Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999) 1
THE 1998 DEXTER AWARD ADDRESS "FROM AN INSTRUMENT OF WAR TO AN INSTRUMENT OF THE LABORATORY: THE AFFINITIES CERTAINLY DO NOT CHANGE" CHEMISTS AND THE DEVELOPMENT OF MUNITIONS, 1785-1885
S r . M pf, Un v r t
I d pl pl d nd h n r d t b th r d th p r ph f n f p bl t n , t n r p nt f th xt r A rd. I ht dd th t I fr th "C n è r r l p dr n n l h t t n b h n I nf r d (2 " f ph r t. It p rt nt th t I h n r th t I h d b n n n t d, f r I r n z th t I h v r t b th f n f h t t n b h b n th n f "pr d l n" r rd n th h h pl d n p rt nt r l n th tr j t r f n t r f h tr . I l ft th f ld f r b t f ft n r r r h n th h t r f h tr . Or n ll , I t th r b th l f l n fr nd ( nd h r nt r t d n th p t f h r f r h h h b t f th n n bj t v r d ff r nt fr th h n — n l t l h tr nd th f f n t t r f h tr ( . M r r p rt n —b t th th n v r, r r h n th f ld l nt xt f th r l t n h b n h t n rth h p f r t t th d x I h v ht t t p n pt f f x d n r l p th t h v d nt r t n nt p r r r n h n t b t h d n t t r t ll r ph nd n r l tr t d h h l rl tt n . M r nt t n was tra- t n, t l t t th t I b ditional and "internalist" (to n t d . And th f use the terminology f th f th t p h b n l t . Alth h I l d t n h tr p r than on v tt nt n t l the nt r t n b t n nd n t t t n l nt xt f h tr nd th r d n r t r r h n I r t f th ph l n . It b r ph l n h th r f r ll th r f r th t n r f S nt f h rt n n t h v r r ph , I t ll t r h h n r d n th t f r l f d n th f n l . f n t r p rt n th r . r x pl , I r b r h t t n n th t tl t ll l n v r f t l , h h I h v l S r H. Mauskopf 2 ll. t. Ch . 24 (
l — nd p n b —n n l t nd l n th p bl In th p t d d r , th h l rl t t n h t n b r t n "p dr n n." v r, h l pr v d n t bl . St l h d n p rt nt n r r h n th S , I h d r d p f t tr b t n t th t d f b ll t n th ht nth n t f l t r r t h d d l v r d d r n th r h t r , nt r n r nd th th t n nd b ll t p nt n Sp n ( 8 806 , nd d t bl nt rn ll t xp rt, nj n b n (8 . r t h b n pr d n th f r t r f th n n t nth nt r . h l t r pr h n v t d f th r n z t n l h n n r th b f r t rn t th h t r f h tr th r n h np d r d n tr t n nd t hn l n th 80 . M r nt t n n h r t pr v nt n np d r n d r n th l t h t n d t th nt xt— n ht th pr bl t — t nth nd rl n n t nth nt r , v n p rt l r f r t pr t n h t n Sp n, b t r tt nt n t th r l f h t nd nt f tr n n f r h tr thr h t th ht nth nt r . h ( . h n pt n f th n l h r nt r r h l d t t rn t r t ppl d h tr , p rt r p n th h t r f np d r pt z d b l rl h l t r h tr , f r h h d b n nv t d t th r nt n d v t d t t t th b nn l t Sp n n 8 t t h h tr t th d t f th n f ICO EC ( 0 nd r n z d b r. r nd l Art ll r S h l n S v . Aft r r x n n h n n. On r lt th p bl t n f th f r t r t l t r , I n t d th t thr r f r f f ft l d rn t f t d n np d r ( . t r p r t h d b n d v t d t th h tr f n p d r. h d t r t rn, th r n d nt r If t rt h b n d n th t d f ht nth t, t h n n rt l n "p dr n n." h r lt nd rl n n t nth nt r n t n nt r n n rt l , "Ch tr nd C nn n," p bl h d n np d r, th n h rdl t b d b t th Technology and Culture ( . h n f n th h d v l p nt f r n h h xpl v n th l t r n n tr f np d r l d b t v r nd h t nth nd t nt th nt r . h r h v b n t t nth nt r h l nd ph l n l f n d rt t n n th rl d v l p nt f l p d r nd t xpl v r t n nd, r r ntl , p d r b t n th r h b n p bl h d ( 2 . St d b f r rd thr h th n n t nth nt r . A t t th t f t d p rt p nt , h rd , n M nd l v n C nt r f r th t r f Ch tr h lp d nd n n t n , nd ffr hn n ( nd t n t t th t d , nd r nt fr th l M d n r nt n th v f W rld W r I, M nd th t n l S n nd t n h v n h ld n t t ph t t d h t r l l t r t r n th bl d t p r th n th nt r t f b t h p r d. n nd d n tr t v h d l . h n r l h t r l pr bl t b h nd t d Wh n I b n t d n th 80 , I f nd th f n t n th t n f h n nd r ft r nt h l rl l t r t r n th d v l p nt f n nt r t d— nd t th r—b t n th l t r t n nd, p rt l rl , n th r l f nt t n th t r f th ht nth nd th l t rt r f th n n d v l p nt, t b p r , t th l t. h r , t nth nt r . h bj t f n t n , f r , f r , rt n t n l A History of Greek Fire p rt f h r n r l pr bl t n rn n th and Gunpowder (4 . t, th t tl pl , th b n nd t hn l f t r l n th r t l r .. n ntr t n th d v l nd rl d rn p r d M h t r l t d f n t n h v f d n th r t h v r l ttl t b t p t 00 d v l p nt . l t r pr p ll nt , pp d t th r l t r An th r p rt nt t d f r th rl d rn p r d, f ( f , r t , xpl v h ll , t . r v l n r d t ntl r l t d t f , ll Ballistics . h tr d t n l l t r pr p ll nt np in the Seventeenth Century ( . t f r th r r nt d r—"bl p d r"—th n nt xt r f ltp p r d, th r v rt l b n f h l r h p, th t r, lf r, nd h r l. Alth h th r, r xpl h n r bl x pt n pr v n th r l b th r ll v t r l (l p t hl r t r n d r d n b r. h n l d M lth f t d f v r l t r pr p ll nt fr t t t , th f r t r ll tt pt t d l th th l t ht nth nt r r n h r r v l t np d r " n tt n," h hl pr bl f ltp t r ppl (6 nd G ll p d n tr t d f r f ll l , d b tr t n tt n th n f v r r l n th Régie des Poudres, th n ntr t d n tr nd lf r d, d v r d b r n h np d r d n tr t n, n h t r l Chr t n r dr h S hönb n n 846 ( . tr l tr t ( . l l t h v r t nd v r d nd tr l f t r n th n n t nth nd t nt th nt r ( 4 , b t h t t n t bl ttr t d S hönb n nd h nt p Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999) 3
raries' attention was the explosive property of guncot- Proust's epigraph: "From and instrument of war to an ton. It was, weight for weight, more powerful than gun- instrument of the laboratory, the affinities certainly do powder and burned completely without producing smoke not change." Proust, more than any other chemist, at- and, apparently, without fouling guns. Yet it took forty tempted to develop gunpowder chemistry into a useful years to develop an effective nitrocellulose-based smoke- military application; the context of the quotation was less powder as a military propellant. What I want to fo- his assertion that the saturation proportion between char- cus on is a part of that story: the work of the English coal and saltpeter, determined in the laboratory, was pre- munitions chemist, Frederick Abel, who tried to "tame" cisely the same as that in a gun (16). guncotton for use as a military propellant in the 1860s. Abel achieved part of this objective by 1865 and ap- Another issue concerned the relationship of changes peared to be very optimistic about developing a smoke- in the propellant to guns and projectiles (and vice versa). less military propellant from guncotton that would re- It was the introduction of an English-derived powerful place gunpowder; he abruptly abandoned this research gunpowder into France in the early 1820s, which was in the late 1860s and instead embarked on a massive soon blasting test cannon out of commission, that led study of the function of gunpowder in guns of all cali- French investigators to concentrate on studying the bers. physical parameters of gunpowder in order