An Exploration Into the Uses and Gratifications of Media For

Psychology of Popular Media Culture © 2016 American Psychological Association 2018, Vol. 7, No. 3, 274–288 2160-4134/18/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000135 An Exploration Into the Uses and Gratiﬁcations of Media for Transgender Individuals

Kami A. Kosenko Bradley J. Bond North Carolina State University University of San Diego

Ryan J. Hurley North Carolina State University

Transgender individuals, those whose gender presentation diverges from their biological sex, encounter unique obstacles to identity development and socialization. The present study examines how transgender individuals use both traditional and emerging media to better understand their own gender identities and their social worlds. A constructivist approach to the uses and gratifications perspective motivated interview questions about the role of media in the lives of transgender individuals. Forty-one transgender individuals participated in semistructured interviews. Results suggested media were instrumental for sensemaking. Participants used media to make sense of feelings, sexual relations, community, and transition options. Participants also used media to meet nonmediated goals or to initiate interpersonal negotiations. The potential impact of media on transgender audiences and the limitations of the uses and gratifications perspective are discussed in light of the findings.

Keywords: identity, media, sensemaking, transgender, uses and gratiﬁcations

Until recently, identity development was con- (Bockting & Coleman, 2007). The term trans- sidered an adolescent phenomenon; however, a gender is most commonly associated with indi- burgeoning body of literature has begun to ex- viduals who aim to transcend the gender binary amine the developmental processes of adults, or to live as members of the other sex (Whit- particularly those who experience profound lock, 1996), though transgender also subsumes changes in their personal and social identities many gender-variant identities such as transsex- (Anthis & Lavoie, 2006). One population that uals, cross-dressers, genderqueer individuals, often experiences momentous identity altera- and gender nonconformists (Lombardi, 2001). tions during adulthood is the transgender com- Members of the transgender community who use munity. Although transgender individuals might medical interventions to facilitate the gender tran- question their assigned gender from an early sition are commonly referred to as transsexuals age, social stigma, shame, and familial pressure and are classiﬁed according to two gender vectors: often push key developmental tasks, such as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM; “coming out” as transgender, into later life Kenagy & Hsieh, 2005). According to the Diagnostic and Statistical

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. (DSM-5), individuals with intense and persis- This article was published Online First June 30, 2016. tent discomfort over their assigned gender and Kami A. Kosenko, Department of Communication, North who strongly identify with the other gender are Carolina State University; Bradley J. Bond, Department of considered gender dysphoric (American Psychi- Communication Studies, University of San Diego; Ryan J. Hurley, Department of Communication, North Carolina atric Association, 2013). The nonconformity State University. that is characteristic of gender dysphoria is itself Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- not considered a mental illness; rather, the con- dressed to Kami A. Kosenko, Department of Communica- siderable distress associated with identifying as tion, North Carolina State University, 201 Winston Hall, Campus Box 8104, Raleigh, NC 27695. E-mail: transgender warrants the inclusion of gender [email protected] dysphoria in the DSM-5. The inclusion of gen-

274 TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUALS & MEDIA 275

der dysphoria in the DSM-5 sheds light on the cence and adulthood, Bussey and Bandura complexities inherent to developing a transgen- (1999) developed their own model of gender der identity in a world that is still largely trans- identity development based on Bandura’s so- gender adverse and, in turn, suggests that schol- cial–cognitive theory. The social–cognitive ars continue to investigate social influences on theory of gender development and differentia- transgender individuals in an attempt to allevi- tion posits that biological dictates and social ate the distress associated with gender-noncon- imperatives are key catalysts in the develop- formity. Media are one potential social influ- mental process. Gender-related cognitions and ence worthy of consideration. behaviors are thought to result from the recip- The role of media in the lives of transgender rocal influence of biology (e.g., genes, hor- individuals, particularly during their identity de- mones, and secondary sex characteristics) and velopment, has received scant attention from social factors (e.g., family and broader social scholars in communication, psychology, and al- systems). The model does not give equal weight lied disciplines. The objective of the present to both factors. For example, in situations in study is to highlight the utility of the uses and which social roles are strict and unwavering, gratifications perspective in understanding biological factors will have a greater influence. transgender individuals’ media consumption When biology is being altered, as is the case and the influence of media messages on the when transsexuals initiate hormone therapy or development of transgender individuals’ gender gender nonconformists mask their secondary identities. To meet this objective, the literatures sex characteristics, social factors have more on transgender identity development and the weight. Thus, it is important to understand the uses and gratifications perspective are detailed social environment of transgender individuals if before reporting the findings of qualitative in- one is to dissect the transgender identity devel- terviews with transgender individuals about opment process. their gender identities and their media habits. Transgender individuals often experience gender-based harassment, endure employment Transgender Identity Development and education discrimination, and are often vic- tims of violence (Lombardi, Wilchins, Priesing, Scholars have relied heavily on existing mod- & Malouf, 2001). Those who experience trans- els of gay, lesbian, and bisexual identity devel- phobic discrimination are more likely to engage opment when attempting to explicate the iden- in high-risk behaviors, attempt suicide, and re- tity development processes of transgender sort to living and working on the streets (Bock- individuals (Diamond, Pardo, & Butterworth, ting, Robinson, & Rosser, 1998; Miller & Groll- 2011). These efforts are complicated by the fact man, 2015). Fortunately, support from families, that gay, lesbian, and bisexual represent sexual schools, and communities offer transgender in- identities whereas transgender is an identity at- dividuals some protection against the negative tribute related to one’s gender, not sexual ori- effects of transphobia (Minter, 2013); unfortu- entation (Gagné, Tewksbury, & McGaughey, nately, many transgender individuals experi- 1997). As such, existing transgender identity ence social rejection and isolation from the very development models have been heavily cri- interpersonal resources that would otherwise tiqued, and no generally accepted model exists buffer the negative consequences of harassment (Pleak, 2009). and discrimination. The National Transgender This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Transgender identity development models Discrimination Study reported that 57% of This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. are lacking, but the existing theory and research transgender individuals had been rejected by on gender identity development more generally their families of origin, and 78% of those who can inform a study of this kind. Psychologist had expressed their transgender identity in pri- Lawrence Kohlberg (1966) was among the first mary or secondary school had been bullied and to propose a model of gender identity develop- harassed by peers and teachers. For 15% of ment, but his stage-based model has been crit- these individuals, the bullying was so severe icized for assuming that this process begins and and pervasive that they dropped out of school ends in childhood. Recognizing the limitations (Grant et al., 2011). The stigma and isolation of Kohlberg’s model and the important devel- experienced by many transgender individuals is opmental changes that occur during adoles- troubling given the importance of social sys- 276 KOSENKO, BOND, AND HURLEY

