Kuwaiti Female Labor Force Participation and Educational Attainment with Other High Income Countries, World Averages and Non-Arab Islamic Societies……....9
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Abstract In spite of oil wealth, modernization, and high female educational attainment, the International Labor Organization cites female labor force participation in Kuwait as lower than other high-income countries, world averages, many non-Arab Islamic countries, and some gulf countries such as Qatar and the UAE. These statistics suggest a lack of female participation and agency in development of Kuwaiti society. As Kuwait and other gulf countries create economic strategies to move from dependency on natural resources to the development of skilled and innovative labor, the gap between high educational attainment and low labor force participation must be explored. With a grounded theory approach, this study uses statistical analysis and other secondary data, along with ethnographic methods of observation and in-depth interview with over 56 participants, to identify the social, economic, and political forces shaping the demand and supply of female labor in Kuwait. This research argues that increasing a women’s freedom (capability + agency) to participate economically, as well as politically and socially, increases their wellbeing and the sustainable development of their country. Therefore, research also considers Kuwaiti female agency in society for overall participation in sustainable development. To foundationally inform this study, interviews and observations seek a basic understanding of the Kuwaiti woman’s experiences, as well as her definitions and perceptions of freedom. Interestingly, research finds two administrations in Kuwait record female LFP at least 18% higher than ILO estimates—a discovery backed up by interviews and ! observations. These numbers not only include the high number of non-Kuwaiti female workers, but Kuwaiti women working in public, private, and informal markets. In addition, the number of Kuwaiti women entrepreneurs in home-based and other small businesses is increasing and becoming important to the economy, but is largely undocumented—suggesting female LFP in Kuwait may even be higher than administrations report. These findings suggest significantly greater female participation in the labor market than reported by international organizations, contradicting stereotypical views of disempowered Middle Eastern women—a view perhaps too often accepted without question by western research and society. Implications of research show potential for growth in the Kuwaiti female labor market within the private sector. ! ©Copyright by Shea Bradley Garrison, 2015 All Rights Reserved ! Acknowledgements I will never be able to fully express my admiration and gratitude to my PhD committee professors. I have often wondered about the "horror" stories other PhD students relay regarding their committees, for my experience was nothing like that—I have been blessed. They are la crème de la crème, the best of the very best. Throughout my entire PhD process, they have been exacting, nurturing, demanding and inspiring. And my life—my future—is forever changed because of them. Thank you Dr. Dauphine Sloan, Dr. Stanley Samarasinghe, Dr. Katherine Andrinopoulos, and Dr. Farah Al-Nakib. Thank you also to the Center for Gulf Studies at the American University of Kuwait, where I was a visiting research fellow in the spring of 2014. I am indebted to CGS and Dr. Al-Nakib, the director of CGS, for all manner of support during my three months of interviews and observation in Kuwait—office space, interview contacts, invitations to events, and the much-anticipated Thursday night after-hours. This research is partially funded by Kuwait Foundation for the Advancement of Sciences (KFAS) under project code P114-61IC-01. My sincerest appreciation to KFAS for their support of this research project. In addition, I greatly appreciate the help of the Kuwait Central Statistical Bureau and the Public Authority for Civil Information. Both government departments in Kuwait gladly met with me for interviews and generously provided statistical information. My thanks also to Dr Laura Murphy, my former PhD advisor, who helped me realize I wanted fervently to be a researcher, who validated my own process of thought, and helped me learn how to learn. Her guidance is a large part of getting me to this place. My appreciation also to Sheila Favalora, who has been with me since I first began ii!! ! the master’s program at Payson, always supporting me with her perfect administration, so I could concentrate on my studies. If every institution had a Sheila, the world would be a better place. Thank you my friends, Monique, Jane, and Sue. Your ongoing love, support, and encouragement kept me going through many a dark night. My warmest love and