University of South Florida Scholar Commons Graduate Theses and Dissertations Graduate School 2006 Virginia Woolf and the persistent question of class: The protean nature of class and self Mary C. Madden University of South Florida Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd Part of the American Studies Commons Scholar Commons Citation Madden, Mary C., "Virginia Woolf and the persistent question of class: The protean nature of class and self" (2006). Graduate Theses and Dissertations. http://scholarcommons.usf.edu/etd/2612 This Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the Graduate School at Scholar Commons. It has been accepted for inclusion in Graduate Theses and Dissertations by an authorized administrator of Scholar Commons. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Virginia Woolf and the Persistent Question of Class: The Protean Nature of Class and Self by Mary C. Madden A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of English College of Arts and Sciences University of South Florida Major Professor: Elizabeth A. Hirsh, Ph.D. William T. Ross, Ph.D. Rita Ciresi, M.F.A. Marilyn Myerson, Ph.D. Date of Approval: March 31, 2006 Keywords: English literature 1900-1945, feminism, gender, satire, psychology, standpoint theory Copyright 2006, Mary C. Madden DEDICATION For my daughter, Mary Kathleen, and for women everywhere ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Heartfelt thanks to my husband, Joseph, for material support and encouragement; to my son, Sean, and sister, Jane, who climbed the mountain before I did; to my daughter, Mary Kathleen, and son, Joey, who were unflagging in their faith that this project would be completed; to Lise and to Tony Z. for their cheerleading efforts; and to my expert Woolfian mentor and manuscript midwife, Dr. Elizabeth Hirsh. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT ii CHAPTER ONE. A “RATIONAL REBELLIOUSNESS”: THEORY AND CONTEXT FOR CLASS ISSUES IN WOOLF’S WRITING 1 A Considered Perspective on Woolf and Class 2 Gary Day’s Definition of Class 8 Max Weber’s Definition of Class 13 Bourdieu, Skeggs, Hennessy, Orwell 14 Psychoanalytical and Feminist Theories of Class 23 Woolf’s Social Class and Development of Class Consciousness 36 Class and Woolf’s Satiric Vision 41 A Border Case 42 Virginia and Leonard: A Shared Ideology? 51 Woolf as Social Critic in Her Essays and Fiction 58 CHAPTER TWO. “CIVILIZATION,” FEMALE SUBJECTIVITY, AND A PSYCHOLOGY OF CLASS IN WOOLF’S EARLY LIFE AND WORK 63 CHAPTER THREE. “DREAMS AND REALITIES”: THE VOYAGE OUT AND THE POLITICS “OF EMPIRE 90 CHAPTER FOUR. CLASS AND “A VAST NEST OF CHINESE BOXES”: EARLY STORIES AND NIGHT AND DAY 126 Woolf’s Interrogation of Class in Night and Day 143 CHAPTER FIVE. “THAT ANTEDILUVIAN TOPIC”: FEMINISM, GENDER, AND CLASS IN MRS. DALLOWAY 157 CHAPTER SIX. MISS LATROBE GAZES INTO HER OWN MIRRORS: WHAT WE CAN LEARN FROM WOOLF ABOUT CLASS 195 ENDNOTES 218 WORKS CITED 222 BIBLIOGRAPHY 240 ABOUT THE AUTHOR End page i VIRGINIA WOOLF AND THE PERSISTENT QUESTION OF CLASS: THE PROTEAN NATURE OF CLASS AND SELF Mary C. Madden ABSTRACT From the beginning of her career, Virginia Woolf moves beyond the perspective of her inherited class position to challenge a damaging class system. She increasingly recognizes the extent of her own complicity in the creation and maintenance of class structures supporting patriarchy, war, and British imperialism. Highlighting ambiguities inherent in the very category of class, she acknowledges the limiting “boxes” of language itself in attempts to rethink class. For Woolf, class is not monolithic but internally differentiated by gender and race. Examining Woolf’s early work in relation to class theory shows that throughout her career Woolf interrogates the imbrication of gender and race in class politics. She finds class difference a fertile source of satire, and subjects her own class position to satirical scrutiny. At the same time, a certain psychology of class operates in Woolf: vulnerable to the dissolution of ego boundaries because of her mental illness, she at times shores up her sense of identity by reaffirming class boundaries that were otherwise repugnant to her. Thus Woolf vacillates between perceiving class as necessary to “civilization” and championing egalitarian views. Theoretical points of reference for this study include cultural materialism, feminist standpoint theory, ii psychoanalysis, and theories of class advanced by Michel Foucault, Pierre Bourdieu, Max Weber, Gary Day, David Cannadine, Beverly Skeggs, and Rosemary Hennessy. iii CHAPTER ONE “Now is life very solid, or very shifting? I am haunted by the two contradictions.”