tems like families and schools in the gender The Uses and Gratifications Perspective identity development process. Although like- minded peers might help fill a gap created by The uses and gratifications perspective at- unsupportive families or schools (Bariola et al., tempts to explain what attracts the individual to 2015), many transgender individuals describe specific types of media and how media content difficulties accessing peer support (Shapiro, can fulfill personal needs (Rubin, 2002), mak- 2010). ing it an ideal framework for a study of how The absence of support from traditional so- transgender individuals use media to understand cial systems only increases the salience and their own gender identities. Rubin (2002) wrote influence of media messages for transgender that the uses and gratifications perspective has individuals (Burgess, 2009). In fact, McInroy basic assumptions: (a) all social behavior, in- and Craig (2015) argued that media are likely cluding media use behavior, is primarily “goal- “. . . the predominant source where people, both oriented, purposive, and motivated” (p. 527); transgender and nontransgender, gain general (b) media users select channels based upon their knowledge about transgender issues” (p. 606). goals; and (c) characteristics of media users Critical media studies have examined the por- (e.g., age, race, personality) and structural vari- trayal of transgender individuals in film (Wil- ables (e.g., medium access, social economic lox, 2003), TV (Sandercock, 2015), young adult status, geographic location) influence media fiction (Norbury, 2014), talk shows (Gamson, channel selection. 1998), and social media (Green, Bobrowicz, & The relationship between mediated and non- Ang, 2015). However, very little research has mediated sources of gratification has been char- investigated how transgender individuals use, acterized as competitive. That is, “the media experience, and interpret traditional or emerg- compete with other forms of communication, or ing media. McInroy and Craig (2015) con- functional alternatives such as interpersonal in- ducted interviews with four FTM or gender- teraction, for selection, attention, and use so that queer youth about their media experiences but we can seek to gratify our needs and wants” noted that the very small sample size was prob- (Rubin, 2002, p. 528). Characterizing this rela- lematic for drawing conclusions. Ringo (2002) tionship as a competition suggests that channel interviewed 19 FTM transgender individuals selection is a choice that has consequences for about their media use, concluding that media the use of other need-gratification channels (i.e., played an important role in conceptualizing functional alternatives), such as interpersonal gender. Both Ringo (2002) and McInroy and communication. The uses and gratifications per- Craig (2015) noted that media messages about spective acknowledges, however, that interper- transgender issues paradoxically assisted trans- sonal sources are often preferred over media gender audiences in rehearsing and negotiating sources (Rubin, 2002). Thus, uses and gratifi- their genders while simultaneously hindering cations researchers are compelled by the times development due to the stereotypical or nega- when media channels emerge as important tive representation of transgender individuals. need-gratification devices. The uses and gratifi- Notably, the research on transgender individ- cations perspective suggests that other need- uals’ media experiences cited above is largely gratification channels (e.g., interpersonal inter- atheoretical and did not include any MTF par- action) should be explored and considered with ticipants. A more thorough theoretical examina- respect to media uses and gratifications. The This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. tion of the uses and effects of media among uses and gratifications perspective, then, holds This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. transgender individuals is needed when consid- enormous potential for those interested in the ering the limitations of previous research cou- connections between what have traditionally pled with the perceived importance of media been thought of as interpersonal and mass com- messages on identity development generally munication variables. Both the functionalist (Grossberg, Wartella, & Whitney, 1998) and on perspective on uses and gratifications, with its transgender individuals specifically (Burgess, focus on how individuals use media, and the 2009). The uses and gratifications perspective psychological approach, which emphasizes the serves as a useful lens through which to inves- antecedents and consequences of media selec- tigate transgender media use and identity devel- tivity, underscore the importance of considering opment. interpersonal uses and effects (Perse, 2014). TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUALS & MEDIA 277

