems to be an much essential for social solidarity. application of his belief in logic and evidence. The researcher holds that Kabir scoffs at the prevalent Social and Economic conditions under colonial ritual of chanting God’s name on beads, despite period with special reference to social practices the fact that in Hindu and Muslim religions of Beth, Begar and Reet chanting God’s name is believed to liberate one Social conditions from suffering of this life. Indian society underwent many changes after the This kind of egalitarianism, seems to be a need of British came to India. In the 19th century, certain the time when Kabir lived, as society was social practices like female infanticide, child presumably divided into various strata of marriage, sati, polygamy and a rigid caste system hierarchy and those belonging to the lower strata became more prevalent. These practices were were believed to bear the brunt of inhumane against human dignity and values. Women were discrimination, ostracism and untouchability. discriminated against at all stages of life and were Thus, Kabir might have opposed differentiation the disadvantaged section of the society. They did made on the basis of castes not because he is a not have access to any development opportunities social reformer but because he is a rationalist in to improve their status. Education was limited to a his thinking and a humanist at heart. handful of men belonging to the upper castes. Kabir seems to believe that a person has to be Brahmins had access to the Vedas which were careful of what he speaks and ensure that his written in Sanskrit. Expensive rituals, sacrifices and words do not hurt anybody. It is observed that practices after birth or death were outlined by the though means of communication have increased, priestly class. communication between two people has When the British came to India, they brought new decreased because people unnecessarily indulge ideas such as liberty, equality, freedom and in grumbling about and criticising others. human rights from the Renaissance, the Consequently nobody is ready to listen. If a person Reformation Movement and the various speaks words imbued with love, other people will revolutions that took place in Europe. These ideas love to hear him. On the other hand, if he keeps

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 appealed to some sections of our society and led The British had come to India with the idea of to several reform movements in different parts of making immense profits. This meant buying of raw the country. At the forefront of these movements materials at very cheap rates and selling finished were visionary Indians such as Raja Ram Mohan goods at much higher prices. The British wanted Roy, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Aruna Asaf Ali and the Indians to be educated and modern enough to Pandita Ramabai. These movements looked for consume their goods but not to the extent that it social unity and strived towards liberty, equality proved detrimental to British interests. and fraternity. Many legal measures were Some of the Britishers believed that Western ideas introduced to improve the status of women. For were modern and superior, while Indian ideas example, the practice of sati was banned in 1829 were old and inferior. This was, of course, not by Lord Bentinck, the then Governor General. true. Indians had a rich traditional learning that Widow Remarriage was permitted by a law passed was still relevant. By this time in England there in 1856. A law passed in 1872, sanctioned inter- was a group of Radicals who had a humanistic caste and inter-communal marriages. Sharda Act ideology towards Indians. They wanted India to be was passed in 1929 preventing child marriage. The a part of the modern, progressive world of act provided that it was illegal to marry a girl science. But the British government was cautious below 14 and a boy below 18 years. All the in undertaking rapid modernisation of India. They movements severely criticized the caste system feared a reaction among the people if too much and especially the practice of untouchability. interference took place with their religious beliefs The impact of the efforts made by these numerous and social customs. The English wanted individuals, reform societies, and religious perpetuation of their rule in India and not a organisations was felt all over and was most reaction among the people. Hence, though they evident in the national movement. Women talked about introducing reforms, in reality very started getting better education opportunities and few measures were taken and these were also took up professions and public employment half-hearted. outside their homes. The role of women like Economic conditions Captain Laxmi Sehgal of Indian National Army (INA), Sarojini Naidu, Annie Besant, Aruna Asaf Ali The Industrial revolution has helped the English and many others were extremely important in the merchants accumulate a lot of capital from the freedom struggle. countries of Asia, Africa and America. They now wanted to invest this wealth in setting up

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 industries and trade with India. The mass to increase threat for the handicraft industries as production of goods through machines that we the British goods were sold at a much cheaper witness today was pioneered through the price. Industrial Revolution which occurred first in The British succeeded in selling their goods at a England during the late 18th and the early 19th cheap price as foreign goods were given free entry century. This led to a massive increase in the in India without paying any duty. On the other output of finished products. The East India hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when Company helped in financing and expanding their they were sent out of the country. Besides, under industrial base. During this time there was a class the pressure of its industrialists, British of manufacturers in England who benefited more government often imposed a protective tariff on from manufacturing than trading. They were the British succeeded in selling their goods at a interested in having more raw materials from cheap price as foreign goods were given free entry India as well as sending their finished goods back. in India without paying any duty. On the other Between 1793 and 1813, these British hand, Indian handicrafts were taxed heavily when manufacturers launched a campaign against the they were sent out of the country. Besides, under company, its trade monopoly and the privileges it the pressure of its industrialists, British enjoyed. Ultimately, they succeeded in abolishing government often imposed a protective tariff on the East India Company’s monopoly of Indian Indian textiles. Therefore, within a few years, India trade. With this India became an economic colony from being an exporter of clothes became an of Industrial England. exporter of raw cotton and an importer of British Earlier, Indian handloom had a big market in clothes. This reversal made a huge impact on the Europe. Indian textiles such as cotton, linen, silk Indian handloom weaving industry leading to its and woolen goods already had markets in Asia and virtual collapse. It also created unemployment for Africa. With the coming of industrialisation in a large community of weavers. Many of them England, the textile industry there made migrated to rural areas to work on their lands as important headway. There was now a reverse of agricultural laborers. This in turn put increased the direction of textile trade between Britain and pressure on the rural economy and livelihood. This India. There was a massive import of machine process of uneven competition faced by the Indian made clothes from English factories to Indian handloom industry was later dubbed by the Indian markets. This import of large amount of products nationalist leaders as de-industrialisation. manufactured by mechanical looms in England led

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Beth in their internal matters. Begar was the only exaction of the colonial state from most of them in Unfree labour was central to agricultural the absence of any proper tribute. production in pre-colonial India. Under colonial impact, these forms of unfree labour, while There has been almost no attempt to study the retaining their outward form, were radically agrarian economies, social structures and political changed in content. In medieval times, the institutions of the Western Himalayas except in subjects of the king were never `free’ as in the the few ecology centered works on the region. modern sense and all social classes and groups Beth ( or other forms of the labour of the lowest were linked to each other vertically and castes ) has never been considered worthy of even horizontally in ties of bondage, dependence and the most preliminary study, though there have patronage. Under colonialism these ties got been one or two exceptions. Before we begin any removed from their socio – economic context of discussion of unfree labour in the specificities of origin and existence, and functioned differently in the Simla Hill States, it would be useful to place it the new environment. It would be an attempt of in the wider context of unfree labour in colonial this paper to see how and what changes were situations. brought about in the institution of `Beth‘ – forced Begar labour of unfree lower castes – in the Simla Hills under the impact of British rule. Begar a form of social labour without payment. Its origin goes back to the pre-money era when Beth and its cousin category of Begar were forms labour was viewed as an important item of of unfree labour of the agricultural castes. While exchange. The land of the king and his men and the latter was given by practically every State priests were cultivated by peasants in exchange of subject for community and administrative works, some tenurial rights in land granted by the king. the former was only given by the lowest castes to When the state became a more elaborate and the higher castes and it usually took the form of complex affair in later period, the demesne lands semi-serf agricultural labour. When the British of the ruling classes, particularly of the landlords, gained physical control of the Cis-Sutlej hills in were worked by their prajas or subjects gratis. This 1815, they gave Sanads to the petty States of the was considered to be a pious act to give free region confirming their formal independence labour to the priestly classes. Village people under British Paramountcy. These States, eighteen always gave free labour in working temple lands in all, were given almost complete independence also. Such a free labour system is not to be

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 confused with the use of slave and bonded Begar was recognised by the British authorities labours. Free labour was given either in exchange right from 1815, and all the Sanads granted to of some rights obtained in land or some invisible these Hill States recorded in detail the types, merit obtained from rulers or from priests. It was quantities and other requirements of the labour to a social arrangement made possible under the be provided by the hill people to the British pre-monetised modes of production and social authority. British records of this period have no relations. mention of the term Beth, or other forms of unfree labour, in the Western Himalaya. Begar was the labour which all subjects had to provide the state for fixed periods during the year. Reet It was unfree because there was no choice about In the Shimla Hill States and many adjoining wanting to give labour or not. Since agriculture countries such as Mandi, Kullu and Kangra, an was backward and most areas were not obnoxious custom namely Reet was prevalent monetised, only a small part of the surplus could since time immemorial. It is difficult to give any be appropriated through cash or kind. It was for precise definition of Reet.To some it was a form of this reason that direct labour services were the marriage but to others, it was the payment usually predominant form of surplus appropriation by the made on the occasion. Therefore, Reet may be Hill States. There were basically two types of begar defined as a form of marriage without any ritual or taken by the State; one, the regular labour ceremony and was contracted by paying a price. extracted throughout the year and two, the Under this custom, girls and young women were contributions in labour and kind made during allowed to go for sums usually ranging from special occasions like birth, death and marriage in Rs.lOO to Rs.500 but sometimes going up to the Chief’s family. These types of labour had to be Rs.2,000 by the parents or other guardians in the provided by all peasant proprietors and other case of unmarried girls and by husbands in the agriculturalists, exceptions being made for case of married ones. Thus, the amount paid was members of the royal family, certain Bramhin and known as "Reet' money. After the payment of this Rajput families and most of the village devtas and money, the first marriage was, ipso facto annulled divinities. This labour service was taken by the and concubinage with the second man became a State through its officers and the members of the marriage. There was no limit to the number of royal family. women, that one might get under Reet nor any restriction as to leaving any of them again, and in

