Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering B 4 (2015) 661-676 doi:10.17265/2162-5263/2015.12.006 D DAVID PUBLISHING

An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern

Pastory Magayane Bushozi Department of Archaeology and Heritage, University of Dar Es Salaam, Dar Es Salaam, Tanzania

Abstract: This paper assesses the manner in which a local community has been incorporated into the management and utilization of cultural heritage resources in the basin, northern Tanzania, in order to reduce poverty. One of the most important programs used to encourage rural developments is the outlay of cultural tourism. Lake Eyasi region is one of the few regions in Tanzania with brilliant cultural heritage resources including archaeological sites and distinctive indigenous cultural traits that cannot be seen in other places across Eastern Africa. Archaeological records of this region exhibit the earliest evidence for hominin morphological change from archaic to modern humans. It is also coherent key development traits including complex lithic technologies and artistic imaginations as it is the case for all living people. Ethnographic research in the region sheds light on the living standards of a modern foraging community that has consistently relied on wildlife resources for several decades. Both archaeological and ethnographical aspects have made this region an enduring attraction for tourists to seek a unique experience and gain an appreciation for the past. Even though there are positive impacts of tourism on rural development, there are potential challenges that need immediate attention.

Key words: Cultural heritage, community development, tourism.

1. Introduction mean annual temperatures ranging from 25 ºC to 30 ºC and annual rainfall ranging from 300 mm to 600 mm, The lake Eyasi basin refers to the territory that has most of it falling during the rainy seasons from March been used by hunting and foraging communities from to May [1]. The vegetation is primarily composed of Middle Pleistocene to the present (Fig. 1). This cultural arboreal member of the Somalia-Maasai landscape hosts a 21st century foraging community phytogeographic characterized by savannah grasslands, (Hadzabe) and it is culturally termed as the Hadzabeland, woodlands and deciduous bush as well as shrub lands meaning the eco-space where socio-cultural and [3]. These vegetation types overlap to form a semi-arid economic activities of the Hadzabe historically and vegetation continuum that sustains a wide range of habitually occurred [1]. Geomorphologically, this edible plant species and animals that supported region is characterized by fault escarpments, crystalline existence of foraging communities for several decades. Proterozoic and Archaean basement rock (gneiss, schist Today, few foraging groups remain in the Eyasi and granite) outcrops at the southern terminal of the basin in select refugia where edible plants and hunted Valley System (EARVS) [2]. prey are naturally abundant. Foraging people acquire Bedrock is extensively exposed in most of the area with nearly all of their food by hunting wild animals and scattered alluvial deposits close to the water catchment gathering wild plant foods and honey. They move areas. The climate is generally warm and dry with around their traditional landscape seasonally depending on the distribution and reliability of wild food Correspondent author: Pastory Magayane Bushozi, Ph.D., resources. In lake Eyasi basin, the Hadzabe people research fields: human evolution and paleo environment reconstruction.

662 An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania

Fig. 1 Map of the lake Eyasi basin showing the past and present Hadzabe land in relation to the archaeological sites: Mumba rock-shelter as well as the Northeast (NEB) and West (WB) bays. have coexisted with other ethnic groups including Datog (southern Nilotic pastoralists) Boma farmers and pastoralists for several centuries, but they (homesteads) and other residential areas where tourists have upheld their traditional foraging way of life to the can get a glimpse of the Datog culture, including their present. use of traditional plants and medications along with Tour operators, including the Tanzania Tourist their blacksmithing skills. Visitors can also spend time Board (TTB), use Hadzabe lifestyle and practices to exploring popular onion farming activities and attract tourists who are encouraged to visit and gain experience the traditional stockpiling of agricultural first-hand experience of the foraging lifestyle products [4]. In this paper, other cultural heritage including collection of wild plant roots, tubers, fruits, resources of Eyasi basin region are evaluated in herbs, nuts and leaves for food as well as medicine. reference to the ambiguous tourism development Tourists participate in collecting wild honey, programs. extracting poisonous exudates, assembling poisoned Lake Eyasi like other regions in Tanzania, cultural arrowheads, hunting with bow and arrows, traditional tourism emerged as a community-based development dances and making fire. Other ethnographic strategy to alleviate poverty. Broadly, it aimed to attractions in the lake Eyasi basin include visits to engage local communities in their problems by selling