The Functional Approach interpretations of media messages, among others (Ruggiero, 2000). One critique salient to Early work in the uses and gratifications per- work in the uses and gratifications perspective spective that attempted to bridge the interper- that considers both interpersonal and mass com- sonal/mass communication divide focused ex- munication variables, such as the present study, plicitly on categorizing individual uses of media is the failure to view audience perception as an into typologies. Different research teams in the active process (Swanson, 1977). Swanson ar- tradition of the uses and gratifications perspec- gued that uses and gratifications appropriately tive have identified unique sets of media uses, conceptualizes individuals as active rather than leading some to try to unify the disparate typol- passive media consumers but lacks a focus on ogies. McQuail, Blumler, and Brown (1972), audience activity in terms of cognition. A cog- for example, argued for a four-functional ap- nitive approach that stresses how people inter- proach that included diversion, surveillance, pret messages not only provides a common the- personal relationships, and personal identity. oretical foundation for the study of mass and Diversion refers to the use of a medium to interpersonal communication but also provides escape or for emotional release, surveillance is a link between the process of media selection defined loosely as information seeking and us- and media effects (Perse, Pavitt, & Burggraf, ing media to accomplish tasks, the personal 1990). relationships function refers to companionship Although most frequently applied to interper- and social utility inherent to media experiences, sonal constructs and processes, the constructiv- and the personal identity function of media re- ist theory of communication provides a starting fers to the use of media to better understand the point for the study of the interpretive processes self. The personal identity function is of partic- involved in uses and gratifications. The con- ular relevance to the present study. structivist theory of communication suggests that humans engage the world through pro- The Psychological Approach cesses of interpretation, which yield constructs, Scholars using a psychological approach to and that construct formation is socially situated, uses and gratifications have extended research meaning that processes of interpretation and at the nexus of mass and interpersonal commu- evaluation are given shape within a particular so- nication scholarship with a concentration on ciocultural context (Delia, O’Keefe, & O’Keefe, effects. Researchers have examined how inter- 1982). This approach is particularly useful when personal experiences affect media selection attempting to understand what individuals “count” (Nabi, Finnerty, Domschke, & Hull, 2006), how as a specific, meaningful communicative action, media messages influence interpersonal beliefs such as social support (Goldsmith, 2004), listen- and behaviors (Buerkel-Rothfuss & Mayes, ing (Burleson, 2011), and, in this case, media use. 1981), how the experience of media use influ- Therefore, a constructivist uses and gratifications ences interpersonal engagement (Gantz, 1985), approach necessitates attention to how individuals and how the selection of one channel of com- make meaning from media messages and the ac- munication may influence the selection of other tual use of media in a given context. The present channels (Chaffee, 1986). Although researchers study was designed through the constructivist lens working from a functional perspective and to examine how transgender individuals, exploring their gender identities, use and make meaning This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. those adopting a psychological approach to uses of media messages. This study was guided by a This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individualand user and is not to be disseminatedgratifications broadly. deserve credit for building an intellectual bridge across the interpersonal/mass general research question: communication divide, this work is limited in RQ: How do transgender individuals make several ways. sense of the media they use in the course of their identity development? Critique Method The uses and gratifications perspective has been criticized over the years for its vague con- Data were elicited through one-on-one, semi- ceptual framework, lack of precision, and a structured interviews with people who self- failure to consider audience’s perceptions and identified as transgender as part of a larger 278 KOSENKO, BOND, AND HURLEY

project on identity and communication in inti- and/or surgery), and seven reported being post- mate relationships. The researchers approached transition (i.e., having completed the transition). the interviews from a symbolic interaction perspective, enabling the interviewees to speak for Interview Schedule and Procedure themselves. Such an approach empowered those Participants in pilot interviews (n ϭ 5) re- whom the researchers were attempting to de- sponded to a number of open-ended questions scribe and understand by allowing them to use designed to elicit identity development narra- their own voice (Lal, 1995). For a stigmatized tives. After reviewing pilot interview data, the group such as transgender individuals whose interview schedule was refined to include a sec- diverse voices have gone unheard in communi- tion that focused on the role of media in the cation research, methods that accomplish the identity development of transgender individu- research aims while empowering participants als. The interview schedule began with a section are ideal. designed to build rapport and elicit the identity development narratives of the participants. The Sample second set of questions focused on the participants’ communication in developing relation- The lead author conducted recruitment via ships with regard to their gender and sexual online groups (e.g., Yahoo! and Google groups identities, and the final set of questions ad- by and for transgender individuals) and with the dressed the specific role that both traditional help of transgender community leaders. Face- media and emerging media had played in their to-face interviews were conducted in three large identity development. For example, participants cities: one in the Midwest, one on the West were asked questions such as “Have the media Coast, and one in the South. Additional partic- played a role in any of your experiences as a ipants were located in a smattering of small trans-person,” “Do you use the media for any towns and cities across the country. Purposive purposes related to your trans-identity,” and sampling methods were used to identify a di- “Have the media helped you in any way as a verse group of participants who would best rep- trans-person? Have they hindered you?” Probes resent the full range of gender-variant identities were included, as needed, to clarify participant subsumed by the transgender umbrella, a limi- responses and to ascertain the most appropriate tation of sampling in previous research exam- terminology to use in subsequent questions ining transgender individuals’ media use (such as correct pronoun usage). For this paper, (McInroy & Craig, 2015; Ringo, 2002). Effort we only describe data related to participant uses was made to sample individuals from all stages of and experiences with media. of the gender transition (i.e., pre-, mid-, and The first author conducted one-on-one inter- posttransition), those who identified as cross- views with self-identified members of the trans- dressers, and those who adopted a both/neither gender community who were 18 or older. Thirty- gender presentation/identity (i.e., genderqueer six participants were interviewed face-to-face; five individuals). Participants selected for one-on- additional participants were interviewed over the one interviews received $25 remuneration. The phone to increase the racial and geographic diver- final sample consisted of 41 individuals sity of the sample. After completing an oral (Mage ϭ 38.5, SD ϭ 11.9, range ϭ 21 to 66). informed consent process, participants re- The sample was predominately non-Hispanic This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. sponded to a short demographic questionnaire. White (73.2%), with African Americans (9.8%) This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. Interview lengths ranged from 26 to 92 min, and and Latinas/Latinos (7.3%) composing the next all interviews were audio-recorded and tran- largest groups. Participants self-identified as scribed. Transcripts were then checked for ac- FTM or male (36.6%), MTF or female (36.6%), curacy. cross-dressers (14.6%), and genderqueer (12.2%). The majority of FTM and MTF par- Data Analysis ticipants (63.3%) self-reported being midtransition (i.e., having completed some but not all The third author, blind to the nature of the intended medical interventions). Four partici- data collection method used for each interview, pants were considered pretransition (i.e., had determined if any discernible differences in begun transitioning with the help of hormones quantity or quality could be noted between nar- TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUALS & MEDIA 279

