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The Scapegoating of Ali Ibn Abu Talib in Shi'ite

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The Scapegoating of Ali Ibn Abu Talib in Shi'ite The copyright of this thesis vests in the author. No quotation from it or information derived from it is to be published without full acknowledgementTown of the source. The thesis is to be used for private study or non- commercial research purposes only. Cape Published by the University ofof Cape Town (UCT) in terms of the non-exclusive license granted to UCT by the author. University A VIOLENT ORIGIN: A GIRARDIAN ANALYSIS OF THE SCAPEGOATING OF ALI IBN ABU TALIB IN SHI’ITE TRADITION. Wendy Jane Isaacs-Martin Thesis Presented for the Degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY In the Department of Religious Studies Faculty of Humanities UNIVERSITY OF CAPE TOWN February 2008 COMPULSORY DECLARATION The above thesis is my own unaided work both in concept and execution, apart from the normal guidance from my supervisor. Each significant contribution to, and quotation in, this dissertation from the work, or works, of other people has been attributed, and has been cited and referenced. Signature_________________________ Date__________________________ ABSTRACT This dissertation applies Rene Girard’s theory of the scapegoat mechanism to prove that Ali ibn Abu Talib appears in Shi’ite traditions as an innocent victim. The aim is to investigate Girard’s substantial body of work to determine whether Ali was a scapegoat and a victim of a conspiracy within his community. Girard’s theory is founded in mimetic desire, where he incorporated external and internal mediation to form an analysis of mimetic rivalry. Using various texts to develop his theory and support his concepts, he investigated Aristotle, Plato, Stendhal, Proust, Shakespeare and Freud. He developed his theory from the interaction between friends to the incorporation of an object of desire to form the ‘French triangle’. He moved from investigating this ‘triangle’ in personal relationships to conspiracies and subsequently to communities with regard to primitive religions. It was in the discovery of the sacred victim that Girard recognized the purpose of myth, that it concealed the role of the persecutors and that it silenced the victim. Girard then transferred his deductions to analyzing the Bible, where he identified ways in which the text gave the victim a voice. He maintains that only Jesus supported a non-violent position and embraced positive mimetic desire in the form of imitating the love of God. In reviewing Ali’s life, one discovers that it reveals Girard’s concepts of mimetic rivalry, conspiracy and collective violence. There is the historical Ali and the divine Imam Ali. These two positions can be reconciled by following a constitutive reductionist method for the purpose of analysis in applying the scapegoat mechanism theory. Reductionism is useful and necessary for this study. While the historical Ali reveals a victim, the divine Ali takes responsibility for his own death. The historical and the divine reveal two perspectives in relating Ali’s story, one from the victim’s perspective and the other from the perspective of the persecutors. However, with respect to the scapegoat mechanism, Shi’ite traditions about Ali, inclusive of historical, popular, or ghulat traditions, show that Jesus was not the only victim to reveal his innocence and embrace non-violence for positive mimesis. Rather, Ali goes further in rejecting materialism to avoid envy, encouraging his community to witness his poverty. Without the distraction of material things, Ali could demonstrate God’s love. While Girard claimed that Christianity, particularly the gospels, revealed the victim’s innocence in Jesus Christ, Ali brings forth a similar message of imitating the love of God. Like Jesus, he revealed that God was a loving and forgiving God; he was not an angry God that demanded sacrifice. A VIOLENT ORIGIN: A Girardian Analysis of the Scapegoating of Ali ibn Abu Talib in Shi’ite Tradition. CONTENTS ABSTRACT CONTENTS ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 1. INTRODUCTION………………………………………………………………1 2. RENÉ GIRARD, VIOLENCE AND THE SACRED………………………… 13 2.1. Development of Girard’s Theory……………………………………………. 15 2.2. Criticism of Girard’s Theory……..………………………………………….. 25 2.3. Theoretical Framework ………………………………………………………40 2.3.1. Girard’s Theory of Mimesis………………………………………………..40 2.3.2. Girard’s Theory of the Scapegoat and Victim Mechanism………………..45 2.3.3. Girard’s Unmasking Theory……………………………………………….50 2.3.4. The Girardian Nature of Myth……………………………………………..53 3. THE SCAPEGOATING OF ALI IBN ABU TALIB………………………59 3.1. Uthman’s Death…………………………………………………………….60 3.2. Nominating Ali as Caliph…………………………………………………..68 3.3. Ali’s Allegiance to the Caliphate………………………………………….. 