An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism 663 Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania their cultural products. It emerged after the 1980s tourists [6]. This system relied on community global economic crisis that significantly affected the outreach programs. Tourists were able to experience national economy. It was primarily initiated to address traditional subsistence and economic practices such as issues resulting from failed government plans for hunting and gathering, farming, animal keeping, iron poverty eradication, increased human welfare and smelting, making handcrafts, eating traditional foods addressing disparities in economic gains [5, 6]. In due and brewing local beer. Tourists were also able to regard, the Hadzabe and other ethnographical objects observe traditional dancing, traditional marriage were constantly promoted and used to address procedures, religious plays, rain rituals and/or burial potential socio-economic contests. rites [4, 5]. The 1980s economic crisis resulted from two main One problem with the community outreach factors. First, the collapse of cash crop production programs was lack of focus, as ethnographic tourism including coffee, cotton, clove and tobacco in the grew other cultural attractions such as archaeological international market; second, hostility, conflict and and paleontological sites, historic towns and buildings, fighting with Idi Amin and former president of cultural landscapes, monuments and museums. In in late 1970s [7]. Such incidences led the country to such arrangement, even famous and worldwide experience economic calamity. As a result, many recognized cultural heritage sites like Olduvai Gorge services and socio-economic facilities available to and Laetoli were neglected, marginalized and not local communities (including health care, education included in tourist packages. The place of cultural and food) were limited. heritage resources in tourism development was badly One of attempts to improve welfare among rural informed and unclear to stakeholders, in particular, communities involved promoting traditional values public and private institutions. and allowing visitors to experience indigenous Another problem associated to such unclear cultural lifestyles, customs and local products. This strategy tourism development program is transforming was designed to engage local people in solving their forager’s lifestyle into tourism products. Such socio-economic problems and evade marginalization approach made the Hadzabe people extremely useful while preventing loss of workforce in rural areas [6]. not only to tourists, but also researchers interested in It was also intended to reduce the magnitude of behavioral ecology, cultural evolutionary trends and population influx in urban centers and retain the other social aspects. The Hadzabe are among the most dignity and unique cultural practices of rural areas. highly studied and visited communities and their life Unfortunately, the lack of public services in rural existence has become a focal point to test models areas still encouraged young people to move to urban related to behavioral ecology as well as cultural centers for their socio-economic well-being [6]. To evolutionary trajectory. This was possible because discourage this, most governments in developing the Hadzabe’s lifestyle is completely different from countries introduced ambiguous rural development most other living human populations. They live in projects. Majority of them including the cultural band groups and move seasonally across the tourism program lacked a clear focus and neglected surrounding landscape, depending on seasonal other cultural attractions such as archaeological sites, distribution of wild food resources and availability of museums, cultural landscape and historic towns. The water. They use traditional tools, in particular, bow focus of this approach was directed toward traditional and iron tipped arrows for hunting and digging sticks arts and crafts, transforming traditional norms and for collecting tubers as well as hand held axes to values into commodities to meet the interests of acquire the beehive [8].

664 An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania

Largely, the Hadzabe have been negatively affected by contemporary societies [11, 13, 14]. Therefore, by a lack of government strategy concerning cultural cultural heritage resources are tangible materials tourism. Even though their way of life has made the and intangible customs from the past that are area of lake Eyasi among the most famous tourism constantly appreciated as well as re-used by living destinations in Tanzania, this minority group has communities to suit their present needs. In other never been appreciated by policy makers and tourism words, they are used for economic gain, cultural stakeholders. Even their cultural landscape is not identity, education, research, religious and other legally protected, permitting intruders from traditional activities [13, 15]. neighboring communities and developers to grab their Human activity in the lake Eyasi basin can be ancestral land (Fig. 1). One of the immediate effects traced back to when this landscape was inhabited by of such arbitrary and uneven practice is sudden early ancestors around 300,000 years ago (ya). This is vanishing of the most dependable wild resources based on records of archaeological remains, extinct including edible plant and animal species. Some of the hominin species including early modern humans. diminishing wild food resources can be associated These chronicles place this region into the unique with forest clearance, resulting from agricultural position in the study of human biological and cultural activities, unwarranted animal domestications and evolution traits. Early research in this region was led bucolic fuel consumption (charcoal and firewood). by Ludwig and Margit Kohl-Larsen between 1933 and Such practices have altered the natural ecosystem 1939 [16-18]. These research expeditions compiled setting of the region and the Hadzabe’s living important archaeological and paleontological records standards. including homimin remains and collections Globally, deforestation has been widely listed representative of the history of how humankind among key factors for ecological deteriorations and it evolved and dispersed across the planet. They also has been named as a leading factor for loss of soil provided critical information on Stone Age nutrients as well as inconsistence of the hydrological archaeology, rock art and succession of subsistence cycle and climatic conditions [7]. To local patterns including technology from hunting and communities, such instability has greatly affected the gathering to animal husbandry and farming. Other living standards of rural communities in terms of scholars working on the same region linked the past efficiency of the cultural landscape in food production and present through detailed documentation of the (due to unpredictable rainy seasons) and unreliability Hadzabe who persist in the collection of wild food of drinkable water since both physical environment without farming [4, 19]. and cultural systems are inter-dependable entities [9, The plains near lake Eyasi shores, routinely termed 10]. as northeast and West bays, have been extensively surveyed and test excavated, resulting in 2. Material and Methods documentation of multiple open-air sites (Fig. 1). Cultural heritage resources refer to tangible material Many of these localities are composed with human remains and/or intangible customs, memories and remains, lithic and fauna materials. In some places, rituals of societies, which embody their past activities they are still visible on the exposed sediments. and are transmitted from the past to the future Perhaps the best known specimen yielded from the generations [11, 12]. In most cultures, the past is open air sites near lake Eyasi is a heavily fossilized transformed into cultural heritage when the legacy and well preserved cranium of a late archaic human of past-societies is re-evaluated, inherited and re-used [16, 17, 20, 21]. Age estimates of the skull fall around

