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'The Last of the Earth's Frontiers': Sealab, the Aquanaut, and the US

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'The Last of the Earth's Frontiers': Sealab, the Aquanaut, and the US ‘The Last of the earth’s frontiers’: Sealab, the Aquanaut, and the US Navy’s battle against the sub-marine Rachael Squire Department of Geography Royal Holloway, University of London Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of PhD, University of London, 2017 Declaration of Authorship I, Rachael Squire, hereby declare that this thesis and the work presented in it is entirely my own. Where I have consulted the work of others, this is always clearly stated. Signed: ___Rachael Squire_______ Date: __________9.5.17________ 2 Contents Declaration…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 2 Abstract……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 5 Acknowledgements …………………………………………………………………………………………… 6 List of figures……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 8 List of abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………………………… 12 Preface: Charting a course: From the Bay of Gibraltar to La Jolla Submarine Canyon……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 13 The Sealab Prayer………………………………………………………………………………………………. 18 Chapter 1: Introducing Sealab …………………………………………………………………………… 19 1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………….... 20 1.1 Empirical and conceptual opportunities ……………………....................... 24 1.2 Thesis overview………………………………………………………………………………. 30 1.3 People and projects: a glossary of the key actors in Sealab……………… 33 Chapter 2: Geography in and on the sea: towards an elemental geopolitics of the sub-marine …………………………………………………………………………………………………. 39 2.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………. 40 2.1 The sea in geography………………………………………………………………………. 41 2.2 Depth, bodies, and submarine life…………………………………………………… 50 2.2.1 Bringing depth to volume…………………………………………………………….. 50 2.2.2 The body in geopolitics…………………………………………………………………. 61 2.2.3 Nonhuman bodies………………………………………………………………………… 66 2.3 An elemental geopolitics of undersea space……………………………………. 68 Chapter 3: ‘Do you dive?’: Immersive and embodied research in political geography…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 77 3.0 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………. 78 3.1 ‘Do you dive?’…………………………………………………………………………………. 81 3.1.1 Autophenomenology……………………………………………………………………. 85 3.1.2 Immersive research ……………………………………………………………………… 88 3.2 ‘Never trust a diver’? The body, intersectionality, and the interview. 95 3.2.1 ‘That’s diver’s for you’: gender politics in the field………………………. 98 3.2.2 Memory, vulnerability and shifting positionalities………………………… 102 3.3 Locating the body in the archives……………………………………………………. 105 3.3.1 Negotiating the formal and informal archive………………………………… 106 3.4 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………… 116 3 Chapter 4: Homesteading the Underwater Frontier……………………………………………. 119 4.0 Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………. 120 4.1 Frontiering……………………………………………………………………………………….. 121 4.1.1 Cold War frontiers………………………………………………………………………… 124 4.2 A transcendental seafloor destiny: the geographical imagination of George Bond…………………………………………………………………………………….. 131 4.3 Masculinities and gender…………………………………………………………………. 135 4.4 ‘A curtain of silt’ and a plastic rug: managing the elemental……………. 139 4.5 Dressing gowns and dishwashing: Domesticating the extreme………… 151 4.6 Going Native: Feeling too at home on the seafloor………………………….. 161 4.7 Conclusions: Dwelling in and on the extreme………………………………….. 170 Chapter 5: Sub-marine pressures and elemental entanglements: Airs, volumes, and bodies………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 175 5.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………… 176 5.1 The chamber: encapsulating sub-marine pressures………………………… 177 5.1.1 Decompressing from Sealab…………………………………………………………. 187 5.2 ‘Think Helium!’: Monitoring, mixing, and containing……………………….. 193 5.1.1 Engineering the right atmosphere…………………………………………………. 193 5.2.2 ‘A non-relational coolness’? ............................................................. 200 5.3 ‘Intestinal fortitude’: Finding the right kind of man………………………….. 213 5.4 ‘Red blooded masculinity’………………………………………………………………… 222 5.5 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………… 235 Chapter 6: From porpoises to plankton: Animals, the Cold War, and sub-marine geopolitics…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 239 6.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….. 240 6.1 Project Arion: Dolphins, the US Navy and the ideology of domestication…………………………………………………………………………………. 243 6.2 Domination and the non-human cyborg………………………………………….. 258 6.3 Observing, managing, and negotiating…………………………………………….. 263 6.3.1 Fish……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 263 6.4. The unwanted colonisers: Urchins and plankton…………………………….. 