RESEARCH I am who I am MEDIA, IDENTITY, AND TRANSGENDER YOUTH

Nancy Jennings

This article attempts to explain some of the terms used within the transgender community and de- velopmental attributes of gender cognitions as well as examining the implications of transgender repre- sentation in contemporary media.

Childhood is a time of discovery and growth – to learn about yourself and about others. One way in which chil- dren learn about themselves is through their identification of their gender. For most children, this process reflects societal expectations, and they find themselves comfortable with the label of girl or boy given to them based on their sex. For others, this title brings great angst and discomfort. These Sex is determined most commonly by Battles, 2015). While transgender in- children identify as transgender and biological characteristics including sex dividuals may not feel like they fit into experience a disconnect between their chromosomes and is assessed at birth a dichotomous sex structure, this is biological self and the set of gender based on observation of external geni- not to be confused with either sexual norms assigned to them. These chil- talia (Garofalo et al., 2006; Diamond, orientation or a desire for surgical or dren are often invisible in social struc- Pardo & Butterworth, 2011). hormonal reassignment (Meier & La- tures because they do not conform Gender, however, refers to the char- buski, 2013). to the expected binary classification acteristics and behaviors socially Sexual orientation relates to the of gender. Furthermore, transgender constructed and associated with one’s gender identity of persons to whom representation in the media is sparse, sex. This includes stereotypes, gender individuals are physically or emotion- which makes each depiction even more roles, and expressions of masculinity ally attracted, not one’s psychological important. and femininity (Diamond, Pardo & sense of identity (Garofalo et al., 2006; Butterworth, 2011). Meier & Labuski, 2013). It should also Transgender individuals are often be noted that “gender variance is DEFINITIONS AND TERMS classified as male-to-female (MTF) or not learned, not chosen, not due to female-to-male (FTM) (Garofalo et emotional or mental disorder and not Today, the term transgender “typi- al., 2006) and experience persistent determined by parenting” (Cincinnati cally serves as an umbrella term for discomfort between their biological Children’s Hospital Medical Center, a range of identities that refuse the sex and gender identity, often caus- 2015). As such, it is important to link between biological sex and a set ing extreme distress. Members of the consider how gender knowledge and of socially acceptable gender norms.” transgender community developed the identity develop in childhood and what (Hilton-Morrow & Battles, 2015, p. 12). term cisgender to refer to individuals implications this may have for both It is important to distinguish between whose biological sex aligns with their media representation and audience sex and gender. expressed gender (Hilton-Morrow & perception.