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 this they might change hands any number of racial advancement were disastrous. Since times. Therefore, the marriage under "Reet' could marriage is purely mechanical, being based on be dissolved as easily as it was contracted. From money bargain, it is not regarded as a sacred this it is clear that woman was treated as a chattel, human relationship with the result that the a commodity to be brought and sold time and conditions which obtain there are hardly again. distinguishable from general promiscuity. Divorce is not obtained on some rational grounds such as The Reet was prevalent among the Kolis, Chanals, cruelty or vice or insanity of a mate or even an Chamars and other tribes which formed the irreconcilable incompatibility of temperament lowest rung in social stratification. In most of the between the couple, but simply on that of lust Hill States, if not at all, it was also prevalent backed by economic means. The result is the among the Kanets. However, Reet was not degradation of the status of women, which, after observed among the high caste Brahmans and all a the test of morality and steady racial Rajputs. degeneration among the hill tribes. There were many evil results of "Reet" custom; Social Reforms Movements in Muslim domestic ties became loose and marriage came to Community: Wahabi Movement & Aligarh have very insignificant position in the stability of Movement society. Indiscriminate relations of a woman with many men often resulted in her catching syphilla The Muslims reformers in India launched many and in return, she transmitted the disease to many religious movements. Some tried to revive the persons. Perhaps that is why these contagious religion and other tried to reform the religion. th diseases became widespread in the hill states. During the 19 century religion reforms movement were on the peak. Movements like Further, the institution of "Reet' also resulted in Deoband Movement, Ahamadiya movement, the laxity of sexual relations and the total Aligarh Movement; Wahabi Movement has disregard of the laws of chastity. The girls were influenced the masses and made them think about their religion and their status. often used for immoral purposes and this led to a notorious traffic in them, which finally swelled the In this article, we will discuss about Wahabi movement and Aligarh Movement. ranks of prostitutes. While highlighting the bad results of the custom, the "Bombay Chronicle' commented: The effects of such lax relationship, Wahabi Movement whether on the character of sex-relationship or on

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Timings of movement: Wahabi revolted against British in 1860s but British understood the upcmong danger. They Wahabi movement expands from 1820 to 1870. suppress the movement after attacking Wahabi Foundation of movement: bases in Sathana, Bihar.

Saiyad Ahmad was the leader of movement in Effect of movement: India who was influenced by the teaching of Abdul Wahabi Movement spread the word of religion in Wahab of Arab and saint shah Waliullah. Islam and it accepted Islam as the most important Objective of movement: religion in the world. The British in 1870 altogether suppressed the movement. Wahabi movement was a reformist movement, which tried to do away with un-Islamic practices in Islam. It was a Islamic purifying movement.

However, later the movement turned against Sikh and British Imperials.

Important events of movement:

Saiyad Ahmad led a countrywide movement to spread his movement. He wanted to make India from Dar-ul-Hurb to Dar-ul-Islam. Dar-ul-Hurb means land of Kafirs.

Syed Ahmed criticized all changes and innovations in Islam and encouraged a return to the pure Islam and society of Arabia of the Prophet’s times.

For the achievement of the desired objectives, Syed Ahmad looked for

(i) the correct leader, (ii) a proper association and (iii) a safe territory from where he wanted Aligarh Movement to launch his Jihad.

At first, he revolted against the Sikh kingdom ruler Foundation of movement: Maharaja Ranjit Singh. In 1830 they captrured Peshawar but they lost it to Sikhs in 1831 after the Sir Syed Ahmad Khan launched the Aligarh battle of Balakot. movement. He started the Mohammedan Anglo- Oriental College at Aligarh in 1875, which was After the inclusion of Punjab in 1849 in East India later, become center of Aligarh Movement. Company British was the target of Wahabi Movement. Objective of movement:

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Unlike Wahabi movement Aligarh movement was Aligarh Movement gave political representation to a revivalist movement; which sought change in Muslims and improved their social condition. religion as the need of the hour. Aligarh movement saw western education necessary for the development of individual.

Important events of movement: The Aligarh Movement was the drive for modern Muslim education. It played an important role to Indian Muslims by its political foresightedness.

From the early stages, the movement was political in nature. In 1886 Sir Syed Ahmad Khan founded the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference i to promote more broadly the educational aims of Aligarh Movement.

New trend in Urdu literature was due to Aligarh Movement. Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and his Spread of education by missionary and voluntary association accepted and promoted simple style, which helped Muslims to understand the main bodies in modern India purpose of the movement. It discarded the old writing style of Urdu, which was not for the Role of Christian Missionary Education in India common people. during British Colonial period The Aligarh Movement promoted adoption of a historical and moral attitude, which influenced the  Education in India was a privilege of elite life of the Indian Muslim. upper classes. It was limited to gurukuls It helped scholars to leave the romantic style of where upper caste young boys would go to prose and poetry. study under the tutorship of a guru. Even Urdu Defense Association considered as derivative of the Aligarh Movement. women from the upper caste families were The Deoband School was opposed to the not provided opportunity to learn. movement as Aligarh Movement. They considered Common people were aliens to this elite it as supporters of the British education system.

Effect of movement:  When missionaries arrived they began to start schools for common people, generally The Wahabi movement and other movements before 1857 saw Muslims anti- British. After the in the vernacular language. Moni Bagchee revolt, Sir Syed Ahmad Khan thought to have writes critically about "Christian support of British in the development of Islam and Missionaries in Bengal". Muslims in India.

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 Though, written with the negative attitude,  The tribal people in Northeast India and in the author acknowledges the contribution Chotanagpur region are prosperous and of missionaries in Bengal to the cause of progressive. S.K. Barpujari, University of mass education. Missionaries educated Gauhati writes the teaching of Christ children in local language, raised the changed the evil practices of Nagas like standard of education, trained teachers practices of head-hunting and bloody and improved methods of teaching. warfare.  Missionaries were ahead of their times. Missionaries in Bihar: Educational Activity Women empowerment would be possible only when women are educated. So, they  Ever since the passing of the Charter Act of began to open schools for girls. Upper 1813 the Christian Missionaries had stared caste men used to ridicule missionaries participating actively in the field of Indian requesting them to educate their cows education. In Bihar, the Christian instead of girls. Missionaries opened a school for the  Some times missionaries had to pay children of Indian converts at Bettiah in the incentives to families for sending their girls year 1816. to school. Modern Indian women have  The children were taught to read and write entered in almost all fields in the nation and commit to memory selections from the should be grateful to missionaries who Gospel translated into Hindustani by the created opportunities for their Catholic clergy. The school was under the empowerment. supervision of a Christian lay teacher, and  Education that was window to the world, it had twenty students on its rolls. The key to knowledge, wheels for progress was Missionaries also opened one such school made available widely for all children at Digha, Patna, in 1819. irrespective of their caste or economic  Around the year 1832 Rev. W. Start, a status or sex. clergyman of the Church of England who  Today, India aspires for a superpower had settled at Patna, founded a mission status in the globalized world for which and brought to India, a considerable missionaries sowed the seed more than number of men from Germany. two hundred years ago.  Gradually these assistants of Rev. Start moved to Gaya, Arrah, Hajipur, Chhapra