to control its ballistic force. By the late 1850s, attention was turned What follows is a "systemic" approach that I have to major changes in all aspects of guns: the materials found to be of heuristic value in conceptualizing the re- out of which they were made, the mechanism of load- lationship of science to the development of military pro- ing and, above all, their power. It now became more pellants (15). Of the three such systems (two "physi- important than ever to determine and control the rate at cal" and one "social") I shall focus on gunpowder to which the ballistic force of the propellant was released illustrate the physical systems. and built up in gun bores. Although French investiga- tors had been moving towards this recognition earlier in I. h S t the century, it was an American, T. J. Rodman, who seems to have been the first to determine the relation- The first system is that of the propellants themselves. It ship between powder grain (or cartridge) size, burn rate, includes the physical and chemical properties relevant and gun bore pressure. What enabled Rodman to come to their functions as military propellants. In the case of to his insight was his invention of an ingenious device, gunpowder, it was through the pneumatic chemical dis- the Rodman gauge, to measure pressure as the projec- coveries and the general reconceptualization of chemi- tile moved down the gun bore under the impulse of gun- cal substances and reactions during the Chemical Revo- powder explosion. Rodman also made important im- lution that the first approximation to the modern under- provements in cannon casting and was particularly con- standing of the chemistry of gunpowder came about. cerned with controlling pressure in his large, smooth- There was initial optimism that chemical understanding bore "columbiad" cannon. The Rodman gauge and itself would lead fairly directly to improved gunpow- Rodman's general principle, that the size and shape of der. But by the first part of the nineteenth century, it powder grains had to be adapted to the caliber of the became apparent that physical characteristics of gun- gun in which they were used, were rapidly accepted powder— the size, shape and density of powder grains, throughout Europe (17). the manner in which wood was converted into charcoal, In 1857, at almost exactly the same time that Rod- the way in which the three components were "incorpo- man was developing practical means of measuring and rated" together"—were at least as important as purely controlling gun bore pressure, a more theoretical and chemical considerations in determining the way gun- laboratory-based advance in determining explosion pres- powder functioned. "Function" here is relational. So sure and other physical parameters was being made in my second system is the relation between the propellant Germany. Its authors were the chemist Robert Bunsen and the instrumental complex in which it operates, in and the Russian artillerist and munitions chemist, Leon this case, of course, the guns and their projectiles (bul- Schischkoff. The basis of their determination was an lets, cannon balls and shells). Here a number of differ- unprecedentedly detailed analysis of the products of ent issues arose. One was whether military propellants gunpowder explosion and a calorimetric measurement functioned the same way in field guns as they did in of the heat produced from it. From this data, they ap- laboratory test tubes. The issue is brought out well in plied thermochemical considerations, only then recently 4 Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999)
come into use, to determine the temperature of the ex- ever, there ensued something of a disciplinary dialectic plosion and, from that, the pressure and the theoretical in the investigative tradition concerning munitions in work (18). Neither Bunsen nor Schischkoff developed the course of this century. During the French Revolu- this research further, but it was hailed as "the model for tion, chemists were in its forefront; but the Napoleonic all subsequent research on this subject (19)," and taken regime ordained that all gunpowder administrators be by all munitions investigators as the watershed in the graduates of the École polytechnique. From that time scientific understanding of explosion and detonation. through the Franco-Prussian War the primary disciplin- ary orientation was physical rather than chemical, even The two systems outlined so far have dealt with the though such distinguished chemists as Gay-Lussac and physical materials of military propellants and their rela- Pélouze served on the Comaé consultatif of the powder tionship to guns and projectiles. However, there is one administration, established soon after the Restauration other system to which I would like to give some atten- (23). I would suggest that this change in research ori- tion: that dealing with the social contexts of the scien- entation represented the intersection of two systems in tific investigators themselves and the nature and "style" my mode of analysis: the physical system of propellant of their investigations. It would involve such param- and gun (the crisis engendered by the introduction of a eters as national scientific tradition, scientific and tech- new type of more powerful powder ca. 1820, mentioned nological formation, motivation for investigation, pa- earlier) and, in the social system of the scientific inves- tronage/employment, and relationship to the military tigator, the requirement of an École polytechnique back- propellant manufacture. My renewed and reoriented ground in military engineering. It should also be men- interest in Proust was focused on these parameters, and tioned that contemporary American munitions investi- I have since extended my purview to the French, En- gators, such as Rodman, received analogous training at glish, and American investigative traditions in the eigh- West Point and carried out research in a style similar to teenth and nineteenth centuries. This third system is that of the polytechniciens. illustrated with a brief overview of the development of munitions research in France and England in these cen- The period after the Franco-Prussian War was turies. marked by the collaborative activities of the chemist, Marcellin Berthelot, with the polytechniciens, Emile With the appointment of Lavoisier in 1775 as one Sarrau and Paul Vieille. This great trio of French inves- of the four régisseurs des poudres and de facto chief of tigators brought the chemical and the physical traditions the Régie des poudres, the reformed French gunpowder into synthesis through the union of thermodynamics and administration, scientists were introduced into the in- thermochemistry, in part because of the pioneering pa- dustry as they had already been in other industries such per of Bunsen and Schischkoff. It