—Virginia Woolf in A Moment’s Liberty: The Shorter Diary, Friday, Jan. 4, 1929, p. 257. A “RATIONAL REBELLIOUSNESS”1: THEORY AND CONTEXT FOR CLASS ISSUES IN WOOLF’S WRITING Virginia Woolf’s epistemology could be characterized as tectonic, for to her life often appeared to alternate between the traditional solidity of family and class, and the shifting, seismic changes of the first half of the twentieth century. These destabilizing shifts also occurred for Woolf at an intimate psychological level during her bouts of mental illness. Some Woolf scholars, such as Pamela Caughie in Virginia Woolf & Postmodernism (1991), claim that Woolf substantially anticipates a fragmentary, postmodern and deconstructive view of reality. I suggest that Woolf, with one foot in the cradle of the nineteenth century and one in the streets of twentieth-century London, represents an unresolved contradiction or unsynthesized dialectic. In fact, Marianne DeKoven asserts in Rich and Strange: Gender, History, Modernism (1991) that the heart of the vast body of Modernist literature can be characterized by the sous-rature of Jacques Derrida and the “impossible dialectic” described by Julia Kristeva (4). To Derrida, word and thought are never unified. All signs involve a structure of difference and break apart. Though words are necessary, they are inherently inadequate; thus they should be thought of and written as under erasure. Kristeva questions the dichotomy of man/woman and the very notion of a stable identity, challenging definitions of what is feminine. To Kristeva, the semiotic knows no sexual difference, so as it becomes stronger, gender differences weaken. Thus I would argue that Woolf’s emphasis on the semiotic, particularly in works such as The 1 Waves (1931), weakens gender-related class divisions. DeKoven emphasizes the useful emblematic quality of the sous-rature concept in representing unresolved historical shifts in society’s view of the world at large, and believes that deconstruction enacts in philosophy the same moment that modernist writing enacts in literature: the coexistence of two paradigms which contradict each other. Woolf consistently expresses the tug of nostalgia for the traditional at the same time that she races into the future with her experimental fiction and progressive views on gender and politics. Such ambivalence is also reflected, DeKoven observes, in most other prominent modernists—including T.S. Eliot, Picasso, E.M. Forster, and James Joyce (185-95). Woolf particularly exhibits this “impossible dialectic” in her positionality regarding class, gender, and race. A CONSIDERED PERSPECTIVE ON WOOLF AND CLASS “[Society is] a nest of glass boxes . .” Virginia Woolf in “The Niece of an Earl” (CE1 219-23). The question of class in Woolf should be contextualized, I believe, in terms of a psychology of class connected to Woolf’s fear of dissolution of ego boundaries associated with social divisions and to her stake in her own class interest. It should also be contextualized in terms of a theory of class as internally differentiated by gender and as necessary to “civilization,” and in terms of class and literature. Furthermore, care should be taken to excavate the importance of class satire as self-critique and the significance of Woolf’s championing of the common reader. These areas of concern can be perceived as intersecting circles on a Venn diagram, for they overlap and affect each other, as well as create particular concentrations of force in certain areas of Woolf’s life 2 and work. They can also be envisioned as exerting additional circles of influence that operate much like ripples widening with the toss of a simple pebble upon a stream. It is this contextualized approach that I employ in examining the issue of Woolf and class. I have chosen theorists of class and language who shed light on this particular mode of viewing Woolf. Certainly consideration of the Marxist view of class as exploitative--a view current in Woolf’s lifetime--and an examination of the views of her contemporaries, such as Forster and Orwell, are appropriate in order to understand her thinking. I have also used the work of neo-modern Marxist theorists, such as Rosemary Hennessy, who define class as a set of social relations undergirding capitalism, and have examined the theories of another Woolf contemporary, Max Weber, because of his realization of the shifting nature of class divisions. I have employed twenty-first century theorists such as Gary Day, David Cannadine, and Beverly Skeggs for their particular insights into the development of class consciousness in Britain. Althusser’s work on ideology has been utilized to discuss Woolf’s gradual realization of her interpellation into a society that reproduces capitalist social relations without an apparatus of repression. I have applied the analyses of feminist critics such as Nancy Chodorow and Juliet Mitchell on the links between feminism and psychoanalysis. The work of Donna Haraway, Sandra Harding, and Nancy Hartsock has been brought to bear upon this study because of their groundbreaking work on feminist standpoint theory, which is helpful in excavating Woolf’s developing stance on class. Last, I have incorporated the important thinking of sociologist Pierre Bourdieu and philosopher Michel Foucault on power, knowledge, and society, and the linguistic work of theorists such as Jacques Derrida and Jacques Lacan 3 because of the multiple epistemological and political aspects of Woolf’s reflections on class issues.