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Abbreviations Used in Notes Notes Abbreviations Used in Notes APRP A. Philip Randolph Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC ARC Amistad Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA BCP Theophilus Eugene “Bull” Connor Papers, Department of Archives and Manuscripts, Bir- mingham Public Library, Birmingham, AL BMP Burke Marshall Papers, John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, MA BPL Department of Archives and Manuscripts, Birmingham Public Library, Birmingham, AL BRP Bayard Rustin Papers (microfilm) BSCPP Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC CCHP Clarie Collins Harvey Papers, Amistad Research Center, Tulane University, New Orleans, LA COREC Congress of Racial Equality Collection, Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, PA COREP Congress of Racial Equality Papers (microfilm) COREPA Congress of Racial Equality Papers, Addendum, 1944–1968 (microfilm) CUOHC Columbia University Oral History Collection, New York, NY FBI-FRI FBI Case Files, Freedom Rider Investigation, Department of Archives and Manuscripts, Birmingham Public Library, Birmingham, AL FORP Fellowship of Reconciliation Papers, Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, PA FUSC Fisk University Special Collections, Nashville, TN ICCR Interstate Commerce Commission Records, Record Group 134, U.S. National Archives II, College Park, MD JFKL John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, MA KMSP Kelly Miller Smith Papers, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN KPA Martin Luther King, Jr. Papers, the Martin Luther King, Jr., Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Atlanta, GA MLKP Martin Luther King, Jr., Papers, Mugar Library, Boston University, Boston, MA MSCP Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission Papers, Mississippi Department of Archives and History, Jackson, MS NAACPP National Association for the Advancement of Colored People Papers, Library of Congress, Washington, DC NTP Norman Thomas Papers, New York Public Library, New York, NY RBOHC Ralph Bunche Oral History Collection, Moorland-Spingarn Research Center, Howard Uni- versity, Washington, DC Notes to Pages 1–4 589 RFKP Robert F. Kennedy Papers, John F. Kennedy Library, Boston, MA RRLR Race Relations Law Reporter SCLCP Southern Christian Leadership Conference Papers (microfilm) SCPC Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, PA SNCCP Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee Papers, the Martin Luther King, Jr. Center for Nonviolent Social Change, Atlanta, GA SRCP Southern Regional Council Papers (microfilm) TIRRCF Tuskegee Institute Race Relations Clipping File (microfilm) UMFRC Freedom Rider Collection, University of Mississippi, Oxford, MS USDJ/CRD United States Department of Justice, Civil Rights Division Records, Record Group 60, U.S. National Archives II, College Park, MD WHC Wiliam Harbour Freedom Rider Collection, in possession of William Harbour, Atlanta, GA WRLP War Resisters League Papers, Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore, PA Introduction 1. Stokely Carmichael with Ekwueme Michael Thelwell, Ready for Revolution: The Life and Struggles of Stokely Carmichael (Kwame Ture) (New York: Scribner, 2003), 178. 2. Founded by ex-slaves in 1867, the First Baptist Church (Colored) of Montgomery boasted the largest black congregation in the United States during the 1910s. Following a devastating fire in 1910, the church was rebuilt under the leadership of the Reverend Andrew Jackson Stokes, who asked parishio- ners who could not afford to contribute to the rebuilding fund to contribute a brick every Sunday. Known locally as the “Brick-a-Day Church,” First Baptist was the Reverend Ralph Abernathy’s church from 1950 to 1961. See Barbara Carter, “A Brick Every Sunday,” Reporter 26 (September 20, 1961): 39–40; First Baptist Church, ’Tis a Glorious Church: The Brick-a-Day Church (Montgomery: First Bap- tist Church, 2001); Taylor Branch, Parting the Waters: America in the King Years, 1954–63 (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1988), 1–4; and Ralph David Abernathy, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An Autobiography (New York: Harper and Row, 1989), 82–83, 101–102, 118–119, 185–188. The organiz- ers of the Freedom Rides never offered any public explanation for their choice of terminology, other than a brief comment in James Farmer, Lay Bare the Heart: An Autobiography of the Civil Rights Move- ment (New York: New American Library, 1985), 196. For an exposition of the evolving concept of “freedom” in American history, see David Hackett Fischer, Liberty and Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004); and Eric Foner, The Story of American Freedom (New York: Norton, 1998). On freedom’s connection to the civil rights movement, see Richard H. King, Civil Rights and the Idea of Freedom (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992). Morgan v. Virginia, 328 U.S. 373 (1946); Boynton v. Virginia, 364 U.S. 454 (1960). 