should be noted that as dyeing and metallurgy (20). Until then, gunpowder munitions production and research were solely a state making was a craft in France and elsewhere; the de- activity and, for much of the century, under the admin- tailed rules for gunpowder production and testing that istrative control of the Ministry of War (24). had been laid down in France in 1686 were, to the best of my knowledge, generated without scientific input. In England there appears to have been no compa- Although Lavoisier's best known activity as a régisseur rably coherent tradition of institutionalized scientific was his attempt to develop saltpeter production, he also involvement in munitions prior to the appearance on the instituted tests concerning many aspects of gunpowder scene of Frederick Abel (1827-1902). A charter student production: which wood source produced the best char- (and one of the most esteemed) of W. A. Hofmann at the coal for gunpowder; which process of trituration and Royal College of Chemistry, Abel left the college in 1851 incorporation (stamping mills or edge runner wheels) to take a post as Demonstrator of Chemistry at St. was best, etc. (21). He also instituted what Gillispie has Bartholomew's Hospital, London. Two years later he termed "scientific administration (22)." This included secured the position of Lecturer in Chemistry at the the scientific training of all future commissaires des Royal Military Academy, Woolwich, upon the retirement poudres, the directors of French powder mills. One re- of Faraday. Founded in 1741 to train cadets in artillery cipient of this training was E. I. Dupont. and engineering, the Royal Military Academy had insti- tuted a scientific and technical curriculum in the 1770s The institutionalization of science in the French and had some distinguished faculty, such as the math- gunpowder administration survived the vicissitudes of ematician and ballistics expert, Charles Hutton; but, to French politics throughout the nineteenth century. How- the best of my knowledge, Faraday was the first Profes- Bull. Hist. Chem, 24 (1999)
sor of Chemistry. Faraday had delivered an annual settled into his position when the post-Napoleonic course of lectures on chemistry and related subjects to détente gave way to the Crimean War. In this first multi- the cadets from 1830 to 1851 (25). Abel moved to the national war in forty years, the changes in artillery were Woolwich Arsenal and soon began to carve out a new very apparent, as the opening lines of the official report professional niche in mu- of an American military nitions as Scientific Ad- observer testified ( 2 : visor to the War Office h ntr d t n f th (1854), a position soon l n n t f r h ll elevated to "Chemist of h r z nt ll ,b th f r the War Department l nd nd rv , (26)." th t nd n t n r th l b r When Abel moved nd f th r fl , th to Woolwich, "there was v r some uncertainty as to his d f t n f r ll duties (27)." There did ll r , n exist a Royal Laboratory b n d r d th at Woolwich dating back ttl d p l nd pr t f ll th l to the seventeenth century t r p r f E r p . (28), in which, after 1783, (M r v r , n t the manufacture of mili- t pt b n d b tary powder at the govern- v r l f th E r ment powder mills was p n p r t d pt supervised (29). In the th r fl pr n pl t late eighteenth and early th h v t rt ll r . nineteenth centuries, ex- These changes "spurred periments very similar to England into action...to the contemporary ones of revolutionize the whole Lavoisier and Proust were field of artillery (33)" carried out at the Royal during the rest of Abel's Laboratory under the di- career. rection of William Congreve (1743-1814) to Institutional ameliorate the quality of changes in the British gunpowder, which had military establishment sunk to a deplorable level also began in the mid- 1850s with the establish- (30). In the words of . W. Ab ll Congreve's student (31): ment of a consolidated War Department. By the hr h h t t pr t l r r h nt th late 1850s, the continued tumultuous international scene, n f t r f np d r nd h b l t t n t h n C n r v h d tr n f r d r t h p d r combined with concern over the rapid changes in artil- fr n f n t r l t t rld t nd rd. lery, led to the enlargement of the facilities of the gov- ernmental powder mills at Waltham Abbey (34) and to The French certainly shared this positive view of Brit- the establishment of ongoing committees to investigate ish powder in the post-Napoleonic period. However, it both the new guns and their ammunition requirements: does not appear that the investigative activities at the in 1858, the Ordnance Select Committee, subcommit- Royal Laboratory were pursued after Waterloo. I cer- tees of which studied gunpowder and guncotton; and, tainly know of nothing in Éngland before the late 1850s in 1869, a Committee on Gunpowder and Explosive Sub- comparable to the investigative tradition of the French stances (35). Abel either served directly on the com- p l t hn n of the period. mittee, as he did on the Committee on Gunpowder and The early 1850s were certainly pr p t f r Explosives throughout its existence, or he served in an nt t to develop a career in munitions. Abel had scarcely advisory capacity as Chemist of the War Department.
6 ll, t. Ch . 24 (
IL Abel and Guncotton v n nt f S n ( AAS . r d t n b n b M r . h r nt nd C . f St r t. Ab l d r b d h ntr nt th f ld f n tt n ( 6 : p t f v r bl r p rt l th n fr th E rl n 86 , by desire of the Secretary of State for AAS tt , t d n r n nd l h r h l War, I entered upon a detailed investigation of the l n d th l b t f t nd t b l t f n n manufacture of guncotton, the composition of the ma- n tt n, In f t, th r n xpl n t th terial when produced upon an extensive scale, its be- havior under circumstances favourable to its change, St r t f t r n ft r pr d t n f n tt n and other subjects relating to the chemical history of n d (42 . A r lt f th p t v nd n this remarkable body. t v d v l p nt , Ab l t up th t d f n tt n Wh n Ab l t p th nv t t n f n tt n nd, n th d 860 , p rf r d th t pr h n l t r pr p ll nt, t h d lr d t n d l t t v nd d t l d xp r nt p t th t t . In t ll , d d f v r h r d h t r n t d v r h h r d th pt f th AAS tt b t n 846. f f v r bl b h v r n th f ld th f b l t f b t t t n n tt n f r np d r. x d th r p rt f d tr xpl n t pr d In t r f d f n l , th r r h l t n t , l d n t pr h b t n f n f t r n nd l n f n th d pt n f n tt n l t r t t n . h t n f th t b l t f n tt n pr p ll nt th t p rt n d b th t t t r l n t r nd th f th t t pr t l p rt n . A f r f t t f n t n n th t f pr p ll nt nd n. Ab l t r S hönb n d v r , nd ft r t v rn nt r r h pr r l f d n th f r t f th h l h d b nd n d th nv t t n f n tt n f r l l n . It nv lv d n d r t n f th h l n t r nd h d v n b nn d t pr d t n, th d t r f th t r l nd f th n t pr t nd f pr d n h t pr d t b p r nd t bl n n r p r t