ratives collected face-to-face and those col- Media Use and Sensemaking lected over the phone. No such differences were found. Two authors then independently coded One common theme across interviews was the transcripts using constant comparative tech- the use of a variety of media by transgender niques to generate a set of categories of media individuals to make sense of their experiences. uses and experiences (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). Participants reported turning to books, TV, and The authors met to discuss the categories that the Internet for help understanding their feel- each had identified, to assess the exhaustiveness ings, bodies, and relationships. Four main sen- of the categories, and to triangulate the data. semaking uses of media emerged from close The authors met once more to reach consensus readings of participant responses: to explore and on the categories and to identify data segments validate presentations of gender, to better un- that would appropriately exemplify trends and derstand the mechanics of transgender sex, to patterns for use in this report. Validity of the create community, and to research transition results was assessed by using the responses of options. Each of these sensemaking uses of me- the participants in the second phase of data dia is discussed, in turn, with evidence provided collection to validate the responses of the par- from interview transcripts. ticipants in the pilot interview phase and by Gender presentation. Participants re- conducting member checks with several partic- ported using media to explore different ap- ipants. Member checks entailed sending inter- proaches to gender presentation, as well as to viewees a document that listed the identified clarify their own feelings about their gender expression. The Internet was the primary me- themes and included representative quotations dium mentioned by participants when discuss- from the interviews. Participants provided feed- ing how they used media to explore possible back on the accuracy and completeness of the ways of presenting their preferred gender, argu- themes, and this information was used to mod- ably because of the perceived safety and ano- ify the results presented below. All names re- nymity of the medium. Sally, a MTF transsex- ported in the results section are pseudonyms. ual who lived full-time as a woman, described how posting pictures of herself in online forums Results and the resulting comments she received allowed her to determine if other people “saw” Participant responses suggested that trans- her as a woman. gender individuals utilize messages about gen- I was on, not dating lines, but like websites for trans- der and sexuality from both traditional media genders. There are all these types of things that are not and emerging media technologies to make sense necessarily sexual or perverted but to put yourself and of their own identities. Broadly, the data re- your profile out. I had 2,200 messages since last sum- vealed multiple ways in which media facilitate mer...Every time I got an e-mail I’d make a little checkmark because I really wanted to see how the the sensemaking processes of transgender indi- world sees me, how I see me, is this real? Because I do viduals. Participants used media to make sense not want to become a woman so I can flaunt like Paris of their experiences, to empower meaningful [Hilton], but by the same token I want to know that if actions implicative of sensemaking processes, I am a woman I would like to be accepted that way. and to create shared meaning in the interview For Sally, posting pictures of herself on the This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. process. Results will focus on how transgender Internet was perceived as a safe way to validate This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individualindividuals user and is not to be disseminated broadly. use media to make sense of their her gender expression. Sally used the Internet to experiences and how transgender individuals’ put herself on display, an act of vulnerability for media use constitutes a meaningful, communi- anyone regardless of gender identity, so that she cative action. Although the creation of shared could feel legitimized in a way that would likely meaning in the interview process was not within be difficult in an offline context. the realm of the research question, that partici- A number of participants recalled using pants used media references to help the inter- books to make sense of their gender identity viewer make sense of the transgender experi- growing up. Christian, a postoperative FTM ence and to create shared meaning in the transsexual who identified as a man, noted that interview context is compelling. print media filled a void during his adolescence. 280 KOSENKO, BOND, AND HURLEY