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and Muzaffarpur in connection with separated from Agra Vicariate and missionary work. There were a number of constituted into new Patna Visceral. missions which came from time to time CONTRIBUTION OF CHRISTIAN INSTITUTIONS TO and made remarkable contributions in the EDUCATION IN THE NORTHEAST REGION OF field of education in Bihar. INDIA  These were: The Roman Catholic Mission, Baptist Missionaries, The Gassner  The Northeast accounts for 7.7 % of the total Evangelical Lutheran Mission (later Church) geographical area, and 3.88% of the in Chotanagpur, Anglican Mission in population of India. It is a home to over 400 Chotanagpur, The Santal Mission of scheduled tribes. There are few places in the Northern Churches, Roman Catholic world where such a variety of peoples live in Mission in Chotanagpur, The Santa] close proximity to each other as in Northeast Mission of the United Free Church of India. The tribals constitute 80% of the Scotland in Bihar, The Methodist Church in population of Northeast India. Bihar, the Dublin University Mission in  The earliest known Christian presence in Chotanagpur, the Catholic Mission in the Northeast India goes back to 17th century. We Bhagalpur District and adjacent Santal area have the three Tibet bound Portuguese Jesuit in Bihar, The Fellowship of Christian missionaries, Stephen Cacella and John Cabral, Assemblies Mission 11 Bihar, The Seventh and Fontabona from Italy who reached Hajo Day Adventist Mission in Bihar, The Zenana and Pandu near Guwahati, Asom, on Bible and Medical Mission in Bihar, British September 26, 1626. They visited parts of Churches of Christ Mission in Palamau, The Goalpara and Kamrup districts on their way to Brethren in Christ Mission in Bihar, The Tibet. Assembly of God (A.G.) Mission in Bihar,  The Chronicles of the Augustinian monks at The Catholic Mission to the Santali land of Bandel, near Hoogly, in West Bengal provide the districts of Pumea and Santal Parganas. detailed information about the visit of Francis  These Missionaries continued their work Laynez, the Jesuit bishop of Mylapore, to throughout the State. But it was from 1846 Rangamati, in the kingdom of Cooch Behar in onwards that their work started more 1714, a large Christian Community of 7000 vigorously, when the Patna-Bettiah sector people live there. A small Portuguese Catholic of the Mission in North India was community at Bondashil in the Cachar district

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of Assam, the remnants of another Mughal Soon Alexander Lish, opened schools at Army, and a similar community at Cherrapunji, Mawsmai and Mawmluh and Mariamnagar in Agartala which was in made a beginning in the development of Khasi existence since the eighteenth century goes to literature. show the significant presence of Christians.  In 1836, the two American Baptist missionary  The earliest nineteenth century missionary couples came to Sadiya, but soon would move interest in the Northeast was shown by the to the hills. Baptists of Serampore from 1816-1837.  Since its establishment in 1834, the whole of  In 1811 an Assamese pundit, Atmaram Sarma Northeast India was under the jurisdiction of of Kaliabari in the Nagaon district was the Vicar Apostolic of Calcutta. Fathers Huc employed by the mission to translate the and Gabet, French Lazarists visited Mangaldai Christian scriptures into Assamese and an on their way to Tibet in 1846. From 1850 the Assamese New Testament was published in Foreign Missionaries of Paris ministered to the 1819. scattered Catholic Communities in the Asom  In 1813 Krishna Chandra Pal, the first convert Valley. of the Serampore mission spent eight months  Asom became part of the prefecture of Bengal at Pandua, under the Syiemship of Cherapunji . in 1870 under the care of the Foreign As far as Garos are concerned the first contact Missionaries of Milan (PIME). with education came in 1824, when David  In 1890 the whole Asom was entrusted to the Scott sends three Garo boys to Serampore to care of the then newly founded German study. Society of Catholic Education known as the  The whole of Northeast India had other Society of the Divine Saviour, or German associations with Christianity prior to the Salvatorians. Treaty of Yandabu and the British annexation  The JesuitMissionaries looked after the of Asom in 1826. This would mean that mission from 1915 to 1922. From 1922 the Northeast India had Christian presence even Salesians of Don Bosco (S.D.B.) or the Don before the Ahom Raja, Rudra Singh. Bosco Fathers and brothers and later on the Encouraged by David Scott, and Major Jenkins, diocesan Clergy and members of other the Serampore mission opened a school at religious congregations and committed laity Guwahati in 1829; just three years after Asom made their contribution to development of had come under the control of the British. education.

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Education of Women India. This same commitment and dedication through their educational  A century ago education of women was institutions is visible every where they practically unknown, especially in the work. plains of Asom. The Adivasi tribal women  The government of Asom sought the help were illiterate. Among the Assamese of missionaries in this effort. As Becker women too education was totally says, “The real problem was to arouse neglected. interest among the local women for the  The first attempt towards the education of education of girls”. women in Northeast India were made at  The beginning of education of women was the turn of the century with the beginning a major breakthrough in the of St. Mary’s School, and college, by the transformation of society in the region. Sisters of the Queen of the Missions  Today it is taken for granted that girls too (RNDM) for the education of girls and should be educated. Though it is women has rendered yeomen service in heartening to note that women in general this field. enjoy better status in the Northeast  The Salesian Sisters (FMA) began their compared to the rest of the country, much work in Asom with the education and more can be done to promote their dignity empowerment of poor Adivasi tribal girls. and self worth especially through  Their example of commitment to this cause education. was followed by the Missionary Sisters of Mary Help of Christians (MSMHC) whom Professional and Technical Education they formed at the initial stages of the  Training schools and colleges for the congregation. preparation of teachers were also set up by  The visitation sisters of Don Bosco (VSDB) the Christian Churches. Technical schools founded by late Archbishop Hubert were first introduced by the Church, D’Rosario, SDB, in 1983 are doing great particularly by the Catholic Church. amount of work among the village and  This has been a specific contribution of the rural women. Salesian religious brothers through Don  The qualitative and quantitative growth of Bosco Technical Schools and now the the congregations has brought greater Montfort religious brothers and others. vitality to the tribal churches of Northeast

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 Thousands of tribal youth have been auxiliary nurses from among the tribal introduced and trained in shoe making, population. book binding, tailoring, furniture making,  Homes for the orphans and the aged general mechanics, motor mechanics, established by the Churches have totally welding, composing and printing, changed the situation of the poor and computer, typing, shorthand, photography, marginalized elements of society. Care of and embroidery making. the differently abled has made many tribal  This movement has radically changed the families aware that there are new areas of tribal way of life and served as a catalyst life that need attention. Often corrective for others to enter into similar pursuits. treatment, surgery, physiotherapy can do much to make life normal or at least Theological Education tolerable to the differently abled especially  Theological and pastoral education children and youth. introduced and developed by the various  The schools for the differently abled in churches in Northeast India has also Tura, Shillong, Umiam Khwan and Agartala quietly brought about major changes in the bear witness to this side of Christian region. education that has transformed the tribal  There are many philosophical colleges and society. theological colleges that impart  What I want to stress here is the fact that ecclesiastical education to future church the real achievement of Christian leaders in the Northeast India. They are the Education in these hills in the early years is primary agent of social change in many not necessarily the setting up of medical areas of life. institutions but the impact of mere education on the health consciousness of Medical Education the people, thus making them healthier  Promotion of Medical students through individuals scholarship has brought about a great Choice of Roman Script for Tribal Languages change in tribal society. As a result today there are hundreds of doctors, nurses, laboratory assistants, technicians and  The use of tribal language in education necessitates its development as an

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educational tool. The first step in its important decision taken after much development is developing a writing discussion. This step had far reaching system for it. One aspect of developing a benefits. writing system is the choice of a script.  First the tribals learned the art of reading  In the Indian context the choice of script and writing. Naturally, the missionary had may be 1) the script of the official language the intention that their people should be of the State in which the tribal language is able to read the sacred scripture. Language spoken; 2) Devanagiri; 3) Roman and 4) played a very important meeting point invented script. between the missionary and the people.  Each has advantage and disadvantages  The Assamese people irrespective of their from cultural, social, political, economic religious affiliation and historians of all and technological points of view. The hues credit the American Baptist mission generally favoured view in India is the for having helped to preserve the script of the state language with necessary autonomy of the Assamese language. So modification to suit the needs of the tribal too, many other tribes. culture.  Language and literature enabled the tribals  The second aspect of the writing system is towards breaking out of isolationism. It devising an alphabet – a set of symbols- to opened up new vistas of cross cultural represent the meaning of differentiating communication and enabled the people to sounds of the tribal language. cope up with the new socio-economic and  Here also cultural and political political situation in which they found considerations intervene with purely themselves. linguistic considerations. The aspect of the Role of voluntary bodies in modern India writing system is spelling of words identification of word boundaries and "The diversity of NGOs strains any simple punctuation marks. The last aspect is definition. They include many groups and technological applications like printing, institutions that are entirely or largely computer key board. independent of government and that have  The Choice of the Roman script to reduce primarily humanitarian or cooperative rather than the languages of the tribals to writing with commercial objectives. They are private agencies the exception of Assamese was an in industrial countries that support international