nd t b l t . Alth h t r n z d tt n d v l p d b n A tr n rt ll r ff r, rl n th t n tr ll l f r d b pr f W lh l n n . n n r f n d h t p n th n tr t n th th r l f t r, nd th t h h r d pr d r f r n n tt n: h d r v n f r f n tr t n pr d d r xpl v t r l , tt n (l n n f rn f r t xt l n f t r th r r t n rt nt nd n d r bl ntr v r th b t r l, h h h t p d n xt r f th t h n h l v r t f n tr ll l x tr n t r l n tr nd lf r d f r f rt t d nd h t bl th r . h l t b ht h r . Aft r pr l n r l n n , th d f d v l f p l p rt n f r n tt n. In En l nd rn bj t d t r nn n t r b th ( n tr t h d b pt d th t th r r thr f r f f r t l t thr , dr d, nd f n ll r d n n tr ll l , rr p nd n t th ntr d t n f n , l t n f p t h nd t r l ( . h r t , r thr n t f n tr t n n th ll l . G n t lt nt pr d t pp r d t b r r bl n f r nd t n, th t h hl n tr t d f r , n f t t bl ( 8 . In 8 , n n bt n d l v fr th tr n tr ll l . h thr f r r d t n h bl A tr n v rn nt t t bl h f t r f r th pr b th r d ff r nt l l b l t n th r l h l xt r . d t n f n tt n. Alth h pp d b v r, th n l was h ll n d n th nt n nt, rt ll r t , n n d d, b th rl 860 , n nd l ll ld r t l t th rl 880 , r n th r ht t n f t r n tt n n A tr h rtl b f r h d v l p d dr (4 : nd f r th d pt n f n tt n nt th A tr n r Very different formulae have been suggested to rep- t ll r rv . It t th nt, h n ".. t resent the composition of the nitro-products derived n d r d d f n t v l ttl d th t G n tt n ld from celluloses, and particularly the composition of b f r l n b ntr d d nt th rv n pl f products of maximum and minimum nitration. These np d r, f r rt ll r p rp ( ," th t th A products were, moreover, obtained by processes dif- tr n v rn nt p r tt d n n t n t fering at the same time both as to temperature of re- h th d t th r t h (40 . Alth h th r t h h d action, concentration of acids, and the nature of the th r n rl r xp r n th j r xpl n t sulpho-nitric mixture employed. Therefore the results n tt n f t r , th r pr d th n n were not susceptible of any general interpretation. pr v d n tt n nd th pr t ff rd d t r Ab l b r b d t th En l h h l v f n tr pl np d r (4 . n n h lf t En ll l nd t f d h lf th t n n pr l nd n 86 t r p rt n h pr d r t bl r b d r pr d d d t n t nd t bl h l b t n , b n tt f th r t h A t n f r th Ad tr n tr ll l . t th v ( nd th t b l t f n n pr d t h d b n h ll n d b n b r f Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999) 7
continental researchers, the most formidable of whom Abel discovered, was the presence of partially oxidized was the French chemist, Jules Pélouze, whose analysis organic impurities present in the cotton. It was the de- of guncotton signaled a lower level of nitration than that composition of these to which Abel assigned the cause indicated by Abel's formula for trinitrocellulose (44). of the instability even in Von Lenk's product. To re- Abel argued that the results obtained by Pélouze were move these impurities, Abel recommended a final wash- the outcome of incomplete nitration of the cotton, ei- ing of guncotton with an alkaline carbonate. ther because of an insufficient period of acid digestion, Even more important than the chemistry was a the use of too weak an acid or an insufficient amount of physical procedure instituted by Abel: pulping the cot- acid, or choice of a low quality cotton. As an ton before nitration "according to the method commonly xp r nt r , Abel showed that subjecting the employed for converting rags into paper (46)." Because less highly nitrated cellulose to a second acid digestion of the tubular structure of cotton fiber, impurities sur- raised its weight to the level Abel had obtained for gun- vived even the most rigorous washings; by destroying cotton. At that level, the product was far more stable this capillary structure and agitating the pulp in a large than the French and others had claimed. Nevertheless,
h pp r t f n n nd S h h ff fr "On th Ch l h r f G np d r"
Abel admitted that even he had not achieved complete nitration; there was always a small residue of lower- volume of slightly alkaline solution, an exceptionally pure and stable guncotton was obtained. Abel's pulping level nitrocellulose products. It was to these that the procedure became standard for the rest of the century. French attributed guncotton's dangerous instability, es- Moreover, if immersed in water or impregnated with pecially upon exposure to light and heat. Abel, in fact, moisture, guncotton seemed all but indestructible and found the very opposite; indeed, the addition of dilute certainly safer to handle and transport than gunpowder. collodion (a less highly nitrated cellulose than guncot- ton) actually seemed to promote stability "probably be- The question of guncotton's stability was very im- cause the fibres are partially sealed, or in some other portant but only a part of the larger issue of whether way mechanically protected (45)." Of more concern, guncotton could be substituted for gunpowder as a mili- 8 Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999)
tary propellant (47). In the mid 1860s, that certainly fin, stearine, or india rubber to control the speed and remained the d d r t of military study of the mate- violence of detonation. This had been successfully tested rial. But, regarding the functioning of guncotton in the in small arms and rifles but "the experiments upon this field, the main problem was the rapidity and force of system of preparing cartridges have not been pursued guncotton detonation. Von Lenk had attempted to con- for the last four years (54)." Abel also mentioned a gun- trol its rate of bum by twisting skeins cotton diluted with sugar and saltpe- of guncotton around hollow wooden ter which had shown "considerable cylinders. Although at first very success" in "repeated trials," and promising (48), this soon proved to "Shultze powder," devised by a Prus- be ineffective in guns (49). However, sian artillery officer in the mid 1860s the development of the pulping pro- by nitrating wood shavings or sawdust cess and of procedures to dilute gun- and mixing the result with saltpeter. cotton with more inert substances (e.g. However, Abel characterized this lat- less highly nitrated forms of nitrocel- ter as an "imperfect kind of gun-cot- lulose or even cotton) (50) seemed to ton," that was "scarcely bidding fair offer new possibilities for controlling to compete in uniformity of action the force of guncotton by converting with the excellent gunpowder now the pulp by pressure into solid masses manufactured for breech-loading rifles of any suitable form or density, as was (55)." done with gunpowder (51): By 1868, then, Abel seems effec- Some results, h h r d tt d b tively to have ceased experimentation th t pt l n r n , on guncotton as a substitute propel- h v lr d b n rr v d t, n th lant for gunpowder. Research did con- t t r f xp r nt h h r n pr r , th th b tinue for