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p. 924). This has particularly important ing emerges early, it reaches a peak CHILD DEVELOPMENT AND implications for transgender youth of rigidity between 5 and 7 years of GENDER since children can recognize early on age, shows more flexibility in middle that what they feel and experience childhood, but then intensifies again Two distinctive gender cognitions – does not coincide with the label given during adolescence (Martin et al., basic gender identity and gender ste- to them based on their biological sex. 2002). These shifts in the rigidity of reotypes – play a significant role in the Children who experience discomfort gender categories are also suggestive organizational structure of children’s with their gender begin to express of moments of learning about gender behavior and thinking about gender their transgender identity between moving from awareness (construction/ (Martin, Ruble & Szkrybalo, 2002). Basic the ages of 3 and 4 years; however, information gathering) to rigidity (con- gender identity involves both knowl- some children as young as 2 years of solidation and schema confirmation) edge of gender groups and labeling of age can make statements about their to flexibility (integration and schema genders. Gender stereotypes involve gender not matching their biological deployment) (Martin et al., 2002). categorization of individuals into sex (Boskey, 2014). As such, this wave of gender typing groups, in this case associating attrib- presents opportunities for education utes of femininity to females and mas- and instruction during awareness and Children as young as 3 and 4 culinity to males including activities flexibility as well as moments of rigidity and interests, and personal and social years may express discomfort when change may be more difficult attributes (aggression, dependence, with their biological sex and transgender youth may experience and gentleness, for example). more harassment and less acceptance, Gender-based knowledge and percep- Moreover, cross-gender behaviors (be- particularly from peers. tion start very early in child develop- having like children of the opposite sex) ment. During the first year of life, infants have been found in 2.6-6 % of young can discriminate voices (6-8 months) boys and 5-12 % of young girls and such TRANSGENDER MEDIA and faces (9-11 months) of males and behaviors may develop a transgender REPRESENTATION AND USE females (Martin et al., 2002). By 22 identity (Möller, Schreier, Li & Romer, months, children are able to verbalize 2009). However, not all children Concepts of gender are socially gender labels (use words such as boy, that display cross-gender behaviors constructed through a variety of in- girl, lady, guy) and some can even self- experience a transgender identity. fluences, and the media often serve label (correctly use “girl” or “boy” to Cross-gender behaviors may express “as instrumental sites for regulating identify one’s own gender (Zosuls et adherence to a stereotype such as a the boundaries of gender and sexual al., 2009). Production of labels (use of “tomboy” (a girl or woman who en- identities” (Moscowitz, 2010, p. 26). words such as boy, girl, woman, lady, gages in “masculine” activities) rather Both through television, film, and now man) can serve as indicator of children’s than a deep-set form of discomfort due online, the transgender community is knowledge of gender categories for to an incongruence between gender beginning to be more visible in enter- others and for one’s self. Furthermore, identification and biologic sex (Mar- tainment media. In the United States, there is a connection between self- tin et al., 2002). Furthermore, 80-95 % of the 271 regular and recurring LGBT labeling and sex-typed play – that is, of prepubertal children with gender characters on scripted broadcast, ca- sex-typed play with trucks and dolls identity discomfort no longer experi- ble, and streaming programming, only (two of the most highly stereotyped ence this in adolescence while some 7 (2.6 %) are counted as transgender. Of toys of gendered play) increases be- individuals experience a “pattern of these, 6 are transgender women and tween 17 and 21 months in children extreme cross-sex identification from one is a transgender man (GLAAD, and was related to knowledge and use toddlerhood” (Cohen‐Kettenis, Dele- 2015). Of these characters, none were of gender labels and self-labeling (Zosuls marre‐van de Waal & Gooren, 2008, present on broadcast television. Only et al., 2009). As such, self-labeling and p. 1894). Therefore, as with cisgender one character, Cole of ABC Family’s sex-typed play serve as key indicators of children, transgender children can feel, The Fosters, is a teenager. Furthermore, gender-based knowledge of others and experience, and express gender identi- the only transgender pre-adolescent self which develop and are expressed fication and gender stereotypes early children that appear on television in very early in life. in life with a continued and sustained the United States have appeared in Moreover, it is important to note that identification over time. news programs, news magazines, or “children actively seek out and con- As children mature, their convictions talk-show programs in individual seg- struct their own rules about gender about gender-typing wax and wane ments – not as recurring characters at an early age” (Martin et al., 2002, over time. While gender stereotyp- in a scripted program (Kelso, 2015).