“When I grew up, I mean, in the 80s, no one body. She commented, “I went looking for In- knew about this that much, and I had to go to ternet forums and stuff. Forums are anonymous. the library to find out what I was myself. No one And, I got advice on how to achieve sexual knew in the 80s.” Logan, a postoperative FTM satisfaction considering the different kinds of transsexual, also used books to make sense of genitalia and such.” A young MTF transgender his feelings: individual named Bonnie relied on social media for ideas about sexual stimulation and fulfill- Lou Sullivan wrote a book called Crossdressing for the FTM/Transvestite. In the very beginning one of the ment in the transgender body. She reported things he said was, “You have what you have and what searching the term “transition” and finding you have may be all you have, so you best learn to YouTube videos created by transgender youth enjoy what you have.” That was the beginning of my across the country who described in vivid detail own education, my own acceptance. how hormones and surgeries were affecting Logan initially experienced confusion and their bodies and sex lives. Transgender partici- despair over his gender identity; print media pants generally reported that books and various helped him understand his feelings and accept Internet sites, such as YouTube, were important his gender identity. Participants utilized media resources for making sense of the mechanics of to make sense of and explore their gender iden- sex in a transgender body. tities and how others could interpret their ex- Sense of community. In addition to using pressions of gender. media to make sense of their identities and Mechanics of sex. Whereas some partici- sexual experiences, transgender individuals pants used media to experiment with and better used media to construct community. Transgen- understand gender identities, others used media der individuals read books and viewed Internet to understand the mechanics of sexual activity sites to determine important characteristics of with gender-variant bodies. Physical transfor- the transgender community, such as its breadth, mations (e.g., breast development, hair growth, depth, and common language. For example, changes in sensation in sex organs), hormone participants were able to create a sense of com- therapy, and surgical interventions (e.g., breast munity by identifying the features of trans com- implants, medically constructed sex organs) can munity membership. Cory, an androgynous in- be in various stages of development and inter- dividual, expressed some initial confusion about whether androgyny was covered by the trans- vention throughout the lives of transgender in- gender umbrella. Cory subsequently consulted dividuals (Kenagy & Hsieh, 2005). For exam- books and the Internet to develop a sense of ple, an FTM transsexual may be able to afford in-group status with the transgender commu- hormone therapy to facilitate hair growth but nity. unable to afford a mastectomy. Participants used media to make sense of the implications of I’m not real mixed up about it anymore ‘cause I’ve physical transformations for their identities and done a lot of reading on this stuff. And, I’ve met a lot of people in the community that are either way out or to better understand sex in the transgender in the middle of the road...Idonotreally fit...I’ve body. Pearl, a MTF transsexual, consulted looked it up online. You know, and the reading I’ve books to understand the male sexual experience, done is...there’s more than one kind of transgender. particularly in relation to the male’s experience Cory used media to determine if he belonged with condoms. When her current partner re-

This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. in the transgender community and found that fused to wear condoms, she tried to make sense

This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. “there’s more than one kind of transgender.” out of the situation. “For him, it—I don’t Daniel, who identiﬁed as FTM, turned to the know—they’ve got a million arguments. I’ve Internet to help him understand the language read about them. I don’t know all of them, but used by trans community members. He re- I know some of it has to do with sensation. I marked, looked it up.” Although Pearl was born into a male body and had lived most of her life with a I used to have a hard time with “queer.” I grew up in penis, she turned to media to understand the an age where that was a really derogatory term, but now it’s okay. I had to read a lot, a lot of websites, to male sexual experience. Lindsey, a midtransi- understand why. We’ve reclaimed it because LGBT tion MTF individual, turned to the Internet to doesn’t always include everyone. Queer encompasses understand transgender sex and her changing a lot more. TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUALS & MEDIA 281

Books and the Internet allowed transgender those actions. The following section describes individuals to create a sense of community by how transgender individuals interpret an action identifying criteria for community membership as an instance of “media use.” When questioned and the language shared by the members within about the role of media in their lives, transgen- the transgender culture. der participants reported numerous instances of Transition options. Participants used media use. Their narratives had two common books and the Internet to make sense of their characteristics: media use was instrumental and options for transition, including different sur- negotiated. geries for sexual reassignment. Transgender in- Instrumental action. Participants de- dividuals reported a wide range of negative scribed numerous times in their lives when they experiences with health care and, as a result, had used media to reach specific goals related to were dependent on media to help them under- their gender identity development. In all of stand their transition options. Christine looked these cases, media use served an instrumental online for help determining her options for fem- goal. Participants described four instrumental inizing her body. uses of media: to meet sex partners, to aid in The Internet is a wonderful thing! It let me do a little their transition, to facilitate conversations with research. There are a lot of people who have, who have relational partners, and to supplant face-to-face done this, and they’ve posted the things that are good conversation. and bad, the things that have happened to them. And Participants provided several examples of us- they always name the doctors. At first, I thought I only wanted to do an oophorectomy. And after reading a lot ing the Internet to meet sex partners, which is a about that and finding out its cost, I decided against decidedly instrumental goal. Alyssa, a MTF that, to use other medical means to stop the testoster- transsexual involved in sex work, met her cus- one. And all the reading, that helped me look at the tomers online and used various Internet sites to different doctors and the things that they did. advertise her services. Cooper, a MTF transsexual living with HIV, I do this kind of work through the Internet. Like, I post used books and the Internet to determine how ads on certain websites and they respond. They call me his transition options might be affected by his or e-mail me. I ask them to tell me about themselves HIV status. and describe themselves. I try and make them send me a picture. A lot of them actually do send me pictures I’d tell people to keep theyselves [sic] healthy ‘cause because they can see my pictures on the site, which you do not know. You might get stuck that way. Stuck was a hard decision because I didn’t...It’s like once in the wrong gender ‘cause you sick. I’ve been trying you do it, you’ve done it. But, you know, it’s like if I to find, using the Internet, going, “Can I get surgery? want to make money this way, then I have to. Even with my HIV?” Making money and meeting customers were Nearly all participants with an interest in two instrumental goals that Alyssa had for the transitioning (i.e., not those who identified as medium, which influenced how she interacted cross-dressers or sought to transcend the gender with and interpreted the Web. Alyssa realized binary) made similar comments on the utility of that her efforts to advertise her services might media for making sense of their options for gain more of an audience than she would like. transitioning. Regardless of their interest in the Pam, a MTF transsexual, also brought up sex transition process, transgender individuals used work when asked about her media use. “When I media to make sense of their experiences, in- lived in the city, I used to escort a lot on the This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. cluding their gender expression, the mechanics Internet and, you know, just prostitute. That was This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. of transgender sex, the transgender community, my means.” Although Alyssa and Pam both and transition options. used the Internet in their sex work, most transgender individuals who spoke about seeking Media Use as Meaningful Action sexual partners online were driven by desire rather than money. Participant responses dem- A constructivist approach warrants an exam- onstrated their reliance on media to purpose- ination of meaningful, communicative action. fully seek out sexual partners and enact their In the context of uses and gratifications, that sexual identities. means uncovering what participants “count” as Transgender individuals also purposefully instances of media use and their evaluations of used media in their transition. Participants re- 282 KOSENKO, BOND, AND HURLEY