developing other military j t f ppl n th th d f uses, for example, in bursting shells, r l t n...t th r d t n f n torpedoes, and blasting agents. What tt n t f f r f r rt ll r p r had caused him to abandon so precipi- p . It rr n nt n f r t tously a research topic that had looked bl f r ll r h l d f so promising? Such accounts as there f lt pr bl , h h b n d are of Abel's research claim that he r d ppr h n p rf t l abandoned research on guncotton be- t n. cause he was unable to get it under This optimistic scenario for guncotton complete control, especially concern- as a military propellant was taken from ing its rate and temperature of burn- the second talk Abel presented to the ing (56). Although this is true enough, members of the Royal Institution in I d bt th t th alone explains Abel's d n 1866. There is a third in this series en- abrupt cessation of research. However, titled "On the More Important Substi- Abel himself gave an explanation in a comprehensive tutes for Gunpowder," given in May, 1872. The disheart- account on munitions and explosives research delivered ening mood of this one regarding guncotton is sounded to the British Association for the Advancement of Sci- in the opening line (52): ence in 1871 (57): No progress has been made since 1868 in th ppl A v r d d d dv n h d b n d t rd th t n f xpl v nt , th r th n np d r, t f l pl nt f n tt n n f ld n b rt ll r p rp . f r th G v rn nt C tt n G n tt n d Abel noted that even the very promising cartridges for t x t n 868 nd f th xp r nt n th b small arms sporting guns were "wanting much in uni- j t, h h r th n p nd d, ll th r formity" although they were free from smoke and gun l t n t th pl nt f n tt n n l t r ll r , h v n t b n r d, t nl b fouling (53). He did suggest an improvement: compress- th C tt n Expl v , t h th f rth r ing guncotton pulp under pressure and impregnating the nv t t n f th tt r h b n ntr t d, h compressed mass with an inert material such as paraf- h th rt b n f ll p d th th r d t p rt nt nv t t n r l t n t np d r. Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999) 9
Under the auspices of this committee, Abel himself had Paul Vieille. By the end of the decade, variants (some- returned to focus his research on gunpowder. Over a de- times with n tr l r n well as guncotton) had been cade, starting in 1868, in tandem with Andrew Noble, a devised in all European countries and in the United polymath in gunnery and munitions, Abel pursued re- States. Abel himself came out of retirement to devise search on the function of gunpowder in guns of all cali- one of the best, "cordite," in collaboration with James bers that was the most comprehensive ever carried out Dewar. The age of gunpowder gave way to that of high- (58). explosive, smokeless powder. But in the late 1860s, gun- powder itself was very much a technology undergoing The context for Abel's return to gunpowder research transformation and improvement. Abel's disparagement lay in the developments of the decade before, associ- of Schultze's powder in comparison with "the excellent ated with T.J. Rodman and with Bunsen and Schischkoff. gunpowder now manufactured for breech-loading rifles" These offered researchers unprecedented opportunities certainly indicates that Abel saw gunpowder in this light. to understand and control both interior and exterior bal- Therefore, to interpret Abel's abandonment of guncot- listics through the determination, measurement, and con- ton research as simply a case of failure to control it as a trol of the ballistic force of gunpowder explosion. military propellant is to miss the real advances that had Guided by the scientific paradigm of Bunsen and been and were being made in its principal competitor, Schischkoff and employing Rodman's gun bore pres- gunpowder, in its systemic relationship to changes in sure data and an improved version of his pressure gauge gunnery. Although gunpowder did lack the attractive (the crusher gauge), Noble and Abel carried out sys- feature of smokelessness, these advances had made it tematic and comprehensive chemical and physical tests. superior to guncotton in most other ways. Corrobora- As Abel himself stated (59): tion for this view is found in a popular lecture by Abel W ll, t b t th t th t d n r n t on "gun cotton" in 1873 (62): th bj t n A r , nd n n n G r n , En l h. n r b t rr d r lv n th t G n tt n n b d r ntr ll bl f r ll t r, nd t t r n rn t t pr v np r p rp , b t h v n t t b n bl t t d r, nd t dv n th n l d r rd n t t ff ntl t ll f t b n d th n d t n nd th nd t n t b f lf ll d f r br n n t r f nf d n n r t n . h tt pt d f r nd r b tt r ntr l. p t th pr nt t t d r t t t n h v nl b n p rt ll f l n th ll t n In order to overcome the challenge of approximating n n, nd th r pp r n pr p t h t v r f r field conditions of a large gun bore in the laboratory, t n t ff ntl f r n l r r n . the investigators made use of an "explosion apparatus" I h v h r d r r pr nt n d ff r nt nd f designed by Noble. They also did comparative tests in np d r n n , nd h r r l p n guns of all calibers to tabulate the total work realized f th d ff r nt d r pt n d f r h v rt ll r . per lb. of powder for every gun, charge, and description nt r th ll r n f p d r r p of powder in the English service. From this tabulation, r nt d th nn n p d r n n v r l . h n b n t b ld l r r n , nd ft r t it was possible to deduce the velocity of any standard th l r r r n d p d r ntr d d f r projectile in any standard large gun (60). As for the p d r t n h n . d r b rn r p dl n practical impact of their work (61): pr p rt n t th z nd d n t f t r n r h r lt f th r [ bl nd Ab l] l b r , t , nd th f n p d r f nd t t nj r nt n, t pr d h l r b rn n f r l p n th b n , lth h h d th n nl f np d r th n th h h h d f nd f v r n t p t th 00 p nd r Ar tr n n. W n 8 0 nd rl r. h pr d t n f th n t p d r d h d t n r t tr d h n p d f p d r h r t r z d b r d l b t n fr th t ll r n t th l r r r n b t r p d x r z d f r r h n nfl n v r h t pr r d n d v l p n th z f r r t b r rd d th rr t f r f b lt p n t ll r , nd t f nd n r t p fr r n n tr t n, f p d r t p ll t r p bbl nd pr f p d r — th t t , nv rt d p d r nt In the evaluation of technological change, there is, I h h b rn d, p r t v l p n , v r l l think, a natural tendency to read backwards from some h n n t d n th r, b t h h, h n n t d n ex post facto state of affairs. In this case, it would be h r f 80 t 20 lb ., t ll b rn d v r r p dl n the supplanting of gunpowder by a guncotton-based mili- th n, nd pr d d n ll n nd l v tary smokeless powder. In fact, this began in the mid- l nt t n, h h t d r bl t d r t . W 1880s after the first one, "poudre B," was developed by r t l n f b ld n v r h b r n th n
• 0 ll. t. Ch . 24 (
