Locomotive Emissions Project
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Locomotive Emissions Project Scoping Study of Potential Measures to Reduce Emissions from New and In-Service Locomotives in NSW and Australia Prepared for: NSW EPA Prepared by: ENVIRON Australia Pty Ltd Date: March 2013 Page i Acknowledgements The significant role of Interfleet Technologies Pty Ltd in characterising the Australian locomotive fleet to inform the study merits specific recognition. The review of noise-related regulations and impacts for the rail transport sector was undertaken by EMGA Mitchell McLennan Pty Ltd. The valuable information provided by rail industry operators and service providers, and the cooperative guidance of NSW EPA personnel during the course of the study is gratefully acknowledged. Disclaimer This study was undertaken to inform the ongoing discussion about diesel emissions and possible measures that could be considered to address them. The study is an exploratory work scoping possible measures to reduce particulate matter (PM) emissions less than 2.5 micrometres in diameter (PM2.5) and less than 10 micrometres in diameter (PM10) and NOx emissions from new and in- service locomotives in NSW and Australia. Key components of the scoping study include: Review of local, national and international air emission regulations and policies for new and in-service locomotives; Characterisation of the locomotive fleet industry in NSW and Australia; Quantification of air emissions from locomotives in NSW and Australia; and Identification of potential cost-effective measures for reducing air emissions from new and in- service locomotives in NSW and Australia. This report was prepared by ENVIRON Australia Pty Ltd in good faith exercising all due care and attention, but no representation or warranty, express or implied, is made as to the relevance, accuracy, completeness or fitness for purpose of this document in respect of any particular user’s circumstance. Users of this document should satisfy themselves concerning its application to, and where necessary seek expert advice in respect of, their situation. The views expressed within are not necessarily the views of the Environment Protection Authority (EPA) and may not represent EPA policy. © Copyright State of NSW and the Environment Protection Authority Page ii Contents Page Executive Summary vii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Background Information 1 1.1.1 Health and Environmental Impacts 1 1.1.2 Diesel-fuelled Locomotive Emissions 1 1.2 Study Objective 2 1.3 Scope of Works 3 1.4 Consultation with Industry Stakeholders 4 1.5 Report Outline 5 2 Regulation and Management Review 6 2.1 Overview of Management Approaches 6 2.2 Air Emission Management Approaches 7 2.2.1 NSW and Australia 7 2.2.2 United States 16 2.2.3 California 17 2.2.4 International Union of Railways 20 2.2.5 European Union (EU) 21 2.2.6 Canada 23 2.3 Locomotive Diesel Fuel Regulations 24 2.3.1 Automotive Diesel in Australia 24 2.3.2 Diesel Used in the United States() 25 2.3.3 Diesel Used in Canada 26 2.3.4 Biodiesel 26 2.4 Locomotive Noise Regulations 27 2.4.1 Australia 27 2.4.2 New South Wales 27 2.4.3 Other Australian States 28 2.4.4 Canada/United States (US) 29 2.4.5 European Union (EU) 30 2.5 Summary of Findings 30 3 Locomotive Fleet Characterisation 32 3.1 Rail Operator Industry Structure 32 3.1.1 Rail Operators and National Locomotive Fleets 32 3.2 Fuel Consumption by Locomotives 36 3.2.1 Historical and Projected Future Diesel Consumption by Rail Transport 36 3.2.2 Spatial Disaggregation of Fuel Consumption 38 3.3 Emissions Performance of Current (2012) Fleet 41 3.4 Current Repowering and Rebuilding Schemes 41 3.4.1 Environmental Solutions for Freight Rail 41 3.4.2 Repowering Specific Classes of Locomotive 41 3.4.3 Upgrading Existing Engines 42 Page iii 3.5 Locomotive Categorisation Matrix and Emissions Performance Projections 43 3.5.1 Business as Usual (BaU) 43 3.5.2 New Locomotives are Tier 2 44 3.5.3 Upgrade of Existing Engines 44 3.6 Fuel Consumption by Region and Emission Performance Tier 44 3.6.1 Business as Usual Scenario 44 3.6.2 Maximum Upgrade Possible for Existing Fleet Scenario 49 3.7 Application of Business as Usual and Maximum Upgrade Possible for Existing Fleet Scenarios 49 3.8 Summary of Findings 49 4 Air Emissions from Locomotives 51 4.1 Overview of Diesel Exhaust Emissions and Related Impacts 51 4.2 Air Emission Estimation Methodology 52 4.3 Air Emission Projections Given Business as Usual 53 4.3.1 National Emissions 53 4.3.2 NSW Emissions 54 4.4 Emission Intensity of Rail Compared to Road Transport 55 4.4.1 Projection of Health Costs 56 4.5 Summary of Findings 57 5 Noise Emission Impacts of Locomotives 58 5.1 Characteristics of Locomotive Noise 58 5.1.1 Locomotive Engine Noise 58 5.1.2 Wheel Squeal and Wheel Rail Track