72 3.4. Instituting Reforms in Accordance with Islamic Principles………………..76 3.5. Undermining Ali’s Caliphate……………………………………………… 81 3.6. ‘The Shattered Idol crushed by Three Friends’…………………………….87 3.7. Confronting the Inviolability of Muslim Blood…………………………….91 3.8. The Conspiracy of Arbitration…………………………………………….. 97 3.9. The Kharijites (Those who went out)……………………………………..101 3.10. The End of Ali’s Caliphate………………………………………………..104 3.11. An Ominous Warning……………………………………………………..109 4. SANCTIFYING THE VICTIM: ……….…………………………………113 4.1. Establishing the Mythology of Ali’s Death………………………………..114 4.2. The Need to Make Ali the Imam…………………………………………..121 4.3. The Life of a Divine Imam……………………………………………….. 125 4.4. The Victim must Suffer……………………………………………………130 4.5. The Knowledge of the Miraculous Imam………………………………….137 4.6. Miracles attested to the Commander of the Faithful……………………… 147 4.7. Ali’s Military Success…………………………………………………….. 150 4.8. Succession at Ghadir Khumm (Pool of Khumm)………………………… 153 4.9. Creating Imamology………………………………………………………. 158 4.10. Making Ali the Focus of Shi’ism…………………………………………. 164 4.11. The Significance of a Tomb………………………………………………..167 5. CONCLUSION………………………………………………………………...172 REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………..182 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation has been trying, exhausting, ageing but also enlightening, challenging and thought provoking. While I have probably developed a psychological disorder and an invisible friend to speak to, the journey has been all the more entertaining. I would like to thank my mom and Zane for supporting me and reminding me that I could do this. To Shinobi the cat, who always understood my moods and sat by my side everyday to watch this work unfold. I must thank my supervisor, Prof. David Chidester, who assisted me greatly especially toward the end. When the monotony of my paper created a mental blindness, he persevered, showing me that there truly was an end in sight! A final word to Dr. Kent M. Keith, author of the Paradoxical Commandments, who reminded me that I should give the world the best that I have although it may never be enough. I dedicate this dissertation to my late father, who always reminded me that regardless of my impoverished roots I could have any star in the universe. 1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION There is a general acceptance of René Girard’s work in many academic fields, where his thinking gained influence in literary studies, anthropology, psychoanalysis and religious studies as well as in economics, political sciences and the hard sciences of physics and biology (Goodhart, 1988:53). However, it has been in religion that his input remains greatest in exposing the collective violence of communities. Girard’s theory of the scapegoat mechanism reveals the innocent victim, the sacred myth and collective violence. This mechanism inclusive of mimetic desire, external and internal mediation and conflictual mimesis, also incorporates the scapegoat. The aim of this dissertation is to establish what it means to be a scapegoat and to determine whether Ali ibn Abu Talib qualifies as one. My goal is to determine whether Ali was victimized within his community and to ask why no one defended him against physical and verbal attacks? I will show that the entire community contributed, actively or passively, to Ali’s death and that he was made divine to conceal their participation. I will use the strength of Girard’s theory of the scapegoat mechanism to assert that Ali was an innocent victim that was transformed into a divine Imam. As a beloved ruler who possessed divine powers and unlimited knowledge, why did he not escape his attackers, why did he not flee from Kufa where he was murdered? My goal is to reconcile the two contrasting views of Ali, the historical and the divine, and argue that the concept of taqiyya – deliberately concealing one’s true beliefs - is a metaphor for collective violence and undifferentiation. I will use the strength of Girard’s theory of the scapegoat mechanism to examine how Ali was an innocent victim who was transformed into a divinely ordained Imam. In analyzing the production of the victim, I have placed emphasis on Ali’s character as an individual to show parallels to that of Jesus in Girard’s analysis. I have used a reductionist method in applying Girard’s theory to develop a logical sequence in unveiling the scapegoat mechanism. I have chosen the constitutive reductionist method over the explanatory or the theoretical reductionist methods because it attends to the relationships among diverse elements that constitute a whole (Gieryn, 1982:281). Although I use Girard’s theory and seek explanation in terms of the scapegoat mechanism, I am also interested in pursuing a method of reductionism that 2 respects the interrelationships of constitutive parts in a social field. What is central to the study is that this method will inform the reader of the nature of Shi’ite knowledge and discourse but that the
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