the 35-ton gun, which requires a charge of powder n 8 th n l d b l t xpl r "d bl " weighing 120 lbs., and we shall therefore want a much l p d r (n tr l r n n tr ll l b , r lt tamer powder for those guns. I am consequently pretty n n th nv nt n f "b ll t t " h rtl ft r ll certain that, as far as big guns are concerned, gun br thr h. cotton has no future. rr t pl t p r n, n ld h v t The propellant-gun-projectile system: shotguns to f t r n n l f th th r t tl n d b v : military weapons. A lr d pl d, n th 8 0 nd th f n t n f th n p nt l p d r n 880 , th r x t d r t f r n tt n h r t l t r r fl nd n , th h ll n f n f t r h r t r t f l n t ttr t v : n n tt n (th f t pr bl r n t pl t l pr p ll nt f r p rt n. In dd t n t S h ltz lv d n th 8 0 , nd b v ll, p rh p , th l p d r, b t th rt th r p t n f p lp d n nd pr f n l nt xt f Ab l pl nt W r tt n th x d z n nt h p t r b r Off h t. Ab l rt nl n t pl t l n tr t , r b t bl d l nt nd b nd n nt r, fr nt n h h f r r h bj t (6 . ll l , h r l r lf r, nd , r n r p r f f n, pp r d n th r l r t. n r l III. Towards Smokeless Powder bl n h f r l t r b t rv d th p rt n ll n h t b r ll f l (68 . A d In n l n, I t th t t f n l l r t t hn l l n l t th r l f l p rt n th n th t h v b n p t f rth n th pr d n p rt p d r f th 8 0 nd rl 880 th t f th tr n f th p p r ld b xt nd d t th r v l t n r d t r b t n t nv nt n nd th d v l p nt f th v nt f l p d r n th 880 nd 8 0 . h r h p. In th nt r , th tr n t r f nd lt h n b f ll d th p f x pl b l . t d f r l n r d , h r n d , t . The propellant system: guncotton to smokeless th 880 , d nd f r l p d r powders. Ab l h d d d n p r f n nd t b l z d v l p n n th l t r th th pp r n f n n tt n b h th d f p lp n th t r l b t p rf l br h l d n , r p d f r n r fl , nd h n h d pp r ntl d h r r h b f r h h d n . Al , th l b r f l t r ll r was grow- h v d r l bl ntr l f t b ll t f r n th l ing smaller as the projectiles became lighter and more t r n. h pl h d b l ll b l n t d f r r pr tr j t r , n t t n ll d n xt r f n tt n nd l h hl n r p rf l pr p ll nt th n np d r. h , th tr t d f r f n tr ll l n t bl lv nt nd r dv nt f p rf l, n nf l n , l p h h pr r (64 . h r lt d n "pl t z n " th d r b n t nt (6 . Alr d n r n , n tr ll l nd th d tr n pl t l t f br l p d r b d n p r d h d b n d v l p d, n t r . Alth h ll th f r t t d n pr n f h h ( r èr p d r v d r lt n d n l t r l p d r, h th Ch pôt r fl nd nt n d t b t t d nt l t n t th t pr d nt r nt xt. h nfl n f t p r d d b ll dr ( 0 . rl r d v l p nt n ll r n v l d: ( v r The system of the scientific investigators: research n r ll d l p d r pr d d " p rt n p style of Paul Vieille. A nt n d rl r, l ll d r " n th rl 880 , b t h h nt p r r ( 8 4 8 4 r d t f th École polytechnique. b rv r r t , " h r n h l t r th r t t th n j n d th rp f n n r f th np d r rl n t f th r r lt (6 ." (2 h nv nt n f rv , h r h r d l l t th Depot [later ll l d b th A r n, hn W l tt, n 8 0, Laboratoire] central des Poudres et Salpêtres th E l n h t f r t r l fr h h t f h n th S rr , n th r polytechnicien, nd th th h t, p rf t b ll rd b ll. C ll l d ll d f M r ll n rth l t, h h d d l d n r l n p r x l n ( ll d n h v d b bj t n x n t n r r h nd r n z t n ft r th r n t r f p r x l n nd ph r t h t nd nt n pr r n W r ( . h h r t r z d ll n r (66 . h A r n n t n h t, Ch rl " n n r nd xpl v xp rt" n ntr t t d M nr , pl d nn t n b t n th pr d r h t l M nd l v. th ntr t xpr d f r n ll l d nd ll f r pr d n n th t p f l p d r h d v l p d: ll l p d r, h h h r ntl b n r t r t d b ll n t h ll nh n xpl v r n (6 . ( n ll , th r Alfr d b l n xt r , h r M nd l v r h d f r h l v nt n f l t n z d n tr l r n bl t n xpl v h n t ( 2 . I h ll n l d b xp nd n b t ll. t. Ch . 24 (
n p r pt v b rv t n. I ld r th t E E E CES A O ES ll r r h, ft n rr d t n t nd th S rr , r pr nt d th n t th r f v rt ll ll . S. . M pf nd M. . M h, h El v S f th r r h tr d t n f l t r n t n d r b d n : Or n f Exp r nt l h l r h, b v . It th l n t n f th r n h ph l t 40, hn p n Un v r t r , lt r , M , 80. tr d t n f th p l t hn n l t r n n r . t 2. . r t, "C n è r r l p dr n n," t l b lt n th r r h f d n nd f bl . ph . h . t d h t r n t r ll , 8 , , 0. nd Ab l, ll th th r h l tr d t n f n . S. . M pf, "Ch tr nd C nn n: . . r t n nd S h h ff, nd f rth l t. nd G np d r An l ," hn l nd C lt r , 0, , 8 426. h nth f r r h th d l x 4. . . rt n t n, A t r f Gr r nd pl f d b ll nv nt n f th "b b l r t r" G ndp d r, W. ff r, C br d , 60. ntl , (b b l r étr n 8 8. E nt ll r f n ll h p bl h d t r l r n f r r nd nt f bl " xpl v pp r t ( ," t np d r n th rl d rn p r d: . S. ll, W p pl d b ll n th rl 880 t t d t n nd W rf r n n n E r p , hn p n t ll th xpl n n t nl f bl p d r b t l Un v r t r , lt r , . f n tt n. Cr t l t th t d n th r r . A. . ll, ll t n th S v nt nth C nt r : A St d f n nt d b ll : t th r h r , h h n th l t n f S n nd W r th f r n r n h d t r xpl n pr r , h tt h d p ll t En l nd, C br d Un v r t r , C br d , 2. r rd n d v th t ld nd t pr r h n 6. . . M lth f, " h r n h Cr h r r f r S ltp thr h t th r f th xpl n ( 4 . At th t r r d t n, 6 4," hn l nd C lt r , v r t , ll rr n t pr h n v t d , 2, 6 8 . f th h tr f n tr ll l nd h t pr v d . C. C. G ll p , S n nd l t n r n t th End t b th l t d f th nn r n h h xpl f th Old , r n t n Un v r t r , r n t n, v f ll t p t ll b rn d ( . , 80, Ch. .6, 0 . I ld h z rd t n f r r n f r th nh b t n f h l r h p n d Alth h th x t r t ll t t th d v l n t n . It h t d th th p r d th t h d p nt f l p d r r n hr d d n n t d d n f rl d rn l t r h t r : th t t r , t l l th t ll f th nv t t n pl d f th " l t r r v l t n." Alth h l t r h t r th r p rt n l d n h t dr . ll tr t th , n h v d r d nt n l b t h t th "r v l I h ll nd b t n fr th t r nt f th v r t n" ( r, nd d, h th r t n l r v l f t d d v t d t th b r nd f th r t l t n , th r h b n r nt v r th n r l p nt nv nt n ( 6 : th t, lth h th ntr d t n f f r r ntr l t th rl d l t r tr n f r t n, th r d h xp r nt [ th th b b l r t r] d v l p nt h d l r l r n t r b th nd f th pl d rr l t n b t n th d v l p nt f pr v nt nth nt r nd n t t nd r j r r f v n xpl n nd t h r t r t f h n nt l th nd h lf f th n n t nth nt r . th t b t n : t p tn nd t tr l n , n t n t l h v b n t t ( nd h h p . ll th h n tt n nd th r t r ll n nt r t n t hn l n th p r d. h n tr ll l h h n r ll h v f br tr v rl , n th r th n , th d v l p nt f th t r xpl d d n l d v l th h n xtr r l f n nd n r l t d t hn l n th r p d t t r nd r p bl n l t r n. pr d t n nd pr v nt f n t n . n v d th t n tt n ld b pt bl t 8. . . St l , "M t nd nd l : nj n b b rn t d r t p d ft r h v n b n p t nt n , nh rd E l r, nd th ll t v l t n," h ff ntl p t f r . h h t h d d n n l nd C lt r , 4, , 48 82. " l t n z n " t b n f v l t l d lv nt, . h t r nt . r t, v r t Én l péd h h ld ft r rd b l n t d. h t r l, éth d : n r t d ré r d dr n th f r f th n pl t , h d p d f b t n t lpêtr p r l t nn r d l Art ll r ( 8 , th t ld b r l t d b d f n th r [th S. Ol h , r nz , . pl t ] th n . 0. "G np d r S t n," Int rn t n l C tt f r th t r f hn l . nt n p p r r pr nt d t th t n t th 6 ICO ÉC t n n d p t. . . . h n n, Ed., G np d r: h t r f n In t rn t n l hn l , th Un v r t r , th, 12 Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999)