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Two other North American shows, feel stronger through positive storylines Craig, Shelley L., McInroy, Lauren, McCready, Lance Glee (US) and Degrassi (Canada), have or visibly resilient characters. Online T. & Alaggia, Ramona (2015). Media: A Catalyst for each featured a transgender teen, media provided a means for more pro- Resilience in Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, Transgender, and Queer Youth. Journal of LGBT Youth, 12(3), 254-275. although their representation en- active coping by challenging negative Diamond, Lisa M., Pardo, Seth T. & Butterworth, Molly hances transgender stereotypes rather experiences by fighting back. Finally, R. (2011). Transgender Experience and Identity. In Seth than destigmatize or demarginalize both TV programs and online media J. Schwarz et al. (eds), Handbook of Identity Theory and Research (p. 629-647). New York: Springer. transgender youth (Sandercock, 2015). provided opportunities for community Garofalo, Robert, Deleon, Joanne, Osmer, Elizabeth, In the UK, on CBBC, a documentary building by having a common text to Doll, Mary & Harper, Gary W. (2006). Overlooked, series, MY LIFE: I am Leo, follows the discuss with others (TV programs) and misunderstood and at-risk: Exploring the lives and HIV risk of ethnic minority male-to-female transgender journey of a 13-year-old transgender by sharing information with others youth. Journal of Adolescent Health, 38(3), 230-236. boy named Leo and has just recently online (Craig et al., 2015). Transgender GLAAD (2015). Where we are on TV 2015-16. Avail- able at: http://www.glaad.org/whereweareontv15 won the 2015 British Academy of Film youth build community online through [12.01.2016]. and Television Art (BAFTA) award in daily communication with other LBG GLAAD (2012). Victims or Villains: Examining Ten the Children’s Factual category (see youth. Transgender youth exhibit the Years of Transgender Images on Television. Avail- able at: http://www.glaad.org/publications/victims- interview with Margrie in this issue). highest frequencies of speaking with or-villains-examining-ten-years-transgender-images- other LGBT people online with just television [12.01.2016]. over a quarter of transgender youth GLSEN, CiPHR & CCRC (2013). Out online: The experi- Transgender characters on TV ence of Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual and Transgender Youth (26 %) reporting using the internet to are few and far between on the Internet. New York: GLSEN. connect every day or almost every day Hilton-Morrow, Wendy & Battles, Kathleen (2015). (GLSEN, CiPHR & CCRC, 2013). Sexual Identities and the Media: An Introduction. New York: Routledge. Beyond the limited number of Kelso, Tony (2015). Still Trapped in the US Media’s Clos- transgender characters visible on TV, et: Representations of Gender-Variant, Pre-Adolescent how transgender lives are depicted TELLING THE STORY OF Children. Journal of homosexuality, 62(8), 1058-1097. and represented on television is equally Martin, Carol L., Ruble, Diane N. & Szkrybalo, Joel TRANSGENDER YOUTH (2002). Cognitive theories of early gender development. important. Concerns have arisen that Psychological bulletin, 128(6), 903-933. representations of transgender indi- Media can help nurture the develop- Meier, Stacey C. & Labuski, Christine M. (2013). The viduals have been negative (GLAAD, ment of children by making the invis- demographics of the transgender population. In Amanda K. Baumle (ed.), International handbook on 2015; Sandercock, 2015). In an analysis ible visible. Increased and accurate the demography of sexuality (p. 289-327). Dordrecht: of 10 years of transgender characters in depictions of transgender youth can Springer Netherlands. Möller, Birgit, Schreier, Herbert, Li, Alice & Romer, Georg US shows, only 12 % were considered promote healthy acceptance of these (2009). Gender identity disorder in children and adoles- groundbreaking, fair, and accurate vulnerable youth. Stories of transgen- cents. Current Problems in Pediatric and Adolescent (GLAAD, 2012). Transgender characters der characters who are defined by more Health Care, 39(5), 117–143. Moscowitz, Leigh M. (2010). Gay marriage in television were cast as a “victim” (40 % of epi- than their “transition narrative” can news: Voice and visual representation in the same-sex sodes and storylines) and also as killers strengthen our depth of understanding marriage debate. Journal of broadcasting & electronic or villains (21 % of episodes and sto- of others and of ourselves. What story media, 54(1), 24-39. Sandercock, Tom (2015). Transing the small screen: lov- rylines). The most common profession are you going to tell? ing and hating transgender youth in Glee and Degrassi. for transgender characters was that of Journal of Gender Studies, 24(4), 436-452. a sex worker (20 % of transgender char- Zosuls, Kristina M., Diane N., Tamis-LeMonda, Cath- erine S. et al. (2009). The acquisition of gender labels acters). Finally, anti-transgender slurs, in infancy: Implications for gender-typed play. Devel- language, and dialogue were present REFERENCES opmental Psychology, 45(3), 688-701. in over half (61 %) of the episodes and British Academy of Film and Television Art (2015). storylines (GLAAD, 2012). Children’s in 2015. Available at: http://awards.bafta. Interestingly, despite these negative org/award/2015/childrens [12.01.2016]. portrayals, media provides lesbian, Boskey, Elizabeth R. (2014). Understanding Transgender Identity Development in Childhood and Adolescence. THE AUTHOR gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) American Journal of Sexuality Education, 9(4), 445- youth a means to buffer discrimina- 463. tory experiences in 4 ways: 1) coping Cincinnati Children’s Hospital Medical Center (2015). Nancy Jennings, Health Services for Transgender Youth. Available PhD, is a member of through escapism, 2) feeling stronger, at: http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/service/a/ 3) fighting back, and 4) finding and adolescent-medicine/programs/transgender/default/ the advisory council [12.01.2016]. fostering community (Craig, McInroy, at the University of Cohen‐Kettenis, Peggy T., Delemarre‐van de Waal, Hen- McCready & Alaggia, 2015). Through Cincinnati (Ohio), riette A. & Gooren, Louis J. (2008). The treatment of USA. television depictions, LGBT youth were adolescent transsexuals: changing insights. The journal of sexual medicine, 5(8), 1892-1897. able to escape from daily stressors and

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