An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism 665 Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania

250,000 ya, but preliminary Electron Spin Resonance MSA to historic period [18, 21, 23, 24]. The most (ESR) dating results from the fossiliferous bed remarkable discovery are three isolated molar teeth of outcrops suggest that it might be older than it was a single individual who was an early modern human previously estimated. Hominin specimens of this [25]. These human teeth come from the lower region are very important because they represent the sequences of Mumba (Bed VI-B) in direct association last known evolutionary stage from archaic to modern with MSA artifacts including Levallois cores, scrapers, human morphological and cultural transformations in points and fossil fauna of extinct and modern species. Africa. Amino acid racemization (Lab # USGS-82-19) Subsequent works along the lakeshore led to indicate that human teeth and oldest MSA assemblage discovery of five more hominin remains, in particular, at Mumba, namely the Sanzako industry, spans an age a cranium fragment and isolated teeth all represent a of about 131,000 ya [18, 25]. single species of archaic modern humans. In 2004, a The Sanzako industry is overlain by the Kisele frontal bone (EH 06) of an archaic human was industry in Bed VI-A. Bed VI-A was found associated retrieved from sedimentary deposits along the with small scrapers, projectile points, Levallois cores lakeshore and dated based on ESR to about 118,000 and crescents. The bed has been recently dated using ya. But uranium series gives the age estimate of about Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL) (Lab. # 125,000 ya suggesting that archaic humans persisted MR 10) to 73,600 ± 3,800 ya. The late MSA culture or in this region up to the Last Interglacial Maximum the Mumba industry in Bed V is composed of a (LIM) [22]. Archaic and early modern humans from remarkable array of tips for arrowheads, backed pieces, this region were found associated with Middle Stone geometric tools and symbolic artifacts like and Age (MSA) artifacts and fossil fauna of extinct as well ostrich egg shell beads dated by OSL (Lab # MR 7) as modern animal species [3, 18, 22]. Sediments from around 56,900 ± 4,800 ya [9, 26]. A study on raw the lakeshore like other places across sub-Saharan material sourcing on obsidian artifacts from the MSA Africa preserved paleoclimatic records which suggest sequences indicate complex mobility and social the predominance of grassland, shrubs and riverine networks of about 250 km away linking Mumba and forests from the Middle Pleistocene to present [3, 10, lake Naivasha in [18, 27]. These findings in the 22]. MSA assemblage are vital to better understanding on At Mumba rock-shelter, the most notable the origin and development of cognitive thoughts in excavations were carried out by several scholars from human evolutionary history. For instance, distance 1930s to present. From 1934 to 1938, Kohl and Margit sourcing of obsidian may have granted them essential Hansen exposed a huge excavation trench estimated to wider social network, trust and cooperation between a be about 1,000 m3 [20]. Samples collected from the large number of allies and control over the landscape. 1930s excavations were shipped to for At Mumba, the MSA assemblages are further study where they are still housed in a number chronologically overlain by the Later Stone Age of museums as well as universities and research (LSA), which are abundant in Beds III and II. The institutions [5]. Subsequently, researchers including LSA assemblage is composed of points, backed pieces, Michael Mehlman in the late 1970s and early 1980s bored stone balls, ostrich egg shell beads, land snail re-excavated Mumba and other rock-shelters along the shell fragments, a wide range of animal bones and one Laghangarel-Ishimijega hills. Archaeological records burial of a single individual OSL dated to about and chronological sequences of Mumba indicate 36,800 ± 3,400 ya (Lab # MR 4) [23, 24]. The LSA progression in lithic technologies spanning from the layers are superimposed by ceramic LSA (Pastoral