6. M nt n h ld l b d f th p n r n 24. h t nt nt r : E. S rr , " t r l b n En l h p d r n : . W t. Gunpowder, rv d dr t S lpêtr ," M r l des Poudres government, and war in the mid-eighteenth century et Salpêtres, 1894, , nd E. rt x, "Ap rç [ l t r l S t , nd n}, d ll r , h t r r l S rv d dr t S lpêtr ," W dbr d , S ff l nd h t r, Y, . Mémorial des Poudres et Salpêtres, 1894, , 2 . 2. S. . G r , h Or n nd v r f th r t 2 . S . A. . . , " h M l t r C nt xt f Ch tr t d Or n Expl v , h. . h , Un v r t tr : h C f M h l r d ," Bull. Hist. Chem., f W n n, M d n, S. . r n, G n t 1991, 11, 6 40. r d p d v r h nd l . t n t S l d r: h v l p nt f tr r d t l n rn n r d pp nt nt, . A. ll l M l t r Expl v , 84 2 , h. . . , Ed., The Correspondence of Michael Fara- h , r n Un v r t , 88. day, l. I ( 8 8 , In t t t f El tr l En n r , . h h hl xpl v n tt n, nl ll d n nd nd n, . th r l h hl n tr t d f r , n l bl n l h l 26. t l fr b t r b . Sp ll r, J. Chem. Soc. Trans., nd th r. 1905, 87, 6 0 l S r S dn , Ed., Dictio- 4. S E. C. W rd n, Nitrocellulose Industry, 2 v l., . n nary of National Biography, S th, Eld r & C ., n tr nd, Y r . r d l, Pioneer Plastic: d n, 2, l. , 6. 0 , l. 2 , 6. The Making and Selling of Celluloid, Un v r t f 2 . O. . G. , The Royal Arsenal: Its Background, Ori- W n n r , M d n, WI, 8 . gin, and Subsequent History, Oxf rd Un v r t r , . r b r nd n th h t r r ph f t hn l , nd n, 6 , l. 2, 4 . h r pp r ntl h d b n W. E. j r, . . h , nd . . n h, Ed., The p t n f " rdn n h t nd t f t l ," Social Construction of Technological Systems: New Di- h h, h v r h d b n b l h d n 82 th l t n rections in the Sociology and History of Technology, MI b nt ( f t nt r , r. M C ll h, r , C br d , MA, 8 . p n n d ff. ( , ibid., l. , 66 . 6. f. , tn t . 28. r br f nt, C l. S r . W. W. rl . " h . S S. . M pf, " r f rd t d n: h l b r t r , W l h," in The Rise and Progress S nt f St d f th h l Ch r t r t f G n of the British Explosives Industry ( III Int rn t n l p d r n th r t rt f th n t nth C nt r ," n C n r f Appl d Ch tr , Wh tt r & C , n . . h n n, Ed., Gunpowder: The History of an In- d n, 0 , 0 . ternational Technology, th Un v r t r , th, 2 . W t, f. : W. . C r ft, "W ll C n r v ( 4 6, 28 28 . 8 4 , Exp r nt r nd M n f t r r," ICO EC 8. . n n nd . S h h ff, "On th Ch l h r C nf r n , d p t, 6 ( np bl h d p r f G np d r," tr n . E. At n n, London, Edinburgh t xt , p 2. v r h M ll (K nt r r d n and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Sci- W lth Abb M ll (E x n 8 . ence, 1858, 4th r , 15, 48 6 f r t p bl h d n 0. On r lt th d pt n f n n f pr p r 8 . h p p r f n n nd S h h ff d t l d n h r l n l d r t rt , pp r ntl t d b n S. . M pf, " r d n Ch tr nd h n th h t l r h rd W t n. th Éxp r nt l St d f G np d r," pr nt d t th . C r ft, f. 2 , p 6. W r h p n " h t r f Ch tr ," Apr l , 2. C l. . l f ld, Report on the Art of War in Europe in 6, bn r In t t t f r th t r f S n nd 1854, 1855, and 1856, G r W. n, r nt r, hn l ( n pr . W h n t n, C, 86 , , . l f ld b r . . Upp nn nd E. v n M r, Troia; sur la poudre, les f n ff l l t r n nt b th S r t r corps explosifs et la pyrotechnie, tr n . E. rt x, f W r. n d, r , 8 8, 462. In h th r t t v r , O . O. . G. , Artillery: Its Heyday and Decline, Ar r G tt nn, The Manufacture of Explosives, 2 v l., h n, d n, C , 0, 82. Wh tt r nd C ., nd n, 8 , l. , , t r d 4. . Év r n nd W. C r ft, " h l G np d r th xp r nt " p h r n . t r t W lth Abb : h ld Ar h l f G n 20. f. . p d r M n f t r ," n h n n, f. , pp 8 2 . f. , pp 4 . . 22. f. , pp 6 66. . h n t f th Ordn n S l t C tt ( 860 2 . r G t v t , M. Cr l nd, Gay- 86 , th r p rt f th tt ( 86 86 nd Lussac: Scientist and bourgeois, C br d Un v r t th r p rt f th C tt n G np d r nd Éxpl r , C br d , 8, 8 8 . nv lv d n v S b t n r t b f nd t th l Art ll r r r h n rn n n b r f d ff r nt p t f br r , Old l M l t r A d , W l h Ar p d r: r f n nt f ltp t r, n l f p d r n l. h C tt n Expl v S b t n d t p t n, t d f f l n t ( th b . l f n l r p rt n 880. h r l n th r tt n tr nt l n tt n th b ll t p nd l nt n n tt n n th rl 8 0 . n r n , ll n th h tr f th nn n. Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999) 13
6. . A. Ab l, " r h n G n tt n: On th M n 4 . . A. Ab l, "On nt r r n th t r f r f t r nd C p t n f G n tt n," Phil. Trans. p d S b t t t f r G np d r, " Proc. Roy. Inst. Gr. Roy. Soc. London, 866, 156, 2 . Brit. 1862-1866, 1866, 4, 62 . G pr r n th n . . A. Ab l, "S t f M n f t r f G n C tt n b r n tr l z d n tt n rtr d r t n t v r rr d t n th I p r l A tr n E t bl h nt " "On r p d d t n t n. th C p t n, nd r p rt , f Sp n f 0. h h d b n d v l p d b th p d r r t G n tt n pr p r d t th A tr n G v rn nt St r t [M r . r nt ] f r rtr d f r p rt W r ," App nd I nd t . . Gl d t n et al., n n . Ab l d d n t t h v n nd Alfr d b l " p rt n th Appl t n f G n C tt n t W rl d v l p nt f d n t f. 4 , pp 62 626. rp ," p rt f th h rt h rd M t n f th . f. 4 , p 626. r t h A t n f r th Adv n nt f S n , 2. .A. Ab l, "On th r p rt nt S b t t t f r G n 1863, 8 . p d r," Proc. Roy. Inst. Gr. Brit. 1870-1872, 6, . 8. . A. Ab l, "M r nd th r f r n t Exp r nt . f. 2, p 8. A nt p r r rt ll r ff r n pr r b r n p n th M n f t r f G n t r z d th pr bl f ll : "A r f xp r nt t n," App nd x III t f. , pp 4 2 . rr d n n 86 , t W l h, n ff d t h . . A. Ab l, "On th Ch l t r nd Appl t n th t n tt n, th n n f t r d, n t t bl f G n tt n," Proc. Roy. Inst. Gr. Brit., 1862-1866, f r rt ll r p rp . h r t l l v l n f t 1864, 4, 24 . t n, nd r p d t f t n t n h n nf n d, n
40. In f t, ft r n xpl n d tr d th z n t S th h b r f n, r nd r d t xtr l d tr t v r n , th pp n nt f n tt n n th d nd th t th p . Exp r nt r d th v t A tr n r v rt d t np d r. r n, f. 2, pp d n h th d tr t v n r f th n r t d 6 . h nt n d t t n h ll . n th b t n f th tt n, b t f r th r 4 . f. , pp 6 . rr d t, t pp r d th t n r d n t xpl v 42. . A. Ab l, " r h n G n tt n — S nd M f r , nd d n h n th d tr t v ff t , t p r r. On th St b l t f G n tt n," Phil. Trans. Roy. pr p ll n nt l rl r d d, nd t Soc. London, 1867, 157, 8 84. f r th t d d d t v p th d f pl n t 4 . . ll , " h r h r l tr f t n d C t n" f r rt ll r . It h , h v r, t ll n pp rt r n ( 88 , tr n . . . rn d , Smokeless Powder Nitro- xpl v f r p rt n p rp , th h I n t r cellulose, and the Theory of the Cellulose Molecule, hn th t h n d f h tr n th t t b nj r W l & S n , Y r , 0 , 8 . Wr t n n th 8 0 , t th n, n r t p r r t v r np d r, O r G tt nn n t d th t b th th rl r tr n tr r rd h rd h tt n , pr v d f r t, th h nd bt d p nd th r nd th t f ll h d b n ppl nt d b b n f t r fr t fr d fr nd f l th r f Ed r p t l t n x n tr p nd n ." C l. A. à C rt h r, "G n C tt n Appl d t G tt n, f. , l. 2, pp 6 6 . l t n ," [ t r : n 0, 8 0], J. Roy. United 44. h r t ll , 00 p rt b ht f p r ll l ht Service Inst., 1871, 14, 4 44 ( 42 . t n r 8 . n nv r n t tr n tr ll l 4. f. 2, pp 8 . h r fl r Enf ld nd Sn d r. (C6 O . In t d n n n pr , l z At j t th t , t t r nd r t nv rt zzl nd M r h d f nd x n r n ht f l d r t br h l d r : . . bb tt, British Small nl .8 nd h d n d f r l nd t n Arms Ammunition, 1864-1938, . bb tt, nd n, , l r l v l f n tr t n (C 24 6O 8 , 2O . Ab l h d Ch. 2. f nd n n r f ht r n n b t n 8 .8 nd . f. 2, pp 8 . 