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 development; indigenous groups organized (education, health, independence and regionally or nationally; and member-groups in culture). villages. NGOs include charitable and religious  The work of RVKP spread in 27 CD blocks of associations that mobilize private funds for eight tribal districts namely Udaipur, development, distribute food and family planning Dungarpur, Bhilwara, Banswara, services and promote community organization. Chittoregarh, Sirohi, Pali, Baran. Major They also include independent cooperatives, programmes of this organisation are health community associations, water-user societies, centers, educational institutions, sports women's groups and pastoral associations. Citizen center, hostels, Satsang Kendra and Groups that raise awareness and influence policy Sanskar Kendra. are also NGOs" ~ World Bank  Tuberculosis control programme is most important and popular initiative taken by Some Famous organization and Their role in this organisation started in 1992 from Complete Development of tribal or other social Jhadol and Kotra Block of Udaipur district. groups including Education Till 1999 it benefited 1053 and 555 Rajasthan Vanvasi Kalyan Parishad (RVKP) patients respectively in Jhadol and Kotra tehsil alone. Health care programmes also  Tribal development is central objectives in include permanent health center and their constitution as well as function. It is mobile van for interior tribal villages. established as a regional center of Akhil Bhartiya Vanvasi Kalyan Parisad (1952) but Vidya Bhawan Society it has also separate and local identity like  Vidya Bhawan Society is the initial locally registered rather a branch office, voluntary effort which continues even local leadership, local resources and local today. This was established in 1931 with tribal concerns. dedicated efforts of Dr Mohan Singh  It is inspired by Hindu ideology and Mehta and a group of like minded people. indigenous culture. Its emergence is, as  The thrust of this organisation was to leader’s claims, to protect local tribal educate the rural masses of that region culture from external forces through where the percentage literacy rate was developmental programmes- siksha, only 4.9. swasthya, swablamban aur sanskar

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 It started with a middle school and today  Besides these, Lok Sishan Sansthan (a unit twelve different institutes are running of RVK) started in 1939 and continue even under this society and all are concerned to today for rural development of South rural development with professional Rajasthan. expertise.  Community development is the core  These institutes not only comprises formal objective of this unit through adult education but also entrepreneurial education and extension programmes training, professional courses suited to the among tribes. The constitution of this local needs. organisation clearly mentions the tribal  For instance, Anganwadi Workers interest as core issue and their Prasikshan Kendra, Krishi Vigyan Kendra, development through educational Cellulose Waste Recycling Education, programmes. teachers training etc all focussed to local  Now, RVK is a registered society (1992) and requirement. The people’s commitment also executes various governmental reflects through Dr. Mehta writes about projects, like child schools in two villages the social condition ofVBS. along with 29 local NGOs.

Rajasthan Vidyapith Kul (RVK) Rajasthan Bal Kalyan Samiti (RBKS)

 This is one of oldest voluntary institution  This is also a voluntary organisation which has now partly changed to deemed registered in 1983 and managmg several university with numerous institutions. It educational institutions of Udaipur district. started in 1937 by a local social reformer This has established by a local resident of Pandit Janardanray Nagar and like minded Jhadol tehsil who is by profession a people of Mewar144 primary school teacher.  Rajasthan Vidyapith is the initial steps in  Unlike the other NGOs it is completely tribal education by establishing the schools village based and totally devoted for tribal in tribal pockets before independence such development. RBKS is located in Jhadol as Jhadol, Davok, Pratapnagar. tehsil, a scheduled tribe area, and later on  Other institutions of Rajasthan Vidyapith spread to other areas such as Gogunda, have also given priority and privileges to Kotra and Girwa. tribal students in that region.

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 It provides the formal education through steps like, consciousness, Mobilization. school and college education with special Organization and Control. focus to tribal masses. Jhadol tehsil has  The consciousness refers to knowledge and very few high schools and not a single awareness about group identity and college for further education except one interests. college recently established by RBKS.  The distinction between a conscious group  It also provides hostel facilities for and a passive group is the same distinction exclusively tribal boys and girls separately what Kal Marx finds between a class in with minimal charges because they receive itself and a class for itself. the grant from Ministry of Tribal Affairs  The mobilization means generating a (Govt. of India) and other sources. Tribal desire and willingness to come forward to girl education is the major thrust ofthis attain an objective. The organization refers organisation. to pooling human and material resources within a structural framework for making Struggle for emancipation of Dalits and their collective and sustained efforts to achieve empowerment a common goal. The control means Dalit empowerment acquiring the power and capacity to be able to decide and determine those  Dalit empowerment may be defined as a matters which affect one’s life conditions. process of gaining control by Dalits as a community over self, ideology, material Dalit Aspect and knowledge resources, which  The term Dalit is a Marathi term which determine power relationship in a society. means ground or broken to pieces. The  As a political process, Dalit empowerment word Dalit comes from Sanskrit (Ancient challenges the prevailing power structure Indian language) word Dal which means to of subordination and involves three crucial crack or to split. elements- access to information,  Though the use of the term Dalit in public opportunity for participation and inclusion discourse is of relatively recent origin, it is in political process and organizing capacity supposed to have been used first by to influence and gain power. Jotirao Phule(1827-1890), leading social  In outcome oriented paradigm, the process reformer of Maharashtra , in his attempt to of empowerment involves four successive

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champion the cause of upliftment of the Dr. B.R. Ambedkar’s Vision of Dalit Emancipation downtrodden sections of society. through Social Justice  While Ambedkar also popularize the term  In his quest for human equality in India, Dalit, his philosophy has remained a key Ambedkar mainly used agitation as a source of inspiration for Dalit modus operandi. His first ever agitation empowerment. Ambedkar was the first was to open a water tank for public, which Dalit leader who demanded political was reserved only for the upper castes. empowerment of the Dalits in 1930s.  He edited and deployed newspapers as a  Marathi literary figures and neo-Buddhists medium of communication with his began to use the word in their writings and followers. contributed to the literary initiatives in  Through newspapers such replacing Harijan (Gandhi‟s term for them as MookNayak and Bahishkrit Bharath, he , means children of God) and achchuta( managed to reach a substantial number of Vedic term for them , means untouchable) audiences and garner their support. He with Dalit in the 1970s. used his education and skill to reclaim the  This term was highly popularized by Dalit rights of the oppressed. Panthers in 1970s in Maharashtra, to refer  One of his notable achievements was to to the scheduled caste (constitutional term carve out a separate electorate for the for them) population. untouchables in a predominantly upper-  However there are some who assign a caste political landscape. broad meaning to the term to denote to any oppressed group of people. Yet the Towards social justice term has become synonymous with the  In response to the highly discriminatory schedule caste people. This section of caste-ridden social system that utterly Indian society is called Dalit because they devalued human dignity of Sudras and are placed at the lowest layer of social untouchables, Ambedkar stood structure and suffers from various forms of determined to eradicate social, deprivation and social, economic, cultural educational, and cultural disparities of the and political marginalization. The worst lower castes. form of their marginalization is the scourge  He was of the view that as long as there of the untouchably was a caste system, there would be

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outcastes too. He mobilized them with the devoid of any mobility, either horizontal or motto: “educate, agitate and unite.” vertical.  He inculcated in their minds the values of  For Ambedkar, economic equality must be self-respect, dignity, and an urge to fight sought in tandem with social equality and for their rights. Hinduism, the predominant this could be achieved only with religion in India, never taught the virtues of constitutional safeguard liberty, equality and fraternity and, Social Mobilization and Struggle consequently, it could never unite the entire Hindu society.  He started newspapers like the  Ambedkar’s first ever public struggle led Mooknayak, Bahiskrit Bharat and Janata him to drink water from a public tank to raise their awareness and propagate his named, Choudar-Talab, which was out of views. He was exhorted Dalits to leave bounds for the untouchables. their traditional and demeaning  This was an effective agitation because it occupation, move away from villages as helped to disrupt the brutal everyday „they were sink of localism, den of inequality that the untouchables had to ignorance, narrow mindedness and suffer as they were not allowed to drink communalism‟. water even from a public tank reserved for  Similarly for the mobilization of Dalits, he the upper castes. organized many social struggles like Mahad Tank satyagrah in 1926 and temple entry Against the structures of economic injustice movement in 1930.

 The traditional caste-based economic  He also founded some social organizations structure of Indian society contained no like Bahiskrit Hikarini Sabha and the All provision for investing money to earn more India Depressed Classes Association in value based on the means of production 1930 with the same objective. available.  These efforts eventually resulted in social  Hereditary division of labour on which mobilization of Dalits and strengthened the Indian castiesm rests proved to be an agenda of social justice

impediment to economic justice for the Political organization of Dalits depressed sections of society. Such a social order created a stagnant economic state

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 Ambedkar made serious efforts for the champions of social justice in political organization of Dalits. He founded contemporary India. the independent Labor Party in 1937 and  First, his sterling contribution in this field replaced it with another party, the All India was to advance and steer the course of Scheduled Caste Federation founded in Dalit empowerment and to impart to it a 1942. He also laid the foundation of distinct political character, which is the another political party, Republican Party of core of the very notion of empowerment. India which was founded in 1957, after his Without this political core, the idea of Dalit death by his followers, which advanced the empowerment will not be without real agenda of Dalit empowerment in the 1950s substance and spirit. and 1960s.  Second, unlike other Dalit social reformers  Even, the formation of Dalit Panther Party before and after his times, he advanced his in 1970 and the Bahujan Samaj Party in mission with a sound and viable ideological 1984 owe their ideological genesis to framework coupled with equally strong Ambedkar. action framework. He was not only a great  The BSP, founded by Kasi Ram and now led theoretician but also restless activist of by Kumari Mayawati was able to gain Dalit cause. In this respect he stands apart political power in Uttar Pradesh, along with and much ahead from others. substantial presence in some other parts of  His life and mission was a perfect and the country. The roots of all these facets of unique blend of theory and action. the ongoing empowerment of Dalits in  His ideas are leading light and sustain the India are found in the ideas and practice of ongoing process of Dalit empowerment Ambedkar. even today. Without his ideological foundation, the edifice of the Conclusion contemporary Dalit empowerment in India  Dr Ambedkar was not the first person to will go bankrupt and lose its identity, initiate the process of Dalit empowerment direction and spirit. in India, nor was he the last person to Nawab Saadat Khan (1722-1739) ensure its completion.