Interaction 58 5.1.3 Wagon Shunting 58 5.1.4 Rail Horn Noise 58 5.2 Scope for Future Locomotive Noise Controls 59 5.2.1 Noise Control at the Source 59 5.2.2 Noise Control of the Transmission Path 59 5.2.3 Noise Control at the Receiver 60 5.2.4 Regulatory Noise Control Opportunities 60 5.3 Summary of Findings 60 6 Review of Air Emission Reduction Options 62 6.1 Locomotive Emission Reduction Options 62 6.1.1 Upgrading the Existing Fleet 62 6.1.2 Alternative Drivetrain Technologies 62 6.1.3 Fuel Efficiency Improvements 64 6.1.4 Retrofitting of After-treatment 66 6.2 Evaluation of Option Benefits and Practicability 66 6.3 Measures Selected for Quantitative Analysis 70 6.3.1 National 70 6.3.2 Regional 70 6.4 Emission Reductions and Health Benefits 71 6.4.1 Environmental Benefits of National Measures 71 6.4.2 Environmental Benefits of Regional Measures 76 Page iv 6.4.3 Differences in Control Effectiveness for National and Regional Applications 80 7 Options for Further Consideration 82 7.1 National Measures 82 7.1.1 Emission Performance Requirements for New Locomotives 82 7.1.2 Identification and Funding of Fuel Efficiency Measures 83 7.1.3 Incentivised Upgrading or Accelerated Retirement of Existing Locomotives 83 7.1.4 Identification of Long term Strategies through On-going Collaboration 84 7.2 Regional Measures 84 8 References 86 9 Abbreviations 89 10 Appendix A Additional Information used for Calculating Emission Reductions and Costs for Selected Measures 92 11 Appendix B Australian Rail Operators and National Locomotive Fleets 97 Page v List of Tables Table 1. Cost Effectiveness of National Diesel Locomotive Emission Reduction Measures .. xi Table 2. Cost Effectiveness of Regional Diesel Locomotive Emission Reduction Measures (a) .................................................................................................................................................. xi Table 3. Annual Health Benefits due to National Measures (2012-2032) ............................... xii Table 4. Annual Health Benefits due to Regional Measures (2012-2032) .............................. xii Table 5. Carl Moyer Control Efficiency of National Measures (a) ........................................... xiv Table 6. Carl Moyer Control Efficiency of Regional Measures (NSW GMR) (a) .................... xv Table 7. Railway Rolling Stock - Exterior Environment - RDS 7512, Draft 3.1, 11 November 2008(a) ..................................................................................................................................... 10 Table 8. Fuel Efficiency and Emission Reduction Measures implemented or considered by some Australian rail operators() ................................................................................................ 13 Table 9. US-EPA Tiered Standards for Line Haul and Switch Haul Locomotives ................... 17 Table 10. International Union of Railways (UIC) Locomotive Emission Standards ................. 21 Table 11. European Union (EU) Stage IIIA Standards for Locomotive Engines ..................... 21 Table 12. European Union (EU) Stage IIIB Standards for Locomotive Engines ..................... 22 Table 13. Australian Rail Freight Operator Locomotive Assets ............................................... 33 Table 14. Australian Rail Freight Operator Locomotive Types ............................................... 34 Table 15. Diesel Consumption in Australia for Scenario Years .............................................. 38 Table 16. Diesel Consumption in NSW for Scenario Years .................................................... 38 Table 17. Emission Performance and Upgradability of 2012 Locomotive Fleet (Active Locomotives Only) ................................................................................................................... 41 Table 18. Fuel Consumption Projects by Region, Service and Emissions Performance (Business as Usual) ................................................................................................................. 46 Table 19. Fuel Consumption Projects by Region, Service and Emissions Performance (Maximum Upgrade of Existing Locomotives) ......................................................................... 47 Table 20. Change in the Proportion of Fuel Combustion by Emissions Performance Tier .... 49 Table 21. Emission Factors Applied (grams of pollutant per litre of diesel combusted) ......... 53 Table 22. Annual Locomotive Emissions given Business as Usual for Australia ................... 54 Table 23. Contribution of Projected Locomotive Emissions to Total Emissions Derived from the National Pollutant Inventory ............................................................................................... 54 Table 24. Annual Locomotive Emissions given Business as Usual for NSW ........................