82.6 . Ab l, f. 6, pp 06 08. 6. G r , f. 2, p 6 r n, f. 2, p . 4 . f. 42, p 208. . . A. Ab l, On Recent Investigations & Applications of 46. f. 42, p 2 . t nt n th d t fr 86 . h Explosive Agents ( AAS t r , A t, 8 , n t d th t Ab l nt p t d b thr r b Ed n t n nd l , Ed nb r h, 8 , 20. n n d hn n n: "S l d r: h l S h pph , n h x ll nt rt l n th v l t n f M xt r nd Ch ll r S b t n ," pr nt d l p d r, r t th t Ab l " xp r nt d t t t r f S n S t Ann l M t n , "S n W l h [ 86 68] th rtr d b lt p fr nd th v l p nt f M n t n ," 4. n n pr d n tt n f r d fr br nz f ld n , b t th n r f th C rn h l t n d r C . f nd l ttl n r nt, th h th r lt r r n, f. , p 0. h d f th bt n d th n n rtr d ," 4 . Ab l nt n d th t th p lp n pr d r h d b n " h Ev l t n f S l d r," . Mil. Serv. Inst. d v l p d n nn t n th xp r nt n b t t t US, 1896, 18, . n n tt n f r np d r l t r pr p ll nt 8. A. bl nd .A. Ab l, " r h n Expl v — f. 42, p 2 . rt I ( 8 6 nd rt II ( 880 [p bl h d n th Phil. 48. Ab l, f. , p 2 . Trans. Roy. Soc. London], n S r A. bl , Ed., Artillery 14 Bull. Hist. Chem. 24 (1999)
and Explosives, hn M rr , nd n, 06. S t r r t, p rh p th f r t h n th h t r f d M pf, f. 8. rn n t n . . . A. Ab l, " h M d rn t r f G np d r," [A 6 . S h pph , f. , p 4. S G tt nn, f. , l. t r l v r d n th r r d ll, M n h t r, 2, pp 2 6 2 f r d r pt n f t f th : É.C. n r 2 , 8 ], Science Lectures for the People: p d r nd . . p d r. Science Lectures Delivered in Manchester, 1877-78-79. 66. r d l, f. 4. Ninth and Tenth Series, hn d, M n h t r 6 . C. E. M nr , th v l p nt f S l . ., nth S r , p 8 ( nt r , pp 0 2 . d r," J. Am. Chem. Soc., 8 6, 18, 82 8 0 r n, h h v r rdn n d n th Cr n W r t d f. 2, p. 8 8 . th nt xt f r th r n f th nv t t v pr 68. M nr , f. 6 , pp 828 82 l W rd n, f. 4, r . rd n th ntr d t n f l r r n d n l. 2, Ch. 8. p d r f r h v rd n , Ab l r t : " h th 6 . M nr , f. 6 , pp 82 824 l S h pph , f. f r t v r l r p d r h h ntr d d n En l nd , p 4. h nd n f n t p f nn r l f r h v n , b t v r l r r n d p d r h d j t th h n n d r tl p ll d th r t h l t r pr v l b n ntr d d n A r , nd r th n th r t t r n th r h f r l p d r f th p d r, nd h l r r p d r, f pr n 886 nd t nv lv Ab l n th r h. S th d t h p , l f A r n r n, d pt d b t r t th bl rd Off : SU 68, "Exp r th t n nd r ." (p 2 . At th nt l d r fr Apr l 88 ." In n l t nd f th t l , Ab l d d th r r t n t t r, Ab l b r t d th S p r nt nd nt f th l G n d n th p d r rtr d t v d " v pr r " p d r t r , W lth Abb , f r n t ll n h nd t f t " h " n th b f th pr j t l t t th t t n f l t th r : "I r r t th t d ntr l th th r d tr t v f r f th h r n n t r t nt n t ff rd f l t f r th v r l r n . (pp 24 2 . r n t f th xp r nt d th v t In n 8 ddr b bl , h r d t d d n rt n h th r l p d r f r h n n b n "th f r t p r n h xp r nt d n th ff t tt n bl , bj t h h r f rr d t j ntl f z f r n, nd pr p d pr t p d r" nd t nv t t ." Ab l t S p r nt nd nt, l G np r t th t n n nd S h h ff xp r nt " d r t r [W. . bl ], A t , 88 . j tl r n n th t p rt nt h h h v b n 0. S h pph , f. , pp 4 rd n t d n r bj t." bl , f. 8, pp 8, 6 , r p G tt nn, f. , l. 2, p 2 , ll r n l t v l . l p d r d f b th p r d nd 60. bl nd Ab l, f. 8, rt I, pp.204 20 . n tt n. 6 . M j r G n r l S r C. C ll ll nd M j r G n r l S r . . . M d rd, " vr nt f d l ll , 8 4 dl , The History of the Royal Artillery, l Ar 4," Rev. Hist. Sci., 4, 47, 8 404. t ll r In t t t n, W l h, 40, l. , 2 2. , f. 46, pp . l n d Ab l t ll n th . h nt n th t, " h d v r d n r rd. r p t t th pr p ll nt, pl d th dd t n l xp . I h v n t t f nd v d n f d r t ff l t n b r n n d n r l t n t b ll t n n r l, n t n th t . f t b d t h v br ht b t r v l t n n th 4. h r l t n h p b t n bl r h r nd th pt d pr n pl f n n tr t n, th r n tr nt d b th r n h p ll d t b l nd r t d n th ntr ." . Ch l n: " r h r, r r, d l n 62. .A. Ab l, "G n C tt n." [A t r l v r d n th n l d t èr xpl v t p rf t nn p r l n ll, M n h t r, n W dn d , v M. rth l t, t t t t ll nt pl p r l b r th, 8 ], Science Lectures for the People: Fifth n d t èr xpl v t d n l xp r n Series of Science Lectures delivered in Manchester; 1873, x t p r l rt ll r d r n , n r n ." Traité hn d, M n h t r, 8 4, 6 . théorique et pratique des explosives modernes et 6 . Ab l h d n t b nd n d h p f r d v l p n n t dictionnaire des poudres & explosives, E. rn rd t C , t n pr p ll nt f r n l t r r fl nd, l t th r , 88 , 2d d., 2. d 8 0 , t ll pl d n f r f rth r r r h: . . ll , "Èt d r l d d b t n d t èr Progress Report of the Committee on Explosives Sub- xpl v ," Mémorial des poudres et explosives, 8 , stances, with Appendices. 1st April 1876, r M j t 6, 2 6 . St t n r Off , nd n, 8 , 4 . 6. f. 0, p 402 l . M d rd, " l ll t n 64. In l bl n tr ll l : 68.2 l bl n tr ll l , vr ," Mémorial de l'artillerie française, 86, 60, 2 .8 p r ff n: 2,0 , l t n z d n t th r. A. n° 2, 2 . M r h ll, Explosives, J. & A. Ch r h ll, nd n, , 2, 2d d., l. , 2 4. h th r lt f n xt rn l n l n th pr nd r p r l ll. t. Chem. 24 (1999) 15
A OU E AU O with a common theme of his fascination with continu- ities in scientific thought and the interaction of scien- Professor Seymour H. Mauskopf has been a member of tific traditions. Since being named the first Edelstein the faculty of the History Department at Duke Univer- International Fellow in the History of Chemical Sciences sity, Durham, NC 27708, since 1964, becoming full and Technology of the Chemical Heritage Foundation professor in 1980. His research interests have spanned in 1988-1989, Professor Mauskopf has served as an ad- widely, from chemistry and medicine to psychology, all visor to CHF and a coordinator of many of their special programs.
SMI SO IA S U Y G A S
h S th n n In t t t n br r d nt S h l r Programs offer short-term study r nt n 2000 th t p nd f $ ,800 nth f r d r t n of one to three nth . A rd will h v t t r l n th bn r br r f th t r f S n nd hn l nd th S th n n In t t t n br r Sp l C l l t n , t r n , l br r n , d t r l t d nt , nd th r h l r r nv t d t ppl . dl n f r ppl t n : b r , . Appl t n t r l nd r nf r t n r p t d t http: . l. . d . Application forms are l v l bl b r t n t Smithsonian In t t t n br r d nt S h l r r r , S th n n In t t t n br r , 22, M C 4, W h n t n. .C. 20 60 0 4. l: (202 2240, r nd l t l b l l. . d .
M r n l , r r A t nt Inf r t n S t v n bl t n Off S th n n In t t t n br r l: (202) 357-1522 x: (202 86 2866 x: (202 86 2826