666 An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania

Neolithic) in upper Bed II and represent the history of underprivileged and neglected in the current cultural transformation from early hunting to animal tourism and development programmes. Such husbandry around 4,900 ya [2, 18]. Such continuous negligence has exposed cultural heritage resources of cultural records situate the lake Eyasi basin among this region to inadvertent destruction. For instance, key sites in the East Africa for documenting the trend cultural heritage sites are facing immense threats from for technological and cultural innovations over the uncontrolled investments including road and lodge course of the MSA and subsequent cultures. constructions, intensive onion farming, deforestations Other important cultural heritage resources of this and an influx of migrants from neighbouring region include fascinating prehistoric rock art that communities. Such development and social welfare incorporates drawings of a wide range of wild animals, projects have been deliberately destructing cultural humans, geometric signs and other objects. heritage resources and severely harmed the Rock-shelters and overhangs with figurative fine-line cultural-ecological settings of the Hadzabe people. To paintings of wild animals (mostly naturalistic) and assess the level of obliteration of cultural heritage stylized human figures. Other ancient visual arts resources, indigenous people, tourist stakeholders and depicted and widely distributed in lake Eyasi basin government officials were consulted and their include abstract and geometric designs. Paintings of concerns and observations are summarized below. humans holding bow and arrows, sometimes shooting To understand the perception of local communities, at animals indicate that the projectile hunting it was decided to integrate them in archaeological technology, which is still found among contemporary survey and test excavations at Mumba and along the hunter-gatherer communities like the Hadzabe, has lakeshore. The broad goal was to examine the level of profound history in this region. The Tip Cross-Section awareness among the indigenous people about cultural Area (TCSA) and microscopic analysis suggest that heritage resources in the region. It also aimed to assess projectile technology in this region can be traced back the level of understanding in respect to the potential to the MSA period [9]. Work is currently underway to tourism attractions along the region and evaluate reconstruct the chronological integrity and likely threats to their sustainability. The underlying contextualization in broad range archaeological and principle was to understand the perceptions of the ethnographical evidence of this region for better local communities in the whole process of heritage understanding of a link between the past and present management, conservation and tourism development. with reference to the contemporary foraging One of the initiatives was to evaluate how information community. from previous and on-going research has been These paleontological evidences are important to the incorporated into heritage management and progression of science, as well as for cultural heritage socio-economic developments. including tourism developments. Globally, cultural An assessment involved seminars, group discussions, heritage resources are among the most important areas interviews and public lectures. The initiatives in cultural tourism industry. In most developing stimulated public perception on cultural heritage and countries, the current tourism development strategies made them recognize the significance of heritage are facing serious challenges because many reputable resources in their area. To reinforce significance of tourism attractions such as archaeological and cultural heritage, brochures and posters were prepared paleontological sites were not included in initial and distributed to village offices, primary schools, cultural tourism programmes. In the lake Eyasi basin, secondary schools and tour guides. Such an approach even minority groups like Hadzabe have been smoothed out communication and public dialogue

An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism 667 Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania about sustainability of previous and newly discovered management and tourism activities. About 14 (12.5%) cultural heritage resources for both scientific and of respondents were worried with lack of heritage community interests. This approach was first management knowledge, negligence, misconduct, employed in Iringa region, southern Tanzania [13]. authoritarian heritage legislation and disincentive This process of information sharing allows the public development projects in their area. to raise concerns and gain more knowledge about the Specifically, the Hadzabe complained about rapid importance of cultural heritage resources in their area population influx in their ancestral land, deforestation and make use of them for sustainable developments. related to farming, charcoal and poles for housing and About 112 respondents were interviewed on aspects threats to wildlife populations. They also complained related to management, conservation and uses of that an increasing number of pastoralists with their cultural heritage resources in their area for sustainable domesticates (cows, sheep and goats) were leading to development. Interview questions focused on the resource competition with wild animals. The Hadzabe relationship of education and tourism developments also blamed migrants, including private licensed with cultural heritage resources and their effect on hunting and farming companies for hunting and poverty. The conversation mainly relied on open-ended reducing number of the big animals such as lions, dialogue and group discussions with key informants, buffalos and giraffes. Government officials were particularly elders and village leaders, tour operators accused for forcing the Hadzabe community to change and a few selected individuals from the Hadzabe their lifestyles and occasionally, arresting them for community. The intention of the open group discussion poaching on land they have traditionally occupied. was to understand the perception of the local Non-Hadzabe village officials blamed some tour communities on cultural heritage management. About operators for recently exploit the Hadzabe to keep 20 key informants including village leaders, tour visitors amused and insensitive fellow residents who operators and the Hadzabe, constituting 17.8% of provide Hadzabe alcohol to gain money they receives respondents were interviewed at isolated places to from tourists. ensure a freedom of expression and secrecy on Discussion and seminar presentations affirmed local volunteered information. communities and government officials agreed that their region contains rich and diverse natural and cultural 3. Results and Discussion resources with outstanding scientific, aesthetic, The study focused on perception of the indigenous economic and historic importance. The cultural people in heritage management, recognition of heritage resources are valuable not only to Tanzania but also to legislation, and presence of community-based the international community. Researchers, tourists, conservation practices and the rights of minorities religious leaders and donors have been pressing for (such as the Hadzabe) in the tourism development conservation together with management aimed at projects. A total of 74 (66.1%) respondents were well long-term sustainability of cultural and natural informed about the archaeological research in their resources, including the right of minorities such as the area, but said that they had never observed collection of Hadzabe [4]. Ecological, cultural and natural assets objects including the hominin specimens. This was have significant value for tourism attraction and highlighted as a shortfall of the heritage legislation. sustainable conservation. People are aware of the moral Local communities are forbidden from access their responsibility towards sustainable management of heritage assets. About 24 (21.4%) expressed concern cultural resources. However, they are concerned with over disengagement of the local community in heritage the current roles played by the government and