3. On the philosophical, religious, and psychological motivations of nonviolent civil rights activists during the 1960s, see King, Civil Rights and the Idea of Freedom; James H. Laue, Direct Action and Desegregation, 1960–1962: Toward a Theory of the Rationalization of Protest (Brooklyn: Carlson, 1989); and David L. Chappell, A Stone of Hope: Prophetic Religion and the Death of Jim Crow (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2004). On the Freedom Riders’ moral and religious values, see David J. Mussatt, “Journey for Justice: A Religious Analysis of the Ethics of the 1961 Albany Free- dom Ride” (Ph.D. thesis, Temple University, 2001); and Henry Louis Gerner, “A Study of the Free- dom Riders with Particular Emphasis upon Three Dimensions, Dogmatism, Value-Orientation, Religiosity” (Th.D. thesis, Pacific School of Religion, 1963). 4. Michael Belknap, Federal Law and Southern Order: Racial Violence and Constitutional Conflict in the Post- Brown South (Athens: University of Georgia Press, 1987), 77–78. For a brief but insightful summary of the civil rights struggle and massive resistance during the period 1954–1961, see C. Vann Wood- ward, The Strange Career of Jim Crow (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002), 149–173. 5. The phrase “with all deliberate speed” first appeared in the May 1955 school desegregation imple- mentation ruling known as Brown II. See Richard Kluger, Simple Justice: The History of Brown v. Board of Education and Black America’s Struggle for Equality (New York: Random House, 1975), 714–747; James T. Patterson, Brown v. Board of Education: A Civil Rights Milestone and Its Troubled Legacy (New York: Oxford University Press, 2001), 82–85; Michael J. Klarman, From Jim Crow to Civil Rights: The Supreme Court and the Struggle for Racial Equality (New York: Oxford University Press, 2004), 256– 258, 312–320; and Charles J. Ogletree Jr., All Deliberate Speed: Reflections on the First Half Century of Brown v. Board of Education (New York: Norton, 2004). Theodore H. White, The Making of the Presi- dent 1960 (New York: Atheneum, 1961); Richard Reeves, President Kennedy: Profile of Power (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1993), 36 (quotation), 58–64; Carl M. Brauer, John F. Kennedy and the Second Reconstruction (New York: Columbia University Press, 1977), 35–36, 39, 75, 94–97, 126–127; Robert Dallek, An Unfinished Life: John F. Kennedy, 1917–1963 (Boston: Little, Brown, 2003), 373– 388; James W. Hilty, Robert Kennedy: Brother Protector (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1997), 133–134, 151, 170–176, 289–306. 6. Reeves, President Kennedy, 63 (first quotation), 60 (second quotation). On Hesburgh and the U.S. Civil Rights Commission, see Theodore Hesburgh, God, Country, Notre Dame (New York: Doubleday, 590 Notes to Pages 5–8 1990); and Foster Rhea Dulles, The Civil Rights Commission, 1957–1965 (East Lansing: Michigan State University Press, 1968). 7. Henry Hampton and Steve Fayer, Voices of Freedom: An Oral History of the Civil Rights Movement from the 1950s through the 1980s (New York: Vintage, 1990), 75 (quotation). 8. On McCarthyism and anti-Communist hysteria during the 1950s, see Richard H. Rovere, Senator Joe McCarthy (New York: Harcourt, Brace, 1959); David M. Oshinsky, A Conspiracy So Immense: The World of Joe McCarthy (New York: Free Press, 1983); Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998); Stephen J. Whitfield, The Culture of the Cold War (Balti- more: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1991); Richard M. Fried, Nightmare in Red: The McCarthy Era in Perspective (New York: Oxford University Press, 1990); and David Caute, The Great Fear: The Anti-Com- munist Purge Under Truman and Eisenhower (New York: Simon and Schuster, 1978). On the Cold War’s impact on the American civil rights struggle, see Mary L. Dudziak, Cold War Civil Rights: Race and the Image of American Democracy (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000); Thomas Borstelmann, The Cold War and the Color Line: American Race Relations in the Global Arena (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2001); Jeff Woods, Black Struggle, Red Scare: Segregation and Anti-Communism in the South, 1948– 1968 (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 2004); George Lewis, The White South and the Red Menace: Segregationists, Anticommunism, and Massive Resistance, 1945–1965 (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2004); Gilbert Jonas, Freedom’s Sword (New York: Routledge, 2005), 135–149; and Manfred Berg, “The Ticket to Freedom” (Gainesville: University Press of Florida, 2005), 116–139. 9. George H. Gallup, The Gallup Poll: Public Opinion, 1935–1971 (New York: Random House, 1971), vol. 3, 1723–1724. 10. Robert Cook, “From Shiloh to Selma: The Impact
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