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A Political Ecology of Neoliberal Multiculturalism Social Inclusion and Market-Based Conservation in Indigenous Costa Rica

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A Political Ecology of Neoliberal Multiculturalism Social Inclusion and Market-Based Conservation in Indigenous Costa Rica A POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF NEOLIBERAL MULTICULTURALISM SOCIAL INCLUSION AND MARKET-BASED CONSERVATION IN INDIGENOUS COSTA RICA ALONSO RAMÍREZ COVER A POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF NEOLIBERAL MULTICULTURALISM SOCIAL INCLUSION AND MARKET-BASED CONSERVATION IN INDIGENOUS COSTA RICA Alonso Ramírez Cover i This dissertation is part of the research programme of CERES, Research School for Resource Studies for Development. Cover picture: Juliana Bittencourt and Zuiri Mendez (SubVersiones) ISBN: 978-90-6490-081-5 Ó Alonso Ramírez Cover 2017 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the author. ii A POLITICAL ECOLOGY OF NEOLIBERAL MULTICULTURALISM Social Inclusion and Market-Based Conservation in Indigenous Costa Rica EEN POLITIEKE ECOLOGIE VAN NEOLIBERAAL MULTICULTURALISME Sociale integratie en op de markt gebaseerd natuurbehoud in inheems Costa Rica Thesis to obtain the degree of Doctor from the Erasmus University Rotterdam by command of the Rector Magnificus Professor dr. H.A.P. Pols and in accordance with the decision of the Doctorate Board The public defence shall be held on Monday 27 November 2017 at 10:00 hrs by Alonso Ramírez Cover born in San José, Costa Rica iii Doctoral Committee Doctoral dissertation supervisors Prof. M.N. Spoor Prof. B.E. Büscher, Wageningen University Other members Dr. R. Fletcher, Wageningen University Dr. M. Arsel Dr. J.F. Gerber iv Para Lourdes y Victoria Porque sin su amor profundo e incondicional nada en mi vida tendría sentido o propósito v Contents Contents vi List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Appendices ix Acronyms x Acknowledgements xiii Abstract xviii Resumen xx Samenvatting xxii 1. Introduction 1 1.1. Research questions 5 1.2. The case: the relationship between Bribri and Cabécar peoples with modern conservation 5 1.3. Research methodology 10 1.3.1. Research setting 10 1.3.2. Methodological approach 13 1.3.3. Fieldwork dynamics 15 1.3.4. Research methods employed 17 1.4. Chapter structure 19 2. Theoretical framework 23 2.1. Neoliberalism and social inclusion 24 2.2. Neoliberalization of nature and its effects on environmental conservation 27 2.3. Inclusivity and neoliberal conservation 31 2.4. Neoliberal multiculturalism 33 2.5. Conclusion 37 3. Historical territorializations of the Talamanca Valley 40 3.1. The failed Spanish colonization of Talamanca 41 3.2. State territorialization and agrarian expansion 46 3.3. State territorialization and indigenous rights in the Costa Rican Welfare State 53 vi 3.4. A final thought on the historical territorialization of the Talamanca Valley 60 4. A political economy of sustainable development in Costa Rica 65 4.1. The 1980s Debt Crisis and its environmental effects 66 4.2. Neoliberal fixes to the environmental crisis in Costa Rica 69 4.3. Neoliberal contradictions and carbon neutrality 77 4.4. Conclusion 82 5. Environmental governance and the ‘passive frontier’ thesis 84 5.1. Indigenous politics in Costa Rica 87 5.2. Historical origins of La Amistad International Park and La Amistad Biosphere Reserve 92 5.3. The ‘passive frontier’ thesis 94 5.4. Perceived effects of top-down conservation practices in the indigenous reserves 99 5.4.1. Consultation, participation and co-management 99 5.4.2. Local livelihoods and traditional uses 103 5.5. Conclusions 106 6. Neoliberal multiculturalism and agrarian territorialities in Talamanca 110 6.1. The ‘problem with Talamancan agriculture’ and the cacao solution 112 6.2. The BID-MAG cacao project: objectives and failures 120 6.2.1. Introducing the BID-MAG 120 6.2.2. The difficulties of cacao commercialization 123 6.2.3. Political and cultural failings of BID-MAG 127 6.3. Conclusions 131 7. Neoliberal multiculturalism and PES in the Talamanca Valley 137 7.1. Neoliberal mindsets and the barrier to entry to the PSA program 139 7.2. Breaching institutional resistance 144 7.3. The benefits of the PSA program 148 7.4. The drawbacks of the PSA 152 7.5. Conclusions 156 8. Neoliberal multiculturalism and REDD+ in the Talamanca Valley 160 vii 8.1. Contextualizing REDD+ in Costa Rican forests 161 8.1.1. The international context 161 8.1.2. The national context 163 8.2. REDD+ negotiations in Costa Rica 167 8.2.1. A “limited” playfield: dominant narratives and the REDD+ negotiations 167 8.2.2. Enter subaltern narratives: demands for an indigenous REDD+ 171 8.2.3. Obstacles to accommodation: state and indigenous challenges to the indigenous REDD+ 175 8.3. Conclusions 181 9. Conclusions 184 9.1. Neoliberal conservation and the challenge of multiculturalism 186 9.2. Neoliberal state formation and indigenous peoples 188 Appendix 191 References 195 Curriculum vitae 219 viii List of Tables, Figures, Maps and Appendices Map 1. Location of the Talamanca-Bribri and Talamanca- Cabécar Indigenous Reserves within the Costa Rican national territory xxiv Map 2. The Talamanca-Bribri and Talamanca-Cabecar Indigenous Reserves xxv Map 3. La Amistad Biosphere Reserve and its different forms of territorial management 7 Map 4. The Sixaola River Basin 12 Map 5. Location of PSA contracts at the Talamanca-Bribri and Talamanca-Cabecar Indigenous Reserves. 