ported that various media, including voice FTM. One was 21, and one was 16. And it had the tapes/DVDs and websites with tips on passing, mother of the FTM and it was very well done and it was so well done...Imean it was so well done that helped shape their gender presentation. Bonnie it was really nice. During the commercials, you could remarked, “I have a voice DVD that I don’t have these little conversations and stuff like that. And practice nearly enough with,” and Robert, a it was very helpful to my mother for her to see these FTM transsexual who was considering whether things and relate to me. I think we made a lot of ground or not he was done with surgery, commented, yesterday. “I’ve read a bunch of tips and things like that for Serena, a MTF transsexual who considered my voice.” Crystal, a postoperative MTF, also herself done with her transition, also recalled specifically mentioned the utility of media for using media as a child to start conversations help with passing. with her mother about transgender identity. I do not probably pass as well as some people, and it’s I’m always thinking about the 60s because I love the cost me in terms of jobs and things like that. So, as far 60s. Because that was when the media introduced me as working on things like that, I did buy a tape, like a to Cat Woman because, as you can see, I’m a Cat computer set-up to do voice and whatnot because I Woman fan. And, Diana Ross and all of that. I was just know that I could change my inflections if I really so into Diana Ross ‘cause I used to wear the wigs and wanted to. I know I could be more breathy. I know I everything and stuff like that. And, I remember my could take some of the chest resonance out. mother was like, you know, “Why are you wearing all Unlike Sally who used dating sites to help these wigs, you know, cause you know that you have beautiful hair?”...Ijust wanted so much to be like validate her gender presentation cognitively, Diana Ross. I pointed to the TV and said, “I want to participants like Bonnie, Robert, and Crystal all look like her.” sought out media messages to help them with skills that could help perfect their gender pre- Even at a young age, Serena knew that media sentation. could be used to stimulate talk and create shared Another purposeful use of media by trans- meaning in conversation. gender participants entailed using media to fa- Though some participants purposefully used cilitate identity-related conversations with rela- media to facilitate interpersonal engagement, tional partners. Participants selected media to others utilized media to avoid face-to-face con- use when broaching the topic of their transgen- versations. Participants’ selection of media over der identities with family members. Mark, who interpersonal channels of communication were self-identified as a cross-dresser, used a maga- reasoned decisions and not simply part and par- zine article with pictures of him participating in cel of media selection as is implied by the a local singing contest for members of the gay, functional alternatives assumption of the uses lesbian, bisexual, and transgender community and gratifications paradigm (Rubin, 2002). In to start a conversation about his cross-dressing other words, avoiding interpersonal conversa- with his nieces and nephews. tion was not the inevitable result of selecting media channels, but, instead, media channels I have my picture in a couple magazines where I’m dressed up. As a matter of fact, I, every year, they have were purposefully selected to avoid the inter- this competition. And I showed them pictures of that personal alternatives. Charles, an FTM trans- and said, “Here I am.” And, one of my nieces, she said, sexual midtransition, strategically used ads on “Mommy, Uncle Mark looks so much like you!” But Craigslist and other online sites to avoid face- she said, “You really shouldn’t wear a short skirt; you to-face negotiation of safer sex. He argued, “I This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. do not have the legs for it.” pretty much only find partners over Craigslist This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is notMark to be disseminated broadly. intentionally selected a magazine con- because, you know, you can be explicit and taining pictures of him to bring to Thanksgiving clear and upfront...There’s usually like an ad and serve as a talking point with family. Jessica, that says like ‘safe play only’ or whatever.” a midtransition MTF transsexual, showed her Jacob, an FTM who was midtransition, also mother an episode of The Oprah Winfrey Show used media to avoid face-to-face sexual negoti- featuring transgender panelists to facilitate con- ation and to serve identity goals. versations about gender identity. For me, safe sex means you’ll wear a condom during You know what’s amazing was Oprah had a show on these activities, and, if you put that in your ad or you yesterday at 4:00 PM that was tremendously helpful. It put that in your response to somebody, then you do not was about, it had two teenage kids, one MTF and one get to the point where you’re face to face with them TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUALS & MEDIA 283