 However, his Dalit mission has two distinct The power of the shaikhzadas remained characteristics, not shared by other paramount and unchallenged until Saadat Khan

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 stepped into Lucknow. Being appointed Subedar in 1775. Safdarjang was a restless, ambitious and 1722 Saadat Khan laid the foundation of Awadh impulsive ruler who was engaged in violent dynasty of the Shia Nawabs of Iranian lineage disturbances which brought momentous based first at Faizabad and later at Lucknow. He vicissitudes for his reign ( 1754 – 1775 ). Shuja-Ud- died in 1739 A.D. in Delhi. Although he died a Daula died early in January 1775 and was laid at natural death due to the chronic pain in his leg his mausoleum at Gulab-Bari, Faizabad. caused by a tumor, which was probably cancerous, yet his sudden death gave rise to the calumny that he committed suicide by consuming poison Nawab Asaf ud-Daula (1775-1798) because of loss of credibility both with the victor and the vanquished during the invasion of India by The accession of Asaf-Ud-Daula, the fourth Nadir Shah. Nawab, brought a great change in Awadh politics. He moved the court of Awadh from Faizabad to

Lucknow in 1775. When the court moved to Nawab Safdar Jang (1739 – 1754) Lucknow, the kernel of the court, as if, shed its old husk and acquired a new one and the city largely Saadat Khan was succeeded by his son-in-law, grew in and around the existing town to Safdar Jung who set up his military head-quarters accommodate the influx of the people. There at Faizabad. His rule of fifteen years (1739 – emerged a powerful Shia culture, in constant 1754)saw no peace as he was constantly engaged interaction with Shia heart lands of Iran and Iraq. in struggle against the Bangash Nawabs of The increasing number of Shia emigrants from Farrukhabad. Safdar Jung had to leave the Delhi Iranian cities veritably transformed Lucknow into a court due to conspiracies. He returned to Awadh great intellectual center. in 1753, but died within a year at Rupar ghat, near The Nawab constructed Daulat Khana, the large Sultanpur in 1754. His mausoleum, which is one of palace – garden complex as residence for himself, the finest pieces of the architecture of the period, the major mosques like Asfi Masjid, enlarged the is in New Delhi. Chowk and set up dozen major markets to form the core of royal quarter of the city. He built the gateway, Rumi Darwaza and Bara Imambara to Nawab Shuja ud-Daula (1754-1775) provide succor to the victims of famine of 1784. Safdar Jung was succeeded by his son, Shuja – Ud The arched roof of Imambara, built without a – Daula, who stayed mostly at Faizabad but was single beam or pillar for support, is one of the always eager to extend his dominion up to Bihar. largest of its kind in the World. The Bhul Bhulaiya He made several efforts to this end, by supporting at Imambara is a unique labyrinth of intricate Shah Alam II, and subsequently Mir Kasim but was balconies and passages, with 489 identical defeated in the battle by the English at Buxar in doorways, which make one feel being lost. Asaf- 1764. The defeat compelled him to enter into a Ud-Daula also built Bibiyapur Kothi and Chinhut treaty with the East India Company. The Kothi. Overwhelmed by the design of Constantia agreement not only paved the way for British built by Claude Martin he purchased it, offering to advent on the soils of Awadh but also their give ten lakhs of gold coins. However, before the gradual ascendancy to real power. The Nawab first transaction could be completed, the Nawab died gave up the fort of Chunar, and then ceded the in 1798 and was laid to rest in the magnificent Banaras region and the revenues of Ghazipur in Imambara built by him. The British absorbed

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Allahabad and the adjoining region in the same Ghazi-ud-din Haider became Nawab in 1814. He year. broke the frayed ties between the defunct Mughal empire and Awadh and declared it an independent

state in 1819. He was now called King, but for all Nawab Wazir Ali (1798) formal and ceremonial purposes, the Resident was deemed his equal. The Resident even had an edge Wazir Ali became the Nawab of Awadh after the over the king; he could threaten and bully while death of Asaf – Ud – Daula. His succession was the King could only sulk and occasionally protest. disputed on his being an illegitimate son of Asaf- ud-Daula, whose brother Sadat Ali Khan made He built two houses in Moti Mahal complex, overtures to the British who finally deposed and Mubarak Manzil and Shah Manzil. He got built for imprisoned Wazir Ali at Vellore as the latter did his European wife a house named Vilayati Bagh in not toe their lines and revolted against the British. European style. Near it was constructed Qadam Rasul which supposedly bears the foot prints of Muhammed on black stone. Owing to his religious fervency, he also constructed a holy mausoleum, Nawab Saadat Ali Khan (1798-1814) Najaf, the replica of Ali’s burial place at Najaf in Sadat Ali Khan was made Nawab on 21st January Iraq. He was buried there on his death in 1827. 1798 at a grand darbar held at Bibiyapur kothi. As Later, his three begums were also buried at Shah a mark of gratitude, the Nawab formally ceded Najaf Imambara. lower Doab, Gorakhpur and Rohilkhand. While Awadh shrank half in size, the powers of British Resident grew in inverse proportion. The resident Nawab Nasir-ud-Din Haider (1827-1837) gradually arrogated to himself the right to hold a darbar or court and assumed the de-facto Ghazi-ud-din Haider’s son, Nasir-ud-din Haider guardianship of wasiqadars or pensioners against ascended the throne in 1827. The administration the Nawab himself. of the kingdom was left to hands of wazir Hakim Mahdi and later to Raushan-ud-Daula. The king Sadat Ali Khan, though a miser, was nevertheless kept himself busy in debaucheries and inventing an enthusiastic builder and he commissioned religious rites. He lived mostly in womens quarters many palaces, including Dilkusha, Hayat Baksh and even dressed like a woman. He had a colourful Kothi, Farhat Baksh Kothi as well as Lal Baradari. court and led a very lavish life. He also constructed, Chhatar Manzil, Kothi Dil Aram, Munawar Baksh, Khursid Manzil and the His strong belief in astrology and astronomy led Chaupar Stables abandoning the Mughal style by him to set up an observatory at Lucknow — adopting European Innovations in architecture. Tarawali Kothi. He added Darshan Vilas, a European style Kothi to the Farhat Baksh complex In 1814, Sadat Ali Khan died and was buried with in 1832 and reproduced a Karbala at Iradatnagar his wife Khursheed Zadi in the twin tombs of for his place of burial. Qaiserbagh adjoining the Begum Hazrat Mahal Park. In 1837, he was poisoned to death by his own friends and favourites. Nasiruddin Haider had died without any offspring and his queen Badshah Begum put forward Munna Jan as a claimant to Nawab Ghazi-ud-Din Haider (1814-1827) the throne though both Ghaziuddin Haider and

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Nasir uddin Haider had refused to acknowledge affairs of the kingdom. The situation progressively him as belonging to royal lineage. Badshah Begum sapped the authority of the king. forcibly enthroned Munna Jan at the Lal Baradari. Amjad Ali Shah died in 1848 due to cancer and The British intervened and exploited the situation was buried at the Imambara Sibtainabad in to their advantage. They arrested Munna Jan and western part of Hazratganj, a quarter which he Badshah Begum and arranged for the accession of had himself established. Nasir-ud Din Haider, the son of late Nawab Sadat Ali Khan, who promised to pay a large sum of money to the British for this. Nawab Wajid Ali Shah (1847-1856)