668 An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania researchers to promote awareness and integrate the archaeological/paleontological sites, features and local communities in heritage management. cultural landscapes. Regardless of the outstanding Many people, including tour operators and tourists, cultural value and scientific contributions of sites like were excited to hear about contributions of Mumba, most of them are not even listed in the archaeological sites in this region to the current global national cultural heritage list. Largely, poor knowledge of the origin and dispersal of modern management policies have encouraged local people to populations. They requested the introduction of establish new settlements and agricultural activities outreach programmes to improve awareness among the close to heritage sites. The problem is widespread local communities and tour operators. To them, an because local government and villages are unaware of understanding of the meaning and significance of the rich cultural heritage preserved in their area. It is cultural heritage resources is not only essential for maddening to recognize that government heritage tourism attraction and economic development, but also agencies continue to provide treasure hunting can help to protect knowledge by avoiding the clearances to unprofessional discoverers without inadvertent destruction of heritage resources. Local considering the impact of those clearances to cultural people felt overlooked in the management and heritage resources. Some important rock-shelters with conservation processes and felt that scientists made no paintings, including Mumba, have been vandalized in effort to tell local people the objectives and various ways including illegally or unprofessionally significance of their research projects, except for few excavations by treasure hunters or developers by labourers who carried out casual labours during quarrying gravels for road and house construction (Fig. archaeological surveys and excavations. The majority 2). of the local people never had the opportunity to learn Mining rock-shelters for construction gravels and the meaning and significance of collected materials, treasure hunting are the most common sabotage actions which leads them to be sceptical that collected facing cultural heritage sites in Tanzania. During the materials are needed for reconstruction of cultural field survey and documentation of rock art sites in 2009, history. These misconceptions make it difficult for a large number of archaeological and rock art sites that people to distinguish between professionals and have been illegally excavated by treasure hunters and treasure hunters. As a result, some people often start to developers were recorded. Other detected re-excavate archaeological sites including anthropogenic threats included soot, stain and dust on rock-shelters that were formerly excavated by rock art due to fire and graffiti settingin rock-shelters scientists to assess the authenticity of collected [13]. Nevertheless, scarcity of trained professionals materials (Fig. 2). have made most cultural heritage sites deteriorate from Local people also complained about the ambiguity natural courses such as rock-weathering, exfoliation, of heritage legislations and policies that provide oxidation and birds as well as hyrax droppings. directives to them through the government heritage This study demonstrates that cultural heritage agencies. People feel that the government has been resources and minority ethnic groups, in particular the spending much time and resources for storage, Hadzabe are at the forefront of increasing threats more protection and conservation of museum collections, than ever before. This is due to competing interests without considering sustainability of actual sites from over land in lake Eyasi basin between farmers, which those materials were collected. Such arbitrary pastoralists and foraging communities on one hand, and uneven heritage legislations that encourage and financially viable institutions including tour continued deterioration of potential heritage sites like companies and tourists. Farmers want to expand arable

An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism 669 Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania

Fig. 3 Mumba rock-shelter indicating big hole dug by treasure hunters. farms to at least medium size, pastoralists want more unoccupied due to high demand of food to feed the land for their livestock, and tour companies want more increasing human population in the region, commercial land for campsites and lodge constructions. These rival gain and traditional prestige. groups are lobbying and intimidating not only Hadzabe Intensification of onion farming was the most who have been in this area for over 5,000 years, but highlighted of the damaging agricultural practices also other people who are indigenous to this place [28]. because it attracts more casual labourers, farmers and It is distressing to hear that the mission of the local traders from neighbouring communities. Onion government is to change completely the way of life cropping has been linked to poor irrigation systems by among Hadzabe by transforming them into communal capturing water from natural springs, which also farming, regardless of the fact that their foraging degrades the environment through soil erosion, life-system is the most leading of all tourism vegetation replacements, the decline of natural forests temptations in the region [29]. and loss of wild resources. Onion farming was also Almost three quarters (74.1%) of discussants were associated within appropriate uses of industrial well informed about serious ecological threats on the fertilizers and pesticides that have deleterious effects Hadzabeland due to the rapid rate of cutting trees for on soil fertility and water pollution for cost-effective cleaning new farms, construction of residential farming. Often, farmers over-fertilize their farms buildings, bucolic fuel as well as burning the natural simply because of unawareness about the specific landscape for pastoralism. A total of 82 (73.2%) of the nutrient content of their soil as well as nutrients respondents indicated agricultural activities as the required for the intended crops [30]. Excessive uses of leading factors in ecological devastation. Agricultural fertilizers or pesticides occasionally cause serious development involves intensive irrigation schemes for damage to aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems because cropping activities close to water attachment areas and chemical elements tend to integrate into soil or get cleaning new farms in areas that were previously washed into water bodies. Some of these chemicals