2010-2015 154 Graph 1. Comparison of hectares under PES in indigenous territories with non-indigenous lands. 1997-2015 143 Graph 2. Distribution of ADITIBRI budget by source of income. 2010-2013 151 Picture 1. Indigenous organizations manifest their rejection of REDD+ during a meeting with authorities from FONAFIFO and the Minister of Environment. Suretka, August 29th, 2014 178 Table 1. Main conservation projects under implementation between 2012-2017 in the TBIR and TCIR 8 Table 2. Indigenous reserves adjacent to the Costa Rican part of La Amistad Biosphere Reserve 57 Table 3. Categories of protected areas according to Costa Rican environmental legislation 96 Table 4. Protected areas in the Sixaola River Basin 97 Table 5. Contracts signed and hectares included by the Costa Rican indigenous reserves in the PSA program. 1997-2015 140 Appendix 1. Interviews 191 ix Acronyms ACLAC La Amistad-Caribe Conservation Area ACLAP La Amistad-Pacifico Conservation Area ACOMUITA Association of Indigenous Bribri Women of Talamanca ADI Integral development association ADITIBRI Integral Development Association of the Talamanca- Bribri Indigenous Reserve ADITICA Integral Development Association of the Talamanca- Cabécar Indigenous Reserve ANAI New Alchemists’ Association APPTA Association of Small Producers of Talamanca BANHVI Housing and Mortgage Bank BID Inter-American Development Bank BID-MAG Sixaola Binational Watershed Project CACTA Talamanca County Agricultural Center CAFMA Forestry management certificate CATIE Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center CBC Community-based conservation CBP Permanent Binational Commission CCAD Central American Commission of Environment and Development CCF Costa Rican Forestry Chamber CE-REDD+ Executive Committee for REDD+ CGR Controller General Office CIAGRO National College of Agronomical Engineers CLC Chiriquí Land Company CLFT Local Forestry Council of Talamanca CONAI National Commission on Indigenous Affairs DINADECO National Directorate for Communal Development EARTH Agricultural School of the Humid Tropics ENCC National Strategy for Climate Change ERDS Regional Strategy for Sustainable Development of the Sixaola Binational Watershed x ER-PD Emissions Reduction Program Document ER-PIN Emissions Reduction Program Idea Note FCPF Forest Carbon Partnership Facility FONAFIFO National Forest Financing Fund FPN National Parks Foundation GEF Global Environmental Facility GiZ German Development Agency ICDP Integrated conservation-development project ICE Costa Rican Electricity Institute IFO International financial organism ILO International Labor Organization IMAS Mixt Institute of Social Assistance INEC National Institute of Statistics and Census INDER Institute for Rural Development ISI Import-substitution industrialization ITCO Institute for Lands and Colonization ITCR Technological Institute of Costa Rica IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IWRM Integrated watershed resource management JPRAN Board for the Protection of Aboriginal Races of the Nation MAG Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock MBC Market-based conservation MCCA Central American Common Market MEP Ministry of Public Education MINAE Ministry of Environment and Energy MINSA Ministry of Health MIRENEM Ministry of Natural Resources and Mines NCP National Cacao Program of the MAG NGO Non-governmental organization NORAD Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation NTAE Non-traditional agricultural export OAS Organization of American State ONF National Forestry Office PA Protected area PILA La Amistad International Park PLN National Liberation Party PES Payments of environmental services PNDF National Forestry Development Plan xi PSA Program of Payments of Environmental Services of FONAFIFO RBLA La Amistad Biosphere Reserve RECOPE Costa Rican Oil Refinery REDD+ Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation and the Role of Conservation, Sustainable Management of Forests and Enhancement of Carbon Stocks in Developing Countries RIBCA Bribri-Cabécar Indigenous Network R-PIN Readiness Program Idea Note R-PP Readiness Program Proposal SAF Agroforestry systems SAP Structural adjustment program SESA Social and Environmental Strategic Assessment SGF Small Grants Fund SGP Small Grants Program of GEF SINAC National System
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