Wajid Ali Shah, the eldest son of Amjad Ali Shah, Nawab Mohammad Ali Shah (1837-1842) became the king of Awadh in 1847. Wajid Ali Shah Muhammad Ali Shah was 63 years of age when he was himself a great theatre genius and had set up ascended the throne. He was an experienced man a Pari Khana for training artists. He was also a and had seen the glorious days of his father. He great patron of artists, singers and musicians. He started to economise and set right the lived in an atmosphere of gaiety and merriment. administrative machinery. He built the Husainabad Wajid Ali Shah was completely given to pleasure in (Chhota) Imambara in 1838 and created the closing years of his reign. He was devoted to Hooseinabad Endowment Fund to support it. his large harem, his boon companions, his columbary, and his large and impressive Muhammad Ali Shah had resolved to make menagerie. Lucknow into veritable Babylon. He started building in the neighbourhood of the present Wajid Ali Shah was greatly interested in Clock Tower, an edifice similar to Babylon’s architecture. He started building the Qaiser Bagh minaret or floating garden and named it palace complex as soon as he came to power. The Satkhanda, but it reached only its fifth storey in inner court yard of Qaiser Bagh, with its lawns was 1842 when Muhammad Ali Shah died. called Jilo Khana. In the center was a Baradari flanked by two mermaid gates (Lakhigate) on eastern and western ends. On the right end was Chandwali Baradari, which was paved with silver Nawab Amjad Ali Shah (1842-1847) and the Khas Muqam and Badshah Manzil, which After Muhammad Ali Shah, his son Amjad Ali Shah used to be special residence of the king. The ascended the throne. He had received an excellent buildings at Qaiser Bagh quadrangle were education which made him a devout Muslim but occupied mainly by the ladies of his seraglio. To fell short of making him a capable ruler. He the left of western Lakhi Gate was Roshan-ud became a deeply religious, circumspect and Daula Kothi built by the Wazir of Nasiruddin abstinent ruler of Awadh. As a result, the system Haider. Wajid Ali Shah confiscated it and named it of administration toned up by Muhammad Ali Qaiser Pasand, where one of his wife Mushuq Shah became completely disorganised while the Mahal used to live. He purchased Chaulakhi Kothi vicious officers had their day. His ability to rule from Azimulla Khan. During the first war of was considerably undermined by the competing independence, Begum Hazrat Mahal held her power structure created by the East India court from this Kothi. Company and its large scale interference in the

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The British were looking for an opportunity to life according the majestic teachings of annex Awadh. About Wajid Ali Shah, Lord Islam. Dalhousie once wrote: “The king of Oudh seems disposed to bumptious. I wish he would be. To  And this concept was merely adequate in swallow him before I go, would give me giving rise to two different political satisfaction”. He referred to Awadh as the thinking which were responsible in “luscious cherry” that will drop into their mouth one day especially if the British continued shaking partition of Sub-Continent. the tree to help it down. TWO NATION THEORY AND SIR SYED AHMED They found an opportunity. Hindu – Muslim rupture over Hanuman Garhi at Ayodhya created KHAN: so much tumult for the secular-minded king that the British got an excuse to annex Awadh on the  Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, a great Muslim self – righteous ground that “British Government leader and a great philosopher. Every time, would be guilty in the sight of God and man, if it were any longer to aid in sustaining by its Muslims was forced by Sir Syed to get countenance an administration with evil to modern education. Sir Syed was a first man millions.” The British annexed Awadh on 11th February 1856 deposing Wajid Ali Shah. in Sub-Continent history to introduce a word "TWO NATION" for Muslims and Hindus and introduced an idea to become “Two-Nation” theory and Islamic revivalism a pioneer of Two Nation Theory. “Two-Nation” theory  Syed Ahmed Khan tried his level best for the Muslims comprehend their differences  Two Nation Theory's phenomenon with the Hindus with many expects basically sprigged up with the advent of including religion, social, language, and Islam in the Sub-Continent. international identity and for this reason  The sense was very unique about he diverted attention of the Muslims Pakistan's creation that it was generally towards Two Nation Theory. based on ideological commitments in the  The possibly main reason for which Sir light of Islam. Syed introduced this theory is the downfall  The basic concept behind Two Nation of Muslims, Muslims Hindus controversy, Theory was Muslims and Hindus was two language problem, and the hatred by separate nations from every expects, So It Hindus and British upon Muslims of South was the right of Muslim to had their own Asia. homeland in the Muslims majority areas of Sub-Continent, where they can live their

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 Due to Hindu Muslims non acceptance  The entire freedom movement revolves behavior, Syed Ahmed Khan realize that around the Two Nation Theory which the both Nations cannot live together any became the basis for the demand of more. During the Hindu Urdu Controversy, Pakistan. he came forward with Two Nation Concept  It means that the Muslims of the Sub- and declared that Muslims were a separate Continent were a separate nation with Nation. their distinct culture, civilization, literature,  He said: “I am convinced now that Hindus history, religion and social values. and Muslims could never become one  Islam the religion of Muslims was based on nation as their religion and way of life was the concept of Tauheed and therefore quite distinct from each other.” could not be merged in any other system of religion. ROLE OF TWO NATION THEORY IN DEMANDING  It means Islam gives us a concept of Two OF PAKISTAN: Nation Theory. Muslims of India would  The Two Nation Theory had played a vital ultimately have a separate homeland, as and sole role in demanding of Pakistan. they could not live with the Hindus in Sub- Every Muslim leader took advantage of this Continent. theory.  The demanding and achieving of Pakistan  Many events had been occurred with the was only based on the Two Nation Theory role of Two Nation Theory and every and completely revolving around this Muslim leader, who was the supporter of theory. an independent Muslim state, did

dependent on Two Nation Theory.  The whole period of Independence from Islamic revivalism 1857-1947 was just relied on Two Nation  Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, in Theory. After the Hindi-Urdu Controversy, a trend that had begun at the 18th, many Muslim felt that they were a separate thinkers in the Muslim world felt that Islam nation from Hindus and they started to was going through a period of social demand for a separate homeland. decline, political weakness and economic IMPORTANCE OF TWO NATION THEORY disintegration, expressing itself in different regions where reform movements and

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schools, while taking into account spiritual group of Muslim intellectuals, in different and environmental differences of each parts of the world, rigorously examined the region, showed an essentially similar fundamentals of Islamic jurisprudence. character.  The central theological problems at the  This pushed those thinkers to propose core of these examinations focused on the projects of deep reform in beliefs, ideas validity of the knowledge derived from and practices based on them. sources external to the Qur’an and the  These reformers were convinced that their methodology of traditional sources of opinions, policies and programmes were jurisprudence: the Qur’an, the hadith fundamentally similar to those of early (traditions of the Prophet Muhammad), Islam, and among the reformist ijma (consensus of the Muslim phenomena there were clear differences community), and qiyas (analogical as to the main theme: some insisted more reasoning). on purification than others, some were  The epistemological step adopted was to more proactive; and their forms also varied reinterpret the first two, the Qur’an and according to local differences and different the hadith, and to transform the last two, religious historical experiences. ijma and qiyas, in the light of scientific  However, the general view presented a rationalism. clearly defined character: an invitation to  Among those who had a strong impact return to primitive Islam, the end of moral were al-Afghani (1838-1897), Sayyid and social abuses, the general Ahmad Khan (1817-1898), Muhammad deterioration which the umma (the global ‘Abduh (1849-1905) and Amir ‘Ali Muslim community) had undergone over (1849-1928), who presented Islam in a way the centuries, since the fall of Baghdad in that was consistent with modern ideas and 1258 at the hands of the Mongols, and, as rational sciences. a proposed solution to these problems, the  They were fascinated with what the West adoption of an attitude of moral and had achieved in technological and scientific religious positivism. progress: the Newtonian conception of the  The second half of the 19th century was a Universe, Spencer’s sociology, Darwinian period of great richness in the history of ideas and even Western style of life. the modern Islamic movement, when a Sayyid Ahmad Khan and the Aligarh movement

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 He said that religion should be adaptable  Therefore, he opposed political activity by with time or else it would become the Muslims. Unfortunately, in his fossilised, and that religious tenets were enthusiasm to promote the educational not immutable. and employment interests of the Muslims,  He advocated a critical approach and he allowed himself to be used by the freedom of thought and no dependence on colonial government in its obnoxious policy tradition or custom. of divide and rule and, in later years,  He was also a zealous educationist—as an started propagating divergence of interests official, he opened schools in towns, got of Hindus and Muslims. books translated into Urdu and started the  The Aligarh Movement emerged as a Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental College at liberal, modern trend among the Muslim Aligarh in 1875. intelligentsia based in Mohammedan  He also struggled to bring about an Anglo-Oriental College, Aligarh. improvement in the position of women  It aimed at spreading through better education by opposing 1. Modern education among Indian purdah and polygamy, advocating easy Muslims without weakening their divorce, and condemning the system of piri allegiance to Islam; and muridi. 2. Social reforms among Muslims  He believed in the fundamental underlying relating to purdah, polygamy, widow unity of religions or ‘practical morality’. He remarriage, women’s education, also preached the basic commonality of slavery, divorce, etc. Hindu and Muslim interests.  The ideology of the followers of the  He argued that Muslims should first movement was based on a liberal concentrate on education and jobs and interpretation of the Quran and they tries to catch up with their Hindu sought to harmonise Islam with modern counterparts who had gained the liberal culture. advantage of an early start.  They wanted to impart a distinct socio-  Active participation in politics at that point, cultural identity to Muslims on modern he felt, would invite hostility of the lines. Soon, Aligarh became the centre of Government towards the Muslim masses. religious and cultural revival of the Muslim community.