gratitude to my Papa and Grandmama. They have always believed in me, encouraged me to work hard, and let me know how proud they are. I know my Papa watches my progress from heaven. Finally, how do you thank the person who has tirelessly put up with endless writing, cranky moods, and intermittent bouts of panic? To my husband Chad, thank you for encouraging me to live in Kuwait for three months of data collection, for cheerfully cooking dinner and running both our errands for the past several months, and for steadfastly believing in me even when I didn't believe in myself. I love you. Now let’s party. iii! ! ! TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………… ii List of Tables and Figures…………………………………………………………. x List of Acronyms……..……………………………………………………………. xi Chapters 1-13………………………………………………………………………1-229 Chapter 1 Introduction: Outline of Research Project and Problems Addressed…1 1.1 The State of Kuwait and the Need for Development Reform………..2 1.1.2 Human Capital Development and Problems within the Kuwaiti Labor Market…………4 1.1.3 Female Labor in Kuwait: the Importance of Understanding LFP…6 • Table 1: Comparison of Kuwaiti Female Labor Force Participation and Educational Attainment with other High Income Countries, World Averages and Non-Arab Islamic Societies……....9 1.1.3.1 Female Migrant Labor and Kuwaiti Female LFP……...10 1.1.4 The Research Objectives, Questions, and Approach………..10 1.2 Research Project Contributions to Kuwait and Science……...12 Contribution 1: Improves the Development Sustainability of Kuwait and the Agency of Kuwaiti Women to Participate……….12 Contribution 2: Adds to Scientific Research in Multiple Ways………..13 1.3 Dissertation Chapters Overview………15 Chapter 2 Theoretical and Conceptual Framework…………………………...18 2.1 From Modernization to Postdevelopment Theories of Development…18 2.1.1 Development Theory and the History of Modernization…18 2.1.2 Postdevelopment Theory….20 2.1.3 Economic Measures of Development...21 2.2 Freedom as a Measure of Sustainable Human Development…24 2.2.1 Defining Development—What are the Goals of Development?....24 2.2.2 Freedom as a Driver of Development—Capability, Agency, and Participation ….27 2.2.3 Freedom as an Outcome of Development: Agency Increases Agency…29 2.2.4 Why the Freedom of Women is Important to the Sustainable Development of a Country…30 iv! ! ! • Conceptual Model 1: Freedom (Capability + Agency) is a driver and an outcome of development for both women and society…33 2.3 Labor Market Theory—Equilibrium and Segmentation…33 Chapter 3 Background on Research: Literature Review……………………36 3.1 Literature Review: The Main Drivers of the Status, Freedoms, and Rights of Muslim Women Living in Muslim Societies...36 3.2 Background on Muslim Populations……...38 3.3 The Spectrum of Muslim Women’s Freedoms…39 3.4 Five Main Drivers of the Status, Freedoms, and Rights of Muslim Women Living in Muslim Societies……….41 3.4.1 Deviations in Interpretation and Practice of Islam with Respect to Women........................41 3.4.2 History of Patriarchal Cultural and the Continuance of Traditional Norms..........................43 3.4.2.1 Arab Culture…44 3.4.2.2 Non-Arab Islamic Culture…45 3.4.2.3 Middle Eastern Oil Economies and Cultural Tradition…45 3.4.3 State Islamization: Government Religious Institutions and Islamic Legal Frameworks.........................46 3.4.3.1 The Influence of Religious Institutions on State and Society...47 3.4.3.2 The Presence of Legal Frameworks based on Islam and Patriarchy…48 3.4.4 The Rise of Political Islamist Movements: Retrogression, Islamization, and Cultural Authenticity…………..51 3.4.4.1 Regional Examples…52 3.4.5 Women’s Rights Used by the State and Political Groups to Gain Power………………….55 Chapter 4 Background on Research: Kuwaiti Political, Economic, and Social Structures—Implications on Women and Development………………….59 4.1 Historical Overview……….59 4.1.1 Maritime Economy…59 4.1.2 Oil booms and Modernization…60 4.1.3 The Iraqi Invasion of Kuwait…62 4.2 Political Economy and Implications for Development Sustainability…63 4.3 Social Structures………..67 4.3.1 Population…67 4.3.2 Kuwaiti Society…67 4.3.2.1 Citizenship and Other Social Divides: Badu and Hadar, Shia and Sunni…69 4.3.3 Non-Kuwaitis…70 4.4 Freedom in Kuwait………..71 v!! ! 4.4.1 Economic, Civil and Political Freedoms…71 4.4.2 Status and Freedom of Kuwaiti Women…73 4.4.2.1 Citizenship and Equality in the State…73 4.4.2.2 Conservative Suppression of Women’s Rights—the Islamic Movement and Saudi Influence…75 4.4.2.3 Political Conflict over Women’s Rights…77 4.4.2.4 Gender-Based Job Restrictions…79 Chapter 5 Research Methodology…………………………………………..81 5.1 Perspective and Approach ………….81 5.2 Data Collection……………………..84 5.2.1 Theory and Methods…84 5.2.2 Interviews and Demographics of Participants…85 5.2.2.1 Kuwaiti Women Interview Participants...87 5.2.2.2 Kuwaiti Men Interview