670 An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania build up in edible plants and animals, undergoing grazing lands in order to increase the growth of grass [5, constant recycling through the bio-magnification 31]. Decreasing woodland and expansion of grassland process [3, 7]. When these chemicals finally reach have been linked to the increased need for firewood, humans at the top of the chain, their levels are usually charcoal and building materials because of rapid so highly concentrated such that they constitute serious expansion of Mang’ola town and the influx of fishers at health and reproductive problems. the end of rainy seasons when the lake level is at the As it was argued before, in lake Eyasi, agricultural highest state. Fishers make use of trees to burn fish activities have also been linked with rapid population products and also for constructing seasonal fishing growth because it attracts non-local labourers and sites. Even though it has been repeatedly argued that traders. Encroachment on Hadzabeland is largely the local people collect only dead wood of selected species result of shifting cultivations of grains to feed to satisfy their fuel requirements [31], experience from newcomers. The need to produce more food in the face lake Eyasi indicated that in high seasons, people gather of declining soil fertility has been argued among of the even living trees. Loss of trees has been argued to reasons for the current infringement of Hadzabeland cause significant impacts on wildlife resources because because farmers are forced either to use industrial of increasing destruction of animal habitats. fertilizers or extend their farming activities to areas that Conclusively, deterioration of Hadzabe’s cultural are ecologically unsuitable for agricultural activities. landscape is due to a combination of factors including Such uncontrolled farming activities have been high rate of population growth, poor land management associated with current soil desiccation, erosion, plan and uncontrolled irrigation together with shifting nutrient loss, moisture loss and deprivation of natural cultivation as well as poaching. They are all causing a resources together with decreased ecosystem massive destruction of wildlife habitats, the condition productivity. These are among of the leading factors that also threats sustainability of the Hadzabe because for disappearance of the traditional plant species, their life largely depends on the wildlife resources. which supply foods to Hadzabe. Ecologically, most Drawing from the discourse with local community, indigenous tree species do not re-colonize any more tour operators and local government officials, it is after being excessively eradicated [7]. Losses of obvious that there are several obstacles to heritage traditional tree species have great impacts not only on management in the Eyasi basin. Dominant problems the Hadzabe, but also on all local communities because impeding heritage management in this area include they are major sources of materials for food stuffs, lack of knowledge about the importance of heritage medicine, firewood and construction materials. sustainability, environmental degradation and Pastoralism was named the second leading factor for competition over land and other natural resources. environmental degradation in lake Eyasiby 29 (25.9%) One way of reducing degradation of these of the respondents. The ethnic group most commonly irreplaceable heritage resources is to stop excessive engaged in agro-pastoralism is the Datoga people, but exploitation and restrain settlements close to the new groups including Maasai are also migrating to the inherited properties through a combination of region. An excesses number of domesticates tend to community outreach and law enforcement. Community displace wildlife and disrupt consumption of plant outreach should form the greater part of the effort and species, posing serious threats to the Hadzabe way of law enforcement should be a last resort, only used life. Invasive domesticates inhibit species diversity and when there is assured continued devastation of the bring about permanent replacement of natural heritage resources [1]. Outreach programs should occurring biota as pastoralists often remove trees from involve all stakeholders including indigenous people,

An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism 671 Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania local government officials and tourism practitioners. declare any area, object or structure, a monument or Special emphasis should be directed on sympathetic conservation area as a heritage site. Unfortunately, the understanding about the meaning, importance, uses, act does not recognize the local community as partners protection, management and conservation of cultural in a sustainable cultural heritage management for the resources for sustainable developments [13]. In the country [13]. case of Mumba and other similar sites, the long-term To a great extent, the current challenges facing the strategy should be to add such sites to the national cultural heritage management sectors in Tanzania stem heritage list and establish local museums to exhibit from the colonial Monument Preservation Ordinance collections from these sites. To express authenticity of of 1937. The colonial legislation was meant to serve the local communities, archaeological records should interests of colonialists, a condition that causes be supported by ethnographic objects and exhibited in subsequent legislation ignore public interests including the site museum. This must involve collaboration customary rights and traditional rules [13]. Most between national bodies, heritage agencies and local African legal frameworks for protection and communities. conservation were enacted from colonial legislations In Tanzania, the Department of Antiquities and that neglect the right and interests of general public to National Museums of Tanzania are national institutions inherit, manage and protect their cultural resources [5, responsible for management and conservation of 14, 32, 33]. These inherited colonial legal systems have cultural heritage resources, under the Ministry of continuously disregarded customary laws and Natural Resources and Tourism. The Department of indigenous knowledge. As a result, most current Antiquities is charged with management and heritage legislations in Africa cannot provide for the conservation of immovable, movable and research kind of inclusive approach that would allow and undertakings, while the National Museums of Tanzania address community interests for sustainable utilization is responsible for movable cultural heritage stored in of heritage resources so as to make progress in museums [32]. The Antiquities Act of Tanzania socio-economic development [13, 34]. Such enacted by the independent government in 1964 and negligence and marginalization of the public have amended in 1979 is the basic legislation for created a political context in which the local management, protection and preservation of heritage communities have lost a sense of responsibility for sites and other cultural resources. It was designed to heritage management. As a result, they have been replace the colonial Monument Preservation Ordinance unevenly invading heritage sites and often mining them of 1937 developed by British colonialists to protect and for domestic uses. Therefore, the Antiquities Act and preserve movable and immovable heritage resources allied legislations as well as policies should be [13]. The Act protects all relics that were made, shaped, harmonized and amended to include the local carved, inscribed, produced or modified by humans communities in heritage management. The condition before 1863. The Act also protects all monuments may make the public proactive in enhancing and (buildings, structures, paintings, carvings, ensuring long-term preservation of cultural heritage entombments and earthworks) made or used by resources in Tanzania. humans before the year 1940. The Act gives the On the other hand, the Department of Antiquities has Director of Antiquities the power to regulate, supervise been incessantly blamed for mismanagement of and control tangible or physical cultural heritage cultural heritage resources. Stakeholders of cultural resources together with research undertakings [32]. It heritage have been repeatedly asking the Department also gives the responsible minister immense powers to of Antiquities to stop issuing treasure hunting