274 6.5 Conclusions……………………………………………………………………………………… 281 Chapter 7: Conclusion: Towards Extreme Geographies………………………………………. 285 7.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………….. 286 7.1 The Cold War Hero…………………………………………………………………………… 287 7.2 Territory, terrain, and elemental architectures………………………………… 290 7.3 Immersive methodologies……………………………………………………………… 294 7.4 Toward ‘Extreme Geographies’………………………………………………………… 297 7.4.1 Future extremes: climate and exploration…………………………………….. 299 7.4.2 Understanding the extreme through the analogue……………………….. 303 Bibliography………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 306 Annex 1: List of interviews and archive sources………………………………………………….. 338 4 5 Abstract From 1957-1969, at the height of the Cold War, the US Navy in conjunction with the Office of Naval Research conducted a series of pioneering experiments designed to enable ‘man’ to live and work for extended periods of time beneath the sea. Led by Capt. Dr George Bond, the projects (Project Genesis, Sealab I, Sealab II, and Sealab III) involved sending teams of divers, or ‘aquanauts’ as they were known, to live in hyperbaric chambers and undersea habitats positioned at various depths for days and weeks at a time. Whilst the gaze of publics and scholars were often pointed to Outer Space, we see here an extraordinary demonstration of a Cold War belief that humans should not be constrained by their terrestrial roots. This thesis engages with this set of case studies to make a number of interventions in geographical scholarship. The first attends to literature on the intersections of science, the military, and technology during the Cold War, arguing that novel insights can be produced into this complex at the bottom of the sea. The second deals with questions surrounding temporality, embodiment, technology, and volume in relation to the constructs of territory, terrain, and the elemental. In the third instance it draws on literature from cultural geography, anthropology, and sociology to argue for geopolitical practices that are more open to experimentation and playfulness. Finally, the thesis concludes by offering the framework of ‘extreme geographies’ as a means of furthering engagements with ‘hostile’ spaces within the field of political geography scholarship and beyond. 5 Acknowledgements Firstly, thank you to the ESRC for providing the financial support via a 1+3 scholarship that made this project possible. My sincere thanks go to all those who so generously gave me their time, expertise, and resources during my fieldwork– I wouldn’t have a PhD without your help. A special thanks to Mike Zinszer, Heather Nowak (and the team at the Man in the Sea Museum), the crew of the Aquarius Reef Base, Dr Sam Ridgway, John Clarke, Peter Bruggeman, and Kevin Hardy - your love of the underwater world and of Sealab was completely contagious. I have now been in the Geography Department at Royal Holloway for over 8 years. It has been a fantastic time and I count myself very fortunate to have been a student here, and even more so to now be a lecturer. I was hooked on Geography after David Gilbert’s ‘Earth Rise’ lecture in year one and the department has been tirelessly supportive since. A huge thank you to all the staff (and colleagues!) who have been part of this process – it has been, and continues to be, a real pleasure to be here. A special thank you to Rikke Jensen and Sofie Narbed for your friendship and support and to the brilliant PhD community in EMU – Jen, Paul, Jacob, Rhys, Rachel, Lizzie, and Pete Gadson - for creating a great working environment. Dr Dan Webb. Aside from the tennis balls thrown sporadically at the back of my head, the PhD process was a richer one for your friendship, guidance, and office badminton – thanks for showing me the ropes and reminding me of what’s important. Outside of the department a number of people have also been extremely supportive – thanks here in particular to Kim Peters, Alex Jefferies, and Emma Spence. I have some wonderful friends outside of academia who have helped me along the way; Thanks to Santosh Stride (and Derek Stride for introducing me to Jacques Cousteau’s ‘The Silent World’), Lauren (my long suffering housemate and friend), Tiffany, Andy, Tim, Vik, Ethan, and Finn Lovell, and the wonderful Da Costa Rokisons – your words of encouragement were always very gratefully received (along with the dinners and great company)! Thank you also to my friends at Ascot Day centre. Spending time with you was 6 one of the highlights of my PhD and always gave me healthy doses of laughter and perspective in equal measure. I owe sincere thanks and gratitude to my two supervisors, Klaus Dodds and Alasdair Pinkerton. I am indebted to you for your patience, encouragement, time, and faith in my ability. You have gone above and beyond and it’s wonderful to now work with you as colleagues. Thank you also to my advisor, Veronica Della Dora for engaging with my PhD – your comments were extremely valuable.
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