and do not know how to approach the idea of a con- the computer. What they found amplified his dom. You put it—it’s out there, and then they do not partner’s concerns about the implications of the respond back to you. Nothing’s been lost. Then you go on to the next ad or whatever, but you haven’t had to transition for their relationship. The discrepancy do any kind of weird confrontation with them. between the gratifications sought and obtained required negotiation during media use and for Use of media to avoid face-to-face conversa- some time after. The process of negotiating tion also involved disclosure of one’s transgen- concerns through media use was a recurrent der identity in online profiles and ads. Peter, an feature of their relationship. FTM individual still considering genital surgery Richard, an FTM, also provided an example to complete his physical transition, tried to meet of communal, processual media use. He and his dating and sex partners online where he could partner negotiated important conversations for get out of having to disclose his identity face- their relationship through the use of a book for to-face. Doing so avoided any opportunity for lesbian couples. Richard noted that the book face-to-face rejection: “I don’t know; it’s just brought him and his partner together and al- sort of an easy way to meet a lot of people lowed them the opportunity to negotiate how quickly and weed out people who might freak in transitioning would influence their relationship. that initial conversation.” Charles, Jacob, and There’s a book called Feathering Your Nest, and it’s a Peter all chose to use media as a means for fantastic book for couples...It’s like 12 chapters or communicating necessary information to poten- something. So every week we completed a chapter tial dating and sex partners without having to together. There was a chapter on sex, and Felicia disclose that information face-to-face. In sum- wanted to delve a little bit deeper into the subject than what was initiated in the book...andsowedidthat mary, participants purposefully selected media and then we came together and then we discussed it. in order to meet sex partners, to perfect their gender presentation, to facilitate conversations, Like Silas, Richard described deciding on the and to avoid face-to-face conversation. These couple’s needs ahead of time, selecting media to instrumental goals for media use suggest that meet those needs, and negotiating the use of transgender individuals engage with media as media over time. Other participants echoed purposeful and instrumental action. these sentiments, describing times when they Negotiated action. Transgender individu- sought out specific media with parents, chil- als also used media messages to negotiate rela- dren, and therapists. For transgender partici- tionships. Silas, an FTM in the midst of transi- pants, media use was interpersonal. tion, described how he and his partner used media to gain a better understanding of the Discussion implications of the gender transition for their previously lesbian relationship. The purpose of this study was to examine the role of media in the identity development of We had another conversation about our concerns and transgender individuals through the lens of the then went to the computer. I was showing her photos of before and after top surgeries. And, she freaked out. I uses and gratifications perspective. The con- think it became like very real to her, right then, you structivist approach to data collection and anal- know. And, she kind of freaked out and was like, “I do ysis used in the present study revealed that not know what to say to you right now because I like transgender individuals used media messages girls.” You know, and I said, “Well, that’s ok and for sensemaking. Transgender participants used This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. everything, but what does all this mean for us or media to make sense of their gender expression, This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to bewhatever?” disseminated broadly. And, so, it’s been this, it’s been this, I guess, lengthy, you know, I’ll present something to sexual opportunities, community, and transition her. We’ll look it up online. At first, she might, she options. Careful attention to what participants might freak out a little bit. But, then, after she has time “counted” as an instance of media use revealed to process, she’s like, “Ok. I can handle that. I’m with that transgender individuals’ experiences with you on that. I’m behind you.” So that’s kind of the way it’s been going with us so far. media were also related to instrumental and negotiated action. Silas’s description of his course of the Inter- A careful read of the participants’ narra- net with his partner is compelling for several tives illustrates the importance of print media reasons. First, he noted that they spoke about and the Internet for sensemaking. Participants their concerns and then took those concerns to often mentioned books and the Internet as 284 KOSENKO, BOND, AND HURLEY