672 An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania clearances because treasure hunters have damaged are not proportional to the remunerations they earn cultural and natural heritage sites, in particular, from tourism companies. rock-shelters [1, 15]. In lake Eyasi, dishonourable Globally, the United Nations Education, Science and excavations in archaeological sites are wide Cultural Organization (UNESCO) has been one of the occurrences in rock-shelters across the leading agencies in preparing and adopting Laghangarel-Ishimijega hills. The continued granting conventions on management and conservation of treasure hunting clearances maybe explained as a result natural and cultural properties as well as safeguarding of imperfection of conservation laws and legislations the rights of local communities. Some of these that refute rights of local people to protect and conserve conversions include the 1954 Hague convention for their heritage resources, or as the result of ignorance of protection of cultural property in the event of conflicts, the local communities about their cultural history [5, 12, the 1972 convention on world cultural and natural 13]. heritage and Agenda 21 of 1992 about the role of local Addressing the problem of environmental dispute communities in heritage management, environmental and rights of minority groups (Hadzabe), especially at and development projects [11, 35]. The 1992 the local government level requires proper education declaration requires states to recognize and duly about human rights and its applications in serving the support identity, culture and interests of local interests of marginalized groups. The most serious communities, which enable them to participate challenge facing the Hadzabe is an effect arising from effectively in achievements of sustainable on-going environmental degradations that have developments. The UNESCO conventions were significantly affected reliability and distribution of reinforced through actions and endorsements made by wild food resources. These wild resources constitute other international organizations such as the World their daily sustenance. Both traditional customs and Bank (WB), World Trade Organization (WTO), law enforcements should be imposed so as to restrict Environmental and Development Activities (ENDA) the current deforestations and uncontrolled farming and Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO), just to including shifting cultivations, harmful uses of list a few. pesticides and fertilizers as well as unskilled farming In 1998, the WB in collaboration with UNESCO and in the river catchments. These deceitful anthropogenic WTO declared that among the assessment criteria for practices have led to siltation which reduces the development projects in developing countries and quality of water sources and harms plant and animal post-conflict areas, there will be assessments of species [7, 31]. The current environmental devastation environmental and cultural impacts and the ways in has put the Hadzabe’s life and cultural traits at great which local communities have been integrated in the risk. Apart from ecological desertification, other development projects [11, 36]. In 2103, FAO proposed challenges facing them include negligence of local measures to combat deforestation by initiating and government officials, exploitative tourism practice, publicizing community management of natural forests unmonitored hunting companies and lack of moral as in the course of tree growing programs and uses of well as legal obligations permitted to serve interests of improved biomass stoves [37]. The mismanagement of the minority groups. Despite the fact that the Hadzabe natural forests was influenced by weak and plays a major role in the tourism industry of lake slow-changing heritage institutions, inconsistent laws Eyasi, this community has never been appreciated or and regulations as well as a cumbersome bureaucracy privileged as one of major tourism stakeholders. The in heritage management [12, 36]. To a great extent, energy and time they spend to keep visitors amused these international conventions and declarations

An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism 673 Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania address the needs for protection of natural and cultural 4. Conclusion heritages and emphasize the incorporation of local The current challenge facing cultural tourism communities during implementation of development industry in lake Eyasi basin can be directly associated and heritage management projects [13]. A small with lack of awareness of cultural heritage resources, amount of these international declarations received full marginalization of minority groups and ecological government endorsement and they have made positive degradations. Ambiguous programmes and uneven contributions to the local communities by allowing implementation of heritage management policies them to participate in different levels of have contributed to the problem. The current regime decision-making. However, in most cases, states issued does not consider the rights and moral obligations ambiguous and general directives pertaining to of local communities to determine the fate of their development and socio-economic practices, excluding own culture. These legislative discrepancies local communities [38]. coincide with on-going negligence and inattention of Integration and uses of heritage resources for cultural heritage resources, environmental sustainable development by some means are held back degradations, and unsustainable land use plans in lake by deficiency of heritage and tourism professionals Eyasi basin. who can collaborate with the local people. Lack of The current situation facing Hadzabe foragers as a trained cultural tourism specialists has remarkably community demonstrates the need for harmonized influenced disgraceful decisions made by the national heritage and land management policies including heritage and tourism agencies. Such state of affair also legislations that may persuade dishonourable affects marketability of cultural heritage properties in conservation of cultural properties and avoid tourism industry. Both the Tanzania Tourist Board environmental degradations. This can only be achieved (TTB) and the Department of Tourism, Ministry of by changing the authoritarian legal practices that deny Natural Resources and Tourism, Tanzania, lack trained the rights and obligations of local people to determine staff specialized in archaeological, paleontological or their fortune in heritage practices. Thus, environmental cultural heritage tourism disciplines necessary for and heritage management campaigns are likely to be consistent plans for incorporating cultural heritage more effective if they are based on equality among properties into the tourism mercantile networks. stakeholders involved at different levels. Under such Unfortunately, some of the local universities have situation, the government should make sincere efforts recently introduced such programmes at certificate, to save interests of minority groups by sharing profit diploma and degree levels for personnel who may run occurred with them in relative to moral obligation and over advocated under performance in heritage cost-effective contributions. If the communities are management and cultural tourism practitioners. involved in heritage management and dividends from However, it is strongly advised that local universities tourism projects are equally shared, it is likely that should also introduce a Post-Graduate Diploma (PGD) protection and conservation of intended resources will to train graduates who are currently working in tourism be highly effective and sustainable. Mistrust among and heritage management sectors, but lack basic stakeholders can become a significant drawback to technical and professional skills. Training staffs that in conservation practices and tourism developments if essence deal with activities of tourism as well as legal practices are deceitful and not reciprocally agreed. environmental, natural and cultural heritage Thus, poor institutional arrangements may depress managements would greatly improve management and interests and willingness of other stakeholders to play uses of inherited resources in Tanzania. their parts in heritage management.

