An Exploration Into the Uses and Gratifications of Media For

Psychology of Popular Media Culture © 2016 American Psychological Association 2018, Vol. 7, No. 3, 274–288 2160-4134/18/$12.00 http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000135 An Exploration Into the Uses and Gratifications of Media for Transgender Individuals Kami A. Kosenko Bradley J. Bond North Carolina State University University of San Diego Ryan J. Hurley North Carolina State University Transgender individuals, those whose gender presentation diverges from their biological sex, encounter unique obstacles to identity development and socialization. The present study examines how transgender individuals use both traditional and emerging media to better understand their own gender identities and their social worlds. A constructivist approach to the uses and gratifications perspective motivated interview questions about the role of media in the lives of transgender individuals. Forty-one transgender individuals participated in semistructured interviews. Results suggested media were instrumental for sensemaking. Participants used media to make sense of feelings, sexual relations, community, and transition options. Participants also used media to meet nonmediated goals or to initiate interpersonal negotiations. The potential impact of media on transgender audiences and the limitations of the uses and gratifications perspective are discussed in light of the findings. Keywords: identity, media, sensemaking, transgender, uses and gratifications Until recently, identity development was con- (Bockting & Coleman, 2007). The term trans- sidered an adolescent phenomenon; however, a gender is most commonly associated with indi- burgeoning body of literature has begun to ex- viduals who aim to transcend the gender binary amine the developmental processes of adults, or to live as members of the other sex (Whit- particularly those who experience profound lock, 1996), though transgender also subsumes changes in their personal and social identities many gender-variant identities such as transsex- (Anthis & Lavoie, 2006). One population that uals, cross-dressers, genderqueer individuals, often experiences momentous identity altera- and gender nonconformists (Lombardi, 2001). tions during adulthood is the transgender com- Members of the transgender community who use munity. Although transgender individuals might medical interventions to facilitate the gender tran- question their assigned gender from an early sition are commonly referred to as transsexuals age, social stigma, shame, and familial pressure and are classified according to two gender vectors: often push key developmental tasks, such as male-to-female (MTF) or female-to-male (FTM; “coming out” as transgender, into later life Kenagy & Hsieh, 2005). According to the Diagnostic and Statistical This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. (DSM-5), individuals with intense and persis- This article was published Online First June 30, 2016. tent discomfort over their assigned gender and Kami A. Kosenko, Department of Communication, North who strongly identify with the other gender are Carolina State University; Bradley J. Bond, Department of considered gender dysphoric (American Psychi- Communication Studies, University of San Diego; Ryan J. Hurley, Department of Communication, North Carolina atric Association, 2013). The nonconformity State University. that is characteristic of gender dysphoria is itself Correspondence concerning this article should be ad- not considered a mental illness; rather, the con- dressed to Kami A. Kosenko, Department of Communica- siderable distress associated with identifying as tion, North Carolina State University, 201 Winston Hall, Campus Box 8104, Raleigh, NC 27695. E-mail: transgender warrants the inclusion of gender [email protected] dysphoria in the DSM-5. The inclusion of gen- 274 TRANSGENDER INDIVIDUALS & MEDIA 275 der dysphoria in the DSM-5 sheds light on the cence and adulthood, Bussey and Bandura complexities inherent to developing a transgen- (1999) developed their own model of gender der identity in a world that is still largely trans- identity development based on Bandura’s so- gender adverse and, in turn, suggests that schol- cial–cognitive theory. The social–cognitive ars continue to investigate social influences on theory of gender development and differentia- transgender individuals in an attempt to allevi- tion posits that biological dictates and social ate the distress associated with gender-noncon- imperatives are key catalysts in the develop- formity. Media are one potential social influ- mental process. Gender-related cognitions and ence worthy of consideration. behaviors are thought to result from the recip- The role of media in the lives of transgender rocal influence of biology (e.g., genes, hor- individuals, particularly during their identity de- mones, and secondary sex characteristics) and velopment, has received scant attention from social factors (e.g., family and broader social scholars in communication, psychology, and al- systems). The model does not give equal weight lied disciplines. The objective of the present to both factors. For example, in situations in study is to highlight the utility of the uses and which social roles are strict and unwavering, gratifications perspective in understanding biological factors will have a greater influence. transgender individuals’ media consumption When biology is being altered, as is the case and the influence of media messages on the when transsexuals initiate hormone therapy or development of transgender individuals’ gender gender nonconformists mask their secondary identities. To meet this objective, the literatures sex characteristics, social factors have more on transgender identity development and the weight. Thus, it is important to understand the uses and gratifications perspective are detailed social environment of transgender individuals if before reporting the findings of qualitative in- one is to dissect the transgender identity devel- terviews with transgender individuals about opment process. their gender identities and their media habits. Transgender individuals often experience gender-based harassment, endure employment Transgender Identity Development and education discrimination, and are often vic- tims of violence (Lombardi, Wilchins, Priesing, Scholars have relied heavily on existing mod- & Malouf, 2001). Those who experience trans- els of gay, lesbian, and bisexual identity devel- phobic discrimination are more likely to engage opment when attempting to explicate the iden- in high-risk behaviors, attempt suicide, and re- tity development processes of transgender sort to living and working on the streets (Bock- individuals (Diamond, Pardo, & Butterworth, ting, Robinson, & Rosser, 1998; Miller & Groll- 2011). These efforts are complicated by the fact man, 2015). Fortunately, support from families, that gay, lesbian, and bisexual represent sexual schools, and communities offer transgender in- identities whereas transgender is an identity at- dividuals some protection against the negative tribute related to one’s gender, not sexual ori- effects of transphobia (Minter, 2013); unfortu- entation (Gagné, Tewksbury, & McGaughey, nately, many transgender individuals experi- 1997). As such, existing transgender identity ence social rejection and isolation from the very development models have been heavily cri- interpersonal resources that would otherwise tiqued, and no generally accepted model exists buffer the negative consequences of harassment (Pleak, 2009). and discrimination. The National Transgender This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. Transgender identity development models Discrimination Study reported that 57% of This article is intended solely for the personal use of the individual user and is not to be disseminated broadly. are lacking, but the existing theory and research transgender individuals had been rejected by on gender identity development more generally their families of origin, and 78% of those who can inform a study of this kind. Psychologist had expressed their transgender identity in pri- Lawrence Kohlberg (1966) was among the first mary or secondary school had been bullied and to propose a model of gender identity develop- harassed by peers and teachers. For 15% of ment, but his stage-based model has been crit- these individuals, the bullying was so severe icized for assuming that this process begins and and pervasive that they dropped out of school ends in childhood. Recognizing the limitations (Grant et al., 2011). The stigma and isolation of Kohlberg’s model and the important devel- experienced by many transgender individuals is opmental changes that occur during adoles- troubling given the importance of social sys- 276 KOSENKO, BOND, AND HURLEY tems like families and schools in the gender The Uses and Gratifications Perspective identity development process. Although like- minded peers might help fill a gap created by The uses and gratifications perspective at- unsupportive families or schools (Bariola et al., tempts to explain what attracts the individual to 2015), many transgender individuals describe specific types of media and how media content difficulties accessing peer support (Shapiro, can fulfill personal needs (Rubin, 2002), mak- 2010). ing it an ideal framework for a study of

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