vital sources of information about gender ex- and in film, suggesting the need for a fol- pression and community; the Internet was the low-up study focused on community mem- primary medium cited by participants for bers’ responses to these depictions. For ex- making sense of sex and transition options. ample, the hit series Glee would feature two The importance of print media and the Inter- transgender characters in its final season net parallels previous studies investigating whose storylines exemplified both the dis- media use among transgender individuals crimination and assault faced by many trans- (Marciano, 2014; McInroy & Craig, 2015; gender individuals as well as positive aspects Ringo, 2002; Shelley, 2008). The video- of their friendships and romantic relationships sharing website YouTube was specifically (Sandercock, 2015). Once lauded as “the referenced by several participants as having world’s greatest athlete,” Caitlyn Jenner pub- utility for sensemaking by providing visual licly expressed her gender dysphoria to Diane representations of like-others talking about Sawyer in an interview for the TV news pro- their transgender experiences. The salience of gram 20/20. Caitlyn Jenner would subse- emerging media platforms (e.g., YouTube) quently star in her own reality TV series. The among participants in the present study rein- cable network TLC would simultaneously air forces previous critical research arguing that I am Jazz, a reality TV program about a MTF social media provide safe places to negotiate transgender adolescent and her family. Netflix transgender identity and build supportive would include MTF transgender characters in community (O’Neill, 2014; Raun, 2010). their hit shows Orange is the New Black and Print media and the Internet share one char- Sense8, and Jeffrey Tambor would receive acteristic that may explain their utility for trans- critical acclaim for his performance as a MTF gender audiences seeking information to help transgender individual in Amazon’s series them make sense of their identities: the active Transparent. Writing about the dynamics of nature of the audience. Unlike radio or TV, for Transparent, Astudillo (2015) noted, “Trans- example, one must actively and consciously se- parent promises to be transformative...[it] lect books to read or Internet sites to view. The could provide greater mainstream understand- specialized nature of content in books and web- ing of a community that has had to live for far sites increases the plausibility that individuals too long in the margins, and for which the struggling to understand their gender identities fight for full acceptance has only just started” would turn to these channels of mass commu- (p. e16). The relative explosion of transgen- nication to acquire the desired information they der characters in recent years suggests a seek. changing TV landscape that must be the sub- TV was perceived as less influential for trans- ject of future research on how transgender gender individuals trying to understand and individuals use media messages during iden- make sense of their gender identities. Although tity development. transgender visibility on TV has increased in the Beyond providing initial insight into the past decade, researchers have concluded that utility of media messages during identity de- depictions of transgender individuals are sensa- velopment among transgender individuals, tionalized and negative (Davis, 2009; Shelley, the results also suggest valuable extensions to 2008). It is not uncommon for mainstream me- uses and gratifications and reveal opportuni- dia to depict transgender individuals as men- ties for future collaboration between interper- This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. tally ill, sex workers, criminals, or comic relief sonal and mass communication scholars. The This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. (Davis, 2009; Shelley, 2008). Thus, the dispar- results problematize some of the most basic ities in medium selection are unsurprising. TV assumptions of the uses and gratifications per- was not cited as a primary resource for trans- spective. First, uses and gratifications as- gender individuals because televised messages sumes that media selection has consequences about gender might have done little to gratify for functional alternatives, such as interper- their sensemaking needs. However, TV has very sonal resources, and that media compete with recently welcomed the transgender movement these functional alternatives for individuals’ with open arms. time and attention (Chaffee, 1986; Rubin, Data for this study were collected prior to 2002). Participants in this study characterized the recent rise in transgender visibility on TV media use as interpersonal and, thus, pointed TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUALS & MEDIA 285

to a potentially false dichotomy in the logic of goals sought and obtained by the individual; uses and gratifications. Communal uses of however, transgender participants negotiated media, as described by both Richard and Si- uses and gratifications of media within their las, necessitated discussion and negotiation, interpersonal relationships. For example, a making it difficult to divorce interpersonal MTF transsexual participant intentionally from mass communication processes. The sought out an episode of The Oprah Winfrey functional alternative assumption of uses and Show about transgender issues to watch with gratifications is useful for those interested in her mother to help stimulate discussion of a selective exposure and/or media dependency, sensitive topic. The participant’s goals for, but its current conceptualization in the uses experiences with, and gratifications obtained and gratifications model perpetuates the bifur- from the episode were negotiated with her cation of interpersonal and mass communica- mother. Uses and gratifications allows for the tion scholarship and may limit the predictive influence of structural and individual differ- or explanatory power of the uses and gratifi- ence variables on media use (Rosengren, cations framework. Conceiving of media se- 1974), but it does not explicate influences of lection as a choice among options for need specific relational partners on media use mo- gratification is useful; however, pitting inter- tives and behaviors. The influences of specific personal and media resources against each relational partners throughout the media use other as “alternatives” is not. Future applica- process should be considered in future appli- tions of uses and gratifications would be wise cations of the uses and gratifications perspec- to avoid this narrow conceptualization of the tive and dyadic or group uses and gratifica- interpersonal/media channel relationship. tions should be explored. Results of the present study also emphasize The present study also has important impli- the processual nature of media use, calling into cations for work at the nexus of interpersonal question the emphasis in uses and gratifications and mass communication research. Swanson research on pre-, during, and postexposure pe- (1977) criticized uses and gratifications re- riods. The characterization of media exposure search for inattention to the “perceptual activity and effects as segmented implies that audi- of interpreting or creating meaning for mes- ences’ needs are formulated preexposure and sages” (p. 220). Messages and processes of per- subsequently drive exposure to a particular me- ception lie at the heart of human communication dium and its message. Gratifications, then, are research, making this an obvious site for collab- determined postexposure. Transgender inter- oration between researchers who have thought viewees in the present study experienced media of themselves as strictly interpersonal scholars or use as an iterative process in which goals, media media scholars. Accounting for the influence of use behavior, and gratifications were continu- relational partners and explaining and describing ously negotiated. For example, both Richard dyadic or group uses and gratifications will neces- and Silas described turning to specific media for sitate the construction of even more bridges be- particular reasons, only to find that those media tween interpersonal and mass communication created new needs, which set in motion addi- scholarship. tional attempts at need gratification. In other This study is not without limitations. First, words, goals were not only formed preexposure the sample was predominately white and con- and gratifications sought were not only evalu- sisted of mostly “out” transgender community This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ated postexposure. Subsequent applications of members. Those who conceal their gender This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. uses and gratifications should move beyond identity and transgender individuals of vari- looking at media use in a linear manner and ous racial minority groups may have different instead should consider the potential reciprocal experiences with media not identified in this influences of variables in the uses and gratifi- study. In addition, members of both sexual cations model. and racial minority groups may face structural The communal use of media uncovered in barriers to media use not experienced by the current study also lies in sharp contrast to members of this sample. Although efforts the individualistic perspective adopted in uses were made to recruit individuals from across and gratifications research. Work in the uses the country, those in the northeastern United and gratifications tradition focuses on the States were underrepresented in the sample; 286 KOSENKO, BOND, AND HURLEY

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