674 An Assessment of Strategies for Cultural Heritage Management and Tourism Development in the Eyasi Basin, Northern Tanzania It is evident from this study that community Acknowledgements understanding of the meaning and uses of cultural Sincerely thank should go to the Volkswagen heritage resources is under developed. This can be Stiftung Foundation Initiative: Knowledge for rectified through various sensitization programs such Tomorrow Cooperative Research Project in as community outreach, community based heritage sub-Saharan Africa through a Postdoctoral Fellowship management, joint heritage management and in Humanities in sub-Saharan and northern Africa for conservation and collaborative heritage management. funding this study. Thanks are also due to the New policies should emphasize participatory heritage Antiquities Department, Ministry of Natural Resources management and conservation so as to give chance to and Tourism and the Tanzania, Commission of Science local communities to learn, understand and get and Technology (COSTECH), Tanzania for granting involved in heritage management at different levels. research clearance and permits. In the field, more Local people should be educated on how to incorporate support was from the village government and local cultural attractions into tourism for sustainable heritage people, their contribution is highly appreciated. Lastly, management and developments. Such practice would the participation of Prof. Audax Mabulla, graduate lead to effective management strategies in contrast to students and research assistants was of great current streamlined and authoritarian cultural heritage importance. legislations. Uncoordinated strategies in heritage management and tourism development may be a core References for inefficiencies conflicts between conservation and [1] Mabulla, Z. P., and Bower, J. 2010. “Cultural Heritage development programs. Management in Tanzanian’s Protected Areas: Challenges Integrating local people as an essential part of and Future Prospects.” The Journal of Heritage administration of heritage resources at least at the Stewardship 7: 27-45. [2] Ebinger, C., Poudjom, Y., Mbede, E. A., and Dawson, J. grassroots levels would greatly reduce unintended B. 1997. “Rifting Archaean Lithosphere: The destruction of cultural heritage resources and improve Eyasi-Manyara-Natron Rifts.” Journal of the Geological working relations as well as corporations between the Society 154: 947-960. government and the public. It is likely that cultural [3] Domínguez-Rodrigo, M., Diez-Martín, F., Mabulla, A., Luque, L., Alcalá, L., and Tarriño, A. et al. 2107. “The heritage management and development plans in lake Archaeology of the Middle Pleistocene Deposits of Lake Eyasi could have been far different today if public Eyasi (Tanzania).” Journal of African Archaeology 5 (1): awareness and community participation could have 47-78. been accepted as well as incorporated in heritage [4] Marlowe, F. W. 2010. The Hadza Hunter-Gathers of Tanzania. Los Angeles: University of California Press. legislations and policies. To avoid resource abuse, [5] Munjeri, D. 2005. “Legislation and Practices: some authoritative legislation should be amended and Implications and the Way Forward.” In Legal Framework harmonized. They should emphasize on for the Protected of Immovable Cultural Heritage in decentralization and public participation in heritage Africa, edited by Ndoro, N., and Pwiti, G. Dakar: ICCROME. management. State heritage and tourism practitioners [6] Rafalski, S., Schröter, P., and Wagner, E. 1978. “The should dedicate a small percentage of tourist incomes Finds on Eyasi Northeastern Shore.” In the Archeological to support the local communities, in particular, and Anthropological Results of Expeditions in Northern minority groups such as the Hadzabe in order to reduce Tanzania, edited by Miiller H. B. Tübingen: Monograph of Prehistory. poverty all around. Some resources should be [7] Mannion, A. M. 1995. Agriculture and Environmental dedicated to education and support on conservation and Change: Temporal and Spatial Dimension. Chichester: sustainable utilization of cultural heritage resources. John Wiley and Sons Ltd..

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