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Urban Indian economy after 1858 economic resources of Bengal, could claim

During this period, the Indian economy essentially confidently that the demand for Indian textiles remained stagnant, growing at the same rate could never reduce, since no other nation could (1.2%) as the population. India also experienced equal or rival it in quality. However, by the deindustrialization during this period. Compared beginning of the nineteenth century, a beginning to the Mughal era, India during the British colonial of a long history of decline of textile exports is era had a lower per-capita income, a large decline observed . in the secondary sector, and lower levels of A commonly cited legend is that in the early 19th urbanization. India's share of the world economy century, the East India Company (EIC), had cut off and share of global industrial output declined the hands of hundreds of weavers in Bengal in significantly during British rule. order to destroy the indigenous weaving industry

Some of the important features of Indian urban in favour of British textile imports (some anecdotal economy during this period are as follows: accounts say the thumbs of the weavers of Dacca were removed). However this is generally Deindustrialization considered to be a myth, originating from William

In the seventeenth century, India was a relatively Bolts' 1772 account where he alleges that several urbanised and commercialised nation with a weavers had cut off their own thumbs in protest buoyant export trade, devoted largely to cotton at poor working conditions. Several historians textiles, but also including silk, spices, and rice. have suggested that that the lack of India was the world's main producer of cotton industrialization was because India was still a textiles and had a substantial export trade to largely agricultural nation with low wages levels, Britain, as well as many other European countries, arguing that wages were high in Britain so cotton via the East India Company. Yet as the British producers had the incentive to invent and cotton industry underwent a technological purchase expensive new labour-saving revolution during the late 18th to early 19th technologies, and that wages levels were low in centuries, the Indian industry stagnated and India so producers preferred to increase output by deindustrialized. India also underwent a period of hiring more workers rather than investing in deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th technology. Several economic historians have century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of criticized this argument, such as Prasannan the Mughal Empire. Even as late as 1772, Henry Parthasarathi who pointed to earnings data that Patullo, in the course of his comments on the show real wages in 18th-century Bengal and

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Mysore were higher than in Britain. Workers in the material such as cotton. India served as both a textile industry, for example, earned more in significant supplier of raw goods to British Bengal and Mysore than they did in Britain, while manufacturers and a large captive market for agricultural labour in Britain had to work longer British manufactured goods. hours to earn the same amount as in Mysore. Decrease in the share of world GDP According to evidence cited by the economic historians Immanuel Wallerstein, Irfan Habib, India's share of the world economy went from Percival Spear, and Ashok Desai, per-capita 24.4% in 1700 to 4.2% in 1950. India's GDP (PPP) agricultural output and standards of consumption per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire in 17th-century Mughal India was higher than in and began to decline prior to the onset of British 17th-century Europe and early 20th-century rule.India's share of global industrial output also British India. declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900. At the same time, the United Kingdom's share of the British control of trade, and exports of cheap world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9% Manchester cotton are cited as significant factors, in 1870,and Britain replaced India as the world's though Indian textiles had still maintained a largest textile manufacturer in the 19th century. competitive price advantage compared to British Mughal India also had a higher per-capita income textiles up until the 19th century. Several in the late 16th century than British India had in historians point to the colonization of India as a the early 20th century, and the secondary sector major factor in both India's deindustrialization and contributed a higher percentage to the Mughal Britain's Industrial Revolution. British colonization economy (18.2%) than it did to the economy of forced open the large Indian market to British early 20th-century British India (11.2%). In terms goods, which could be sold in India without any of urbanization, Mughal India also had a higher tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian percentage of its population (15%) living in urban producers who were heavily taxed, while in Britain centers in 1600 than British India did in the 19th protectionist policies such as bans and high tariffs century. were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there, whereas raw cotton was number of modern economic historians have imported from India without tariffs to British blamed the colonial rule for the dismal state of factories which manufactured textiles from Indian India's economy, with investment in Indian cotton. British economic policies gave them a industries limited since it was a colony. Under monopoly over India's large market and raw British rule, India experienced deindustrialization,

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 the decline of India's native manufacturing 1830s and 1840s but they did not interconnect industries. The economic policies of the British Raj and were used for freight transport only. The East caused a severe decline in the handicrafts and India Company (and later the colonial handloom sectors, with reduced demand and government) encouraged new railway companies dipping employment; the yarn output of the backed by private investors under a scheme that handloom industry, for example, declined from would provide land and guarantee an annual 419 million pounds in 1850 down to 240 million return of up to five percent during the initial years pounds in 1900. Due to the colonial policies of the of operation. The companies were to build and British, the result was a significant transfer of operate the lines under a 99-year lease, with the capital from India to England, which led to a government having the option to buy them massive drain of revenue rather than any earlier. In 1854 Governor-General Lord Dalhousie systematic effort at modernisation of the formulated a plan to construct a network of trunk domestic economy. lines connecting the principal regions of India. Encouraged by the government guarantees, Development of Railway investment flowed in and a series of new rail British investors built a modern railway system in companies were established, leading to rapid the late 19th century—it became the then fourth expansion of the rail system in India. largest in the world and was renowned for quality In 1853, the first passenger train service was of construction and service. The government was inaugurated between Bori Bunder in Bombay and supportive, realising its value for military use, as Thane, covering a distance of 34 km. The route well as its value for economic growth. All the mileage of this network increased from 1,349 km funding and management came from private in 1860 to 25,495 km. in 1880 – mostly radiating British companies. The railways at first were inland from the three major port cities of Bombay, privately owned and operated, and run by British Madras, and Calcutta. Most of the railway administrators, engineers and skilled craftsmen. At construction was done by Indian companies first, only the unskilled workers were Indians. A supervised by British engineers. The system was plan for a rail system in India was first put forward heavily built, in terms of sturdy tracks and strong in 1832. The first train in India ran from Red Hills bridges. Soon several large princely states built to Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. It was their own rail systems and the network spread to called Red Hill Railway. It was used for freight almost all the regions in India. By 1900 India had a transport only. Few more short lines were built in full range of rail services with diverse ownership

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 and management, operating on broad, metre and  The participation of women in National narrow gauge networks. Movement legitimised the Indian National Congress. The British understood that the Depression method of Satyagraha had a special appeal for women.  The Great Depression The worldwide Great The participation of women in the freedom movement also influenced the movement Depression of 1929 had a small direct impact on for Women’s rights. It legitimised their India, with relatively little impact on the modern claim to a place in the governance of India.  However, there were regional differences secondary sector. The government did little to in the number of women who joined the alleviate distress, and was focused mostly on national movement and synthesized shipping gold to Britain. The worst consequences women’s interest with nationalist issues.  The best organised, the most independent involved deflation, which increased the burden of and fielded the largest demonstrations the debt on villagers while lowering the cost of were Bombay women. They articulated a clearly feminist nationalism. living. In terms of volume of total economic  Bengal women were known for their output, there was no decline between 1929 and militancy. Marching alongside men in the 1934. Falling prices for jute (and also wheat) hurt Congress parade and later joining revolutionary activities, they were subjects larger growers. The worst hit sector was jute, of folksongs and legends. These women based in Bengal, which was an important element espoused a feminist ideology but put aside in overseas trade; it had prospered in the 1920s in favour of a larger struggle.  However, in Madras fewer women joined but was hard hit in the 1930s. In terms of the movement. In North India, Nehru and employment, there was some decline, while Zutshi families provided strong women leaders.. They put nationalist agenda first agriculture and small-scale industry also exhibited and believed that it was not possible to gains.The most successful new industry was sugar, raise women’s consciousness about both which had meteoric growth in the 1930s. politics and women’s rights at the same time.  The revolutionary women presented a different aspect in Indian National CHAPTER 3 – WOMEN IN INDIAN NATIONAL movement. They described themselves as MOVEMENT sacrificing all the things a women wants like marriage, children etc. No one including the revolutionary women considered revolutionaries as ROLE OF WOMEN IN INDIAN NATINAL representatives of Indian womanhood. MOVEMENT  Rural women unless they were widows protested with their families.

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 From Swadeshi movement onwards  Purdah women’s role in National movement can  Dowry be seen conspicuously. Under Gandhian  Polyandry leadership their role become more  Polygamy conspicuous in non-cooperation  Female infanticide movement, civil disobedience movement and Quit India movement.  From Non Cooperation movement they got WOMEN IN MODERN INDIA- ISSUE OF SUFFRAGE associated with specific programme that as AND COUNCIL ENTRY dharna on liquor shop. Sarojini naidu,  An Irish – Margaret Couisins was the first Urmila devi etc. played an important role to raise issue of women’s suffrage. She during non-cooperation movement. send a memorandum to Viceroy through a  From 1920’s onwards, the male leaders in delegation under Anie Besant in 1917. the movement cemented a relationship  Sarojni Naidu raised this issue at special with peasants, workers and women’s session of Indian national Congress at association with the intention of gaining Bombay (August 1918) mass support from the people.  Act of 1919 did not recognise women  During 1933 all revolutionary women like suffrage but a provision in this act added Urmila devi, Santhi Das and Protibha devi women to the list of registered voters in (Nari sayagraha samiti) etc. were all in jail. provincial legislative councils.  During Quit India movement they got  BOMBAY AND MADRAS were the first to involved in underground movement. extend franchise to women in 1921 Example Aruna asaf ali and Usha Mehta  MUTHULAKSHMI REDDY was the first (she started congress radio) women legislator appointed to MADRAS legislative council in 1927.  Sarojini Naidu represented Indian women organisation in SECOND ROUND TABLE CONFERENCE IN 1931 DRAWBACKS OF WOMENS PARTICIPATION

 Only women from upper and middle class ORGANISATION REALTED TO WOMEN Hindu women participated and their participation was never large.  Bharat Stri Mahamandal ---1910---  Only few Muslim women followed Gandhi. Allahabad ----founded by Sarladevi Rest found it difficult to accept Hindu ideas  ALL INDIA MUSLIM LADIES CONFERENCE--- or were ignore by congress leaders. -1914  Lady Hardinge Medical College ---1916

 National Council Of Indian Women ---1925- ISSUES RAISED BY WOMENS ASSOCIATIONS --By Mehribai Tata  All India Women’s Conference –at poona—  Women’s education 1926-27----By Margaret Couisins  Child Marriage  Devadasi system

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 Women’s Indian Association –1915 –by Dorothy Jina Rja Dasa----Anie Besant was World War and boundary settlements after the its first President First and Second World War  Desh Sevika Sangh ---1930--- a women wing of RSS

First World War

The war fought between July 28, 1914, and OTHER FACTS RELATED TO WOMEN November 11, 1918, was known at the time as the  Ten women took part in INC session in1889 Great War, the War to End War, and (in the United  Kadambini Ganguly -----First Indian Women States) the European War. Only when the world Graduate. She was a medical student who went to war again in the 1930s and ’40s did the failed in her final exam but was given earlier conflict become known as the First World diploma of graduation in Medicine by the War. Its casualty totals were unprecedented, Principal to continue private practice. soaring into the millions. World War I is known for Other graduate of this college was the extensive system of trenches from which men Chandramukhi. of both sides fought. Lethal new technologies  Annie Besant---launched home rule, were unleashed, and for the first time a major war became president of INC in 1917. was fought not only on land and on sea but below  Gandhiji played an important role in the sea and in the skies as well. The two sides integrating women in National movement were known as the Allies or Entente—consisting

I. He used sacred legends from primarily of France, Great Britain, Italy, Russia, and Ramayana like branded British as Ravan later the United States—and the Central Powers, who abducted Sita primarily comprised of Austria-Hungary (the II. He made an appeal that rule of Rama Habsburg Empire), Germany, and the Ottoman would be founded when women like Empire (Turkey). A number of smaller nations Sita joined nationalistic movement. aligned themselves with one side or the other. In the Pacific Japan, seeing a chance to seize German  Rashtriya stree Sangh –founded by Sarjoni colonies, threw in with the Allies. The Allies were Naidu with goal of swaraj the victors, as the entry of the United States into  Indian National Congress set a women’s the war in 1917 added an additional weight of department in 1940 ---Sucheta Mazumdar men and materiel the Central Powers could not Kriplani was chosen to organise this hope to match. department  Women also played role in INA movement- The war resulted in a dramatically changed geo- Dr. Lakshmi Swaminathan was Head of political landscape, including the destruction of Department of Women’s Affairs under three empires: Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman and provisional INA government . She took Russian. New borders were drawn at its charge of Rani of Jhansi regiment. conclusion and resentments, especially on the part of Germany, left festering in Europe. Ironically, decisions made after the fighting ceased led the

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War to End War to be a significant cause of the Britain (and its Commonwealth nations), the Second World War. Soviet Union, and the United States. Seven days after the suicide of Adolf Hitler, Germany Consequences of World War 1: unconditionally surrendered on May 7, 1945. The The outcome of World War I saw extreme Japanese would go on to fight for nearly four more political, cultural, and social revolution across months until their surrender on September 2, Europe, Asia, Africa, and even in areas outside which was brought on by the U.S. dropping atomic those that were directly involved. Four territories bombs on the Japanese towns of Nagasaki and malformed due to the war, old countries were Hiroshima. Despite winning the war, Britain largely abolished, new ones were formed, boundaries lost much of its empire, which was outlined in the were redrawn, international organizations were basis of the Atlantic Charter. The war established, and many new and old ideologies precipitated the revival of the U.S. economy, and took a firm hold in people's minds. World War I by the war’s end, the nation would have a gross also had the effect of bringing political change to national product that was nearly greater than all Germany and the United Kingdom by bringing the Allied and Axis powers combined. The USA and near-universal suffrage to these two European USSR emerged from World War II as global powers, turning them into mass electoral superpowers. The fundamentally disparate, one- democracies for the first time in history time allies became engaged in what was to be called the Cold War, which dominated world Results politics for the latter half of the 20th century.

End of Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman & Russian Casualties in World War II empires Harsh surrender terms forced on Germany major The most destructive war in all of history, its exact cause of WWII cost in human lives is unknown, but casualties in Redrawing of borders in Europe & Mideast World War II may have totaled over 60 million service personnel and civilians killed. Nations suffering the highest losses, military and civilian, in descending order, are:

USSR: 42,000,000 Second World War Germany: 9,000,000 China: 4,000,000 The carnage of World War II was unpreceented Japan: 3,000,000 and brought the world closest to the term “total warfare.” On average 27,000 people were killed It was simply a continuation of the First World each day between September 1, 1939, until the War that had theoretically ended in 1918. Others formal surrender of Japan on September 2, 1945. point to 1931, when Japan seized Manchuria from Western technological advances had turned upon China. Others to Italy’s invasion and defeat of itself, bringing about the most destructive war in Abyssinia (Ethiopia) in 1935, Adolf Hitler’s re- human history. The primary combatants were the militarization of Germany’s Rhineland in 1936, the Axis nations of Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and Germany’s Imperial Japan, and the Allied nations, Great occupation of Czechoslovakia in 1938 are

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Modern History and Culture Booster 2018 sometimes cited. The two dates most often and Poland was rebuilt from former Russian, mentioned as “the beginning of World War II” are German and Austro-Hungarian territories. July 7, 1937, when the “Marco Polo Bridge Boundary settlements after the Second World Incident” led to a prolonged war between Japan War and China, and September 1, 1939, when Germany invaded Poland, which led Britain and During the course of WWII political maps France to declare war on Hitler’s Nazi state in continuously changed. Poland being the most retaliation. From the invasion of Poland until the noticeable change. The borders of Poland shifted war ended with Japan’s surrender in completely. Poland's borders were redrawn September 1945, most nations around the following the decisions made at the Potsdam world were engaged in armed combat. Conference of 1945. Germany divided into two seperate countries. Poland Germany split in two! Results Comunist East! Germanys east portion was End of German Third Reich controlled by the soviet union. Soviet union being United States and Russia become global communist made the eastern half of former superpowers Germany into a communist state. In 1949 Founding of the United Nations Germany was split into a communist east and a non-communist west. Non-Communist West! Boundary settlements after the First World War West Germany, also known as the Federal A century ago at the beginning of the First World Republic of Germany, remained a republic during War, the maps of Europe, Asia and Africa looked the time of the split. At the end of WWII, the Allies much different than they do today. On July 28th invaded Germany. The Soviets came from the 1914 Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia, East, and invaded up to the Oder-Neisse Line. The starting a slaughter that would leave millions Americans, French, and British gained up to the dead. War redrew borders and reshaped same point from the west. After the War, this economies, too. Europe’s debt-financed splurge Western part of Germany went to the Americans, on munitions prompted a manufacturing boom in French, and British. They divided up their share of America, boosting exports and transforming it Germany into their own sections... As tensions from global debtor to global creditor. Germany’s between the U.S. and the Soviets grew, Berlin was industry was hammered. Its economy only also split, as both sides wanted it as the capital for returned to the size it had been in 1913 over a its share of Germany (even though Berlin lay deep decade later. in the heart of East Germany). Eventually, West and East Berlin came into existence. The Treaty of Versailles in 1919 was one of several East Berlin, of course, fell into the hands of the to carve new countries from what remained of the Soviets. ...however, when West Germany was pre-war empires. The Baltic states, given to formed, these regions united to form one state. It Germany the previous year under the Treaty of was strictly communist controlled by the Soviet Brest-Litovsk, which had taken Russia out of the Union. war, became independent. Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia were created; Romania was enlarged;

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